Praise for Biomimicry

"The colors o f Benyus, a splendid Stevensville, Montana, science writer

w i t h a grasp o f several sciences, contain far more shades o f green than
of chrome. . . .Valuable and stimulating."
—New York Times Book Review

" B e a u t i f u l l y w r i t t e n and t o l d w i t h t h e passion o f a t r u e believer.

. . . Benyus delights us w i t h t h e cleverness and inventiveness o f
nature i n dealing w i t h our greatest technological challenges."
—San Jose Mercuiy News

"Benyus writes like an angel from the moment o f her opening sentence."
—Vancouver Sun

"An enhghtened ahernative to Darwinism. . . .The scientific e f f o r t t o

discover h o w we can live lightly and sustainably by learning f r o m
nature may well be the most important task n o w going on. I f we can-
not answer this question, the other answers may not matter m u c h i n
the long run." —Christian Science Monitor

"The author ably brings together many disparate tracks o f b i o -

m i m e t i c w o r k i n a wide-ranging overview o f this emerging and still
speculative field." -Scientific American

"This book w i l l help bridge the dangerous chasm between technophiles

and environmentalists." Booklist

"In the months and years t o come y o u are going to be'hearing a l o t

about biomimicry—the design o f h u m a n techhological systems on a
nonhuman biological basis—and this w i l l have been the book that ;
started all the talk." —SUE HUBBELL, author of A Country Year

"Biomimicry is a book hke no other: I t is a primer that w i l l teach you

h o w t o t h i n k like a blade o f grass, a duck p o n d a wheat field, a red-
w o o d forest, and thus t o live w i t h i n the natural order. I t is not about
ecological thinking; its instructions and revelations come straight
f r o m nature. This book may save your life."
—GRETEL EHRLICH, author o f This Cold Heaven

" D o n ' t be fooled by the gentie humor, earthy stories, and graceful
writing—this is a revolutionary book] Biomimicry fires the imagina-
t i o n w i t h the exciting possibility o f taking the best designs f r o m
nature's storehouses o f invention
B i b l i o t h e e k TU D s ï f t
lenge o f building a sustainable and
— D u A N E EL^

5014614
 JANINE
M . BENYUS

B I O M Ï M Ï C R Y
About the Author

JANINE B E N Y U S is a biological sciences w r i t e r and t h e

author o f six books, i n c l u d i n g her latest—Biomimicry:
Innovation Inspired by Nature; an animal behavior guide
e n t i t l e d Beastly Behaviors; and three f i e l d guides: The Field
Guide to Wildlife Habitats of the Westem United States, The
Field Guide to Wildlife Habitats of the Eastern United States,
and Northwoods Wildlife: A Watcher's Guide to Habitats.
A graduate o f Rutgers University, N e w Jersey, w i t h
I N NOVATION
degrees i n natural resource management and Enghsh litera-
t u r e / w r i t i n g , Benyus acts as a "biologist at t h e design table" INSPIRED
f o r various sustainable companies and governments, and
BY NATURE
lectures w i d e l y o n b i o m i m i c r y . She lives i n t h e n o r t h e r n
Rocky M o u n t a i n s o f M o n t a n a .

HARPER P E R E N N I A L
 FOR THE MENTORS

N| T H E T A N G L E D B A f

HARPER t - ' i P E R E N N I A L

A hardcover edition of this book was published in 1997 by William Morrow.

BIOMIMICRY. Copyright © 1997 by Janine M . Benyus. A l l rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or
reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except m
the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews For mtor-
mation address HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, N e w York,
NY 10022.

HarperCollins books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales pro-

motional use. For information please write: Special Markets Department,
HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, N e w York, N Y 10022.

First Quill edition published 1998.

Reissued in Perennial 2002.

Designed by Oksana Kushnir

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Benyus, Janine M . , , . c
Biomimicry : innovation inspired by nature / Jamne M . Benyus.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ] and index.
I S B N 0-688-16099-9 (pbk.] . t
1. Technological innovations. 2. Human ecology. 3. Nature. 1. title.
T173.8.B45 1997

600-dc21 96-52336

I S B N 0-06-053322-6 (reissue) I S B N 978-0-06-053322-9

09 10 R R D 30 29 28 27 26 25
 A L S O B Y J A N I N E M. B E N Y U S
Beastly Behaviors: A Watcher's Guide to How Animals
Northwoods Wildlife: A Watcher's Guide to
Northwoods Wildlife—Knapsack Edition
The Field Guide to Wildlife Habitats of the Eastern United
The Field Guide to Wildhfe Habitats of the Westem
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
Act and Why I w i s h t o express m y appreciation t o all the b i o m i m i c s I i n t e r v i e w e d
and especially t o those l a n d enough t o review a p o r t i o n o f the m a n -
Habitats
uscript. T h e reviewers were: D r . Wes Jackson, D r . Jon Piper, and
D r . M a r t y Bender o f T h e L a n d Institute; D r . J. Devens Gust, Jr., D r .
Thomas M o o r e , D r . A n a M o o r e , and D r . N e a l W o o d b u r y o f A r i z o n a
States State University; D r . C l e m e n t Furlong, University o f Washington;
D r , Paul Calvert, U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a ; D r . J. H e r b e r t W a i t e , U n i -
United States
versity o f Delaware; D r . Christopher V i n e y , O x f o r d University; D r .
D a v i d Kaplan, U.S. A r m y Research; D r . K e n n e t h Glander, D u k e
U n i v e r s i t y Primate Center; D r . Richard W r a n g h a m , H a r v a r d U n i -
versity; D r . Karen Strier, U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin; D r . M i c h a e l C o n -
rad, W a y n e State University; D r . Braden AUenby and D r . Thomas
Graedel o f A T & T ; and Thomas A r m s t r o n g o f M a t f i e l d Green, K a n -
sas. I o w e a special debt o f gratitude t o D r . Christopher V i n e y , w h o
c r i t i q u e d the entire manuscript w i t h a rare c o m b i n a t i o n o f enthusi-
asm and a fine-tooth comb.
I was f o r t u n a t e t o have a literary agent, Jeanne Hanson, and an
editor, T o n i Sciarra, w h o really understood this field-without-a-name
and were b i o m i m i c r y champions f r o m the start. For transcribing m y
notes w i t h a curious m i n d , I t h a n k N i n a Maclean. M y flock o f friends
and f a m i l y were tremendous, as always. , •
M a n y people shaped m y understanding o f this book, b o t h w h i l e I
was w r i t i n g i t and a f t e r w a r d . I n particular, I thank Wes Jackson and
W e n d e l l Berry f o r recognizing themselves as b i o m i m i c s years ago and
t h i n l d n g so clearly and carefully about w h a t i t all means. E m i l y H u n -
ter, also o f T h e L a n d Institute, was w a i t i n g i n an eddy f o r m e w h e n
I finished. W i t h her help, I was able t o reflect and recharge f o r the
n e x t phase.
Finally, I w a n t t o t h a n k Laura M e r r i l l , w h o , w i t h patient ear and
open heart, helped m i d w i f e the b i r t h o f b i o m i m i c r y . H e r otterlike
j o y and rock-steady support has meant the w o r l d .
 C O N T E N T S

C H A PT E R 1 ECHOING NATURE
WHY BIOMIMICRY NOW? 1

CHAPTER 2 HOW WILL WE FEED OURSELVES?

