PROJECT REPORT ON

FOUR QUADRANT DC MOTOR CONTROL

Submitted in partial fullfilment of the requirements
For the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-RACHIN MARKAN R132215049 500044565

PARAS TANWAR R132215042 500047504

VISHAL SHARMA R132215073 500046607

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM AND ENERGY STUDIES,DEHRADUN.

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled FOUR QUADRANT DC

MOTOR CONTROL
the work done by Rachin Markan,Paras Tanwar,Vishal Sharma submitted in partial
fulfillment for the award of ‘BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Electrical
Engineering from University Of Petroleum and Energy studies.

(Mentor)

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting
before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and
knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

Mr.Vineet Mediratta Department of Electrical Engineering, our project guide, for
his constant support, encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his
cooperation and his valuable suggestions.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either
directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

3
DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled ‘FOUR QUADRANT
DC MOTOR
Being submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology in
Electrical engineering Degree, is the work carried out by us.

4
CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1. ABSTRACT

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM

3. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

4. IC-555

5. IC-Z44

6. TRANSISTOR

7. LED

8. DIODE

9. RESISTOR

10.RELAY

11.CAPACITOR

12.SWITCHES

13 TRANSFORMERS

14 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS

15 DESCRIPTIONS

16 LAYOUT DIAGRAM

18 HARDWARE TESTING

19CONTINUITY TEST

20 POWER ON TEST

5
21. RESULTS

6
 Four Quadrant DC Motor Controls without Microcontroller

The main intention of this project is to control the speed of a DC motor in alternative
directions using speed control unit and to operate the motor in four quadrants: ie, clockwise,
counter clock-wise, forward brake and reverse brake.

This system uses an H-bridge motor drive IC for controlling the DC motor from
corresponding switches used by the user for pressing. The four switches are connected to the
circuit for controlling the movement of the motor. One slide switch interfaced to the circuit is for
controlling the alternative direction of the DC motor. A 555 timers is used in the project to
develop the required PWM pulses for speed control. The relays are used for changing the
polarities of the motor as well as to apply brake to the motor. In the regenerative mode, the
current is applied to the circuit in such a way that a revere torque is produced to stop the motor
instantaneously .

The four-quadrant control of the DC motor is archived by the varying duty cycles from a
555 timer and their changing polarity with the H-bridge IC by appropriate switch pressing. The
alternative speed control feature is achieved by a slide switch operation.

This project in future can be improved by using higher-power electronic devices to

operate high- capacity DC motors. Regenerative braking for optimizing the power consumption
can also be incorporated.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
HARDWARE REQUIRED

IC 555 TIMERS
IC 555 timer is a well-known component in the electronic circles but what
is not known to most of the people is the internal circuitry of the IC and the
function of various pins present there in the IC. Let me tell you a fact about why
555 timer is called so, the timer got its name from the three 5 kilo-ohm resistor in
series employed in the internal circuit of the IC.

IC 555 timer is a one of the most widely used IC in electronics and is used in
various electronic circuits for its robust and stable properties. It works as square-
wave form generator with duty cycle varying from 50% to 100%, Oscillator and
can also provide time delay in circuits. The 555 timer got its name from the three
5k ohm resistor connected in a voltage-divider pattern which is shown in the figure
below. A simplified diagram of the internal circuit is given below for better
understanding as the full internal circuit consists of over more than 16 resistors, 20
transistors, 2 diodes, a flip-flop and many other circuit components.

The 555 timer comes as 8 pin DIP (Dual In-line Package) device. There is also a
556 dual version of 555 timer which consists of two complete 555 timers in 14 DIP
and a 558 quadruple timer which is consisting of four 555 timer in one IC and is
available as a 16 pin DIP in the market.
IC 555 Timer
555 circuit

Basics Concepts:

· Comparator: The Comparator are the basic electronic component which

compares the two input voltages i.e. between the inverting (-) and the non-
inverting (+) input and if the non-inverting input is more than the inverting input
then the output of the comparator is high. Also the input resistance of an ideal
comparator is infinite.

· Voltage Divider: As we know that the input resistance of the comparators is

infinite hence the input voltage is divided equally between the three resistors. The
value being Vin/3 across each resistor.
· Flip/Flop: Flip/Flop is a memory element of Digital-electronics. The output
(Q) of the flip/flop is ‘high’ if the input at ‘S’ terminal is ‘high’ and ‘R’ is at ‘Low’
and the output (Q) is ‘low’ when the input at ‘S’ is ‘low’ and at ‘R’ is high.

