A Practical

English
Grammar
A. J. Thomson
A. V. Martinet
Hlm 62-63
what (relative pronoun) and which (connective relative)
what = the thing that/the things that:
What we saw astonished us = The things that we saw astonished us.
When she sees what you have done she will be furious = When she sees the damage
that you have done she will be furious.
Be careful not to confuse the relative what with the connective relative which. Remember that
which must refer to a word or group of words in the preceding sentence, while what does not
refer back to anything. The relative what is also usually the object of a verb, while the
connective which is usually the subject:
He said he had no money, which was not true.
Some of the roads were flooded, which made our journey more difficult. (See also 82.)

whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever, however

These have a variety of meanings and can introduce relative and other clauses. The other
clauses do not technically belong to this chapter but it seems best to group these -ever forms
together.
A whoever (pronoun) and whichever (pronoun and adjective) can mean 'the one who', 'he who', 'she
who':
Whoever gains the most points wins the competition.
Whichever of them gains the most/mints wins.
Whichever team gains the most points wins.
Whoever gets home first starts cooking the supper.
Whichever of us gets home first starts cooking.
Whoever cleans your windows doesn 't make a good Job of it.
B whatever (pronoun and adjective), whenever, wherever:
You can eat what/whatever you like. (anything you like)
When you are older you can watch whatever programme you like.
My roof leaks when/whenever it rains, (every time it rains)
You will see this product advertised everywhere/wherever you go.
Go anywhere/wherever you like.
C whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever, however can mean 'no matter who' etc.:
If I say 'heads, I win; tails you lose', I will win whatever happens or whichever way the
coin falls.
Whatever happens don't forget to write.
I'll find him, wherever he has gone. (no matter where he has gone)
whatever you do is often placed before or after a request/command to emphasize its
importance:
Whatever you do, don't mention my name.
however is an adverb of degree and is used with an adjective or another adverb:

I'd rather have a room of my own, however small (it is), than share a room.
However hard I worked, she was never satisfied.
D whatever, wherever can indicate the speaker's ignorance or indifference:
He lives in Wick, wherever that is. (I don't know where it is, and
I'm not very interested.)
He says he's a phrenologist, whatever that is. (I don't know what it is and I'm not very
interested.)
who ever? when ever? what ever? etc. may be written as separate words, but the meaning
then changes (see 61):
I lost seven kilos in a month. ~ How ever did you lose so much in such a short time?
BILL (suspiciously): / know all about you.
TOM (indignantly): What ever do you mean?
Where ever did you buy your wonderful carpets?

Grammar
for Everyone
Practical tools for learning and teaching grammar

BarbaraDykes
Halaman 35-38

So we don’t repeat ourselves!

Definition: The word ‘pronoun’ comes from the Latin pronomen
meaning ‘for a noun’. As the word implies, pronouns are the words
that we use in place of nouns. It will become clear later when we
discuss the difference between possessive and demonstrative
pronouns and possessive and demonstrative adjectives (see pages
38, 53), why this definition is so important.
We use pronouns to make clear whom or what we are talking
about, while avoiding confusing or clumsy repetition.
It is wise to teach just personal pronouns initially and bring
in the other kinds later. Recognition is important while fuller
explanation and exercises can follow later (see pages 139–42).
Before learning about pronouns, students should:
• understand the term noun
• recognise both common and proper nouns

Personal pronouns
Share this story with your students. This (true) story could sound
something like the following.
‘Marjorie lost her false teeth. The dog had found Marjorie’s false teeth
and buried Marjorie’s false teeth. Marjorie could not find Marjorie’s
false teeth anywhere, but Marjorie dug up Marjorie’s false teeth two
years later, while Marjorie was digging in the garden.’

With the use of pronouns this would read much more smoothly,
in spite of the repetition of the pronouns. Although equally important
to the sense, they are less prominent.
‘Marjorie lost her false teeth. The dog had found them and buried
them. Marjorie could not find them anywhere, but she dug them up
two years later, while she was digging in the garden.’
Without the words ‘I’ and ‘you’ (personal pronouns) we could
become very confused. Instead of:
I saw her give you the letter for me.
We would have to say something like this:
John saw Maureen give Michael the letter for John. [John, referring
to himself!]
And:
I hurt myself.
Would become:
John hurt John. [himself or another person called John?]
It becomes altogether very confusing!
Most languages have pronouns, though in some languages the
pronoun is incorporated in the verb.
Pronouns change in form according to the work that they do in
the sentence. For example they have number:
Singular – I went to town with him.
Plural – We went to town with them.
Tables can be very useful, both now and for later reference, so
we suggest that students begin by entering a table of personal pronouns
in their grammar exercise books.

