Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
REBELRUNSMI
G,STI
CK,
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NOVEMBER 2015
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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November 2015 • Volume 94 • Number 11 CONTENTS
FEATURES
*46 Six Things to Consider before Purchasing Ambient
Fume Collection Equipment 46 48
Take a look at some common misconceptions
before making your buying decision — K. Wear
1-800-263-2547 www.hcrsteel.com
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EDITORIAL
As we close the year celebrating the AWS We also have identified some endow-
Foundation’s 25th anniversary, we have ments in the Foundation, and on a selective
much to be proud of, but there is still much basis we will be talking to some of those
to be done. In 2014, the Foundation award- donors about a repurpose of the scholar-
ed $549,531 to 580 individuals. The major ships to have more influence on welder skill
portion of these awards went to students training. A few have already indicated they
who are seeking either a two-year degree at would be open to discussion.
a community college or a four-year welding This will not have an impact on the cur-
engineer-related degree. rent level of support for both two-year and
A major mission of the AWS Foundation four-year degree postsecondary programs.
is to recruit welders into the workforce. We currently have $4.6 million in National
Based on the work of the National Skills Named Endowments that support these
William Rice Panel, which uses U.S. government data sta- programs exclusively. The recipients of
Chairman, tistics, we continue to estimate that by 2020 these scholarship awards are selected by the
AWS Foundation we will need 250,000 new welders in our AWS National Education Scholarship Com-
workforce. These welders will be needed to mittee. Also, annually, the Foundation pro-
replace current welders in the U.S. work- vides funding for four $25,000 fellowships
force due to retire. ($100,000) to support research at universi-
We are renewing our efforts at the Foun- ties. These fellowships are selected by the
dation to focus on scholarships directed to- AWS Welding Research and Development
ward this segment of welding professionals Committee. We will continue to attract
to increase the number of welders in the funding from donors who prefer their dol-
United States. The welder training-related lars to go toward these efforts.
scholarships we currently award through As I have indicated, the AWS Board of Di-
the Foundation are usually less than $500, rectors has been very supportive of our ef-
which provides a small part of the total dol- forts to increase scholarship funding by
lars needed for training. transferring dollars to support our match-
We currently have a program approved ing programs. Because of this, we have been
“A major mission by the AWS Board of Directors to match en- successful in attracting new dollars both for
of the AWS Founda dowments by AWS Districts and Sections at new endowments as well as existing ac-
tion is to recruit a 150% level. Also, 150% matching is avail- counts. This has been at a 100% match.
welders into the able for additions to current District/Sec- And, as mentioned, we have the 150%
tion endowments. We will ask our AWS Dis- match for funds to support new
workforce...we con trict and Section leadership to work with us District/Section scholarships.
tinue to estimate to establish guidelines so the major focus of If you are in a position to help us fund
that by 2020 we will their scholarship programs will be to fund the next generation of skilled welding pro-
need 250,000 new scholarship dollars at a minimum $1000 fessionals, contact us to discuss the money
welders...to replace level for welder training scholarships. Cur- matching opportunity we currently have.
rently, our 22 AWS Districts have $10,000 We would welcome the opportunity to
current welders in available to them annually for local awards. speak with you. Please e-mail Foundation
the U.S. workforce Our renewed efforts will have these funds Executive Director Sam Gentry at
due to retire.” used for welder scholarships. sgentry@aws.org.
We will also engage local companies who We have great expectations during the
depend on welders employed in the market next 25 years for the AWS Foundation. We
area they serve to support this effort. These are in a very strong position to support
companies employ welders, or they sell sup- welder education at all levels.
plies to support welding processes and oth- Our immediate need is to support schol-
ers who depend on welders to manufacture arship opportunities to provide additional
items for them. We will ask for a $15,000 trained welders for the U.S. workforce.
pledge payable over three years, and we will There is currently a critical need in particu-
match that amount to create a $30,000 lar industries and geographic areas for
scholarship endowment for welder training. welders. Many opportunities will open in
The endowment, when funded, will provide the future due to retirements. Our mission
an annual award amount of $1500 to help is to help fill this gap. WJ
local welders receive training.
Hitachi Rail unveiled its class 800/801, seen here, at the Newton Mario Portillo (second from left) and Richard Apodaca (third
Aycliffe facility opening. (Photo courtesy of Paul Bigland.) from left) from Uniweld pose with the booth’s first visitors at
the HVAC/R tradeshow in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
Hitachi Rail recently celebrated the return of rail manu-
facturing to its British home in the North East, joining with
products used in the industry, watched live demonstrations,
key delivery partners at the official opening of a $225 mil-
and received insight they could implement into their daily
lion rail vehicle manufacturing facility in Newton Aycliffe,
occupations.
England. The facility is where the government’s new InterCi-
ty Express (IEP) trains for the East Coast Main Line and
Great Western Main Line, and AT200 commuter trains for Electronic Soldering Materials Manufacturer
Scotland, will be manufactured. Honored for Technical Paper
Hiroaki Nakanishi, chairman and CEO, Hitachi, Ltd., wel-
comed Patrick McLoughlin MP, secretary of state for Trans- Alpha, a manu-
port, and Claire Perry MP, rail minister, along with more than facturer of electron-
500 guests, to the opening ceremony and guided tours of the ic soldering materi-
manufacturing facility. Those in attendance also witnessed the als, was recently
unveiling of the first fully fitted-out IEP train to arrive in the honored at the Chi-
United Kingdom. na International
“Today we see a major boost for the UK with Hitachi invest- Solder Technology
ing millions in returning train manufacturing to the North Forum and Exhibi-
East. This state-of-the-art facility will grow and secure jobs for tion, held in
decades to come and will help us to build the Northern Power- Suzhou, China.
house, while at the same time revitalizing one of our oldest in- The Best Con-
dustries in the region within which this tradition is synony- ference Paper Award
Alpha’s technical paper, “Thermal and
mous,” said Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne. Mechanical Reliability of Low went to Alpha’s pa-
“Newton Aycliffe will be the engine room driving Hitachi Temperature Solder Alloys for Hand per titled “Thermal
Rail’s future growth across the UK and into Europe, and I’m held Devices,” recently won The Best and Mechanical Re-
incredibly proud to lead a company committed to making Conference Paper Award. liability of Low-
the North East a rail manufacturing center of excellence Temperature Solder
once again,” added Karen Boswell, managing director of Hi- Alloys for Handheld
tachi Rail Europe. Devices,” presented by Andy Yuen, technical services direc-
tor, Alpha Southern China, which discusses the use of mi-
croadditives in eutectic Sn-Bi alloys to improve thermal fa-
Second Annual Dominican Republic HVAC/R tigue and mechanical shock properties for handheld devices.
Tradeshow Held in Santo Domingo “We developed a new, low-temp, Pb-free, no-silver alloy
with enhanced mechanical properties, particularly higher
Articco, Inc., a distributor of air conditioning and refrig- tensile strength and impact energy, which resulted in im-
eration parts, recently held its second annual Dominican Re- proved drop shock performance over standard Sn-Bi alloy
public HVAC/R tradeshow. Held at Club Los Prados in Santo systems,” said Yuen. “The alloy is capable of delivering high
Domingo, more than two hundred technicians, contractors, reliability performance at lower soldering temperatures,
and distributors were in attendance. leading to increased throughput and production value in
Uniweld, a manufacturer of welding, HVAC/R, plumbing, your assembly process.”
and alloy products, participated in the tradeshow, showcas- The paper was chosen from more than ten technical pa-
ing its oxyacetylene equipment and holding live demonstra- pers presented at the conference, which is held jointly by the
tions of safety practices. The company was represented by ITRI-IPC China Solder Technology Group, International Tin
Mario Portillo, international sales executive, and Richard Research Institute, and IPC Association Connecting Elec-
Apodaca, director of international, at the two-day show. tronics Industries (China), and was attended by about 250
Those in attendance received information on common industry affiliates. WJ
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NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
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NOVEMBER 2015 / WELDING JOURNAL 19
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NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY bulkhead must handle extreme loads during re-entry; that’s
where parachutes are connected when they deploy.
— continued from page 19 “After going through the manufacturing process for the
Exploration Flight Test-1 vehicle, we determined we could
reduce the vehicle’s weight if we lessened the number of
Welding Process for Next Orion Spacecraft Begins pieces being welded together since those welded areas
weigh more,” explained Mike Hawes, Lockheed Martin Ori-
on vice president and program manager. “So for this next
spacecraft, seven bigger pieces are coming together, instead
of the eighteen for EFT-1, which makes the welding process
a little more challenging than before.”
Additionally, the team at Michoud Assembly Facility
welded a pathfinder vehicle to verify the design and weld-
ing changes would perform as expected.
In early 2016, once the pieces that make up the crew
module’s pressure vessel are welded together, it will be
shipped to the Operations and Checkout Facility at NASA’s
Kennedy Space Center. There, it will undergo final assem-
bly, integration, and testing to prepare for Exploration Mis-
sion-1 when Orion is launched atop NASA’s Space Launch
System for the first time.
Friction stir welding connects Orion spacecraft’s tunnel and for National Science Foundation Invests in Science
ward bulkhead. (Photo credit: NASA) and Engineering Infrastructure Across the Nation
Lockheed Martin and NASA engineers have welded the The National Science Foundation has recently awarded
Orion spacecraft’s tunnel and forward bulkhead together. four jurisdictions with grants ranging from $6 to $20 mil-
The tunnel is the passageway astronauts crawl in and out
of when Orion is docked with another vehicle. The forward — continued on page 108
EB Industries Achieves 50th Anniversary da, an owner and operator of pipelines, gas storage facilities,
and power plants, announced its net income attributable to
common shares for second quarter 2015 of $429 million/
$0.60 per share vs. $416 million/$0.59 per share for the
same period in 2014. Comparable earnings for second quar-
ter 2015 were $397 million/$0.56 per share vs. $332 mil-
lion/$0.47 per share for the same period last year.
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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Reader Comments on Use would allow that procedure to cover The statement, “Employing AWS
the welding of all of the base metals in B2.1 would allow that procedure to
of AWS B2.1 the same M-number group.” cover the welding of all of the base
This could be read to mean that metals in the same M-number group”
With regard to the article “Keys to AWS D1.1:2010, Structural Welding is misleading and incorrect for D1.1
Success for a New Welding Engineer,” Code — Steel, accepts the use of all ma- code provisions.
by Richard Holdren, that starts on terials listed under an M-number in “Additionally, welding position is a
page 67 of the June 2015 Welding AWS B2.1 as approved for use in pre- nonessential variable for AWS B2.1;
Journal, the cited article contains qualified connections. That is not cor- however, D1.1 requires procedure
statements that are potentially mis- rect. While the D1.1 Code contains qualification testing in all positions to
leading. some of the materials listed in AWS be used in production when prequali-
For instance, the article states: B2.1, the AWS D1 Committee consid- fied procedures are not applicable.”
“AWS B2.1 (Specification for Welding ered and rejected a proposal that The above is a true statement, but
Procedure and Performance Qualifica- would permit the use of all the materi- the implied notion is that B2.1 is right
tion) groups materials with similar als listed in B2.1 as approved materials and D1.1 is wrong. Many members of
weldability so that when a base mate- in prequalified connections. D1 believe changes in position affect
rial from a given M-number group is The article further states that Weld- bead shape, penetration, and other
used for the qualification test, the pro- ing Procedure Specifications (WPSs) physical characteristics of the weld,
cedure is qualified for use with any of using materials not listed in D1.1, and therefore, WPSs should be quali-
the other materials from that same Table 3.1, need to be qualified. That is fied with position as an essential
M-number group. This can be a partly correct. In D1.1, Table 4.9 has variable.
tremendous help when working with additional approved materials that re- The article discusses the concept of
AWS D1.1 and using nonapproved quire qualification. Table 4.8 lists com- reentrant angles in weld surfaces as an
base metal. Per AWS D1.1 require- binations of materials that can be used acceptance criterion. This concept was
ments, this requires that a procedure in qualified procedures, and once quali- presented to the D1Q Committee and
be qualified by testing, and that proce- fied the procedures can be extended to rejected. The concept was based on a
dure is only applicable for that single weld to other D1.1 listed materials in
base metal. Employing AWS B2.1 the same or lower groups. — continued on page 26
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— continued from page 24
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Welding Head Available in a variety of configurations. Many Fixed geometric design. Major components
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Transformer Available in various kVA ratings. Requires secondary Compact, lighter weight. Built into welding head.
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remotemounted overhead. May require balance beam kVA requires selection of a larger model. Usually
and a heavyduty support structure. does not require heavyduty support structure.
Secondary Cable Connects welding head to transformer. Stiff, Eliminated. Smalldiameter, primary cable, direct
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movement. High impedance.
Gyrobail Rotation usually restricted to 90–140 deg due to stiff Normally 360deg rotation in two or three planes.
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Primary Electrical Service Requires large primary cable, buss duct, switch gear, and Smaller primary cable, buss duct, and so on. May
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Six Things to Consider before
Purchasing Ambient Fume
Collection Equipment
BY KAREN WEAR
be improved
T
he 19th century marked the be- tury that the modern-day electric arc
ginning of the modern welding was discovered. Electric arc welding
age, and up to the present day techniques and technologies remained
there have been continuous advance- rudimentary up until World War I and
ments in the science and technology of II — Fig. 2. During this time period,
the global welding industry. Naturally, especially in the United States, the
this evolution created a demand for manufacturing industry saw a massive
more advanced welding quality stan- increase in demand for military equip-
dards, and therefore a coinciding evo- ment, and therefore quality standardi-
lution in welding inspection technolo- zation became a necessity.
gy. Today we use more inspection Scientific standards needed to be
techniques, testing methods, and non- objectively documented and published
Fig. 1 — Live weld inspection using the
destructive examination (NDE) equip- as the welding industry rapidly accel- Visible Welding WeldWatch V 2015-Z
ment than ever before to achieve weld erated. The AWS began continually camera aides a welder by providing real-
quality assurance. publishing the Welding Journal in time, light-filtered video while recording
Certified Welding Inspectors 1922, and from there has published work performed.
(CWIs) and Certified Welding Educa- more than 100 codes, procedures, and
tors (CWEs) uphold the standards of safety regulations that provide weld-
weld quality and safety published by ing quality assurance across the global
the American Welding Society (AWS). industry. In order to uphold these
In order to adhere to these crucial standards and keep pace with this rap-
standards, CWIs and CWEs must use id, scientific evolution of the industry,
the most advanced inspection equip- demand grew for weld inspection tech-
ment and visual inspection methods nology that could satisfy the complex
available. Looking for visual clues in quality standards and regulations.
prior-to-weld examination, using spe-
cialized cameras during the weld The Reliable Eye
process, and utilizing NDE equipment
must be done in parallel in order to Despite all of the modern inspec-
achieve complete weld quality assur- tion technologies in today’s welding in- Fig. 2 — Women workers weld handles
ance — Fig. 1. This also presents the dustry, unaided visual examination during World War II.
need for using this inspection equip- continues to be the primary method to
ment in the welding classroom to en- control satisfactory welding. An experi-
sure the latest weld testing techniques enced set of eyes remains the key per-
are passed down to future CWIs and formance indicator for ensuring weld
CWEs. quality before, during, and after the
weld process. Visual examination is
History of Welding Industry fundamental to ensure joint fitup, set-
Quality Standards ting and marking hold/check points,
and checking for base metal disconti-
The history of joining metals can be nuities and cleanliness. This sets the
Fig. 3 — Live weld viewing images of the
dated back several millennia to the groundwork for a proper weld and usu- gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe and ally requires no visual aid equipment process. The electrode and feed rod are
the Middle East. It was not until the unless the target area of the weld is clearly visible to ensure alignment during
Industrial Revolution in the 19th cen- blind. It is not until the actual weld filler passes.