F A R M I N G T O FIT T H E L A N D : G R O W I N G FOOD
LIKEAPRAIRIE 11

CHAPTERS H O W WILL WE HARNESS ENERGY?

L I G H T I N T O LIFE: G A T H E R I N G E N E R G Y LIKE
A LEAF 59

CHAPTER 4 H O W WILL WE MAKE THINGS?

FITTING F O R M T O F U N C T I O N : W E A V I N G FIBERS
LIKE A SPIDER 95

CHAPTERS HOW WILL WE HEAL OURSELVES?

E X P E R T S IN O U R M I D S T : F I N D I N G C U R E S L I K E
ACHIMP 146

C H A PT E R 6 HOW WILL WE STORE WHAT WE LEARN?

D A N C E S W I T H M O L E C U L E S : C O M P U T I N G LIKE
ACELL 185

CHAPTER? H O W W I L L W E C O N D U C T BUSINESS? ' '

CLOSING THE LOOPS IN COMMERCE: RUNNING A
B U S I N E S S LIKE A R E D W O O D F O R E S T 238

CHAPTERS WHERE WILL WE G O FROM HERE?

MAY W O N D E R S NEVER CEASE: T O W A R D A
BIOMIMETIC FUTURE 285

BIO-INSPIRED READINGS 299

INDEX 301
 C7

B I - O - M I M - I C - R Y

[From the Greek bios, life, and mimesis, imitation]

1. Nature as model. B i o m i m i c r y is a n e w science t h a t studies nature's

models and t h e n imitates o r takes inspiration f r o m these designs and
processes t o solve h u m a n problems, e.g., a solar cell inspired b y a

2. Nature as measure. B i o m i m i c r y uses an ecological standard t o

judge t h e rightness" o f our innovations. A f t e r 3.8 b i l l i o n years o f
e j ^ W n , nature has learned: W h a t works. W h a t is appropriate.

3. Nature as mentor B i o m i m i c r y is a n e w way o f viewing and valuing

n a t u r e ft introduces an era based n o t o n w h a t w e cJextract from
the natural w o r l d , b u t o n w h a t w e can leam f r o m i t .
 CHAPTER 1

ECHOING NATURE
WHY
BIOMIMICRY
NOW?

We must draw our standards from the natural world. We must

honor with the humiUty of the wise the hounds of that natural world
and the mystery which lies beyond them, admitting that there is some-
thing in the order of being which evidently exceeds all our competence.
— V A C L A V H A V E L , president of the Czech Republic

I t s n o t o r d i n a r y f o r a bare-chested m a n wearing jaguar t e e t h and

owl feathers t o grace the pages o f The New Yorker, b u t these are n o t
ordmary times W h i l e I was w r i t i n g this book, M o i , an H u a o r a n i
Indian leader whose name means " d r e a m , " traveled t o W a s h i n g t o n -
D . C . t o d e f e n d his A m a z o n i a n h o m e l a n d against o i l driUing H e
roared like a jaguar i n the hearings, teaching a r o o m f u l of j a d e d staff-
ers w h e r e real p o w e r comes f r o m and w h a t h o m e l a n d actually
means.
M e a n w h i l e , i n A m e r i c a ' s heartland, t w o books about aboriginal
peoples w e r e b e c o m i n g w o r d - o f - m o u t h best-sellers, m u c h t o t h e i r
publishers' surprise. B o t h were about u r b a n Westerners whose lives
are changed forever b y the wise teachings o f preindustrial societies.
W h a t ' s going o n here? M y guess is t h a t Homo industrialis, having
reached t h e l i m i t s o f nature's tolerance, is seeing his shadow o n the
wall, along w i t h the shadows o f rhinos, condors, manatees, lady's
slippers, and other species he is t a k i n g d o w n w i t h h i m . Shaken b y
the sight, he, w e , are h u n g r y f o r instructions about h o w t o live sanely
and sustainably o n t h e Earth.
 Echoing Nature / 3
2 / Biomimicry