Function of different Pins:-

1. Ground: This pin is used to provide a zero voltage rail to the Integrated
circuit to divide the supply potential between the three resistors shown in the
diagram.

2. Trigger: As we can see that the voltage at the non-inverting end of the
comparator is Vin/3, so if the trigger input is used to set the output of the F/F to
‘high’ state by applying a voltage equal to or less than Vin/3 or any negative pulse,
as the voltage at the non-inverting end of the comparator is Vin/3.

3. Output: It is the output pin of the IC, connected to the Q’ (Q-bar) of the F/F
with an inverter in between as show in the figure.

4. Reset: This pin is used to reset the output of the F/F regardless of the initial
condition of the F/F and also it is an active low Pin so it connected to ‘high’ state
to avoid any noise interference, unless a reset operation is required. So most of the
time it is connected to the Supply voltage as shown in the figure.

5. Control Voltage: As we can see that the pin 5 is connected to the inverting
input having a voltage level of (2/3) Vin. It is used to override the inverting voltage
to change the width of the output signal irrespective of the RC timing network.

6. Threshold: The pin is connected to the non-inverting input of the first

comparator. The output of the comparator will be high when the threshold voltage
will be more than (2/3) Vin thus resetting the output (Q) of the F/F from ‘high’ to
‘low’.

7. Discharge: This pin is used to discharge the timing capacitors (capacitors

involved in the external circuit to make the IC behave as a square wave generator)
to ground when the output of Pin 3 is switched to ‘low’.

8. Supply: This pin is used to provide the IC with the supply voltage for the
functioning and carrying of the different operations to be fulfilled with the 555
timer.
Uses:-

The IC 55 timer is used in many circuits, for example One-shot pulse generator in
Monostable mode as an Oscillator in Astable Mode or in Bistable mode to produce
a flip/flop type action. It is also used in many types of other circuit for achievement
of various purposes for instance Pulse Amplitude Modulatin (PAM), Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) etc.

Reference: www. engineersgarage.com

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one
pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair
of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the
controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today,
some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in
the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the
way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other
things.
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical
devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to
use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control
function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at
another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its
output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an
electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements.
The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A
small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can
control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.
For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a
voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.
Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current
in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a
semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the
base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the
transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Transistor as a switch

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.

 Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power
applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications
such as logic gates.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as
the base voltage rises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the
collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant
equations:
VRC = ICE × RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC)
VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V
If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than
VCC / RC, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to
be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is
either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and
this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off"
values are relevant.

1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or
full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of
diode.
 1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the
market are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and
IN4007 have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum
forward current capacity of 1 Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this
diode of more capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but
diode of low capacity cannot be used in place of diode of high capacity. For
example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or
IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by
company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is
equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode
IN4007.
 Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials
are joined together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue
our discussion with the operation of the PN junction. But before we can
understand how the PN junction works, we must first consider current flow in
the materials that make up the junction and what happens initially within the
junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction

in a copper wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will
move through the crystal just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is
shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential of the battery will attract the free
 electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the
positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron
from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing
the current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material
(electrons) are repelled by the negative side of the battery and move through the
crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P

material is by positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from
the positive terminal of the P material to the negative terminal. Electrons from
the external circuit enter the negative terminal of the material and fill holes in
the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons are removed from
the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the steady
stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal.
Bridge rectifier

Bridge rectifier circuit is a common part of the electronic power supplies.

Many electronic circuits require rectified DC power supply for powering the
various electronic basic componentsfrom available AC mains supply. We can find
this rectifier in a wide variety of electronic AC power devices like home
appliances, motor controllers, modulation process, welding applications, etc.

A Bridge rectifier is an Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC)

converter that rectifies mains AC input to DC output. Bridge Rectifiers are widely
used in power supplies that provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic
components or devices. They can be constructed with four or more diodes or any
other controlled solid state switches.
Depending on the load current requirements, a proper bridge rectifier is selected.
Components’ ratings and specifications, breakdown voltage, temperature ranges,
transient current rating, forward current rating, mounting requirements and other
considerations are taken into account while selecting a rectifier power supply for
an appropriate electronic circuit’s application.
 This bridge rectifier uses diodes for rectifying the input as shown in the
figure. Since the diode is a unidirectional device that allows the current flow in one
direction only. With this configuration of diodes in the rectifier, it doesn’t allow
the power to vary depending on the load requirement. So this type of rectifier is
used in constant or fixed power supplies.