Fig. 5 — A cross section of slag inclusion from flux cored arc welding using Flux-Core
Dual-Shield 710X-U feed wire. This defect is not visible unless radiographic or ultrasonic
nondestructive methods are used or destructive methods are used in postweld inspection.
the bright and harmful UV light pro- Live Weld Viewing in the
C duced by the arc. It is possible to view Classroom
a live weld with welding glass shields
or helmets, but this still may remain Viewing a live weld arc by welders
difficult. Specialized wide-dynamic- in training proves to be very valuable
range cameras provide valuable infor- in a classroom. Visual examination
mation during the welding process to techniques are easily taught with AWS
give CWIs added advantages to control Standards (AWS B1.11, Guide for the
welding quality, and therefore save Visual Examination of Welds) for pre-
valuable time and material. and postweld inspection. Teaching
New digital camera technology what to look for during the welding
along with software is able to take dif- process proves more difficult. Using
ferent exposure values of the bright weld viewing camera images on large
arc and compile them into one homog- monitor display gives students vital
enous, viewable image — Fig. 3. Certi- examples as to why welding defects
Fig. 4 — Live weld viewing in the class- fied Welding Inspectors are able to use may occur — Fig. 4. With live weld
room proves to be a useful learning tool. these images to analyze live welds in
Using the Visible Welding WeldWatch V viewing cameras, the CWE can show
order to keep its quality up to industry multiple students at once on a display
2015-Z camera, the three images are standards. For example, in automated
from the same GMA weld pass. A — A monitor what improper arc shapes and
tube fabrication, an inspector/opera- colors look like, bad alignment of the
well-formed conical arc shape and pool;
B — a point where an exhaust fan comes
tor is able to notice when alignment is electrode/torch in relation to the weld-
too close to the weld and pulls the off or the arc shape is malformed, and ing joint, and the pool formation and
shielding gas away from the arc; C —the is able to adjust or shut down the au- size.
arc shape becomes blob-like and incon- tomated process to save valuable time
sistent, therefore causing porosity in the and material.
finished weld. With cameras that have recording Postweld Inspection
capabilities, CWIs can analyze the
process begins that technology plays a footage of the root pass and filler pass- To effectively complete a thorough
heavy role in quality assurance. es to verify electrode alignment with welding inspection, it is sometimes
the weld joint. There are opportunities imperative to use appropriate NDE
to view arc shape and the molten met- equipment, and at times, use destruc-
Live Weld Viewing al pool size. This visual evidence rein- tive examination techniques to achieve
forces what caused an unsatisfactory total weld quality assurance. Defects
Most commonly, visual examina- weld joint during the postweld inspec- such as incorrect weld geometry,
tion of welding occurs before and after tion. These images also are very im- porosity, and cracks are easily identi-
the actual welding takes place, but live portant educational tools that a CWE fied by the eye, but not all weld defects
viewing remains very limited due to can use in the classroom. are discoverable from a surface visual
A
ny good weld starts with proper Surface preparation and interpass While surface conditioning plays an
surface preparation — Fig. 1. In and postweld cleaning can help pre- important role in pipe fabrication in
pipe welding, there are stringent vent issues such as porosity and in- the shop and in the field, many weld-
quality and code requirements, mak- complete fusion that can cause a weld ing operators receive little training in
ing good weld preparation and starting to fail, which results in time and mon- the key safety issues involved in prop-
with a clean surface especially critical. ey spent on rework. er surface conditioning.
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BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Reliability Analysis of
Pin-in-Hole Solder Joints
Model predictions addressed a sequence of
multiple environments that encompassed BY P. T. VIANCO AND
M. K. NEILSEN
handling, transportation, and use segments
within the assembly lifetime
A
reliability assessment was made the reliability of the PWA (Refs. 1, 2).
of the thermal mechanical fa- The computational modeling analy-
tigue (TMF) resistance of defec- sis began with the development of ap-
tive through-hole solder joints on an propriate finite element meshes of the
encapsulated printed wiring assembly various PWA constructions. Then, the
(PWA). model was exercised to predict TMF of
the solder joints, taking into account
Printed Wiring Assembly the multiple temperature cycling con-
ditions that occur during handling,
A schematic diagram is shown in transportation, and use. Two failure
Fig. 1 of a “nontypical” PWA that has criteria were established that were Fig. 1 — Schematic of the PWA. The com-
components — resistors, capacitors, based on the number of temperature ponents are attached to one PWB (blue
etc. — “sandwiched” between two cycles required to initiate a TMF crack resistor) or to both PWBs (green resistor).
through-hole printed wiring boards or cause 100% cracking that causes an The interior volumes and areas above
(PWBs). Some components had the electrical open. and below the PWBs were filled with an
leads soldered to one PWB with 63Sn- encapsulant.
37Pb (wt-%) alloy; others had one lead Setup of the Model
soldered to each of the two PWBs us- PWB affected the fatigue of the solder
ing the same solder. The internal vol- Finite Element Model. The blue re- joints. This case, which is shown in
ume and external regions around the sistor in Fig. 1 was selected because its Fig. 2C, addresses the worst-case sce-
PWBs were encapsulated with a glass configuration was more prone to TMF nario of a void having developed in the
microballoon-filled epoxy to enhance in its solder joints. The development encapsulant.
the assembly’s resistance to mechani- of the finite element model is illustrat- The two solder joints of the resistor
cal shock. ed in Fig. 2 for the blue resistor in Fig. are labeled “1” and “2.” Preliminary
Solder joints exposed to tempera- 1. Figure 2A shows the resistor body, modeling predictions indicated solder
ture cycling environments can experi- the solder joints, and the bottom PWB joint 1, directly under the component,
ence thermal mechanical fatigue to which the solder joints were made. experienced a greater degree of TMF
(TMF) degradation that eventually The introduction of the second, top due in large part to the interaction be-
leads to cracked joints and an electri- PWB and the encapsulant are shown tween the resistor body and the encap-
cally open circuit. Partially filled solder in Fig. 2B. The encapsulant is located sulant. Therefore, the finite element
joints pose an unknown reliability risk between the PWBs as well as under- model considered only joint 1.
especially in the presence of an encap- neath them; it was left out from above The need to address only a single
sulant and the complex configuration the top PWB because it had minimal solder joint allowed for the finite ele-
in Fig. 1. This circumstance warranted effect on the TMF of the blue resistor’s ment model, which at this point had
the use of the solder fatigue computa- solder joints. cylindrical symmetry, to be reduced
tional model to predict the risk posed The presence or absence of encap- further to a 10-deg “pie slice” geome-
by the defective interconnections to sulant from underneath the bottom try as shown in Fig. 3. The predictions
Fig. 3 — The 3-D finite element model (left) is reduced to the 10-deg slice model (right) by
considering only joint 1.
Fig. 4 — The 3-D solid model of the 1 joint is shown at left. The finite element mesh of the
10-deg slice is shown to the right.
tively. Figure 5D shows the case of en- • Use segment: 16°C/33°C; 1 cycle/
capsulant being absent from under the year; sinusoidal between limits; 60
PWB and the 50% hole fill. The miss- cycles (years).
Fig. 2 — Solid models show the single
ing solder was replaced by encapsulant The following methodology was
symmetry plane of the assembly: A — Re-
sistor, its solder joints (labeled 1 and 2), in the holes (magenta arrows). used to predict the total percentage of
and the PWB; B — both PWBs and the en- Temperature Cycle Conditions. TMF used up by the combination of
capsulant located between them and un- The temperature cycling condition ex- serial environments. The analysis be-
derneath the bottom PWB; C — the same perienced in service had three seg- gan with the transportation and han-
as B except the encapsulant was ments. There are two transportation dling segment #1 (–29°C/49°C; 24-h
eliminated from underneath the bottom and handling segments, #1 and #2, as period). Crack initiation is the failure
PWB. well as the final use segment. The de- criterion, which is designated with the
tails of the three segments are listed subscript, i. The computational model
retained adequate fidelity. below, including the minimum and calculated the number of cycles re-
The finite element construct shown maximum temperature limits, which quired to reach crack initiation under
in Fig. 4 represents the baseline case define temperature range, ΔT; hold the transportation and handling seg-
having full fillets on both sides of the times at temperature limits; the ramp ment #1, Ni, #1, to be 3600 cycles. How-
joint. The initial 3-D solid model is rates between the limits; and number ever, the solder joints will experience
shown at left and the 10-deg-slice fi- of cycles: only 15 cycles under segment #1.
nite element mesh is presented at • Transportation and handling Therefore, the fraction of TMF life
right. segment #1: –29°C/49°C; 10-h holds; used up by the 15 cycles is 15/3600 =
The computational model analyzed 2 h/ramp; 15 cycles; 0.0042. The same computation is
four variations of hole fill. The finite • Transportation and handling made for transportation and handling
element meshes illustrated in Fig. 5 segment #2: –18°C/49°C; 10-h holds; segment #2 as well as for the use
are 100, 75, and 50% hole fill, respec- 2 h/ramp; 15 cycles; segment.
Results – Model
Predictions
The results are presented in Table 1
for the service environment that in-
cluded the two transportation and
handling segments, #1 and #2, as well C D
as the use segment. The first row is
the baseline condition. The model pre- Fig. 5 — The 10-deg-slice finite element models are shown for the cases examined by the
dicts that 0.66% of the solder joint’s computational model: A — 100%; B — 75%; and C — 50% hole fill. D — The fourth variant
TMF life is used up by the time the in- has encapsulant absent from under the PWB and 50% hole fill. The magenta arrow signifies
terconnection reaches the end of serv- missing solder was replaced with encapsulant.
ice, based upon the crack initiation cri-
terion. When the failure criterion is
100% cracking, then 0.18% of the fa- rations are very small. All of the solder hole-fill (single fillet on one side) had a
tigue life is consumed at the end of joint configurations have ample mar- TMF lifetime similar to the baseline
service. (Note: The percentage of fa- gin to resist TMF failure under the case with two fillets. Thus, the loss of
tigue life used to reach 100% crack for- service environment. This conclusion, the bottom side fillet was relatively in-
mation is because for the same num- which is valid even when a 2 or 3× consequential to the TMF lifetime.
ber of cycles in the service environ- safety factor is added to the computa- The TMF remained very small when
ment (numerator), more cycles are re- tions, illustrates the inherent robust- the hole fill was reduced to 75% and
quired to reach 100% crack failure (de- ness of through-hole solder intercon- 50%. The observation was made that
nominator) than crack initiation.) nections. the fractional change in TMF life cal-
Clearly, these percentages, as well Referring to the other configura- culated between the 100% and 50%
as those of the other hole fill configu- tions in Table 1, the case of 100% hole fill conditions differed between
the crack initiation and 100% cracking
criteria. This trend indicates the TMF
Table 1 — Percent of Life Used Up in the Service Environment Based Upon the Two deformation, which leads to crack ini-
Failure Criteria of Crack Initiation and a Complete Crack through the Joint tiation, does not scale the same as the
TMF deformation-plus-cracking
Through-Hole Percent of Life Percent of Life process that leads to a fully cracked
Configuration Used to Crack Used to a Complete
interconnection.
Initiation (%) Crack (%)
The absence of encapsulant from
Full fillet, both sides 0.66 0.18 underneath the bottom PWB (Fig. 5D)
100% hole fill 0.65 0.20 caused nearly an order of magnitude
75% hole fill 0.73 0.28 increase of TMF damage to the joints.
50% hole fill 0.94 0.33 Although the 3.9% and 1.7% loss of fa-
50% hole fill; 3.9 1.7 tigue life for the two respective failure
No bottom encapsulant
criteria appear to be small, they be-
A B C D
Fig. 6 — A–C — Computational-model predictions are shown of TMF strain contours for the baseline configuration (full fillet, both sides) re-
sulting from a single temperature cycle of transportation and handling segments #1 and #2 as well as the use segment as noted below each
picture. The magenta arrow indicates the location of greatest fatigue strain; the latter’s magnitude is noted in parentheses. D — The contour
diagram shows the case of the 100% crack (electrical open) resulting from the TMF that initiated per the use segment in C. The white
elements, which are indicated by the red arrows, represent the cracked material.