find n e w drugs or crops, w e w o u l d consult animals and insects t h a t

T h e g o o d news is t h a t w i s d o m is widespread, n o t only i n i n d i g -
have used plants f o r millions o f years t o keep themselves healthy and
enous peoples b u t also i n t h e species t h a t have l i v e d o n E a r t h tar
nourished. Even c o m p u t i n g w o u l d take its cue f r o m nature, w i t h
longer t h a n humans. I f t h e age o f the E a r t h were a calendar year and
software t h a t "evolves" solutions, and hardware t h a t uses t h e lock-
today were a b r e a t h b e f o r e m i d n i g h t o n N e w Year's Eve, w e showed
and-key paradigm t o c o m p u t e b y t o u c h .
u p a scant fifteen minutes ago, and all o f recorded history has b h n k e d
I n each case, nature w o u l d provide the models: solar cells copied
b y i n the last sixty seconds. L u c k i l y f o r us, our p l a n e t - m a t e s - t h e
f r o m leaves, steely fibers w o v e n spider-style, shatterproof ceramics
fantastic m e s h w o r k o f plants, animals, and m i c r o b e s - h a v e been pa-
d r a w n f r o m m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l , cancer cures c o m p l i m e n t s o f c h i m p a n -
t i e n t l y p e r f e c t i n g t h e i r wares since M a r c h , an incredible 3.8 b i l l i o n
zees, perennial grains inspired b y tallgrass, computers t h a t signal hke
years since t h e first bacteria.
cells, and a closed-loop economy t h a t takes its lessons f r o m red-
I n t h a t t i m e , l i f e has learned to fly, circumnavigate t h e globe^
woods, coral reefs, and oak-hickory forests.
live i n the depths o f t h e ocean and atop t h e highest Peaks, c r a f t
T h e b i o m i m i c s are discovering w h a t w o r k s i n t h e natural w o r l d ,
miracle materials, l i g h t u p t h e night, lasso t h e sun's energy, and b u i l d
and m o r e i m p o r t a n t , w h a t lasts. A f t e r 3.8 b i l l i o n years o f research
a self-reflective b r a i n . Collectively, organisms have managed t o t u r n
and development, failures are fossils, and w h a t surrounds us is the
rock and sea i n t o a l i f e - f r i e n d l y home, w i t h steady temperatures and secret t o survival. T h e m o r e our w o r l d looks and f u n c t i o n s like this
s m o o t h l y percolating cycles. I n short, l i v i n g things have done every- natural w o r l d , the m o r e h k e l y w e are t o be accepted o n this h o m e
t h i n g w e w a n t t o do, w i t h o u t guzzling fossil f u e l , p o l l u t i n g the that is ours, b u t n o t ours alone.
planet, or mortgaging t h e i r f u t u r e . W h a t better models could This, o f course, is n o t news t o t h e H u a o r a n i Indians. V i r t u a l l y
there be? all native cultures t h a t have survived w i t h o u t f o u l i n g t h e i r nests have
acknowledged t h a t nature k n o w s best, and have had the h u m i l i t y t o
ECHO-INVENTIONS ask t h e bears and wolves and ravens and redwoods f o r guidance.
T h e y can only w o n d e r w h y w e d o n ' t do the same. A f e w years ago,
I began t o w o n d e r too. A f t e r three h u n d r e d years o f W e s t e r n Sci-
I n these pages, y o u ' l l meet m e n and w o m e n w h o are e x p l o r i n g na-
ence, was there anyone i n our t r a d i t i o n able t o see w h a t t h e H u a o r -
ture's masterpieces-photosynthesis, self-assembly, natura selection,
ani see?
self-sustaining ecosystems, eyes and ears and skin and shells talking
neurons, n a t u r a l medicines, and m o r e - a n d t h e n copying these de-
signs and m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes t o solve our o w n problems. I call
t h e i r quest biomimiay-the conscious e m u l a t i o n o f l i f e s genius, i n - HOW I FOUND THE BIOMIMICS '• ' '
n o v a t i o n inspired b y nature.
M y o w n degree is i n an applied science—^forestry—complete w i t h
I n a society accustomed t o d o m i n a t i n g or " i m p r o v m g nature,
courses i n botany, soils, water, w i l d l i f e , pathology, and tree g r o w t h .
this respectful i m i t a t i o n is a radically n e w approach, a revo u t i o n
Especially tree g r o w t h . A s I remember, cooperative relationships,
really U n l i k e t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n , the B i o m i m i c r y R e v o l u t i o n
self-regulating feedback cycles, and dense interconnectedness were
introduces an era based n o t o n w h a t w e can extract f r o m nature, b u t
not something w e needed t o k n o w f o r the exam. I n reductionist
o n w h a t w e can leam f r o m her.
fashion, w e studied each piece o f the forest separately, rarely con-
As y o u w i l l see, " d o i n g i t nature's w a y " has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o
sidering t h a t a spruce-fir forest m i g h t add u p t o something m o r e t h a n
change t h e w a y w e g r o w f o o d , make materials, harness energy, heal
the s u m o f its parts, or t h a t w i s d o m m i g h t reside i n t h e w h o l e . There
ourselves, store i n f o r m a t i o n , and conduct business.
were no labs i n listening t o the l a n d or i n e m u l a t i n g t h e ways i n
I n a b i o m i m e t i c w o r l d , w e w o u l d m a n u f a c t u r e the w a y animals
w h i c h natural c o m m u n i t i e s grew and prospered. W e practiced a
and plants do, using sun and simple compounds t o produce totally
human-centered approach t o management, assuming t h a t nature's
biodegradable fibers, ceramics, plastics, and chemicals. O u r farnrs,
w a y o f managing h a d n o t h i n g o f value t o teach us.
m o d e l e d o n prairies, w o u l d be self-fertiUzing and pest-resistant. T o
 4 / Biomimicry
I t wasn't u n t i l I started w r i t i n g books on w i l d l i f e habitats and
behavior t h a t I began t o see where the real lessons he: i n the e x q u i -
site ways t h a t organisms are adapted t o their places and t o each
other. This hand-in-glove h a r m o n y was a constant source o f dehght
t o me, as w e l l as an object lesson. I n seeing h o w seamlessly animals
fit i n t o t h e i r homes, I began t o see h o w separate w e managers had
become f r o m ours. Despite the f a c t t h a t w e face the same physical
challenges t h a t all l i v i n g beings face—the struggle f o r f o o d , water,
space, and shelter i n a finite h a b i t a t — w e were t r y i n g t o meet those
challenges t h r o u g h h u m a n cleverness alone. T h e lessons inherent i n
the natural w o r l d , strategies sculpted and burnished over bilhons o f
years, remained scientific curiosities, divorced f r o m the business o f
our lives.
B u t w h a t i f I w e n t back t o school now? C o u l d I find any re-
searchers w h o were consciously looldng t o organisms and ecosystems
f o r i n s p i r a t i o n about h o w t o live lightly and ingeniously o n the
Earth? C o u l d I w o r k w i t h inventors or engineers w h o were d i p p i n g
i n t o biology texts f o r ideas? Was there anyone, i n this day and age,
w h o regarded organisms and natural systems as the u l t i m a t e
teachers?
H a p p i l y , I f o u n d n o t one b u t many b i o m i m i c s . T h e y are fasci-
nating people, w o r k i n g at the edges o f t h e i r disciplines, i n the fertile
crests b e t w e e n intellectual habitats. W h e r e ecology meets agricul-
ture, medicine, materials science, energy, c o m p u t i n g , and commerce,
they are learning t h a t there is more to discover t h a n to invent. T h e y
k n o w t h a t nature, imaginative b y necessity, has already solved the
problems w e are struggling t o solve. O u r challenge is to take these
time-tested ideas and echo t h e m i n our o w n hves.
Once I f o u n d the b i o m i m i c s , I was t h r i l l e d , b u t surprised t h a t
there is no f o r m a l m o v e m e n t as yet, no t h i n k tanlcs or university
degrees i n b i o m i m i c r y . T h i s was strange, because whenever I m e n -
t i o n e d w h a t I was w o r l d n g on, people responded w i t h a universal
enthusiasm, a sort o f relief u p o n hearing an idea t h a t makes so m u c h
sense. B i o m i m i c r y has t h e earmarks o f a successful m e m e , t h a t is, an
idea t h a t w i l l spread like an adaptive gene t h r o u g h o u t our c u l t u r e .
Part o f w r i t i n g this b o o k was m y desire t o see t h a t m e m e spread and
become the c o n t e x t f o r our searching i n the n e w m i l l e n n i u m .
I see t h e signs o f nature-based i n n o v a t i o n everywhere I go n o w .