Voltage Transformer:
One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents
in our homes and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a
convenient voltage, transformed (hence the name transformer) into much higher
voltages and then distributed

The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that
higher distribution voltages implies lower currents for the same power and
therefore lower I2R losses along the networked grid of cables. These higher AC
transmission voltages and currents can then be reduced to a much lower, safer
and usable voltage level where it can be used to supply electrical equipment in
our homes and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the basic Voltage
Transformer.
A Typical Voltage Transformer

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component

rather than an electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple static
(or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device that works on the
principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from one
value to another.

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits
using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer
itself. A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in
the form of Mutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces

a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that
transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name
from the fact that they “transform” one voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and

current levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount
of Electrical Power being transferred from one winding to another via the
magnetic circuit.

A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils

of wire, one called the “Primary Winding” and another called the “Secondary
Winding”. For this tutorial we will define the “primary” side of the transformer as
the side that usually takes power, and the “secondary” as the side that usually
delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the primary is usually the
side with the higher voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead
wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the
“core”. This soft iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations
connected together to help reduce the core’s losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be
transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through
the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into
the secondary winding as shown.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection

between the two coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation
Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the
input voltage supply and converts or transforms the electrical power into a
magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this
alternating magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output
voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

 Where:

 VP - is the Primary Voltage

 VS - is the Secondary Voltage

 NP - is the Number of Primary Windings

 NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings

 Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only
linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or
decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used
to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it
is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the
secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down
transformer.

However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same

voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its
output is identical with respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This
type of transformer is called an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for
impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is
achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP )
compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).

As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the
number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly
known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the
operation of the transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the
secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary
winding compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units,
compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-
1). This means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding
there will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see
that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must
also change by the same ratio, and this is true.

Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the
ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer will
be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: “turns ratio =
voltage ratio”. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not
important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns
ratio value is very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different
transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is
given as: 1:3.

Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of
wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for
every one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on the left
to a smaller number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down
in value as shown.

Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above,
what will be the resulting secondary no load voltage.

Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down transformer as the primary

voltage is 240 volts and the corresponding secondary voltage is lower at 80 volts.
Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at preset ratios
and we can see that the primary winding has a set amount or number of windings
(coils of wire) on it to suit the input voltage. If the secondary output voltage is to
be the same value as the input voltage on the primary winding, then the same
number of coil turns must be wound onto the secondary core as there are on the
primary core giving an even turns ratio of 1:1 (1-to-1). In other words, one coil
turn on the secondary to one coil turn on the primary.

If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage,
(step-up transformer) then there must be more turns on the secondary giving a
turns ratio of 1:N (1-to-N), where N represents the turns ratio number. Likewise, if
it is required that the secondary voltage is to be lower or less than the primary,
(step-down transformer) then the number of secondary windings must be less
giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).

Transformer Action

We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared
to the primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available
from the secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically isolated from each
other, how is this secondary voltage produced?

We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound
around a common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to
the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic
field around itself, called mutual inductance, by this current flow according
to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field
builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given
asdΦ/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from
the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux.
This magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in
opposite directions under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core
depends upon the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding.
When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns
of the secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil.
The amount of voltage induced will be determined by: N.dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law),
where N is the number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same
frequency as the primary winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both
windings because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings
together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each winding is directly
proportional to the number of turns in that winding. However, the peak
amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding will be
reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the
cores magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or
keep the same current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns
( NP ) of the winding. The product of amperes times turns is called the “ampere-
turns”, which determines the magnetising force of the coil.

So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only
one turn in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary
coil, assuming no losses, enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux
generated to induce one volt in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each
winding supports the same number of volts per turn.

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic
relationship between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:
emf = turns x rate of change

 Where:

 ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π

 Ν - is the number of coil windings.

 Φ - is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding
emf, N will be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding
emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( NS ).

Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to

operate correctly, transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or supply
DC voltages or currents, since the magnetic field must be changing to induce a
voltage in the secondary winding. In other words,transformers DO NOT operate
on steady state DC voltages, only alternating or pulsating voltages.

If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive

reactance of the winding would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective
impedance of the winding will therefore be very low and equal only to the
resistance of the copper used. Thus the winding will draw a very high current
from the DC supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out, because as we
know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics Example No3

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on
the secondary winding. The maximum value of the magnetic flux density is 1.1T
when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the transformer primary winding. Calculate:

a). The maximum flux in the core.

b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.

 CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a
pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference
exists between the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This
field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect
is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,

which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and
leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric
field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant
frequency and quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating
frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and
many other important aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric
charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical
systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the
output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular
frequencies and for many other purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential
difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the
dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large
areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring
to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength
limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce
an undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A

dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region[8].
The non-conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric
medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of
dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to
be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from
any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on
their facing surfaces,[9] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a
capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor
causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[10]
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C,
defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between
them:[8]

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its

capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental
changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the
conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge
separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the
charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in
establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given
by:[11]

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate
of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot
pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on
the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an
electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal
and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on
the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is
added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the
capacitor equation,[12]

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,[13]

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field
rather than the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging
current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance
L.
Parallel plate model

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a
separation of d.
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a
dielectric with permittivity ε (such as air). The model may also be used to make
qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The plates are considered to
extend uniformly over an area A and a charge density ±ρ = ±Q/A exists on their
surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater than their separation
d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the
magnitude E = ρ/ε. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field
between the plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases
with separation

.
The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high
permittivity.
 RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric
current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the
current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are
extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be
made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a
high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power
they can dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit
is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as
integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to
equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat
when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the
terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion
to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the
resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the
flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits

and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of
various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-
resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within
integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into
hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance:
common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders
of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required
precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of
the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature
coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which
must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit:
this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher
power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage
circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of
the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behaviour to depart
from ohms law; this specification can be important in some high-frequency
applications for smaller values of resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp
the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology
used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for
a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. [1] A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is,
the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in
the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after
Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are
specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of
milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω)
are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is
measured in Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is
−1
the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω . Although the concept of conductance is often
used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their
resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.
Theory of operation
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's
law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I) passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in
practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the
terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40
milliamperes) will flow through that resistor.

Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same,
but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The
potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages,
thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:
As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same
resistance R, is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential
difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of
the resistors then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the
equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical

lines "||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in
parallel, this can be calculated using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the

same resistance R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be
broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,
However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner,
requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each
edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that
would be measured between two opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent
resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 5⁄6 of the individual
resistance. More generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods can be used to
solve such a problem.[2][3]
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of
resistance can generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values
in series and/or parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher
power rating than that of the individual resistors used. In the special case of N
identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power
rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.
Power dissipation
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor

network) is calculated as:

The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other
forms can be derived.
The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined
from the integral of the power over that period of time:

Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation.

The vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorb much less than a
watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such
resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are
typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in
power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally
referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with
power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and tend
not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described
below.
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating,
damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is
distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient
when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the
resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or
even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they
overheat dangerously.
Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power
that it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit
board, ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation
significantly. Rated power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of
25 °C in free air. Inside an equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be
significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by
the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may prematurely
fail.

LED
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs
are made out of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts
of chemical impurities that are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide,
indium, and nitride. When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a
byproduct. Normal light bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until its
white hot. Because LEDs produce photons directly and not via heat, they are far
more efficient than incandescent bulbs. Not long ago LEDs were only bright
enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or electronic equipment. But recent
advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional lighting technologies.
Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.
 LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward
biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is
released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color
of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is
usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to
shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster
switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than traditional light sources.

Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy and also for
replacements for traditional light sources in well-established applications such as
indicators and automotive lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new
text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in communications technology. So here the role of LED is to
indicate the status of the components like relays and power circuit etc…
LED Circuits
To build LED circuits, it helps to be familiar with Ohm's law, and the
concepts of voltage, resistance, and current. LEDs do not have resistance like a
resistor does. LEDs have a dynamic resistance, that is their resistance changes
depending on how much current passes through them. But it's easiest to think of
them as having NO resistance. This means that if you just connect an LED to a
battery, you'll have a short circuit. That's bad. You would probably ruin your LED.