A B C D
Fig. 7 — Computational-model-generated strain contours of the single use segment cycle (16°C/33°C; 1 cycle/year) for the following hole fill
conditions: A — 100%; B — 75%; and C — 50%. D — The strain contours are shown for the case of 50% hole fill, but in the absence of encap-
sulant under the PWB. The magenta arrows indicate the location of greatest strain (value in parentheses). The cyan arrows point out the bot-
tom terminus of the hole fill.
come significant when multiplied by cation of greatest strain was near the ment #1 in Fig. 6A because of the
the aforementioned safety factors. top of the joint, not at the mid-plane smaller ΔT in the #2 condition. This
The computational model also pre- location. This behavior was caused by trend continues with Fig. 6C where a
dicted the TMF strain distribution the interaction between the resistor smaller ΔT of the use segment caused
within the solder joint geometry. body and the encapsulant, which re- a nearly order of magnitude smaller
Shown in Fig. 6A are strain contours sulted in this asymmetry to strain dis- strain maximum when compared to ei-
for the baseline solder joint (full fil- tribution within the joint structure. ther transportation and handling seg-
lets, both sides) caused by a single cy- Similar diagrams are shown in Fig. ment. Therefore, ΔT has a larger effect
cle of the transportation and handling 6B, C representing transportation and than a considerably longer cycle dura-
segment #1. The magenta arrow indi- handling segment #2 as well as the use tion of one year vs. 10 h for the former
cates the location of the highest such segment, respectively. In Fig. 6B, a re- segments.
strain (0.021) and, as such, is the loca- duced, maximum TMF strain value of The diagram in Fig. 6D shows 100%
tion of TMF crack initiation. That lo- 0.017 is observed vs. 0.021 for seg- cracking due to the use segment. The
A B C D
Fig. 8 — Computational models generated the 100% crack situation for these hole fill conditions: A — 100%; B — 75%; C — 50%. D — The
100% crack morphology is shown for the case of 50% hole fill and the absence of encapsulant under the PWB. The computations were based
on the use segment (16°C/33°C; 1 cycle/year). The magenta arrow is the site of maximum strain. The cyan arrow in A signifies the bottom
terminus of the joint. The black arrow in B –D indicates the location where the primary crack and the second crack, which originated from the
bottom, joined together.
crack is represented by the white seg- mained less than that at the crack ini- morphology as that presented in Fig.
ment alongside the red arrows. The tiation point (magenta arrows), in- 8C. The secondary crack joined the
initiation point was at the magenta ar- cluding Fig. 7D. However, those cyclic primary crack closer to the terminus.
row. The crack grew in two directions, strains would also be imparted on the Therefore, the absence of encapsulant
toward the top of the fillet as well as to Cu barrel of the PWB through hole and affected propagation of the primary
the bottom terminus. The crack path potentially cause an electrical open by crack along the solder/pin interface
was entirely along the pin/solder fatigue of the Cu before a 100% crack more so than it impacted the second
interface. has propagated through the solder crack that originated from the bottom
The fatigue strain contour diagrams (Ref. 3). terminus.
shown in Fig. 7 represent the hole-fill The finite element models are
variants exposed to, in this case, a sin- shown in Fig. 8 that represent the Conclusions
gle use segment (16°C/33°C; 1 100% crack path in each of the four
cycle/year). Similar trends were ob- configurations. Figure 8A shows the 1. A computational model was used
served as were noted for the two 100% crack had propagated in oppos- to predict the thermal mechanical fa-
transportation and handling seg- ing directions from the location of tigue (TMF) of through-hole solder
ments. The TMF strain values in- maximum strain (magenta arrow). The joints that are partially filled with
creased approximately 10% between cracks followed the solder/pin inter- 63Sn-37Pb solder.
hole fill conditions from 100% (Fig. face to the top of the fillet and to the 2. The model predictions addressed
7A) to 50% (Fig. 7C), but then in- bottom terminus (cyan arrow). A a sequence of multiple environments
creased by 57% from the case shown small, localized strain at the latter lo- that encompassed handling, trans-
in Fig. 7C to the configuration where- cation was insufficient to deviate the portation, and use segments within
by encapsulant was removed from un- crack from that path. the assembly lifetime.
derneath the bottom PWB (Fig. 7D). The 100% crack path is shown in 3. There were two failure criteria: a)
Yet the location of highest strain (ma- Fig. 8B, C for the cases of 75% and cycles to reach TMF crack initiation,
genta arrows) remained unchanged 50% hole fill, respectively. The pre- and b) cycles to cause a 100% cracking
between all four cases. In fact, the lo- dominant crack path remained at the of the joint that leads to an electrical
cation and magnitude of strain in solder/pin interface. However, the lo- failure.
Fig. 7A were identical to those parame- calized strain at the bottom terminus 4. The TMF lifetime used up in the
ters in Fig. 6C (baseline), which rein- increased in magnitude to the extent service environment (two transporta-
forces the earlier observation that the that it generated a second crack at the tion segments and the use segment)
presence of the bottom fillet had limit- solder/Cu barrel interface. The crack was less than 1% for the more conser-
ed impact on the fatigue life of the then joined up with the primary crack vative crack initiation criterion. An ab-
solder joint in the presence of the at the locations denoted by the black sence of encapsulant from under the
encapsulant. arrow. The number of cycles to 100% PWB caused a 3.9% loss of fatigue life.
Decreasing hole fill caused a cracking reflects the combined contri- 5. Although the fatigue strains in-
marked increase in TMF strain at the butions of the two cracks. creased at the bottom terminus with
bottom terminus of the joints (cyan Lastly, the 100% crack diagram in decreasing hole fill, they did not sig-
arrows). This enhanced strain re- Fig. 8D shows nearly the same crack nificantly affect the TMF failure of the
solder joint. However, those cyclic the manuscript. Sandia is a multipro- and Vianco, P. 2008. Accelerated aging
strains were capable of causing fatigue gram laboratory operated by Sandia and thermal mechanical fatigue mod-
damage to the Cu barrel of the PWB Corp., a Lockheed Martin Co., for the eling of Cu-plated through-holes with
hole. U.S. Department of Energy’s National partial solder filling. Int. J. of Materials
6. Three high-level findings were Nuclear Security Administration un- and Structural Integrity Vol. 2, pp.
obtained: a) TMF deformation, which der contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. 138–163.
leads to crack initiation, does not scale
the same as the cracking process; b) in-
complete encapsulation accelerates the References
TMF of through-hole interconnec-
tions; and c) transportation and han- 1. Neilsen, M., and Vianco, P. 2014.
dling procedures can generate a UCPD model for Pb-free solder. J.
greater degree of TMF damage than Elect. Pack. DOI:10.1115/1.4026851. P. T. VIANCO (ptvianc@sandia.gov) and M. K.
does actual the use segment. WJ 2. Neilsen, M., and Vianco, P. 2013. NEILSEN are with Sandia National Laborato-
Simulating solder fatigue crack initia- ries, Albuquerque, N.Mex.
tion and growth in a surface mount This manuscript won the Best Soldering Paper
Acknowledgments package. IPC Conference on Soldering award at the 2015 International Brazing and
and Reliability, Costa Mesa, Calif., Nov. Soldering Conference (IBSC) held April 19–22
The authors wish to thank Brian 2013, on CD-ROM. in Long Beach, Calif.
Wroblewski for his careful review of 3. Susan, D., Kilgo, A., Neilsen, M.,
T
wo silver-free filler metals, with TiBraze®P14 is higher by 21–24% Two new silver-free filler metals,
TiBraze®P14 (Cu-6P-4Sn wt-%) than that of low-silver standard BCuP- TiBraze®P14 in the form of a brazing
and TiBraze®LOK59-03 (Cu- 5 filler metal. paste using a rubber-based binder and
40Zn-1Sn-0.3Si wt-%), were experi- Although the shear strength of sil- TiBraze®LOK59-03 rods Ø2.4 mm,
mentally evaluated to determine if ver-free filler metals is between 72 and were evaluated to determine charac-
these alloys are suitable to replace sil- 85% of the shear strength in silver- teristics such as spreading area, joint
ver-based filler metals for brazing cop- based Alloy BAg-1, the high cost of sil- strength, and microstructure.
per and brass. ver-based joints can be significantly Table 1 contains chemical composi-
Characteristics of the filler metals, reduced by using silver-free filler met- tions of each filler metal. Test results
such as spreading area, joint strength, als. By increasing the overlap and us- of the same silver-free filler metals in
and microstructure, were analyzed. ing silver-free fillers, joint costs can be combination with low-carbon steel
These characteristics were compared reduced while meeting strength re- and stainless steel are reported else-
to filler metals that are currently used quirements. where (Ref. 1).
in the industry, such as standard sil- Two standard silver-containing
ver-based BAg-1, BCuP-5, and a silver- Materials and Procedure filler metals — BAg-1, BCuP-5 — and
free BCuP-9. a silver-free BCuP-9 alloy were tested
Metallurgically compatible silver- The base materials used in this for comparison with new silver-free
free braze alloys used to join copper study were copper C110 and brass filler metals.
and brass-based materials were found C260 alloy containing 70 wt-% of cop- Brazing was performed in air by
to yield ultimate joint strengths rival- per and 30 wt-% of zinc. These materi- heating with a propane torch. The flux
ing those of silver-based filler materi- als are machinable and widely used for used during brazing was the boron-
als. Data collected based upon compu- manufacturing hydraulic and pneu- modified, black fluoroborate flux
tational models (Thermo-CalcTM), opti- matic pipes, cartridges, ammunition 601B/3411 (Superior Flux & Mfg. Co.,
cal microscopy, and shear tests provid- casing, radiators, hardware, and so on. Solon, Ohio).
ed substantiation of compatibility. The They do not require heat treatment af- Methods, materials, and sample de-
shear strength of brazed joints made ter welding, brazing, or soldering. signs applied for testing wetting and
Fig. 1 — Average spreading areas of tested filler metals on copper Fig. 2 — Average shear strength of tested filler metals on copper
and brass. and brass.
1200 1400
1200
1000
1000
800
800
LOAD (lb)
LOAD (lb)
600 600
400
400
200
200
0
0 -200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
A POSITION (in) B POSITION (in)
Table 3 — ThermoCalcTM Predicted Phases and Constituents in the LOK59-03 Joint Metal
A B
Fig. 4 — A — Macrostructure of copper + P14 brazed joint, ×12.5; B — microstructure of copper + P14 brazed joint, ×200.
A B
joint metal. Some fillets contain few the solidus temperature. As the joint of the brazing temperature range.
defects, particularly pores. It is likely metal cools, the BCC phase begins to Low-temperature phases, such as
that the pores appeared due to insuffi- transform into the FCC phase at Cu3Sn, are ousted to the central zone
cient heating upon formation of the 689°C. by said growing FCC grains.
joint. Considering the relatively high Upon cooling to room temperature, Our point of view is supported by
strength of the brazed joints, as well most (93%) of the microstructure will the multiple epitaxial crystal growth
as joint and fillet formation, this base have transformed into the FCC phase. of the FCC phase on copper grains that
metal and filler metal combination is There should be very little Cu3Sn is clearly seen in Fig. 6, because the
good for brazing brass parts. phase because its transformation be- copper (base metal) and the yellow
Figure 6 is an image of a joint made gins at a lower temperature, ~450°C. brass component of the joint metal
with copper (base metal) and LOK59- There is insufficient time for a signifi- have the same FCC lattice. Rapid solid-
03 (filler metal). According to thermo- cant amount of Cu3Sn to form ification of the FCC phase is evidenced
dynamic modeling with Thermo- upon cooling from 450°C to room by the appearance of shrinkage pores
CalcTM, three phases should occur in temperature. in the central zone of the joint. Such
the LOK59-03 joint metal (Table 3): However, after studying the mi- pores are typical for rapidly solidified
FCC phase, BCC phase, and Cu3Sn in- crostructure of the joint metal (Fig. 6), cast structures. The same pores were
termetallic compound. The BCC phase we suggest that the FCC phase (which also found between dendrites in the
is the high-temperature phase that so- is simply yellow brass) is crystallized fillet area. Supposedly, these pores lo-
lidifies around 890°C. This means that first on the solid copper and the FCC cated along the central line cause a rel-
the BCC phase will begin to form first. grains grow rapidly to the middle of atively low-strength copper joint
The entire liquid will transform into the joint because the solidus of this brazed with LOK59 filler metal.
the BCC phase around 884°C, which is brass phase concurs with the low limit Hence, LOK59-03 is recommended
6 7
Fig. 8 — Brass tube brazed joints made with silver-free P14 filler
metal.
for brazing steels or copper to steel, highest value after the standard silver- Brazing, Inc. The authors express
while the P14 alloy is more suitable for based Alloy BAg-1. This makes the sil- thanks to Greg DuBois and Bruce
brazing copper and brass structures. ver-free P14 alloy a very likely substi- Turner of CTL Engineering, Inc.,
Silver-free brazing filler metals P14 tute for silver-based filler metals. At Columbus, Ohio, for their valuable
and LOK59-03 are suitable to substi- least 15%-silver containing BCuP-5 help in the mechanical testing of
tute silver-based alloys in joining hy- can be completely substituted by P14 brazed joints.
draulic, pneumatic, and lubrication in such applications as the manufac-
pipelines and can be widely used in the ture of copper tubing and brass faucet
manufacture of automobiles, refrigera- brazed joints. Reference
tors, house water pipes, machinery 2. When used for joining copper or
equipment, electronics, and so on. brass tubes with connectors, adapters, 1. Duffey, M. J., Marchal, J. T.,
Typical examples of brazed joints of and faucets, both tested silver-free Loney, M. R., Alexandrov, B. T., and
copper, steel, and brass tubes made filler metals provided formation of Shapiro, A. E. 2015. Evaluation of new
with these silver-free filler metals are quality, dense brazed joints with silver-free brazing filler metals. Weld-
presented in Figs. 7 and 8. smooth fillets. Significant cost savings ing Journal 94(3): 40–46.
can be realized with silver-free brazing
Conclusions filler metals, warranted even in the
case that sometimes joint overlap JACOB T. MARCHAL (marchal.16@buck-
1. Silver-free brazing filler metals lengthening is required. WJ eyemail.osu.edu), MATTHEW J. DUFFEY,
are capable of meeting strength MATTHEW R. LONEY, and BOIAN T.
requirements in copper and brass Acknowledgment ALEXANDROV are with the Welding Engi-
brazed joints. Brazing with the low- neering Program at The Ohio State Uni-
versity, Columbus, Ohio. ALEXANDER E.
temperature silver-free filler metal This work has been performed as a SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titanium-
TiBraze®P14 (Cu-4Sn-6P) resulted in Capstone Project at the Welding Engi- brazing.com) is with Titanium Brazing,
sufficient shear strengths with copper neering Program of the Ohio State Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
and, especially, brass — the second University supported by Titanium
F
illets on brazed assemblies can base-metal bonding. As an example,
often look quite different from pure copper can only diffuse into steel
one another. Some fillets might up to a maximum of approximately
be rounded, and others might look 5%, but this is sufficient to alloy good
small and appear concave in shape. Ex- copper-BFM flow into a steel joint.
ternal brazing fillets are often greatly In contrast to this, if the shape of
misunderstood. Some people insist the fillet is convex instead of concave
that big fillets are needed in brazing, (as shown in Fig. 2), that would tend
whereas others say they are not. In re- to indicate there may be poor metal-
ality, large fillets are a part of the Fig. 1 — A nice concave fillet (meniscus) lurgical compatibility between the
welding world, but are not desirable in at the edge of a brazed joint (image from BFM and the base metal, the base met-
brazing. This article details how your AWS Brazing Handbook, fifth edition). al faying surfaces are not clean enough
braze fillet should look, and what to (faying surfaces contaminated with
watch for when you inspect your braze surface oxides or oils, etc.) to allow
fillets. Desirable Braze Fillet proper BFM flow, the brazing atmos-
Characteristics phere is poor, or any combination of
What Does a Braze these three factors.
Fillets Should Be Concave
Fillet (Meniscus) Do? Fillets Should Be Small
The shape of a fillet is very impor-
A braze fillet, first of all, is actually tant, and concave is the desired shape. This is where people often get
a casting along the outside of a braze When the fillet is concave, the edges of themselves in trouble. Some people er-
joint. It is a natural outcome of the the fillets tend to feather out at each roneously believe that the larger the
brazing process, and merely gives evi- edge and blend in nicely with the base fillet, the better the braze joint. In ac-
dence that the brazing filler metal metal, as shown in Fig. 1. tuality, just the opposite is true. A
(BFM) has melted and flowed along A concave meniscus (fillet) indi- braze fillet (meniscus) should be as
the edge of a braze joint. However, it cates three things: (a) there is good small as possible, as shown in Fig. 3.
does not tell you if the BFM has ade- metallurgical compatibility between Since a fillet is an external casting,
quately penetrated the joint. Caution the BFM and the base metal, (b) the more casting imperfections will be
is therefore strongly advised to anyone base metal surfaces are clean, and (c) present on a large fillet. These imper-
attempting to use the size of a braze the brazing “atmosphere” is good. This fections include voids, porosity,
fillet as the only inspection criteria for is very important. shrinkage cracks, open dendritic “fir-
judging the overall quality of a braze Due to surface-tension characteris- tree” structures, and so on. Typical
joint. tics, the molten BFM wants to spread causes of porosity and voids in joints
Because of its size and shape, a out over the metal surface, and can are outgassing from the filler and base
braze fillet is also commonly called a only do so if the BFM is metallurgical- metals, and surface contamination.