From V e l c r o [based o n t h e grappling hooks o f seeds) t o hohstic m e d -
icine, people are t r u s t i n g the inscrutable w i s d o m o f natural solu-
tions. A n d y e t I wonder, w h y now? W h y hasn't our c u l t u r e always
Echoing Nature / 5
rushed t o emulate w h a t obviously works? W h y are w e b e c o m i n g
nature's p r o t é g é s at this late date?
THE STORM BEFORE THE C A L M
T h o u g h i t seems p e r f e c d y sensible to echo our biological ancestors
w e have been traveling i n j u s t the opposite direction, driven to gain
our mdependence. O u r j o u r n e y began ten thousand years ago w i t h
the A g r i c u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , w h e n w e broke free f r o m the vicissi-
tudes o f h u n t i n g and gathering and learned to stock o u r o w n pan-
tries. I t accelerated w i t h the Scientific Revolution, w h e n w e learned,
i n Francis Bacon's words, to " t o r t u r e nature f o r her secrets." Finally'
w h e n the afterburners o f the Industrial R e v o l u t i o n lacked i n , m a -
chines replaced muscles and w e learned to rock the w o r l d .
B u t these revolutions were only a w a r m - u p f o r our real break
f r o m E a r t h l y o r b i t — t h e Petrochemical and Genetic Engineering
Revolutions. N o w t h a t w e can synthesize w h a t w e need and re-
arrange the genetic alphabet t o our liking, w e have gained w h a t w e
t h i n k o f as autonomy. Strapped t o our juggernaut o f technology, w e
fancy ourselves as gods, very far f r o m h o m e indeed.
I n reality, w e haven't escaped the gravity o f l i f e at all. W e are
still beholden t o ecological laws, the same as any other l i f e - f o r m
T h e most irrevocable o f these laws says t h a t a species cannot occupy
a mche t h a t appropriates all resources—there has to be some sharing
A n y species t h a t ignores this l a w winds u p destroying its c o m m u n i t y
to support its o w n expansion. Tragically, this has been our p a t h . W e .
began as a small p o p u l a t i o n i n a very large w o r l d and have expanded
m n u m b e r and t e r r i t o r y u n t i l w e are bursting the seams o f t h a t
w o r l d . There are too m a n y o f us, and our habits are unsustainable.
B u t I beheve, as m a n y have before me, t h a t this is j u s t the s t o r m
before the calm. T h e n e w sciences o f chaos and c o m p l e x i t y t e l l us
that a system t h a t is far f r o m stable is a system ripe f o r change
E v o l u t i o n itself is believed t o have occurred i n fits and starts pla-
teaumg f o r m i l l i o n s o f years and t h e n leaping t o a w h o l e n e w ' l e v e l
of creativity after crisis.
Reaching our limits, then, i f w e choose to admit t h e m t o our-
selves, m a y be an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r us t o leap to a n e w phase o f cop-
ing, i n w h i c h w e adapt t o the E a r t h rather t h a n the other w a y
around. T h e changes w e make n o w , no matter h o w incremental they
seem, m a y be the nucleus f o r this n e w reahty. W h e n w e emerge
 6 / Biomimicry
f r o m the f o g , m y hope is t h a t w e ' l l have t u r n e d this juggernaut
around, and instead o f fleeing the Earth, w e ' l l be h o m e w a r d b o u n d ,
l e t t i n g nature lead us t o our landing, as t h e o r c h i d leads the bee.
IN V I V O GENIUS
I t m a y be a t r o u b l e d conscience t h a t is pushing us t o w a r d home, say
the b i o m i m i c s , b u t the critical mass o f n e w i n f o r m a t i o n i n the nat-
ural sciences is p r o v i d i n g an equally i m p o r t a n t p u l l . O u r fragmentary
knowledge o f biology is d o u b l i n g every five years, g r o w i n g like a
pointiUist p a i n t i n g t o a recognizable w h o l e . Equally unprecedented
is t h e intensity o f our gaze: n e w scopes and satellites allow us t o
witness nature's patterns f r o m the intercellular t o the interstellar. W e
can probe a b u t t e r c u p w i t h t h e eyes o f a m i t e , ride the electron
shuttle o f photosynthesis, feel the shiver o f a n e u r o n i n t h o u g h t , or
w a t c h i n color as a star is b o r n . W e can see, more clearly t h a n ever
before, h o w nature works her miracles.
W h e n w e stare this deeply i n t o nature's eyes, i t takes our breath
away, and i n a good way, i t bursts our b u b b l e . W e realize t h a t all
our inventions have already appeared i n nature i n a m o r e elegant
f o r m and at a l o t less cost t o the planet. O u r most clever architectural
struts and beams are already featured i n l i l y pads and b a m b o o stems.
O u r central heating and air-conditioning are bested b y the t e r m i t e
tower's steady 86 degrees F. O u r most stealthy radar is h a r d o f hear-
ing compared t o t h e bat's m u l t i f r e q u e n c y transmission. A n d our n e w
"smart materials" can't h o l d a candle t o the dolphin's skin or t h e
b u t t e r f l y ' s proboscis. Even the wheel, w h i c h w e always t o o k t o be a
u n i q u e l y h u m a n creation, has been f o u n d i n the t i n y rotary m o t o r
t h a t propels t h e flagellum o f t h e w o r l d ' s most ancient bacteria.
H u m b l i n g also are the hordes o f organisms casually p e r f o r m i n g
feats w e can only dream about. Bioluminescent algae splash c h e m i -
cals together t o h g h t their b o d y lanterns. A r c t i c fish and frogs freeze
solid and t h e n spring t o life, having p r o t e c t e d t h e i r organs f r o m ice
damage. Black bears hibernate all w i n t e r w i t h o u t poisoning t h e m -
selves o n t h e i r urea, w h i l e t h e i r polar cousins stay active, w i t h a coat
o f transparent h o l l o w hairs covering t h e i r skins like the panes o f a
greenhouse. Ghameleons and cuttiefish hide w i t h o u t m o v i n g , chang-
ing t h e pattern o f t h e i r skin t o instantly b l e n d w i t h their surround-
ings. Bees, turtles, and birds navigate w i t h o u t maps, w h i l e whales
and penguins dive w i t h o u t scuba gear. H o w do they do it? H o w do
Echoing Nature / 7
dragonflies outmaneuver our best helicopters? H o w do h u m m i n g -
birds cross the G u l f o f M e x i c o on less than one t e n t h o f an ounce
of fuel? H o w do ants carry the equivalent o f hundreds o f pounds i n
a dead heat t h r o u g h the jungle?
These i n d i v i d u a l achievements pale, however, w h e n w e con-
sider the intricate i n t e r l i v i n g t h a t characterizes w h o l e systems c o m -
rnunities like t i d a l marshes or saguaro forests. I n ensemble l i v i n g
things m a i n t a i n a dynamic stability, like dancers i n an arabesque
c o n t i n u a l l y juggling resources w i t h o u t waste. A f t e r decades o f f a i t h -
f u l study, ecologists have begun to f a t h o m h i d d e n likenesses among
m a n y i n t e r w o v e n systems. F r o m t h e i r notebooks, w e can begin t o
divine a canon o f nature's laws, strategies, and principles t h a t reso-
nates m every chapter o f this book:
N a t u r e runs on sunhght.
N a t u r e uses only the energy i t needs.
N a t u r e fits f o r m to f u n c t i o n .
N a t u r e recycles everything.
N a t u r e rewards cooperation.
N a t u r e banks on diversity.
N a t u r e demands local expertise.
N a t u r e curbs excesses f r o m w i t h i n .
N a t u r e taps the p o w e r o f limits.
A CAUTIONARY TALE
This last lesson, " t a p p i n g the p o w e r o f h m i t s , " is perhaps most
opaque t o us because w e humans regard l i m i t s as a universal dare,
something t o be overcome so w e can continue our expansion. O t h e r
Earthhngs take t h e i r h m i t s m o r e seriously, k n o w i n g t h e y m u s t f u n c -
t i o n w i t h i n a t i g h t range o f l i f e - f r i e n d l y temperatures, harvest w i t h i n
t h e carrymg capacity o f t h e land, and m a i n t a i n an energy balance
t h a t cannot be b o r r o w e d against. W i t h i n these hnes, l i f e u n f u r l s her
colors w i t h virtuosity, using l i m i t s as a source o f power, a focusing
mechanism. Because nature spins her spell i n such a small space, her
creations read like a p o e m t h a t says only w h a t i t means.
Studying these poems day i n and day out, b i o m i m i c s develop a
high degree o f awe, bordering o n reverence. N o w t h a t they see w h a t
nature is t r u l y capable of, nature-inspired innovations seem hke a
hand u p o u t o f the abyss. As w e reach u p t o t h e m , however, I can't
 8 / Biomimicry
Echoing Nature / 9