Personal pronouns Singular Plural

1st person I We
(the person/s speaking)
2nd person You You
(the person/s spoken to)
3rd person he/she/it They
(the person/s or things being
spoken
about)

And when the action is done to the person, for example:

Singular Plural
Me Us
You You
he/she/it Them

The falling brick hit me.

a. Following a preposition: These will be explained in the section
on prepositions and the section on object (see pages 71, 98).
The brick fell on me.
b. A preposition that is understood, i.e. not mentioned.
It gave (to) me concussion.

The following words are common pronouns for one person or

thing:
I you he she it me her him
And for more than one person or thing:
we you they us them
Demonstrative pronouns
As the name suggests, demonstrative pronouns demonstrate or
point out ‘which one’ of a number. There are just four obvious
ones:

Singular Plural
(here) This These
(there) That Those

Remember, as the pronoun takes the place of a noun, the noun

is not mentioned.
A pronoun – This is scrumptious.
Not a pronoun – This éclair is scrumptious.
In the second sentence this is an adjective qualifying (telling more
about) the noun ‘éclair’. (See adjectives on page 53.)
Note: the words one and such can also be used as pronouns taking
the place of nouns.
For example:
One can search for gemstones.
Such is life.
I found one.
He told me such.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR THE UTTERLY

CONFOSED
LAURIE ROZAKIS PH.D.
HALAMAN 9 &11

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or another pronoun. Pronouns help you avoid
unnecessary repetition in your writing and speech. A pronoun gets its meaning from the noun
it stands for. The noun is called the antecedent.
Although Seattle is damp, it is my favorite city.
Antecedent pronoun
There are different kinds of pronouns. Most of them have antecedents, but a few do not.

Relative pronouns begin a subordinate clause. There are five relative pronouns: that,
which, who, whom, those.
Jasper claimed that he could run the washing machine.
Louise was the repair person who fixed the machine after Jasper washed his sneakers.

Grammar, Punctuation, and

Capitalization
A Handbook for Technical Writers and Editors
Mary K. McCaskill
Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia

1.3.3. Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns function not only as pronouns but also as conjunctions. The relative
pronoun replaces a noun
in a dependent clause and connects the clause to the rest of the sentence.
Antecedents of relative pronouns
Chapter 1. Grammar Page 5
• Who and whom refer to persons.
• Which refers to things.
• That refers to things and in rare instances may refer to persons.
• Whose, the only possessive case relative pronoun, may refer to either persons or things
according to Bernstein
(1981). Other grammar authorities disagree and condemn the use of whose to refer to
inanimate nouns. We prefer
whose when of which would be awkward:
Awkward A low-cost process has been developed for making alumina,
the limited availability and cost of which have previously
inhibited its widespread use.
Better A low-cost process has been developed for making alumina,
whose limited availability and cost have previously inhibited
its widespread use.
Awkward The attenuation is accompanied by an echo the amplitude
of which is above the background level and the position of
which is related to the depth of the region.
Better The attenuation is accompanied by an echo whose amplitude
is above the background level and whose position is related
to the depth of the region.
Which versus that
• Which is always used in a nonrestrictive relative clause (one that could be omitted without
changing the meaning
of the basic sentence):
The most common examples of panel methods are the aerodynamic codes of Hess and Smith
(ref.
26), which were originally developed for nonlifting surfaces.
Which may also be used in a restrictive relative clause. Note that proper punctuation of
restrictive and
nonrestrictive clauses is vital: commas enclose nonrestrictive clauses, but never enclose
restrictive clauses (see
section 3.5.2).
• That is preferred for restrictive (or defining) relative clauses (Bernstein 1981):
The most common examples of panel methods are the aerodynamic codes that Hess and
Smith
(ref. 26) designed for nonlifting bodies.
There are three exceptions to the use of that to introduce a restrictive clause:
• Which must be used after a preposition (Bernstein 1981):
The shading in figure 2 indicates elements in which fibers have failed.
• Which is used after the demonstrative that (Bernstein 1981):
The most commonly used aerodynamic code is that which Hess and Smith (ref. 26) designed
for
nonlifting bodies.
• Which sounds more natural when a clause or phrase intervenes between the relative pronoun
and its antecedent
(Fowler 1944):
Chapter 1. Grammar Page 6
Finite bodies can undergo motions (such as spinning) which complicate the equations.