“braze meniscus.” Both terms are per- ly compatible with the base metal, i.e., Cracks and dendritic structures gener-
fectly acceptable to use. A braze fillet they are able to alloy with each other. ally become more pronounced as fillets
can show you whether or not there is When this happens, the molten get larger. When the liquid BFM in the
good compatibility between the BFM BFM will diffuse into the base metal fillet begins to cool and solidify, den-
and the base metal, and can tell you surface, and the base metal con- drites can form, and as the remaining
about the base metal cleanliness in the stituents will diffuse into the BFM. It liquid continues to cool, it can pull
joint region, as well as about the fur- doesn’t require a lot of diffusion, but away from the dendrites, leaving a
nace atmosphere quality. some must occur to allow BFM-to- porous area. These fillet imperfections
even using a 10X magnifier. Is the fil- really useful for brazed joints for two
let concave in shape? Does it go com- primary reasons: (a) FPI merely shows
pletely around the joint? Is it clean that there may be surface imperfec-
and smooth, or is it filled with porosi- tions on the outside of the fillet, but it
ty or cracks? tells absolutely nothing about the in-
Be very careful about specifying the side of the brazed joint itself, and (b)
number of voids per linear inch (cm), FPI chemical removal requirements
or specifying the size of each void, etc. are very different in welding than in
This practice can be a trap and could brazing. If FPI reveals cracks in a weld
result in the rejection of parts that fillet, the entire fillet needs to be cut
might otherwise be perfectly fine. The out or ground away (thereby complete-
fact that a fillet might have three bub- ly removing all the FPI chemicals), and
bles at its surface in a 1-in. length (in- a new weld bead is then laid down in
stead of the two allowed bubbles) has place.
nothing to do with the quality of the However, in brazing, the BFM in
Fig. 2 — Why didn’t this fillet flow? Be-
cause of its convex meniscus (fillet). BFM that flowed inside the brazed the joint is not going to be cut away
joint. It also calls, once again, for a lot and replaced, and therefore any en-
of extra inspection time to do these trapped FPI chemicals have to be com-
might act as stress-risers at the joint external fillet measurements, when pletely removed from the fillet itself
edge that could actually hurt the per- what’s happening inside the brazed either by ultrasonic cleaning or by
formance of a part in service. There- joint is actually more important. fluoride-ion cleaning (FIC) before a re-
fore, aim for a smaller fillet because it braze can be attempted. Do not think
is less likely to have imperfections that FPI contamination in surface
than a larger fillet. Fluorescent Penetration voids, cracks, or dendritic porosity will
Inspection be effectively removed by soaking in a
Inspecting Fillets Fluorescent penetration inspection
solvent or by either hydrogen or
vacuum-furnace cleaning.
(FPI) is not recommended. Many peo- The American Welding Society’s
Visual Inspection ple still use FPI on braze fillets to ac- Standard, Specification for Furnace
cept or reject parts. This can be a big Brazing (Ref.1) specifically discourages
The best way to check the quality of mistake. Fluorescent penetration in- anyone from using FPI in brazing in-
a fillet is simply to look at it, perhaps spection is fine for welds, but it is not spection procedures. It clearly states
that penetrant inspection techniques
“are not suitable for the inspection of
braze fillets because they routinely
give false results.”
Conclusion
A braze fillet (meniscus) is a natural
outcome of a brazing process. Visual
inspection is easy and highly reliable
when brazing is done properly. Simply
look to see that BFM is indeed present
all around the joint, that any filleting
is concave in shape, and the fillet is as
small as possible. WJ
Reference
New LowSilver Filler Metal for contribute to the solidification tem- vehicle weight reduction.
Brazing Cemented Carbides perature range and formation of the A digitally controlled short arc
isothermally solidified region. process suitable for the low-energy
A new brazing filler metal contain- In general, a thermodynamic simu- brazing of these materials using zinc-
ing 28 wt-% of silver (instead of the lation allows for the prediction of mi- based filler metals was developed by
49–50% content in standard BAg-22 croconstituents in nickel-alloy brazed the Welding and Joining Institute of
and BAg-24 alloys) was designed and joints. It can be a useful tool when the RWTH, Aachen, Germany.
tested by Umicore AG, Hanau-Wolf- modeling and designing these joints or The following filler metals were
gang, Germany, for joining cemented brazing processes. tested for brazing (in wt-%): ZnAl4,
carbide tips to a steel shank. ZnAl5Cu3.5, and ZnAl5Cu3.5 + Mg.
The filler metal has a composition Nonionic Soldering Flux and Arc brazing was carried out without a
of Cu-28Ag-20Zn-10Mn-1Ni-2In wt-% Controlled Heating for flux.
in the melting range of 680°–760°C The design simulation allowed
Soldering WaterCooling Tubes learning the geometry of brazed joints
and with a lower limit brazing temper-
ature 710°C (Ref. 1). A lower content for both base materials steel-to-steel
The National Spherical Torus Ex-
of silver may significantly reduce the and steel-to-aluminum Alloy AA6016-
periment program is being enhanced
production cost of brazed parts. T4 with the required mechanical and
to significantly expand plasma condi-
The new alloy has a density of 8.5 technological properties, and the suit-
tions with upgrades, including friction
g/cm3. This is beneficial, for example, in able length of the liquid filler metal
stir welding CuCrZr copper connecting
manufacturing circular saw blades. The flow (Ref. 4). Real manufacturing tol-
flags and soldering ETP copper tubing
average shear strength of brazed joints erances also have been considered.
to silver bearing oxygen-free copper
of steel to cemented carbide WC-6Co The molten zinc fills the adjusted
toroidal field (TF) conductors (Ref. 3).
manufactured by induction brazing is opening completely to guarantee reli-
Solder paste 96Sn/4Ag with non-
~280 MPa (40.6 ksi), which is compara- able joining. Thanks to the low energy
ionic flux was developed in the Prince-
ble with BAg-22. It is higher than the input in this process, there is a way to
ton Plasma Physical Laboratory, N.J.,
strength of joints made with BAg-24. diminish the negative influence of the
to eliminate possible insulation degra-
Brazing at 720°C allows the user not to brittle intermetallic phases that un-
dation. Such degradation could lead to
exceed the temperature AC1 of ferrite- avoidably appear at the steel and alu-
potential carbon tracking between the
austenite transformation in steel joined minum interfaces. These brittle phas-
TF conductors.
to cemented carbide tips. es are embedded in the ductile zinc-
The solder flux contains glycerol
based matrix.
monostearate as an emulsifier, and
Method of Identifying Phase TergitolTM as a nonionic surfactant,
Composition in Brazed Joints plus succinic acid as an active compo- Wide Amorphous Foils for
nent. The flux residues allow efficient Brazing Titanium, Ceramics,
Thermodynamic simulation was water cleansing after soldering. The and Graphite
used by The Ohio State University and tensile strength of soldered joints
Rolls-Royce Corp., Indianapolis, Ind., manufactured with this solder-flux New brazing filler metals in the
to predict the formation of microcon- paste reached 110 MPa (~16 ksi). It form of amorphous foils 50 microns
stituents in brazed joints. was reported that no sign of solder thick and 75 mm wide were evaluated
The joints considered were CNSX-4 voids were evident. for use in vacuum brazing titanium al-
superalloy made by two nickel-based To produce a homogeneous solder loys, graphite, and ceramics by NASA
filler metals, BNi-2 and BNi-9. Metal- and fully wetted joint area, a reducing and Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus,
lurgical characterization by optical mi- flame was required. This was done to Ohio.
croscopy and electron probe micro- dissociate the remaining oxides. The The following amorphous foils were
analysis (EPMA) was performed to original soldering temperature, 270°C, tested:
confirm quantitative results of the was increased to 300°C. This was done a) Ti-20Zr-20Cu-20Ni wt-%, which
simulation made using Thermo-CalcTM to ensure the boiling of the glycerol. has the higher melting range 845°–
software. The thermodynamic simula- The temperatures across the TF con- 863°C (1553°–1585°F)
tion predicted the same phase compo- ductor during soldering were typically b) Zr-17Ti-20Ni-1Hf wt-%, which
sition as was experimentally identified between 300° and 350°C. Hardness has the lower melting range 796°–
for these brazed joints (Ref. 2). measurements before and after solder- 813°C (1465°–1495°F)
Phases that are stable before the ing indicated no softening of the cop- c) Zr-14.7Ti-12.6Ni-7Cu-1Hf
end of solidification are more likely to per TF conductors occurred. wt-%, which has the lowest melting
form large precipitates, such as nickel range 772°–786°C (1422°–1447°F).
and chromium borides in the BNi-2 LoadCapable Design of Arc New amorphous foils provide reli-
joints. Diffusion of melting point de- Brazing Joints for Automotive able vacuum brazing in a wide range of
pressants and some components of Applications temperatures below α → β transus,
the base metal, during the brazing not only of α- and (α + β)-titanium-
process, was not captured in the equi- High-strength steels and steel-
librium calculation. This diffusion can aluminum structures are applied for — continued on page 72
— continued from page 70 brazed to copper using the TLP to the formation of a continuous reac-
process at a low temperature, 280°C. tion layer at the interface between
Small pores and slight increase of the LTCC and Kovar, which is shown later
based alloys, but also near-β and β- bonding temperature do not increase in detail. In contrast to Al2O3, brazing
titanium-based alloys. residual stresses significantly. Molyb- of LTCC at 850°C was not tried as the
Where used, they resulted in satis- denum, nickel, or copper foils 50–200 LTCC is sintered at this temperature
factory strength brazed joints of vari- microns thick placed between YSZ ce- and the stability of the ceramic materi-
ous combinations of base materials. ramic and nickel superalloy signifi- al is limited. WJ
They were found to have good compat- cantly decrease residual thermal
ibility with base materials CP titanium stresses in the joint. An interlayer of
or Ti-6Al-4V alloy, and in joints of dis- copper foil 200 microns thick provides References
similar base materials titanium to cop- effective distribution of residual
per, titanium to stainless steel, or to stresses in the joint. Both strategies — Refs. 1–7 are Proceedings of the 6th In
nickel-plated carbon steel, ceramics the use of a low expansion metal inter- ternational Brazing and Soldering Confer
(alumina, silicon carbide, and boron layer like molybdenum or a ductile in- ence, April 19–22, 2015, Long Beach, Calif.
nitride), and graphite. terlayer like copper — are beneficial to
Joints made with the amorphous increase the lifetime of metal-ceramic 1. Schimpfermann, M., Wiel, G.,
foils had low erosion of the base metal brazed joints. Schnee, D., and Rädecker, P. New silver-
and high brazed joint quality in titani- based brazing filler metals for brazing ce-
um heat exchangers and honeycomb Joining of Kovar to Alumina mented carbides with a highly decreased
panels (Ref. 5). level of silver and low brazing temperature.
Brazing temperatures of titanium
and LTCC Ceramics Using Paper #39.
joints with amorphous foils are signifi- Active Filler Metals 2. Riggs, B., Alexandrov, B., Benatar, A.,
cantly lower than that of standard and Xu, R. Thermodynamic simulation of
filler metal AWS BTi-1 (Ticuni®). Braz- Kovar (Fe-29Ni-17Co) was used in- single crystal superalloy CMSX-4 brazed
ing of titanium to ceramics and stead of stainless steel to compensate joints with BNi-2 and BNi-9 filler metals.
graphite with new foils should be done the mismatching thermal expansion Paper #50.
at temperatures greater by 50°–60°C behavior when brazing with alumina 3. Jurczynsky, S. Z., and Schneider, H.
than that of brazing titanium to titani- and low-temperature cofired ceramic Solder development and fabrication tech-
um. If compared to traditional active (LTCC) sensors. Brazing experiments niques for coolant tube bonding in lengthy
brazing filler metals that do not were performed by Fraunhofer IKTS, high current conductors. Paper #76.
spread on ceramic surfaces, the tested Dresden, Germany, for combinations 4. Reisgen, U., Anderhausen, M., Gef-
Ti- and Zr-based amorphous foils re- of Kovar/Al2O3 and Kovar/LTCC with fers, C., and Pipinikas, A. Load-capable de-
vealed excellent wetting, and some- commercial active filler metals, Cusil®- sign of arc brazing joints for different ap-
times spreading, along ceramic sur- ABA and Incusil®-ABA, respectively. plications in automotive engineering. Pa-
faces of alumina and boron nitride as For both active brazing filler metals, per #92.
well as graphite. optimized processing parameters were 5. Shapiro, A. E., and Flom, Y. Evalua-
investigated to realize hermetic Kovar/ tion of low-temperature amorphous foils
Al2O3 and Kovar/LTCC joints (Ref. 7). for brazing titanium and ceramics. Paper
Assessing and Reducing
Active metal brazing of Al2O3 and #22.
Residual Thermal Stresses in LTCC to Kovar with Cusil-ABA was 6. Ivas, T., Lis, A., and Leinenbach, C.
MetalCeramic Brazed Joints performed at three different brazing Assessing and reducing thermal residual
temperatures — 810°, 830°, and 850°C stresses in metal-ceramic joints by com-
Mismatch of thermal expansion co- — and 755°C for Incusil-ABA. Her- bined experimental and numerical investi-
efficients between metals and ceram- metic joining of Al2O3 to Kovar was gations. Paper #90.
ics results in significant residual possible with Incusil-ABA and Cusil- 7. Pönicke, A., Schilm, J., Goldberg, A.,
stresses in brazed joints. These can ABA for all investigated temperatures. Partsch, U., and Michaelis, A. Joining of
lead to cracks in the interfacial region Only after brazing LTCC/Kovar joints Kovar to alumina and to low-temperature
or to a failure of the joint during serv- at a temperature of 810°C, a few of the co-fired ceramics (LTCC). Paper #86.
ice. This problem was investigated by assemblies were hermetic. A mi-
EMPA, Dübendorf, Switzerland, with crostructural study showed that the
numeric modeling and experimental interface between LTCC and the joint
methods to assess and minimize criti- metal is weakly bonded because only a
cal residual stresses in metal-ceramic noncontinuous and very thin reaction
joints manufactured by transient liq- layer was formed. Thus, no reliable
uid phase (TLP) bonding and active joining is possible at this brazing
brazing (Ref. 6). temperature.
A buffer metallization layer of silver If the brazing temperature is in- Information provided by ALEXANDER E.
decreases local stresses at the interface creased to 830°C, all brazed LTCC/ SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titaniumbrazing.com)
area of silicon or aluminum nitride and LEO A. SHAPIRO, Titanium Brazing, Inc.,
Kovar joints showed gas tightness due Columbus, Ohio.