help b u t w o n d e r h o w w e w i l l use these n e w designs and processes.

Eisley observed, all o f the ancient city-states have fallen and w h i l e
W h a t w i l l make the B i o m i m i c r y R e v o l u t i o n any d i f f e r e n t f r o m the
the workers i n stone and gold are l o n e denarterl " t b « 'k T
Industrial Revolution? W h o ' s t o say w e w o n ' t s i m p l y steal nature's
stands u p r i g h t , and l e o p a r l d r i n k Z ' J V l t p l V s l a f r
t h u n d e r and use i t i n the ongoing campaign against life?
This is n o t an idle w o r r y . T h e last really famous b i o m i m e t i c müiions ^^^^^ i n h a b i t a n t s ^ h a t have 1 ved
i n v e n t i o n was the airplane (the W r i g h t brothers w a t c h e d vultures t o w h i ï i i : ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^''^ - ^ - - ^ - - ^ ^
learn the nuances o f drag and l i f t ) . W e f l e w like a b i r d f o r the first
t i m e i n 1903, and b y 1914, w e were d r o p p i n g bombs f r o m the sky.
Perhaps i n the end, i t w i l l n o t be a change i n technology t h a t
w i l l b r i n g us t o the b i o m i m e t i c f u t u r e , b u t a change o f heart, a h u m -
NOSTOS ERDA: RETURNING HOME TO EARTH
b l i n g t h a t allows us t o be attentive t o nature's lessons. A s author B i l l
M c K i b b e n has p o i n t e d out, our tools are always deployed i n the
service o f some p h i l o s o p h y or ideology. I f w e are t o use our tools i n
I believe that we face our current dilemma not because the answers
the service o f fitting i n o n Earth, our basic relationship to nature—
don t exrst but because we simply haven't been looldng in the rTgk
even the story w e t e l l ourselves about w h o w e are i n the universe—
has t o change. showers r / . . Washington Post, and televised baseball for the first
t me, sard merely "-There is not very much to learn in the city I t s
T h e ideology t h a t a l l o w e d us t o expand b e y o n d our l i m i t s was
time to walk m the forest again." ^'
t h a t the w o r l d was p u t here exclusively f o r our use. W e were, after
all, the apex o f evolution, the pièce de résistance i n the p y r a m i d o f w. a ' *° ^ ^ 1 ^ A e forest again. Once
l i f e . M a r k T w a i n was amused b y this n o t i o n . I n his marvelous Letters ZIITVa " - l ^ t - - h i p with the living w o r U
to the Earth, he says t h a t claiming w e are superior t o the rest o f changes. G r a t i t u d e tempers
greed, and, as plant biologist Wes Jack
creation is like saying t h a t the E i f f e l T o w e r was b u i l t so t h a t the son says, "the notion of resources becomes obscene." 4 realLe that
scrap o f p a i n t at the t o p w o u l d have somewhere t o sit. It's absurd, the only way to keep earning from nature is to safeguard natu aLTs
b u t it's still the w a y w e t h i n k . A e wellspnng of good ideas. A t this point in history, as we contem-'
W h e r e I live i n the mountains o f western M o n t a n a , a huge con-
next t h i r t y years, b i o m i m i c r y becomes more than just a new wav of
troversy is b r e w i n g about w h e t h e r grizzly bears should be r e i n t r o d -
l o o k i n g at nature. I t becomes a race and a rescue ^
uced t o t h e wilderness area t h a t sprawls outside our door. It's an
issue t h a t makes people scoop u p t h e i r kids and get o u t t h e i r guns. aimed I t T e E ^ e f f ' ' " V ^ ^ dropping-a wrecldng ball
T h e a n t i - r e i n t r o d u c t i o n folks say they d o n ' t w a n t t o have t o "take
aimed at the E i f f e l T o w e r of squirming, flapping, pirouetting life
precautions" w h e n they go h i k i n g or horsepacking, meaning they scLce'rS ' time^ha" col i s
d o n ' t w a n t t o have t o w o r r y about b e c o m i n g a m e a l f o r a grizzly. science is showing us the extent of our folly, it is also reveahng the
N o longer t o p banana, they w o u l d have t o accept being part o f an- pattern of nature's wisdom reflected in aU life. W i t h the l e a d e f s l
other animal's f o o d chain, a l i f e - f o r m o n a planet t h a t m i g h t itself
of the biomimics you will meet in the chapters that follow am
be a l i f e - f o r m .
T h e r u b is, i f w e w a n t t o remain i n Gala's good graces, that's
exactly h o w w e have t o t h i n k o f ourselves, as one vote i n a parlia-
m e n t o f 30 m i l l i o n [maybe even 100 m i l l i o n ) , a species among spe- Hrr, T^' ' ° ^"^'"'^ nature so that we might
cies. A l t h o u g h w e are d i f f e r e n t , and w e have had a r u n o f spectacular
luck, w e are n o t necessarily the best survivors over the long h a u l , hive' f 1 °" ^'''^ ^hich we sprang W e
nor are w e i m m u n e t o natural selection. A s anthropologist L o r e n should w k g - w our food? H 1
should we make our materials? H o w should we power ourselveT
 10 / Biomimicry

heal ourselves, store w h a t w e learn? H o w s h o u l d w e conduct busi- CHAPTER 2

ness i n a w a y t h a t honors the Earth? A s w e discover w h a t nature
already knows, w e w i l l remember h o w i t feels t o roar like a jaguar—
t o be a p a r t of, n o t apart f r o m , the genius t h a t surrounds us.
L e t t h e l i v i n g lessons begin.

HOW WILL WE F E E D OURSELVES?