Omission of that
That can sometimes be omitted from restrictive relative clauses, but this omission is not
recommended:
Correct The model they analyzed is the most realistic one studied.
Better The model that they analyzed is the most realistic one
studied.

Who versus whom

Who (and its indefinite derivative whoever) is the only relative pronoun that changes form to
indicate case (who,
whom, whose). When a relative clause is inverted, we have difficulty determining whether the
pronoun is in
nominative case (who) or in objective case (whom). The easiest way to resolve such questions
is to change the
relative clause to an independent clause by substituting a third person personal pronoun for
the relative pronoun.
For example, in the questionable sentence
Information derived from this contract may be transmitted to those who the Defense
Department
has cleared to receive classified information.
change the relative clause to an independent clause:
The Defense Department has cleared them to receive classified information.
The sentence requires a third person pronoun in objective case (them), so the relative pronoun
must also be in
objective case (... those whom the Defense ... ).
LATVIAN AN ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR
DACE PRAULINS

PRONOUN
Relative pronouns are the words ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘whose’ which are
used to introduce relative clauses. In Latvian kas ‘who, which, that’ and
kurš/kura ‘who, which, that’ are used. The declension of these has already
been discussed in Section 4.5. In general, kas is the word which should be
used:

Tas vcrietis, kas sbž pie galda, ir mans bralis.

That man who is sitting at the table is my brother.

Neceri uz to, kas nav vbl roka.

Don’t hope for that which is not yet in (your) hand (Latvian proverb).
(Never spend your money before you have it.)

Gramata, ko vakar nopirku, izradcjas voti laba.

The book that I bought yesterday turned out to be very good.
There are specific rules for the use of kurš/kura; it is used:
• together with a preposition:

Neesmu redzbjusi mašcnu, par kuru tu runa.

I haven’t seen the car that you are talking about.

• if it is necessary to use the genitive or the locative case for the relative
pronoun:
Pbtcjumi liecina, ka vcrieši, kuru rokas ceturtais pirksts ir
garaks par radctajpirkstu, sievietbm liekas pievilccgaki.
Research shows that men whose ring finger is longer than the index
finger seem more attractive to women. (lit. Researches show that
men whose fourth finger of the hand is longer . . .)

Ta ir maja, kura atrodas pirts.

That is a house in which there is a sauna.
There are a couple of differences from the way English uses relative pronouns
in sentences. The first is the use of commas. If you compare the
sentences above, you will notice that the Latvian sentences have commas
between all the clauses whereas the English ones do not. English does use
commas where there is extra information which is not needed to understand
the main clause, e.g. ‘My aunt, who lives in Australia, is 60 years old
today’. However, in Latvian all the clauses have to be separated in this
way as can be seen in the examples above.

AN INTRODUCTION ENGLISH GRAMMAR

SIDNEY GREENBAUM AND GERALD NELSON
Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses (cf. 4.5). They also have distinctions
in gender and case:
subjective case objective case genitive case
personal who whom whose
non-personal which which whose
that that
As with the interrogative pronouns (cf. 5.23), who is the normal form for the
subjective and objective cases, whereas whom is used only in formal style. The
relative pronoun that, which is gender-neutral, may be omitted in certain circumstances.
The omitted pronoun is sometimes called the zero relative pronoun.
the teacher who (or that) taught me Chemistry
the house which (or that or zero) we bought
the person whom (or, less formally, who, that, or zero) they appointed
the student to whom you gave it (formal)
the student who (or that or zero) you gave it to

Genitive whose is a determiner, like his or her.