FABTECH 2015. Nov. 9–12. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS
This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedi-
cated to showcasing welding, metal forming, fabricating,
tube and pipe equipment and services, plus myriad manu- Advanced Laser Applications Conference (ALAC). Nov. 4, 5.
facturing and related technologies. Attend the American Ford Conference and Event Center, Dearborn, Mich.,
Welding Society’s business meetings, awards presentations, www.gamcinc.org.
educational programs, and welding contests. (800/305) 443-
9353, ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com. Thermal Spray of Suspensions and Solutions Symposium
(TS4). Dec. 2, 3. Montreal, Canada. (440) 338–5151 ext.
FABTECH Canada. March 22–24, 2016. Toronto Congress 5625; www.asminternational.org/web/suspension–2015/home.
Centre, Toronto, Canada. Co-sponsored by SME, Fabricators
& Manufacturers Association, American Welding Society, Surface Technologies in the Oil and Gas Industries. Feb. 2, 3,
Precision Metal Association, and Chemical Coaters Associa- 2016. Houston, Tex. This two-day event will explore the lat-
tion International. Companies specializing in fabricating, est technologies and applications for thermal spraying in the
metal forming, welding, and finishing will have the opportu- oil and gas exploration, production, refining, and distribu-
nity to network, improve productivity, increase profits, and tion industries.
discover innovative ways to expand in today’s competitive
environment. For more information, visit http://fabtech- Lasers for Manufacturing Event®. April 26, 27, 2016. Cobb
canada.com. Galleria Centre, Atlanta, Ga. Hosted by the Laser Institute
Eight-Month Program
P • Financial Aid Available • Veteranns Affairs Benefits
BECCOMEE A
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OMMERCIAL
DIV
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© 2015 National Un
niversity NUPI15_2184
WWW.N
NUPOLYTECH.ORG I (800) 432-3483
4
National University Polytechnic Institute is accredited by the Association of Commerrcial Diving Educators
and members of the Association of Diving Contractors Internationnal.
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Weldingg torches,
consumaables and
related equipment
e
Warehouse for fast
parts deelivery
N
New location to serve the A
Americas
Note: The 2015 and 2016 schedules for all certifications are posted 9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
online at www.aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be tak-
en at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Miami, FL Dec. 6–11, 2015
Chicago, IL Exam only Nov. 12
New Orleans, LA Jan. 10–15, 2016
St. Louis, MO Exam only Dec. 12 Denver, CO Feb. 21–26, 2016
Los Angeles, CA Dec. 6–11, 2015 Dec. 12 Dallas, TX Mar. 6–11, 2016
Orlando, FL Dec. 6–11 Dec. 12 Miami, FL Mar. 13–18, 2016
Reno, NV Dec. 6–11 Dec. 12
Houston, TX Dec. 6–11 Dec. 12
Miami, FL Exam only Dec. 17 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Dec. 19 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Charlotte, NC Jan. 10–15, 2016 Jan. 16 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Beaumont, TX Jan. 10–15 Jan. 16 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
San Antonio, TX Jan. 10–15 Jan. 16
Denver, CO Jan. 17–22 Jan. 23
Miami, FL Jan. 17–22 Jan. 23
Lexington, KY Jan. 17–22 Jan. 23
Pittsburgh, PA Jan. 17–22 Jan. 23
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Long Beach, CA Jan. 24–29 Jan. 30
Portland, TX Exam only Jan. 30
Mobile, AL Jan. 31–Feb. 5 Feb. 6
Atlanta, GA Feb. 7–12 Feb. 13
Waco, TX Feb. 7–12 Feb. 13 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Seattle, WA Feb. 7–12 Feb. 13 CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Miami, FL Exam only Feb. 18
New Orleans, LA Feb. 21–26 Feb. 27 Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Milwaukee, WI Feb. 21–26 Feb. 27 New Orleans, LA Apr. 4–8, 2016 Apr. 9
Portland, TX Exam only Feb. 27 Cleveland, OH Sept. 19–23, 2016 Sept. 24
San Diego, CA Feb. 28–Mar. 4 Mar. 5
Kansas City, MO Feb. 28–Mar. 4 Mar. 5
Houston, TX Feb. 28–Mar. 4 Mar. 5
Norfolk, VA Feb. 28–Mar. 4 Mar. 5 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Scottsdale, AZ Mar. 6–11 Mar. 12 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Indianapolis, IN Mar. 6–11 Mar. 12 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Boston, MA Mar. 6–11 Mar. 12
Miami, FL Mar. 13–18 Mar. 19 Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Birmingham, AL Mar. 13–18 Mar. 19 Miami, FL Exam only Nov. 14, 2015
Chicago, IL Mar. 13–18 Mar. 19 Seattle, WA Feb. 22–26, 2016 Feb. 27
Springfield, MO Mar. 13–18 Mar. 19 Houston, TX Mar. 14–18, 2016 Mar. 19
Dallas, TX Mar. 13–18 Mar. 19
Portland, TX Exam only Mar. 26
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 7
Minneapolis, MN Apr. 3–8 Apr. 9 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Las Vegas, NV Apr. 3–8 Apr. 9 ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391–8421
Portland, OR Apr. 3–8 Apr. 9 OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
San Francisco, CA Apr. 10–15 Apr. 16 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Annapolis, MD Apr. 10–15 Apr. 16 Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Nashville, TN Apr. 10–15 Apr. 16 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 456-5454
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status
before making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after
that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website
www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit
www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 4439353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
Burn Protection
The AWS Safety and Health Committee produces the automation.
Safety and Health Fact Sheets. Following is Fact Sheet No. 7 • Do not attempt to repair or disconnect electrical equip-
dated October 2014. ment under load. Disconnecting under load produces
arcing of the contacts and may cause burns or shocks.
Nature of the Hazard
How to Protect Others from Burns
Sparks and spatter fly off from the welding arc. Hot met-
al and sparks blow out from the cutting flame. The work- • Use noncombustible screens or barriers to protect near-
piece and equipment get hot. The flying sparks and hot met- by persons or watchers.
al, slag, spatter, hot workpiece, and hot equipment can • Mark hot workpieces to alert others of the burn and fire
cause burns. Additionally, arc rays can cause radiation burns hazards.
(see Fact Sheet No. 2). • If the job requires several persons, have all wear proper
protective gear and follow all required procedures.
How to Prevent Burns
Information Sources
• Use approved helmets or hand shields that provide
protection for the face, neck, and ears, and wear a head American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Safety in Welding,
covering. Cutting, and Allied Processes (ANSI Z49.1), published by the
American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL
• Wear approved safety goggles or safety glasses with side 33166; telephone: 800-443-9353; website: www.aws.org.
shields, even under your helmet.
• Wear dry, hole-free insulating gloves.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Code of
• Wear flame-resistant ear plugs or ear muffs to keep Federal Regulations, Title 29 Labor, Parts 1910.1 to 1910.1450,
sparks out of ears when welding or cutting overhead or in available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, 732 N. Capitol
confined spaces. Street NW, Washington, DC 20401; telephone: 800-321-6742;
• Wear oil-free protective garments such as leather website: www.osha.gov.
gloves, heavy shirt, cuffless pants, high shoes, and a cap.
• Wear leather leggings and fire-resistant boots, as American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Practice for Occupa-
needed. tional and Educational Eye and Face Protection (ANSI Z87.1), avail-
• In cold climates, heavy clothing may prevent awareness able from ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., New York, NY 10036; telephone:
of clothing fires. 212-642-4900; website: www.ansi.org.
• Use dry, hole-free aprons, cape-sleeves, leggings,
shoulder covers, and bibs approved for welding and cutting ASTM International Standards, F2412, Test Methods for Foot Pro-
service. tection, and F2413, Specification for Performance Requirements for
Protective Footwear, available from ASTM International, 100 Bar
• Remove any combustibles, such as a butane lighter or Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2559;
matches, from your person before doing any welding or telephone: 610-832-9585; website: www.astm.org.
cutting.
• Touching hot equipment such as electrode holders, gun Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Code of Federal
tips, and nozzles can cause burns. Always wear dry, insulat- Regulations, Title 30 Mineral Resources, Parts 1 to 199, available
ing gloves. Allow a cooling period before touching these and from the U.S. Government Printing Office, 732 N. Capitol St. NW,
other parts of equipment that are near the actual welding or Washington, DC 20401; telephone: 202-693-9400; website:
cutting operation. www.msha.gov.
• Do not wear pants with cuffs, shirts with open pockets,
or any clothing that can trap molten metal or sparks. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard for Fire Pre-
• Keep clothing free of grease, oil, solvents, or any flam- vention during Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work (NFPA 51B),
available from National Fire Protection Association, 1 Battery-
mable substances. march Park, P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269–9101; telephone:
• If combustible substances spill on protective clothing, 800-344-3555; website: www.nfpa.org.
change to clean clothing before doing any welding or
cutting. American Welding Society (AWS). Safety and Health Fact Sheets,
• Use sheet metal screens for extra protection when un- published by the American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36th St.,
usually heavy welding or cutting is involved. #130, Miami, FL 33166; telephone: 800-443-9353; website:
• For highly hazardous processes or jobs, consider www.aws.org. WJ
AWS disclaims liability for any injury to persons or to property, or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, con
sequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this information. AWS also makes no
guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.
American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166, email: info@aws.org, www.aws.org.
Three AWS employees recently attended Hobart’s fourday Welding for the Non Welder course in Troy, Ohio. From left: Jennifer Rosario,
AWS program manager; Fred Henman, Hobart instructor; Russ Shurtz, Hobart instructor; Lorena Cora, AWS director of marketing; and
Melissa Gomez, AWS assistant editor.
AWS President Dave Landon recently attended DVS (German Welding Society) EXPO 2015 in Nuremberg, Germany, where joining, cutting,
and coating products and services were presented. From left: DVS General Manager Roland Boecking, DVS President Heinrich Flegel, AWS
President Dave Landon, and AWS Germany Section Chairman Peter Mayr. While in Germany, Landon was also able to attend a meeting
held by the AWS Germany International Section, where he gave a short address. (Photo courtesy of DVS.)
William Irrgang Memorial Award National Meritorious Award George E. Willis Award
This award includes a $2500 hono- The award includes a $2500 hono- The award is presented to an indi-
rarium to recognize the individual who rarium to recognize the recipient’s loy- vidual who has promoted the advance-
has done the most over the past five alty, good counsel, dedication to AWS ment of welding internationally by
years to advance the science and tech- affairs, and promotion of cordial rela- fostering cooperative participation in
nology of welding. tions with industry and other technical technology transfer, standards ration-
organizations. alization, and promotion of industrial
goodwill for the Society.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award Honorary Membership Award
The award recognizes, in the broad- This award cites an individual who
est terms, the honoree’s significant has eminence in the welding profes-
contributions and service to the inter- sion or has made outstanding develop-
national welding community. ments in the field of welding arts.
MOBILE — Instructors from Northwest Florida State College, Section members, and Boy Scouts after a day of welding toward their weld
ing merit badge.
NORTHEAST TENNESSEE — A group photo of Section members and visitors in the Careers NORTHEAST TENNESSEE — The AWS Ca
in Welding trailer: (from left) Bryson Elliot, Andrew Simcox, Daniel Stopnick, Maneel reers in Welding trailer visited the Ten
Bharadwaj, Jonaaron Jones, Gilbert Cruz, Will Hoskins, and Danny Galicki. nessee Valley Fair in Knoxville, Tenn.
September 10 CLEVELAND
Location: Original Oyster House, September 8
Spanish Fort, Ala. Location: Toscana Party Center, Cuya-
Speaker: Byron Dunn, president Gulf hoga Heights, Ohio
States Shipbuilders Consortium Speaker: Frank Armao, director, alu-
(GSSC) minum technology, Lincoln Electric
Topic: History and purpose of the Topic: Basics of Aluminum Welding
GSSC, and an update on its current Event: Frank Armao spoke about the
activities. aluminum alloy designation system,
Event: The Section celebrated its alloy families, and the effects of weld-
scholarship recognition night with a ing on mechanical properties. Mem-
buffet dinner, a split-the-pot drawing, bers discussed the differences between
door prizes, and a speech from Byron welding steel and aluminum. New
Dunn of the GSSC. Clay Byron, Section Chairman Mike Barrett presented a
chairman, hosted the event, which certificate of appreciation to Past
NEW ORLEANS — Mike Skiles, Dist. 9 di drew 49 participants. Chair Paul Revolinsky.
rector (left), receives a guest speaker
award from Travis Moore, treasurer. NEW ORLEANS NORTHWESTERN
September 15 PENNSYLVANIA
Location: South Central Louisiana August 7
Technical College, Reserve, La. Location: Whispering Pines Golf
Speaker: Mike Skiles, AWS Dist. 9 di- Course, Meadville, Pa.
rector Event: The Section hosted a joint golf
Topic: Where Have All the Welders outing with Drake Well’s Section. The
Gone? profits were split between the two Sec-
Event: The Section held its first gener- tions and later given as scholarships to
al meeting of the 2015–2016 schedule, students.
which was sponsored by Oxford Al-
loys, Inc. The meeting was hosted at September 9
South Central Louisiana Technical Col- Location: Erie Institute of Technology,
lege in Reserve, La., by Penelope Free- Erie, Pa.
man, campus dean. Chris Polanski, Speaker: Tim Phillips, regional sales rep-
sales engineer at Oxford Alloys, pro- resentative for ESAB
vided food and door prizes. A 50/50 Topic: CNC Plasma Cutting Technology
NEW ORLEANS — Travis Moore (left), raffle was held with proceeds going to Event: Section members held a meet-
Section treasurer, and Aldo Duron Section student scholarships and ac- ing at the Erie Institute of Technology,
(right), Section secretary, present Earl tivities. Guest speaker Mike Skiles, where they were toured through the
Dominique, SCLTC Welding Instructor, Dist. 9 director, gave an interactive facility and given a demonstration of
with his 50/50 award. presentation on the future of welding. the ESAB CNC portable plasma cutting
DETROIT — The winners of the AWSDetroit Section scholarships are seen with AWS President David Landon (third from right).
September 9
Location: Moraine Valley Community
College, Palos Hills, Ill.
Speakers: David Viar, Moraine Valley
C.C., Amanda Young, McNDT, and
Dan Morang, Embridge, Indiana.
Event: The Section brought three
CHICAGO — (From left to right) Aman
CHICAGO — Members and college and da Young, Dan Morang, and David Viar
high school students attend David pose for a photo after their presenta
Viar’s pipe welding demonstration. tions to Members and students.
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College Student Chapter — Pictured are Student Chapter advisor Jon Russell (far left) and Club President
Dan Wicker (center front) with Student Chapter members after their highway cleanup.
EAST TEXAS — Section members (seen EAST TEXAS — Airgas Southwest Fill NORTH TEXAS — Paul Stanglin (left),
from left) Bryan Baker, treasurer, Jerry Plant Operator Jerry Barbee speaks to Section chairman, is seen with Floyd
Barbee, speaker, and J. Jones, chairman, Section members during a tour of the Kiel, applications engineer from Bohler
together after the Airgas plant tour. company’s plant. Welding, after Kiel’s presentation.