FARMING
TO FIT
THE LAND:
GROWING FOOD
LIKE A PRAIRIE

The native peoples who inhabited these lands long before us wor-
shipped the Earth; they were educated by it. They didn't require schools
and churches—their whole world was one.
- M I C H A E L A B L E M A N , organic farmer, Goleta, California

How do we act on the fact that we are more ignorant than knowl-
edgeable? Embrace the arrangements that have shaken down in the
long evolutionary process and try to mimic them, ever mindful that
human cleverness must remain subordinate to nature's wisdom.
- W E S JACKSON, director of The Land Institute

I was at a f n e n d s f a m i l y r e u n i o n i n Pipestone, Minnesota, a f a r m i n g

s t a t e T e t ' " * V T " d - ° f f ' - - t h e d - o u t - s t r a i g h t corner o f t h e
state. N e a t rows o f w h e a t m a r c h e d u p t o t h e doors o f the K i n g d o m
ul'Jrtr'^f ^ ^ ^ Q ' ^ ^ " - * h u t and its covey o f pickups, t h e n
f o l d e d back together and m a r c h e d o n f o r miles ^ ^'
Inside, w e h a d h a r d l y t o u c h e d t h e Jell-O salad w h e n news o f

c u e t ' h T H ! f T " ' ^ 7 '""'^i '""^ the long ban-

quet hall. Heads t u r n e d t o w a r d the southern doors and long-legged
m e n began stepping over t h e benches t h a t lined t h e tables. T h e y
bent d o w n t o whisper i n the ears o f other m e n , w h o excused t h e m -
sdves and s w u n g t h e i r legs over and out. T h r o u g h t h e doorframe,
w e c o u l d see a sky the color o f carbon, a sky t h a t w o u l d come o f f
o n y o u r hands i f y o u t o u c h e d i t .
 12 / Biomimicry
I made m y w a y o u t t o the parking l o t where m e n i n t h e i r c h u r c h
clothes leaned against trucks dusted the same flat color as t h e s o i l
I n silence t h e y w a t c h e d the weather come. A f e w l i t cigarettes and
w i n c e d as t h e clouds roiled, hke smoke barreling before a runaway
fire "It's h a i l , " said one o f t h e m finally. T h e others were already
crushing b u t t s and c l i m b i n g i n t o their Dodges and Cheyys, peehng
out t o j o i n t h e caravan. Wordlessly, the kids at m y table collected
silverware w h i l e t h e i r m o m s stacked plates and w h i s k e d tablecloths
away. T h e festive air h a d t u r n e d funereal, and I had the feeling i t
wasn't the first t i m e . , , , i,. ^.u
T h a t s t o r m t u r n e d i n t o one o f the hardest hails t o h i t south-
western M i n n e s o t a i n a decade. W h a t I reahzed t h e n , viscerally, I
Imew aheady. Farmers are responsible f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e i r crops f r o m
things they cannot control. Today's f a r m e r i n southwestern M i n n e -
sota has a huge spread, and because the fields are planted i n one
species, one variety, and one g r o w t h stage, t h e losses, w h e n they
come, are catastrophic. H a v i n g p u t t h e i r eggs i n one basket, they are
at nature's mercy, caught i n the crosshairs o f drought, floods, pests,
hail, and eroding soils. I f anyone knows about being b o o t e d f r o m the
Garden o f Eden, it's farmers. • can see. F r o m the air i t m u s t l o o k cut f r o m a t o o l and die m a c h i n e -
W h a t ' s amazing t o observe is a natural grassland—a p r a i r i e —
* under the same k i n d o f assauk. Some o f the grasses suffer, b u t most
survive q u i t e w e l l , thanks t o a perennial r o o t system t h a t ensures
n e x t year's resurrection. There's a hardiness about the plants m a
w i l d setting. W h e n y o u l o o k at a prairie, y o u d o n ' t see complete
losses f r o m a n y t h i n g - y o u d o n ' t see net soil erosion or devastating
pest epidemics. Y o u d o n ' t see the need f o r fertihzers or pesticides.
Y o u see a system t h a t runs o n sun and rain, year after year, w i t h no
one t o cultivate t h e soil or p l a n t the seeds, ft drinks i n no excess
inputs and excretes no damaging wastes, ft recycles all its nutrients,
i t conserves water, i t produces abundantly, and because it's chock-
f u l l o f genetic i n f o r m a t i o n and local I m o w - h o w , i t adapts.
W h a t i f w e w e r e t o remake agriculture using crops t h a t h a d t h a t
same k i n d o f self-sufficiency, t h a t ability t o live amiably w i t h t h e i r
fieldmates, stay i n sync w i t h their surroundings, b u i l d soil beneath
t h e m , and handle pests w i t h aplomb? W h a t w o u l d agriculture l o o k
^'^^"^ W e l l t h a t depends o n where y o u live. W e s Jackson thinks i t
w o u l d l o o k like a prairie. Jack E w e l thinks i t w o u l d l o o k like a t r o p -
ical forest. Gary Paul N a b h a n thinks i t w o u l d l o o k like a flood-
washed desert. J. Russell S m i t h , were he alive today, w o u l d vote f o r
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 13
a N e w England h a r d w o o d forest. T h e c o m m o n t h e m e is t h a t the
agriculture i n an area w o u l d take its cue from the vegetation t h a t
grew there before settlement. Using h u m a n foods p l a n t e d i n the pat-
terns of natural p l a n t communities, agriculture w o u l d i m i t a t e as
closely as possible the structure and f u n c t i o n o f a m a t u r e natural
ecosystem. Threading our needle w i t h the roots o f such a stable sys-
tem, w e w o u l d sew u p one o f the deepest wounds o n the p l a n e t -
the gash made b y t i l l agriculture.
I n m a n y ways, this " f a r m i n g i n nature's image" m o v e m e n t is
the most radical i n this book, and perhaps the m o s t i m p o r t a n t A s
any economist w o u l d t e l l y o u , y o u can't eat widgets. Food is w h a t
IS called a complementary; it's a given need that w i l l always be w i t h
us and despite w h a t science fiction says about p i l l meals, there is no
substitute.
Years after t h e hailstorm, I a m once again i n f a r m country, this t i m e
m Kansas, o n m y w a y to the country's p r e m i e r enclave o f agricultural
researchers seeking t o m i m i c nature's patterns. As I drive, a crew cut
of w h e a t fields surrounds t h e car i n all directions, as far as the eye
straight rows o f alternating green and b r o w n , edged w i t h an angu-
larity f o r e i g n t o l i v i n g things. T h e soil beneath the stalks is plainly
visible, all h i n t o f weediness r o u n d e d u p by chemical sprays, N o t h i n g
extraneous is allowed t o g r o w here; everything has been stripped
d o w n t o its least diverse f o r m .
W h a t e v e r is l e f t o f the b i o t i c c o m m u n i t y is harnessed and t u n e d
to t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f one star: t h e cash crop. T h e fields, have a
f a c t o r y - f l o o r efficiency about t h e m , and every n o w and t h e n I see
the f l o o r managers, t w o stories u p i n B i g B u d , M o d e l 747 tractors
checking their six television m o n i t o r s t o see what's happening on t h é