So an LED circuit needs some resistance in it, so that it isn't a short circuit.
Actually we need a very specific amount of resistance. Among the specifications
for LEDs, a "maximum forward current" rating is usually given. This is the most
current that can pass through the LED without damaging it, and also the current at
which the LED will produce the most light. A specific value of resistor is needed
to obtain this exact current. There is one more complication. LEDs consume a
certain voltage. This is known as the "forward voltage drop", and is usually given
with the specs for that LED. This must be taken into account when calculating the
correct value of resistor to use. So to drive an LED using a voltage source and a
resistor in series with the LED, use the following equation to determine the needed
resistance:

Ohm's = (Source Voltage - LED Voltage Drop) / Amps

For example, to drive an LED from your car's 12v system, use the following
values:
13.4 volts (12v car systems aren't really 12v in most
Source Voltage =
cases)
Voltage Drop = 3.6 volts (Typical for a blue or white LED)

Desired Current = 30 milliamps (again, a typical value)

So the resistor we need is:

(13.4 - 3.6) / (30 / 1000) = 327 ohms

RELAY
Basic design and operation.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around

a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux,
a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the
relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one
or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the
relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is
open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke,
which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic
field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable
contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with
a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized,
then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if
the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is
returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used
commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or
current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the
coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation,
which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous
to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were not widely used before the
application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as
early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge. Some automotive
relays include a diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar
problem of surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case
a snubber circuit (a capacitor and resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb
the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the associated resistor are sold as a single
packaged component for this commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method
is used to split the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together,
increasing the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is
done with a small copper "shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that
creates the delayed, out-of-phase component,[9] which holds the contacts during the
zero crossings of the control voltage.
A relay can be compared to a vacuum tube and solid state transistor amplifier
because both can use a small voltage and current in one circuit to control a large
voltage and current in another circuit. However, unlike tubes and transistors, a
relay cannot produce a variable output; It can only switch on and off similar to a
logic circuit in a computer. But the relay has the advantage of being able to
completely isolate its input circuit from its output.

Below is a drawing of a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) relay. A single

contact called the Common contact switches between a Normally Closed contact
and a Normally Open contact. The Common contact is attached to an armature
which is a strip of metal that is hinged at one end and has electrical contacts,
usually made of silver, at the other end. A spring pulls the armature up so its
contact connects to the Normally Closed contact. An electromagnet below the
armature attracts the armature when it is energized and pulls it down so its contact
disconnects from the Normally Closed contact and connects to the Normally Open
contact instead.

The electromagnet is made of a coil of fine enameled copper wire wound on a

plastic bobbin that has an iron core in its center. A magnetic field is created in the
iron core when current flows through the coil. The number of turns in the coil and
the wire size determine the voltage that must applied to it. Relays are available for
operation at almost any voltage but the most common are 5, 6, 9, 12, 24 and 48
volts DC. The coil current also depends on the number of turns and wire size and
usually ranges from 30 to 200 milliamperes.
There is no connection between the coil and any of the contacts. The contacts are
completely electrically isolated from the circuit that powers the coil.

In a device using a relay where the relay contacts are brought out to a terminal
block or other termination, the contacts can be used to switch any type of DC or
AC load that is within the voltage and current ratings of the contacts. This is
usually marked on the relay.

A relay does not provide power for a load, it just switches power from a
power source, on and off, similar to how a wall switch turns a lamp on and off
but does not itself provide the power that lights the lamp. Relays are made in
many configurations, sizes and shapes, coil voltage and current, contact voltage
and current. They are available as:

Single Pole Single Throw SPST either Normally Open or Normally Closed
Single Pole Double Throw SPDT as above
Double Pole Single Throw DPST either Normally Open or Normally Closed
Double Pole Double Throw DPDT
 10. HARDWARE TESTING

10.1 CONTINUITY TEST:

In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small voltage
(wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker)
across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged components,
or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".
Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices, generally with a
simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two ends
belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance between the
"right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.
This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has been
completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the soldering.
Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong and
rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component failures and
presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to perform this test. We keep the
multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the ground.
We connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If there is continuation
then you will hear the beep sound.

10.2 POWER ON TEST:

This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is according to
the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode. Remember that this test
is performed without microcontroller. Firstly, we check the output of the transformer, whether
we get the required 12 v AC voltage.

Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
microcontroller because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the
controller. We check for the input to the voltage regulator i.e., are we getting an input of 12v and
an output of 5v. This 5v output is given to the microcontrollers’ 40th pin. Hence we check for the
voltage level at 40th pin. Similarly, we check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In
this way we can assure that the voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The Four Quadrant DC Motor Control operation was studied thoroughly and its practical aspects
were studied .
Finally a practical working model by using 555 timer,Relays, Resistors was developed.
Four quadrant dc motor operation can also be done by andriod application system..This specific
system could also be used in that applications where we must tocontrol the motor in 4th or two
direction such as in auto industries ,textile industries or robotics industry.The equipments used
are transformer,motor driver ic ,bluetooth device and microcontroller.