ST. LOUIS — Michael Kamp (center left) presents Charlie Lamb (center right) with a plaque of appreciation for touring Section members
through the Trinity Products pipe mill.
OKLAHOMA CITY — Section members, students from CaddoKiowa Technology Center, and Mark Dunn and students from his shop class at
Luther, Oklahoma, are seen at the Section meeting.
q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr. Please print • Duplicate this page as needed Type of Business (Check ONE only)
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C q Nonferrous metals except aluminum
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NOTE: Dues include $16.80 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation. F q High energy beam processes
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è Please choose your Student Membership option below. I q Resistance welding
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Digital delivery of Welding Journal magazine is standard for all Student Members.
L q NDT
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Includes one-year Welding Journal hard copy subscription. Option available only to students in U.S., Canada & Mexico. N q Bending and shearing
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REV. 11/14
SECTION NEWS
NEW MEXICO— (Left) Section Chairman Pat Bauman (left) presents Jeremy Feidler (right) with the Section Educator Award in January.
(Middle) Matheson representatives Richard Moku and Laurel Flowers are given the Section Corporate Recognition Award. (Right) Herb
Smith is presented with the Section Meritorious Award.
COLORADO — Section Members pose with SVI Trucks Owner Ron Weinmeister, and Managers Mark Thielman and Jerry Bartsch.
ANNOUNCE YOUR
SECTION’S ACTIVITIES IN
ThE SECTION EVENTS
CalENdaR
If you would like to submit a calen-
dar, send along the following infor-
mation: Section name; activity name,
date, time, and location; and speaker
name, title, affiliation, and subject. If NEW MEXICO — AWS Past President
some of your meeting plans are Dean Wilson (left) presents an AWS Cor SAN FRANCISCO — Chairman Mike
pending, include the name and e- porate Recognition award to Brent Zinser (left) and Speaker Jennifer
Christener, the Section’s host at Eclipse Bernard at Spenger’s Restaurant in
mail or phone number of a contact Berkeley, Calif.
Aerospace in Albuquerque, N.Mex.
person for the event.
NEW MEXICO — (Left) Joe Sanchez is presented with the Section Educator Award. (Middle) Jesse Holden is presented with the Section Ed
ucator Award. (Right) Richard Bingham is presented with the Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial CWI of the Year Section Award.
Materials Research Society Fills facturing leadership experience, hav- second vice chairman and chairs the
New Executive Roles ing held several senior positions at Re- subcommittee B05.04 on pipe and
caro Group, part of Johnson Controls. tube.
The Materials Research Society He will be located at the company’s
(MRS), Warrendale, Pa., has appointed Tuttlingen, Germany, location.
Susan E. Trolier-McKinstry, The Penn- Cincinnati, Inc., Hires Sales
sylvania State University, as its vice Engineer for Texas
president beginning January 1, 2016. Sellstrom Mfg. Co. Announces
The election also brought five new Western Regional Manager Alex Gorosito
board members to the board of direc- has been appoint-
tors, to each serve three-year terms Sellstrom Mfg. ed regional sales
starting in January 2016. They are Co., Schaumburg, engineer for Texas
Matt Copel, IBM; Paul S. Drzaic, Ap- Ill., a manufactur- by Cincinnati,
ple, Inc.; Yury Gogotsi, Drexel Univer- er of personal pro- Inc., Harrison,
sity; Young-Chang Joo, Seoul National tective equipment Ohio, a laser cut-
University; and Magaly Spector, Uni- (PPE), has hired ting equipment
versity of Texas at Dallas. In addition, Daniel Bradlee as manufacturer.
David J. Parrillo, The Dow Chemical its new western Gorosito has been
Co., a current board member, was ap- regional manager. working in manu-
pointed MRS treasurer and chair of Bradlee brings an Alex Gorosito facturing indus-
the MRS finance committee, begin- extensive knowl- tries for more
ning January 2016 and lasting for one edge of PPE prod- than twelve years.
year. Daniel Bradlee ucts and welding, He earned his bachelor of science in
and a strong back- mechanical engineering from the Uni-
ground in fall-protection products and versity of Miami. In this new role,
Camfil Air Pollution Control systems. Gorosito will take care of direct ma-
Names Global EVP chine sales.
WELDI
JouN G
been announced as a finalist for the
Solar Atmos- British Engineering Excellence Awards
pheres Southeast, in the Design Team of the Year catego-
ry. The nod was in part due to the de-
rn
na
al
Greenville, S.C.,
has announced sign and development of its new weld and You’ll Get
that Mike Harper inspection tool, the AugaTM, which can
analyze the internal girth features of
has accepted the Yoour research sent to mor
m e
position of region- oil and gas pipeline welds in less than
two minutes. than 71,000 American
al sales manager
for the southeast- We elding Society mem mbers
ern United States.
Harper has more PFERD Appoints Customer Yo
our published paper
than 23 years of Service Manager posted on the AWS We eb
Mike Harper experience in met- site for FREE access
al processing in- PFERD, Inc., Milwaukee, Wis., has worldwide
dustries, business hired Janet A. Schweitzer as customer (wwww..aws s.org
g/w//a
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development, and sales. service manager. Schweitzer joins the
researc ch/indeex ml))
x..htm
company from Wm. K. Walthers Co.
She has more than nine years of expe- The most recent Impact
Tri Tool Appoints VP of Global rience in customer sales and service,
and nine years of training and devel- Factor of 1.378
Sales and Field Services
opment experience in business-to-
Tri Tool, Inc., Rancho Cordova, business and consumer environments. No page charges
Calif., has hired Troy Todd as vice
president of global sales and field
Yoour paper printed in
services. Todd previously worked for full color
Tri Tool’s safety program and headed OBITUARY
up human resources for corporate, Electronic submission a and
manufacturing, and contract service Douglas H. Juhl tracking through Editorial
personnel. He has also held executive
Douglas H. Juhl passed away Manager
positions at Cascade Drilling and
Waste Management. March 18, 2015, in Minneapolis, (wwww..ediitto
oriia
al
Minn., at the age of 64. Juhl studied manager..com//w wjj))
welding at the Dunwoody Industrial
The International Society of Institute from 1969 to 1970, and at- Everyy research paper
Automation Names Winning
tended the University of Minnesota – published in the We eldin
ng
Twin Cities from 1980 to 1983. In Journal since 1970
Authors 1990, Juhl patented a paint color-
change system with David Walker and available FREE on the
The International Society of Au- Thomas D. Schmidt, and in 2001 he AWWS We eb site
tomation’s (ISA) publications depart- patented a light seal for use with ro- (ww
ww..aws s.org
g/wjj//
ment, Research Triangle Park, N.C., botic equipment with Timothy Scher- supple ement//ssupplement--
has announced the winners of its an-
nual author awards. Authors and con-
er. In June 2012, Juhl was hired as a inde
ex ml))
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robotic sales engineer with PRI Robot-
tributors to ISA publications are hon- ics, Minneapolis, Minn. Juhl joined
ored for developing, reviewing, and AWS in 1980 and achieved Life Mem-
delivering its content. The Keith Otto ber status in 2015. He was an active
Award was presented to Leif Poulsen; member of the D16 committee on Ro-
The Nels Tyring Award was given to botics and Automation, and served as
Allan Kern; The Raymond D. Molloy vice chairman of the Northwest Sec-
Award was awarded to Terrence L. tion in 2014. WJ
“Terry” Blevins, Deji Chen, PhD, Mark By far, the most people, at
a the
Nixon, and Willy Wojsznis, PhD, and least cost, will be expose
ed to
the ISA Transactions Best Paper Award your research when yo ou
went to Junyong Zhai, PhD, and publish in the world-respected
Wenting Zha. Welding Journal
Industry Notes
• The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, recently do-
nated welding equipment to Warfighter Made, Murrieta,
From left, Everest Ejigiri (Southern University) and Bin Zhang Calif., a nonprofit organization that adapts cars, trucks,
(Louisiana State University) are shown in front of a high motorcycles, and off-road vehicles for ill, injured, and com-
temperature, highvacuum molding system used for replication bat-wounded service members and veterans. In addition,
of metalbased microscale structures. (Credit: Eddy Perez, LSU the company has passed an accreditation process to become
University Relations) an IACET Accredited Provider of continuing educational
programming. It now will be able to offer accredited contin-
lion through its Experimental Program to Stimulate Com- uing education units for educational workshops, seminars,
petitive Research. and welding school courses held at its global headquarters.
The Research Infrastructure Improvement Track-1 coop-
erative agreements will support science and engineering ac- • Vitronics Soltec, the Netherlands, has won the SMTA
ademic research infrastructure on the Island of Guam, and China Best Exhibit Technology Award for its ZEVAv se-
in Arkansas, Louisiana, and West Virginia. lective soldering platform, first introduced in Nov. 2013, at
Each award will support fundamental research, educa- the recent SMTA China South 2015/NEPCON South China
tion in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics 2015 show. The honor recognizes electronics excellence.
fields, plus workforce development in areas relevant to the
jurisdictions’ economic and other vital interests. • Recent graduates of the State University of New York
Arkansas and Louisiana are developing approaches for Delhi’s welding technology program all took the New York
producing technologically relevant materials that can ad- State Department of Transportation field welder exam
vance localized commercialization and manufacturing for the first time and achieved a 100% pass rate. They will
economies. Water resource sustainability is a central theme be included on the department’s list of eligible personnel
for West Virginia and Guam. and able to erect/perform repairs for New York state.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica- Robotic Welding Training. Offers a variety of courses to en-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian Nu- hance productivity and product quality, presented on site at
clear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau; your facility or at the address shown below. Wolf Robotics,
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org. LLC, 4600 Innovation Dr., Fort Collins, Colo.; (970) 225-
7600; www.wolfrobotics.com.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Indus- Safety Training Online. Unlimited training on myriad indus-
trial Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institu- trial safety course titles. Visit website for complete informa-
tions. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; tion and previews of several courses; www.safety99.com.
www.lia.org.
Service Manager Course. Designed for sheet metal workers
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI and HVAC service shop owners. Various locations and dates.
Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. Orlando, Fla., or customer’s site. International Training Institute. (703) 739-7200;
Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org. www.sheetmetal-iti.org.
Laser U — Online Education Portal. Offers practical infor- Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2in. Pipe in the 6G Position
mation to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to — Uphill. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of Welding Technolo-
drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements, gy; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
and many others. Visit website for complete information
and to sign up for modules. Laser Institute of America; Soldering Training — Live, Interactive Online Courses. Three
www.lia.org/laseru. courses offered: basic hand soldering, through-hole technol-
ogy, and surface-mount technology. Visit site for course out-
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly lines, schedules, prices, and to register. Soldering Training &
and on request, include tutorials and practical training. Pre- Certification (STC), www.solderingtraining.com/online-solder-
sented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For ing-training.php.
schedule, cost, and availability, send your request to
info@servorobot.com. SSPC Training and Certification Courses. Courses in protec-
tive coatings, abrasive blasting, paint inspector, bridge coat-
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.; ings inspector, surface preparation, NAVSEA inspector, and
(800) 922-7533; www.rockfordsystems.com. many others. The Society for Protective Coatings;
www.sspc.org.
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
Superabrasive Materials, Principles & Applications. Two-
NACE International Training and Certification Courses. Na- day course offered. $500 for one day of grinding and one day
tional Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223; of machining. $275 for just one day. Offered by the Industri-
www.nace.org. al Diamond Association of America (IDAA) at the YG-I
America Advanced Manufacturing Center in Charlotte, N.C.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ loca- (614) 797-2265; www.superabrasiveseducation.com.
tions. Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra-
diation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714) Thermadyne® Distributor Training. Year-round training at
255-1500; www.testndt.com. Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Bowling Green, Ky.; and
Chino, Calif. trainingteam@victortechnologies.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to
Die Casting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99), Prod- Tool and Die Welding Courses. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute
uct Design ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Training of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
($19), Managing Dust Hazards ($19), Safety (free). North
American Die Casting Assoc.; (847) 808-3161; www.diecast- Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Personalized train-
ing.org/education/online. ing services on resistance and laser beam welding and laser
marking; (626) 303-5676; www.unitekmiyachi.com.
Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification
to European plastics welding standards. Malcom Hot Air Vibration Training Short Courses. Presented at locations na-
Systems; www.plasticweldingtools.com. tionwide, customer’s site, and by correspondence. Vibration
Institute; www.vibinst.org.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses. At
various locations and online. The Society for Protective Welding Courses. A wide range of specialized courses pre-
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; www.sspc.org. sented throughout the year. The Lincoln Electric Co.; (216)
486-1751; www.lincolnelectric.com. WJ
Resistance Welding Basics Seminar. Nov. 5 (New Britain,
Conn.); Dec. 8, 9, 2015 (Chattanooga, Tenn.); T. J. Snow Co.,
Inc. www.tjsnow.com/service/offsite_seminar_index.htm.
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Phone: (979) 277-8343
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G. WOOD (gentry@ualberta.ca) and P. F. MENDEZ are with Canadian Centre for Welding and Joining, Chemical and Materials Engineering,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB.
validated (Ref. 6). Partes studied the ured and modelled effi-
effects of melt pool geometry and noz- ciency, most have used
zle alignment on catchment efficiency homogeneous single- Fig. 4 — Python script output showing carbide area for Bead 3.
taking into account particle time of component powder
flight and surface melting under the feeds, and for those
beam (Ref. 7). who have directly worked with Ni-WC, a coaxial production nozzle capable of
Researchers that have studied pa- none have discriminated between com- feed rates up to 150 g/min through a
rameter optimization for laser ponents. This work presents for the series of 50 equally spaced ports be-
cladding of homogeneous alloys in- first time a detailed analysis of individ- tween two concentric conical guides.
clude Olivera et al. who analyzed the ual component efficiencies for a mixed Argon shield gas flow rate was 1.27
effect of laser power, powder feed rate, powder feed, linking the mass capture m3/h. The substrate positioning sys-
and substrate travel speed on powder of two types of immiscible powders to tem is a CNC-controlled x-y lathe bed
efficiency and proposed experimental- measurable quantities of the process with a mounted four jaw check head-
ly determined correlations to fit 316L and the cross section of the deposited stock and tailstock spindle support.
stainless steel cladding trials (Ref. 8). clad. In this work, laser power, powder Surface rotation speeds were pro-
Gremaud et al. determined the opti- feed rate, and travel speed are varied to grammed into the CNC system for a
mal efficiency for thin-walled struc- study the effects on carbide and metal given diameter substrate. For the pre-
tures made of single-stacked laser powder catchment efficiency independ- cision equipment used, it was consid-
cladding beads. This work explored the ently. ered that the actual rotation speed
effect of travel speed and powder feed matched its set point.
rate on the efficiency for a variety of
alloys (Ref. 9). A select few researchers
Experimental Setup Powder Feed
have also studied the efficiency of
laser cladding of Ni-WC. Laser Cladding Equipment The powder feed used in this analy-
Powder efficiency in Ni-WC laser sis was a mixture of cast spherical-
cladding is relatively unexplored. Zhou For the experimental trials per- fused tungsten carbide and a Ni-Cr-B-
et al. studied the effect of laser spot di- formed here, the power source was a S blend of metal, which comprise the
mensions with laser induction hybrid 6-kW CO2 laser assembly with water- metal matrix in the deposited
cladding on the efficiency of Ni-WC cooled copper-mirror optics. The focal cladding. The carbide chemistry re-
coatings, but did not directly report val- distance of the final beam-focusing ported by the powder supplier was 3.8
ues for efficiency. Increases in bead mirror was 345 mm (13.959 in.), and wt-% C and the balance W, which cor-
width and height were qualitatively cor- cladding was performed 19 mm (0.75 responds to a stoichiometry of WC0.6.
related to increased capture efficiency in.) out of focus beyond the focal The two component powders were
(Ref. 10). Angelastro et al. optimized point, conforming to typical industri- mixed together in 60–40% weight
the process parameters of power, pow- al practices. The laser spot diameter fractions of carbide to metal powder,
der feed rate, and travel speed for a at this working distance was 6.13 respectively. Size range, reported man-
multilayer clad of Ni-WC with Co and mm. A disk powder feeder was used ufacturer hardness range, weight frac-
Cr additions reporting only an overall to meter powder to the cladding noz- tions, and densities are listed in Table
value for deposition efficiency (Ref. zle with a set Ar carrier gas flow rate 1. The density of the WC1-x carbides is
11). Of the researchers who have meas- of 6.5 L/min. The cladding nozzle was analyzed in Appendix A.