g r o u n d Plumes o f diesel smoke and soil b i l l o w b e h i n d t h e i r rigs, like
live volcanoes spewing.
T h e soil plumes b r i n g m e back t o a conversation I had at the
Ravalh C o u n t y Fair w i t h a stoop-backed rancher w h o h a d f a r m e d i n
Kansas d u r i n g the D u s t B o w l . H e described w i n d r o w s o f soil so h i g h
t h a t t h e cows used t h e m like ramps t o w a l k over the fences and o u t
I t was o n account o f p l o w i n g where w e had no business p l o w i n g "
he t o R m e , 'and w h a t got lost on t h a t w i n d , w e never got back "
W h e n I get lost i n m y wanderings around the wilderness areas
of M o n t a n a , I usually d o n ' t reahze i t f o r a w h i l e . W h e n I do I have
to r e m m a skittery panic and t r y to t h i n k o f h o w I got there' w h i c h
 14 / Biomimiay
landmarks I remember. O n l y t h e n can I find t h e t r a i l h o m e . I n ag-
riculture, after b e i n g lost f o r t h e longest t i m e , it's t i m e t o sit d o w n
and t h i n k .
HOW W E W O U N D UP IN T H E B O X C A N Y O N
OF INDUSTRIAL F A R M I N G
ft was t e n thousand years ago t h a t w e split open the r i c h , r i p e -
smelling soil f o r the very first t i m e . W e saved a seed, planted i t , and
rejoiced w h e n i t grew u p , spilling its harvest r i g h t i n t o our hands.
W e celebrated our release from the gamble o f h u n t i n g and gathermg,
and b r o u g h t b u m p e r crops o f grain and babies i n t o the w o r l d . T h e
m o r e babies w e produced, t h e more l a n d w e h a d t o p u t under p r o -
d u c t i o n t o f e e d our b r o o d . W e began t o w o r k t h e l a n d harder and
harder, m o v i n g u p slopes and i n t o other places w e h a d "no business"
f a r m i n g . A l t h o u g h w e i m p r o v e d our odds o f a dependable larder, w e
h a d u n w i t t i n g l y stepped o n t o w h a t p l a n t breeder Wes Jackson calls
a " t r e a d m i l l o f vigilance." T h e more w e t a m e d and sheltered our
crops, the m o r e they depended o n us f o r t h e i r survival.
By n o w , our crops are so far f r o m the adaptive c h u t z p a h o f t h e i r
w i l d ancestors t h a t t h e y can't do w i t h o u t us and our petrochemical
transfusions o f fertilizer and pesticides. I n our quest f o r ever-
increasing p r o d u c t i o n , w e removed their i n b o r n defenses. W e iso-
l a t e d t h e m from m i x e d species groupings, n a r r o w e d their genetic
diversity, and g u t t e d t h e h e a l t h o f their soil.
O f these three, say historians o f agriculture, eviscerating soil was
our greatest misstep. T o p s o i l is essentially nonrenewable. Once
eroded or poisoned, i t can take thousands o f years t o rejuvenate i t -
self Rather t h a n o p t f o r a self-sufficient, perennial plant c o m m u n i t y
t h a t w o u l d b a t t e n d o w n this black gold, w e o p t e d f o r the rip-roaring
g r o w t h o f annuals, w h i c h requires us t o disturb the soil each year.
Each t i m e w e p l o w , w e s i m p l i f y the soil, t a k i n g away some o f
its capacity t o g r o w crops. W e break apart its intricate architecture
and w r e a k havoc w i t h the dream team o f m i c r o f a u n a and m i c r o f l o r a
t h a t glues i t together i n t o colloids, or clumps, o f soil and organic
matter. T h i s c l u m p i n g is vital; i t leaves air channels like veins
t h r o u g h o u t the soil, giving water a w a y t o sink d o w n deep. Soils t h a t
are p l o w e d too fine or packed t o o hard lose t h e i r colloids, and w i t h
t h e m the art o f retaining water. Parched air sucks the g r o u n d dry.
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 15
and w h e n the w i n d s b l o w , t a l c u m - p o w d e r topsoil coats the hoods
o f cars i n t o w n .
W h e n rain strikes the h a r d pack, i t can't s h i m m y d o w n to the
miles o f t h i r s t y roots as i t should. Instead i t glances o f f and runs i n
sheets, rills, and rivulets, m u r k y and bloodstained, t o the sea. T h e
b l o o d is soil, t h e l i v i n g plasma o f the Earth, sloughed o f f at a rate o f
five t o one h u n d r e d tons per acre per year—a massive heist. Some
Palouse Prairie w h e a t fields i n Washington, o n the s h a m e f u l side o f
t h a t equation, have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o lose one inch o f topsoil every
1.6 years. I n Iowa, u p t o six bushels o f soil are washed o u t t o sea
f o r every bushel o f corn produced.
W h a t ' s l e f t b e h i n d is a l i t t i e deader as w e l l as a l i t t i e thinner.
B e h i n d the rest stop o n H i g h w a y 7, I trespass a ways i n t o a Kansas
w h e a t field and b r i n g u p a h a n d f u l o f t h e bladed, pulverized, chem-
ically amended soil. It's n o t chocolate-pudding black like the soil
under the first p l o w e d prairies m u s t have been. It's beige and i t
doesn't smell as dank or f e c u n d as i t s h o u l d — i t doesn't smell like
death and l i f e c o m m i n g l e d . T h e f u n g i t h a t once w r a p p e d t h e i r
threads around rootiets t o e x t e n d t h e i r reach, the brotherhoods o f
beneficial soil organisms, t h e bacteria t h a t spun airborne nitrogen
i n t o f o o d — t h e y ' r e all d o w n t o a skeleton crew, a shadow o f their
f o r m e r selves. W i t h the links among t h e m severed, there is less
" b o o t s t r a p p i n g , " less o f t h e p o w e r t h a t comes from several species
w o r k i n g i n b i o t i c conspiracy t o l i f t u p the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y .
T h e w i l d l y f e r t i l e "postage s t a m p " prairies still scattered
t h r o u g h o u t t h e Great Plains give fragmentary testament t o w h a t w e
once had. I n his eloquent b o o k The Grassland, Richard.Manning
describes these vestiges as "pedestals carved'by the p l o w . " F r o m the
c r o w n o f some o f these pedestals, once level w i t h the land, y o u n o w
have t o d r o p d o w n three feet t o reach p l o w e d soil. Such is w h a t w e
have lost.
I n other places, the scalp o f the E a r t h is so t h i n t h a t our p l o w s
are already m i x i n g i t w i t h subsoil, w h i c h doesn't have the organic
history t h a t topsoil has. T h e grand larceny o f harvest removes even
m o r e organic m a t t e r f r o m these fields. Even i n places where the
stubble is p l o w e d back i n before planting, t h e nutrients are o f t e n
wasted, p r i e d away b y h a r d rains before any plants are even visible.
O v e r t h e years, these heists and the m i s t i m e d feedings add u p t o
decreased f e r t i l i t y , a slow sterilization o f our nation's real goose w i t h
the golden eggs. " O v e r a mere century o f tiUing the prairie soils o f
N o r t h A m e r i c a , " says ecologist Jon Piper i n his b o o k Fanning in
 16 / Biomimiay
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 17