There is another set of relative pronouns that introduce nominal relative
clauses (cf. 6.9); these are the nominal relative pronouns. In addition to who,
whom, and which, they include whoever, whomever (in formal style), whichever,
what, and whatever.
You may take what/whatever/whichever you wish
What I need is a long holiday.
I’ll speak to whoever is in charge.
Nominal relative pronouns correspond to a combination of a relative pronoun
with a preceding antecedent (cf. 5.17):
What I need . . . (‘the thing that I need’)
. . . to whoever is in charge (‘to the person who is in charge’)

COLLINS COBUILD(PENGARANG)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR

relative pronouns
relative pronouns relative pronouns 8.84 Many relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun. The
relative pronoun usually acts as the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause.
He is the only person who might be able to help.
Most of the mothers have a job, which they take both for the money and the company. Here is a
list of the most common relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose Relative pronouns do
not have masculine, feminine, or plural forms. The same pronoun can be used to refer to a man, a
woman, or a group of people.
She didn't recognize the man who had spoken.
I met a girl who knew Mrs Townsend.
There are many people who find this intolerable. Some relative clauses do not have a relative
pronoun.
Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
DEMYSTIFIED
A- SELF TEACHING- GUIDE
PHYLLIS DUTWIN(PENGARANG)

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns allow you to show the relationship between a subordinate clause
and the main clause. The main clause is always the one that can stand alone, while
the subordinate clause cannot. A relative pronoun links the two. Of course, since
these words are pronouns, they—just as all other pronouns—can stand in for nouns.
For example:
Willie left the offi ce to visit Mike, who was recovering in the hospital.
The relative pronoun who links the main clause, Willie left the offi ce to visit Mike,
to the subordinate clause, who was recovering in the hospital.
Recalling Chapter 1, you realize that the subordinate clause is a fragment if it
stands alone:
Can stand alone: Willie left the offi ce to visit Mike.
Cannot stand alone: who was recovering in the hospital.
Relative pronouns include both defi nite and indefi nite varieties. Defi nite pronouns
are which, that, and who or whom. Indefi nite pronouns include what, which,
who, whatever, whoever, and whomever. The major difference between defi nite and
indefi nite pronouns is that, once again, the choice is ruled by the word’s function.
Defi nite pronouns can stand in for a noun in the sentence:
Jorge married Marielle, who had a child from her fi rst marriage.
In this sentence, who stands in for Marielle. In addition, you should know that the
name Marielle is the antecedent, which is the word that comes before and relates to
the pronoun—in this case, who.
Who, Whom, That, or Which?
Remember a few simple rules regarding the pronouns who, whom, that, and which.
Once again, some pronouns can be used as subjects, while others are objects.
Remember this when you are trying to choose between who and whom:
Who is the CEO of the company? (Who is the subject of the sentence.)
Whom did you vote for in the election? (Turn the question around: You did vote
for whom in the election? You is the subject, did vote is the verb, and whom
is the object of the preposition for.)
It may not be much consolation, but many, many people confuse the use of the
words who and whom. Your goal should be to use them correctly, but don’t be surprised
if you frequently hear and see them used incorrectly.
Here are other important rules:
1. Use who and whom to refer to people: I didn’t know who you were until
yesterday.
2. Use that to refer to people, animals, and things: The trip that I loved took us
to Italy.
If you want to ask a question, you will at some point need to use a question pronoun—
what, which, who, or whom. For example:
Who took my pen?
What is today, Saturday or Sunday?
Who knows?
Whom do you ask for advice? (Notice the objective form, whom. Turn the
sentence around to distinguish between the subject and the object: You do
ask whom for advice? You is the subject and whom is the object.)
Consider which question pronoun is correct in each of the following sentences:
(Who/Whom) left early?
Who is correct because it is the subject of the sentence.

Grammar
and Language
Workbook
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
who whom what which that
whoever whomever whatever whichever whose
_ Exercise 1 Draw one line under each interrogative pronoun and two lines under each
relative pronoun.
Who is coming to my party?
1. Is Pat the person who parked in the principal’s reserved space?
2. I never thought that you would say such a thing.
3. Bill is a friend on whom you can always depend.
4. Whom did the sheriff want to see?
5. For her birthday Jenny got a calculator that prints out its results.
6. Aunt Carey, who is my mother’s sister, will visit us next week.
7. What do you mean?
8. May I take whichever I choose?
9. A long nap is what I need right now.
10. The accident that had happened three years ago left her with a severe limp.
11. Whoever heard of such an outrageously funny thing?
12. It was Kalina’s vote that broke the tie in the student election yesterday.
13. Tara or Rico, whoever arrives first, will adjust the thermostat.
14. After that long study session, which sounds better, ice cream or pizza?
15. Our neighbors, whose tree blew over, borrowed our chain saw.
16. I gave it to Fred and Ping, who are my best friends.

Structure and Meaning in English

A Guide for
Teachers
Graeme Kennedy(pengarang)
relative pronouns ( ambil referensinya aja )