Fig. 5 — Effect of power on catchment efficiency. Fig. 6 — Effect of powder feed rate on catchment efficiency.
Fig. 7 — Effect of travel speed on catchment efficiency. Fig. 8 — Density of WC1Z as a function of C stoichiometry.
Figure 3 shows a typical cross section lated values of catchment efficiency and performance of the cladding.
of a Ni-WC cladding. was estimated from error propagation Figure 7 shows that increasing travel
Occasionally, small sintered parti- of Equations 4, 8, and 10 using stan- speed decreases the carbide, metal pow-
cles outside of the main bead were ob- dard techniques described in the NIST der, and overall efficiencies. The overall
served, such as the one shown on the handbook on statistical methods (Ref. efficiency shows a decreasing trend of
left side of the bead in Fig. 3. These 13). For this error propagation analy- 1%/mm/s with a total ~25% decrease in
sintered powders do not contribute to sis, Table 5 summarizes the range of efficiency for the conditions tested.
the buildup of the main bead and are variation of each variable involved (±a).
not considered as part of this analysis For all variables, a uniform probability Discussion
of efficiency for single beads. Voids in distribution in the range of variation
the cladding were also occasionally ob- was assumed as a conservative estimate Increasing laser power demonstrat-
served and were typically accounted (Ref. 13). The standard deviation is ed a rise in carbide, metal powder, and
for as matrix material in the calcula- therefore 1/√3a. The t-statistic for a total efficiency, which is most likely
tions. This is a reasonable approxima- two-tailed test with infinite degrees of due to increased molten pool size with
tion for beads with low porosity such freedom for the 95% confidence level is higher power density. There is also
as those in these experiments. Figure 1.960. likely an increase in particle preheat,
3 shows a void on the left side of the Figure 5 shows increasing laser pow- which contributes to increased effi-
bead likely caused by a carbide being er increases both the carbide and metal ciency as observed by Kumar and Roy
pulled out during the sample prepara- efficiency. The linear trend lines in the (Ref. 15). In practice, there is a limit to
tion process based on its size. Figure 4 graph aim to capture the overall behav- the effectiveness of the carbide effi-
shows the output of the Python™ ior of catchment; these lines are not ciency increase at high power levels, as
script highlighting the carbide area. models or an attempt to represent a the heat-sensitive carbides dissolve
The colors are randomly generated by particular physical phenomenon. The and reprecipitate brittle phases on
the program. trend lines indicate that the overall their surfaces, which degrades wear
Table 3 summarizes the area and catchment efficiency increases approxi- performance (Ref. 1).
carbide fraction measurements from mately 17%/kW for the conditions test- For the powder feed rate test block,
all experimental clads. Using the data ed. the decreased trend in metal powder
from Tables 2 and 3 and Equations 4, Figure 6 shows that metal powder ef- efficiency and increased trend in car-
8, and 10, the carbide, metal powder, ficiency decreases with powder feed rate bide efficiency with increased feed rate
and overall efficiency were determined (~0.45%/g/min), while carbide efficien- can be exploited to manipulate the car-
for all experiments. These efficiencies cy increases (~0.22%/g/min). The small- bide fraction in the deposited
are summarized in Table 4. er effect on carbide efficiency was on cladding. Despite the negligible change
The trends in efficiency for carbide, the order of the confidence interval and in overall efficiency on a percentage
metal powder, and overall were ana- further work is needed to confirm this basis, this behavior would be limited
lyzed by separating the calculated effi- trend. For the values measured, the in practice by the likelihood of dis-
ciencies from the cladding experi- overall catchment efficiency was nearly bonding the cladding from the
ments into the three test blocks for insensitive to powder feed rate. It is im- substrate.
power, powder feed rate, and substrate portant to highlight that while overall The observed decrease in carbide,
travel speed. Figures 5, 6, and 7 show efficiency was approximately constant, metal powder, and overall efficiency
the effects of power, powder feed rate, carbide fraction varied in a measurable with increased travel speed was consis-
and travel speed on catchment effi- way (carbide fraction increased with tent with the linearly decreasing ap-
ciency of the experimental cladding powder feed rate). This carbide fraction proximation by Colaço et al. (Ref. 16).
beads. The uncertainty for the calcu- is of high importance for the quality This trend is likely due to the de-
creased interaction time between the the same distinct components in the phy of WC1–x is the cubic “rock salt” B1-
laser beam and the substrate, which powder feed and deposited bead. The type (Ref. 19). For this type of carbide
decreases the molten pool size. This same equations would also be valid us- (MC1–x where M stands for metal), the
explanation is supported by the de- ing off-axis powder feeding, as typically variation in stoichiometry arises from
crease in width and height of beads done for ID applications, and so they structural vacancies in the nonmetallic
with increasing travel speed shown by are not exclusive to coaxial cladding. sites (Ref. 20), namely C for WC1–x.
several sources (Refs. 8, 16, and 17). The mass of the unit cell is then
For all experiments, the metal pow- Conclusions
der efficiency was higher than the car-
NW M W + N C M C (1 − X )
bide, which is consistent with favor- This work has evaluated for the mc =
able wetting of the primarily nickel first time the individual efficiencies Na (11)
powder to the molten nickel pool. This for a dual-component powder feed
explanation is supported by the find- made of tungsten carbide and metal where mc is the mass of the WC1–x unit
ings of Guest et al., who observed car- powders. Preliminary experimental cell, NW = 4 is the number of W atoms
bide ricocheting off the surface of a data for single beads of the Ni-WC in the unit cell, MW is the molar mass
molten nickel weld pool during gas powder mixture deposited using a 6- of W, NC = 4 is the number of C atoms
metal arc welding of Ni-WC (Ref. 18). kW CO2 laser indicated the following: in the unit cell, MC is the molar mass
Some important assumptions were 1) Increasing laser power increased of C, (1–X) is the stoichiometry of C in
made in this work that are addressed carbide, metal powder, and overall the WC1–x phase, and NA is Avegadro’s
here. It was assumed that the area efficiency. number.
fraction of a single cross section was 2) Power feed rate had a minimal The volume of the unit cell is given
representative of the bead volume. effect on overall efficiency, but by Vc = aB13 where Vc is the volume of
This assumption is typically made be- demonstrated a simultaneous decrease the WC1–x unit cell, and aB1 is the lat-
cause of the long preparation time re- in metal powder efficiency with an in- tice parameter of the same unit cell.
quired for each individual sample. crease in carbide efficiency. This be- Kurlov and Gusev have investigated
In measuring the carbide efficiency, havior is relevant to controlling the the unit cell lattice parameters report-
pores or voids were occasionally ob- carbide fraction in the deposited ed in literature and developed a best-
served in the cross section, which were cladding. fit quadratic to represent the change
included in the calculations as matrix 3) Increasing travel speed showed in lattice parameter as a function of
area. These voids were not regularly strong decreases in carbide, metal carbon content in the WC1–x structure
observed and can be reasonably as- powder, and overall efficiency. (Ref. 21).
sumed to have a negligible effect on 4) In all cases the metal powder ef-
the reported trends in this work. ficiency was observed to be higher aB1 = 0.4015 + 0.0481(1–X)
The PythonTM program occasionally than the carbide. – 0.0236 (1 – X)2 (12)
missed tracking carbides, and the car-
bide fractions measured are a lower The final form of the theoretical densi-
bound. Because very few carbides are Acknowledgments ty of WC1–x is then
omitted, the measurements are taken
as representative of the actual carbide NW M W + N c M c (1 − X )
ρc = 3
fraction. The authors wish to acknowledge the ⎡ 0.4015 + 0.0481(1 − X ) ⎤
Finally, the dilution of carbides in helpful comments and suggestions from NA ⎢ ⎥
the matrix was neglected; this is reason- Doug Hamre, head of research and de- ⎢⎣ −0.0236 (1 − X )2 ⎥⎦
(13)
able because reprecipitated carbides velopment at Apollo Clad Laser
were not observed in any sample. Cladding, a division of Apollo Machine WC1–x has a homogeneity region be-
The accuracy of the Python measure- and Welding, Ltd. Apollo was instru- tween (1–X) = 0.59 and (1–X) = 1.00
ments could possibly be improved by mental in sharing its knowledge, equip- (Ref. 22). Using Equation 13, the den-
discriminating porosity due to shrink- ment, and powder blends. The authors sity of WC1–X was determined for the
age from that of pulled-out carbides also acknowledge NSERC for providing entire homogeneity region shown in
during sample preparation. Shrinkage project funding for this research. Stu- Fig. 8. For the carbides involved in this
porosity has a rough and irregular dent scholarships from the American work, (1–X) = 0.604 corresponding to
shape, while gas porosity and pulled-out Welding Society and Canadian Welding a density of 16,896 kg/m3.
carbides have round shapes. Gas porosi- Association were gratefully received.
ty and pulled-out carbide can be further
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Statement of Ownership, Management and Circulation for U.S. Postal Service (Required by U.S.C. 3685)
D. S. LIU (hardfacing@163.com) is with School of Material Science and Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, China. P. WEI is
with School of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, China.
A B C
Fig. 7 — Microstructures of hardfacing alloys with different silicon additions: A — 0 wt%; B — 6 wt%; C — 12 wt%.
A B
A B C
Fig. 10 — SEM images of hardfacing alloys with different silicon additions: A — Siliconfree; B — 6 wt% silicon; C — 12 wt% silicon.
Fig. 11 — The EDS spectrum of a small strip of particles in Fig. 12 — The effect of silicon on the hardness and wear loss of hardfac
the microstructure of the alloy with 12 wt% silicon. ing alloys.
A B
2010. Microstruc- 11. Wang, Y., Li, S., Pan, C., et al. 2006.
tural and abrasive Development of the high-chromium cast
characteristics of iron flux cored wire for self-shielded. Pow-
high carbon Fe-Cr- der Metallurgy Industry 16(3): 14.
hardness and refinement of the mi- C hardfacing alloy. 12. Narayanan, B. K., Kovarik, L.,
crostructure. The wear loss of the alloy Tribology International 43(5): 929–934. Sarosi, P. M., et al. 2010. Effect of microal-
3. Yüksel, N., and Şahin, S. 2014. Wear loying on precipitate evolution in ferritic
with 12 wt-% silicon was the smallest
behavior-hardness-microstructure relation welds and implications for toughness. Acta
among all the alloys. of Fe-Cr-C and Fe-Cr-C-B based hardfacing Materialia 58(3): 781–791.
4) The iron-based, slag-free, self- alloys. Materials & Design 58: 491–498. 13. Patrick, C. W., and Newell, W. F.
shielded flux-cored wire offered the best 4. Zhi, X. H., and Wang, J. X. 2014. Ef- 2014. Understanding welding cost: Using
combination of the properties when 12 fect of niobium on primary carbides of hy- flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) for cost re-
wt-% silicon was added into the core. pereutectic high chromium cast iron. Iron- duction and productivity improvement.
making and Steelmaking 41(5): 394–399. ASME 2014 Pressure Vessels and Piping Con-
5. Hajihashemi, M., Shamanian, M., ference. New York, N.Y.: American Society
Acknowledgments and Azimi, G. 2014. Physical, mechanical, of Mechanical Engineers.
and dry sliding wear properties of Fe-Cr- 14. Liu, D. S., Liu, R. P., and Wei, Y. H.
WC hardfacing alloys under different tung- 2012. Effects of titanium additive on mi-
sten addition. Metallurgical and Materials crostructure and wear performance of
This work was supported by Fund- Transactions B, pp. 1–9. iron-based slag-free self-shielded flux-
ing of National Natural Science Foun- 6. Zhou, Y. F., Yang, Y. L., Jiang, Y. W., cored wire. Surface and Coatings Technology
dation of China (Grant No. et al. 2012. Fe-24 wt.%Cr-4.1 wt.%C hard- 207: 579–586.
51405208), Open Research Fund of facing alloy: Microstructure and carbide re- 15. Liu, D. S., Liu, R. P., Wei, Y. H., et al.
Provincial Key Laboratory of Ad- finement mechanisms with ceria additive. 2013. Microstructure and wear properties
vanced Welding Technology of Jiangsu Materials Characterization 72: 77–86. of Fe-15Cr-2.5Ti-2C-xB wt.% hardfacing
University of Science and Technology 7. Buchely, M. F., Gutierrez, J. C., Leon, alloys. Applied Surface Science 271:
(Grant No. JSAWT-14-03), Founda- L. M., et al. 2005. The effect of microstruc- 253–259.
tion for Scientists of Jiangsu Universi- ture on abrasive wear of hardfacing alloys. 16. Liu, D. S., Liu, R. P., and Wei, Y. H.
Wear 259(1): 52–61. 2014. Influence of tungsten on microstruc-
ty of Science and Technology (Grant
8. Kirchgaßner, M., Badisch, E., and ture and wear resistance of iron base hard-
No. 635061312), and a Project Funded Franek, F. 2008. Behaviour of iron-based facing alloy. Materials Science and Technolo-
by the Priority Academic Program De- hardfacing alloys under abrasion and im- gy 30(3): 316–322.
velopment of Jiangsu Higher Educa- pact. Wear 265(5): 772–779. 17. Atamert, S., and Bhadeshia, H. K. D.
tion Institutions. 9. Jiang, M., Li, Z. X., Wang, Y. J., et al. H. 1988. Proceedings of International Con-
2008. Effect of vanadium on microstruc- ference on Heat Treatment ‘87. London, UK:
tures and properties of Fe-Cr-C self-shield- Institute of Metals. pp. 39–43.
References ed metal cored hardfacing alloys. Science 18. Il’ inskii, A., Slyusarenko, S.,
and Technology of Welding & Joining 13(2): Slukhovskii, O., et al. 2002. Structural
114–117. properties of liquid Fe-Si alloys. Journal of
1. Zhou, Y. F., Yang, Y. L., Li, D., et al. 10. Francis, J. A., Bednarz, B., and Bee, Non-Crystalline Solids 306: 90–98.
2012. Effect of titanium content on mi- J. V. 2002. Prediction of steady state dilu- 19. Azimi, G., and Shamanian, M. 2010.
crostructure and wear resistance of Fe-Cr- tion in multipass hardfacing overlays de- Effect of silicon content on the microstruc-
C hardfacing layers. Welding Journal 91(8): posited by self shielded flux cored arc ture and properties of Fe-Cr-C hardfacing
229-s to 235-s. welding. Science and Technology of Welding alloys. Journal of Materials Science 45:
2. Chang, C. M., Chen, Y. C., and Wu, W. & Joining 7(2): 95–101. 842–849.
J. YANG, X. HOU, X. XING, C. WANG, Y. YANG, and Q. YANG (yangjian0001@126.com) are with the State Key Laboratory of Metastable Materials Science and
Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China. X. REN is with the School of Engineering, Liverpool John
Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
Elements C Cr Ni Mo V Mn Si La S Fe
Content (wt%) 0.20 5.60 3.20 2.01 0.35 1.55 0.83 0.30 0.03 balance
A B C
Fig. 3 — Morphologies of the binding profiles with different welding currents. A — 200–220 A; B — 280–300 A; C — 360–380 A.
C
B Table 4 — The Amounts of Retained Austenite in the Hardfacing Layers with Different Welding
Currents
A
Welding Currents (A) 200–220 280–300 360–380
microhardness along the depth in the hardfacing layers and the base metals
profile section of the layer was meas- with different welding currents are
ured by an FM-700 Vickers hardness given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 — Shear strengths between the tester with a load of 0.2 kg for 10 s. When the welding current is 200–
hardfacing layers and the base metals The value presented is the average of 220 A, the hardfacing layer and base
with different welding currents. A — 200– five measurements after the highest metal are not mutually merged, and
220 A; B — 280–300 A; C — 360–380 A. and lowest values were discarded. the weld interface exists between
them — Fig. 3A. As seen in Fig. 4, the
Numerical Simulation and shear strength between the hardfacing
Shear Strength, Hardness, and Thermodynamic Calculation layer and the base metal is 374 MPa.
Wear Resistance Testing When the welding current increases
In order to research the effect of to 280–300 A, shown in Fig. 3B, the
Shear strength between the hard- welding current on the temperature of weld interface still exists, but is signif-
facing layer and the base metal was de- the hardfacing molten pool, ANSYS icantly widened. Moreover, there are
termined by an Inspeckt-100 Table software was applied to simulate the some merge areas appearing between
electronic universal testing machine. welding temperature field. On the pro- the hardfacing layer and the base met-
The specimen dimensions are given in cessing, the temperature field module al. Meanwhile, the shear strength in-
Fig. 1. During processing, the tensile was selected. creases to 458 MPa.
rate was set as 1 mm/min. Subsequently, CCT curves of the When the welding current is 360–
The macrohardness of the hardfac- hardfacing layer during the cooling 380 A, the hardfacing layer and base
ing layer was measured using an HR- process were calculated by thermody- metal merge significantly and the weld
105A Rockwell hardness tester with a namic database JMatPro software interface almost disappears, as shown
load of 150 kg. Subsequently, a wear (Ref. 14) developed by Sente Software, in Fig. 3C. Moreover, the shear
resistance experiment was carried out Ltd., UK. During the input data pro- strength between the hardfacing layer
on the abrasive belt-type wear tester, cessing, the general steel database was and the base metal is the highest at
in which SiC of 80 mesh was selected selected as material type, and the 546 MPa. These results show binding
as the abrasive material, the wear ve- chemical composition was inputted ac- strength between the hardfacing layer
locity of the abrasive belt was 1.8 × 104 cording to Table 3. and the base metal enhances gradually
mm/min, and the applied load was with the increase in welding current.
100 N. Figure 2 shows the photograph
and schematic diagram of the abrasive Results Microstructure
belt-type wear tester (Ref. 13). Elec-
tronic balance with accuracy of 0.1 mg Welding Associativity Figure 5 displays the optical micro-
was used to weigh the mass loss of the scope (OM) morphologies of the hard-
layer per 30 min. After the wear test, Morphologies of the binding pro- facing layers with different welding
the worn surface morphology was ob- files between hardfacing layers and currents. In Fig. 5A, when the welding
served by a KYKY-2800 scanning elec- base metals with different welding current is 200–220 A, the microstruc-
tron microscope (SEM). currents are shown in Fig. 3. More- tures are composed of short black acic-
For the welding joint surface, the over, the shear strengths between the ular martensite and retained austen-
A B C
Fig. 5 — Optical microscope morphologies of the hardfacing layers with different welding currents. A — 200–220 A; B — 280–300 A; C —
360–380 A.
A B C
Fig. 6 — Scanning electron microscope morphologies of the hardfacing layers with different welding currents. A — 200–220 A; B — 280–
300 A; C — 360–380 A.
ite. With an increase in welding cur- pletely. The amount of retained creases from 82.2 to 92.9 vol-%, which
rent, shown in Fig. 5B and C, the austenite can be measured according is consistent with the results in Fig. 5.
amount of martensite increases to the XRD patterns (Ref. 15):
constantly. Hardness
Figure 6 shows the scanning elec- 1.4I
V = (1)
tron microscope (SEM) morphologies I a + 1.4I Figure 9 shows the hardness of the
of the hardfacing layers with different hardfacing layers with different weld-
welding currents. Similar conclusions where V is the volume fraction of re- ing currents. When the welding cur-
were obtained from these results; with tained austenite; I is the average inte- rent is 200–220 A, average hardness of
an increase in welding current, the grated intensity of austenite diffrac- the hardfacing layer is HRC 42. With
amount of martensite increases con- tion peak of (200) and (311) planes; the increasing welding current, hard-
stantly. Moreover, there is no change and I is the integrated intensity of ness of the hardfacing layer increases
in the martensite morphology. martensite diffraction peak of (211) gradually, and it reaches HRC 45 when
Figure 7 illustrates the transmis- plane. the welding current is 360–380 A.
sion electron microscope (TEM) mor- Table 4 lists the amounts of retained The average lateral microhardness
phologies of the hardfacing layers with austenite in the hardfacing layers with from the base metal to the hardfacing
different welding currents, in which, different welding currents. From it, layer is shown in Fig. 10. The value 0 on
with an increase in welding current, when the welding current increases to the x-axis represents the weld interface
the number of dislocations increases 360–380 A from 220 to 220 A, the between the base metal and the hard-
because of the increasing amount of amounts of retained austenite decrease facing layer. From Fig. 10, the authors
martensite. from 17.8 to 7.1 vol-%. Because of the observed the microhardness of the base
The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pat- very low carbon content, the amount of metal is low. Due to the heat input of
terns of the hardfacing layers with dif- carbide can be ignored, which means the hardfacing, the microhardness of
ferent welding currents are shown in the amount of martensite VM can be ap- the HAZ increases slightly. Meanwhile,
Fig. 8. From these results, the authors proximated as Equation. 2: the fusion zone is relatively narrow dur-
noted the intensities of martensite (- ing the hardfacing process. With an in-
Fe) peaks increase, while austenite (- VM = 1–V (2) crease in welding current, the micro-
Fe) peaks decrease with the increase in hardness of the hardfacing layer in-
welding current. When the welding Therefore, with the increase in creases. When the welding current is
current reaches 360–380 A, the welding current, the amount of 200–220 A, the lateral microhardness is
austenite (-Fe) peaks disappear com- martensite in the hardfacing metal in- 422 HV; when the welding current is
A B C
Fig. 7 — Transmission electron microscope morphologies of the hardfacing layers with different welding currents. A — 200–220 A; B —
280–300 A; C — 360–380 A.
Discussion
Fig. 10 — Microhardness along the depthin Fig. 11 — Weight loss of the hardfacing
profile section of the arc hardfacing layer. layers with different welding currents.
The results mentioned previously
indicated the hardness and wear re-
280–300 A, the lateral microhardness current is the largest. When the welding sistance of the hardfacing layer both
increases to 448 HV; when the welding current increases to 280–300 A, the increase with the increase in welding
current is 360–380 A, the lateral micro- wear resistance of the hardfacing layer current. To further investigate the
hardness is the highest at 480 HV. improves significantly and the wear mechanism, the effects of the welding
weight loss reduces. When the welding current on the hardfacing molten pool
Wear Resistance current is 360–380 A, wear resistance of temperature and the hardenability of
the hardfacing layer is the highest. the hardfacing layer were studied.
The weight loss curves of the hard- Figure 12 illustrates the wear mor- However, because of the limit of
facing surface layers with different phologies of the hardfacing layers with the experimental conditions, it was
welding currents are shown in Fig. 11. different welding currents tested for impossible to directly measure the
As shown, the weight loss of the hard- 240 min. When the welding current is hardfacing molten pool temperature
facing layer with 200–220 A welding 200–220 A, surface scratches are both and the hardenability of the hardfac-
A B C
Fig. 12 — Wear morphologies of the hardfacing layers with different welding currents tested for 240 min. A — 200–220 A; B — 280–300 A;
C — 360–380 A.
Fig. 13 — Xray diffraction patterns of the hardfacing lay Fig. 14 — Element division of the calculated specimen.
ers with different welding currents after wear test.
ing layer. Therefore, ANSYS and JMat- where R is the effective heating radius
of the arc; h is the welding thermal effi- T T
Pro calculation softwares were selected c = +
to calculate, respectively, the hardfac- ciency; U and I are welding voltage and t x x
ing molten pool temperature and sim- welding current, respectively; and r is T T
ulate the CCT curves of the hardfacing the distance between P to arc center. y + z z + Q (4)
layers during the cooling process.
Model Building and Thermal
ANSYS Results Properties where and c are specific heat capaci-
ty and density of the material, T is the
Heat Source Selection The tested specimen used for calcu- temperature, t is the time, Q is the
lation was made of the hardfacing lay- heat source, and is the thermal con-
The effect of welding current on the er metal with the dimensions 60 × 20 ductivity. Moreover, X, Y, and Z are the
hardfacing molten pool temperature mm. During the simulation process, coordinate axes.
was simulated by ANSYS software. This the temperature fields can be treated The boundary conditions applied
work only concerned itself with the rela- as the axial symmetry. Therefore, in during the ANSYS modeling can be di-
tionship between the welding current order to reduce the calculation vided into upper surface boundary
and the hardfacing molten pool temper- amount, the calculated specimen was condition, lateral and lower surface
ature. The other factors, such as welding halved, as shown in Fig. 14. The speci- ones, and the Y axis symmetry plane.
speed and welding direction, were ig- men was divided into 200 elements For the upper surface, because the
nored. Because of the small computa- and 231 nodes, and the hardfacing re- Gaussian heat source model was used,
tional amount and the high computa- gion is shown by the dotted lines — the model cross section in the Z direc-
tional accuracy, the Gaussian heat Fig. 14. Thermal properties of the tion is round, and heat-flux density on
source model was used, in which heat hardfacing layer are listed in Table 5. the cross section obeys Gauss distribu-
flux of point P is shown as Equation 3 Boundary Conditions tion. Moreover, heat-flow density val-
(Ref. 16): ues are the same in all parts of the Z
The heat transfer control equation of axis. The specific boundary condition
3UI 3r 2
qr = exp (3) the welding process is given as follows: is given as follows:
R
2 2
R
A B C
Fig. 15 — Molten pool temperatures of the hardfacing layers with different welding currents. A — 200–220 A; B — 280–300 A; C — 360–380 A.
( x,T ) =
1
For the lateral and lower surfaces,
the boundary condition is D Tq 0
dx
(10)
( ) (1 x )
T 2x/3
= q + T T0 (7) x 2(1 x )/3
= c
+ r
(8) where a = 2(G-1)/2, is an empirical co-
efficient, G is the ASTM grain size, D
is an effective diffusion coefficient, T
where a is the total heat transfer coef- is the undercooling, and q is an
Fig. 16 — CCT curves of the hardfacing lay
ers with different welding currents. ficient, ac is the thermal convection exponent.
coefficient, and ar is the thermal radi- Figure 16 shows the CCT curves of
ation coefficient. the hardfacing layers during the cool-
For the Y axis symmetry plane sur- ing process. With the increase of the
3CsQ face, the boundary conditions are molten pool temperature, the pearlite
( )
q x, y, z =
1
shown as follows: phase region moves to the right, and
H 1 3 the martensitic transition start tem-
e perature Ms decreases constantly —
T u w
= 0, = 0, = 0, v = 0 (9) Fig. 16. When the molten pool temper-
y y y
3C ature increases from 2424.77 to
exp
H
s
( )
x2 + y2
(5) 3278.27 K, the martensitic transition
start temperature Ms decreases from
log z Simulation Results 243.7˚ to 174.1˚C.
The reason is, when the molten
Figure 15 shows the molten pool pool temperature (austenitizing tem-
where Cs is the heat source focus coef- temperatures of the hardfacing layers perature) is high, the cementite disso-
ficient, Cs = 3/R02, R0 is the heat source with different welding currents. When lution and austenitic homogenization
opening radius, H is the heat source the welding current is 200–220 A, are promoted, and the austenite grain
height, and Q is the heat source power. molten pool temperature is 2424.77 K is coarsened. Therefore, the formation
During processing, heat is lost in — Fig. 15A. With an increase in weld- of the pearlite is delayed, which causes
the forms of thermal convection and ing current, the molten pool tempera- the pearlite phase region to move to
thermal radiation. The boundary con- ture increases. When the welding cur- the right. At the same time, the grain
dition is shown in Eq. 6: rent is 360–380 A, the molten pool becomes coarse and dissolved carbide
temperature is the highest at 3278.27 increases, so the carbon content of
K — Fig. 15C. austenite increases, which decreases
T the Ms temperature (Ref. 18).
K
Z
(
= hc T Ta ) JmatPro Results The rightward motion of the
{
T 4 Ta4 } (6)
The CCT curves calculation by the
pearlite phase region and the decreas-
ing martensitic transition start tem-
JmatPro software follows the general perature in the CCT curve both illus-
where hc is the convection coefficient, equation established by Kirkaldy (Ref. trate the increase in hardenability of
s is the Stefan-Boltzman constant, e is 17): the hardfacing layer, which then caus-
es the amount of martensite to in- ing the wearing, and then affects the formance 95(1): 246–261.
crease. The CCT curves show that with wear resistance of the hardfacing layer. 9. Kannan, T., and Yoganandh, J. 2010.
the increase in welding current, the Effect of process parameters on clad bead
molten pool temperature of the hard- geometry and its shape relationships of
facing layer increases, which leads to References stainless steel claddings deposited by
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4165–4173.
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