Nature's Image, " w e have lost one t h i r d o f t h e i r topsoil, and u p t o

ready t o repent, and together they were successful i n getting our
50 percent o f t h e i r original f e r t i l i t y . "
m o s t erodible lands replanted t o perennial, soil-holding grasses.
Part o f our loss can be traced t o our f e t i s h f o r p r o d u c t i o n , our
T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l m e m o r y p r o v e d short, however, and w h e n an-
eagerness t o t u r n an organic, nature-based endeavor i n t o a factory:
other w o r l d w a r h a d come and gone, w e l o o k e d around and w o n -
the f a r m as machine. A u t h o r and K e n t u c k y f a r m e r W e n d e l l Berry
dered w h y w e w e r e n ' t " u s i n g " every i n c h o f the breadbasket. Earl
says Europeans came t o this continent w i t h vision b u t n o t w i t h
Butz, t h e secretary o f agriculture under Richard N i x o n , reflected the
sight—we c o u l d n ' t see the value o f w h a t was r i g h t before us. W e
nation's hubris b y admonishing farmers t o p l o w " f e n c e r o w t o
set t o w o r k r e m o v i n g t h e land's native dress and imposing a pattern
f e n c e r o w " Forgetting the lessons o f the D u s t B o w l , farmers filled i n
o f our o w n m a k i n g . E x o t i c plants instead o f indigenous ones, annuals
draws and b u l l d o z e d windbreaks, spending millions o f federal dollars
instead o f perennials, monocultures instead o f polycultures. T h i s dis-
to obliterate w h a t the SCS had spent m i l l i o n s o f dollars, planting.
r u p t i o n o f a natural pattern, says Wes Jackson, is t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f
W e n o w had acres o f n e w canvas on w h i c h to p a i n t the n e x t
hubris.
face o f industrialized f a r m i n g : t h e Green Revolution. I n w h a t was
Rather t h a n l o o k i n g to the land and its native peoples f o r i n -
heralded as the answer t o w o r l d starvation, breeders u n v e i l e d n e w
structions ( w h a t grows here naturally and w h y ? ) , w e issued arbitrary
h y b r i d strains o f crops t h a t p r o m i s e d phenomenal yields. Because o f
orders, expecting our f a r m l a n d t o f u l f i l l m a n y agendas, some o f
their h y b r i d nature, however, these n e w plants c o u l d n ' t pass their
w h i c h h a d n o t h i n g t o do w i t h feeding people. W h e a t , f o r instance,
genetic traits on t o the n e x t generation. So farmers around the w o r l d
was leveraged t o help us w i n the First W o r l d W a r . T h e European
abandoned the t i m e - h o n o r e d [ a n d ecologically p r u d e n t ) t r a d i t i o n o f
continent was overoccupied w i t h fighting, and i n m a n y places, crops
were neither p l a n t e d n o r harvested. T o fill t h a t void, w e boarded hybri?Ieeds'" ' ""^^ "''^^'''^ *° ^""'^^^'^^
battalions o f n e w l y m o t o r i z e d tractors and p l o w e d our h o m e soil
T h e h o m o g e n i z a t i o n o f fields spread rapidly. Varieties o f crops
r i g h t u p t o t h e Rockies, u p r o o t i n g massive amounts o f v i r g i n prairie
t h a t h a d once been used because they d i d w e l l on a south-facing
i n w h a t w o u l d later be called the Great P l o w - u p .
slope or were able t o prosper i n t h e Banana Belt or the L i t t l e A r c t i c
T h i s was the finale o f a m o v e m e n t t h a t had begun w i t h t h e first
regions o f a state were f o r g o t t e n . I n places like India, w h e r e there
sodbusters and t h e i r steel-laminated m o l d b o a r d plows, the only tools
were once t h i r t y thousand land-tailored varieties o f rice, t h e i r re-
strong enough t o break t h e tangle o f prairie roots, some as stout as
placement b y one super variety swept away botanical knowledge and
a homesteader's arm. I t was considered backbreaking b u t heroic
centuries o f breeding i n one f e f l swoop.
w o r k , at least b y w h i t e settlers. A Sioux I n d i a n w a t c h i n g a sodbuster
T o o late, farmers realized t h a t t o u t e d yields were only p r o m i s e d ;
t u r n prairie roots skyward was reported t o have shaken his head and
n o t guaranteed. I n y o u r p a r t o f the w o r l d , the fine p r i n t read y o u
said, " W r o n g side u p . " M i s t a k i n g w i s d o m f o r backwardness, the set-
m a y have t o do a h t t i e goosing t o get advertised y i e l d s - m o r e water
tlers laughed as t h e y r e t o l d the story, ignoring the w a r n i n g shots t h a t
m o r e t h o r o u g h t i l l i n g , m o r e pest p r o t e c t i o n , m o r e artificial fertilizer!
fired w i t h each p o p p i n g r o o t .
B u t once the f a r m e r next door h a d taken the bait and started t o
H a v i n g b r o k e n t h e prairie, w e were ripe f o r the 1930s disaster
grow h i g h - y i e l d i n g varieties, y o u h a d t o as weU, so as n o t t o be l e f t
o f deep d r o u g h t and relentless winds called the D u s t B o w l . I t got so
b e h i n d . Together, like a slow p o u r over a large falls, w e s w i t c h e d t o
bad o u r t o p s o i l started s h o w i n g u p on the decks o f ships a h u n d r e d
a system of f a r m i n g t h a t m i m i c k e d industry, n o t nature.
miles o f f the A t l a n t i c coast. O n e day i n 1935, as officials i n W a s h -
Chasing economies o f scale, experts advised farmers t o get b i g
i n g t o n , D . C . , were h e m m i n g and h a w i n g about w h a t t o do, a c l o u d
or get o u t . M e c h a n i z a t i o n a l l o w e d t h e m t o "service" larger fields
o f Great Plains soil f o r t u i t o u s l y b l e w i n t o t o w n . A f r i g h t e n e d C o n -
w i t h less labor, b u t i t meant steep capital investments: m o r e land
gress coughed, teared, and eventually created the Soil Conservation
bigger e q u i p m e n t , enormous debt. For the small operator, there was
Service [SCS), an agency t h a t w o u l d cajole and even pay farmers to
suddenly no r o o m t o dance i n t h e margin, or t o take care o f y o u r
conserve t h e i r soil. SCS agents were evangelical, and farmers were
land the w a y y o u ' d like. W h e n y o u are i n debt f o r a $100 0 0 0 c o m -
 18 / Biomimicry
bine, y o u can't a f f o r d t o s w i t c h t o alfalfa one year t o rest t h e land.
T o h o l d the debt at bay, and to q u a l i f y f o r government subsidies,
y o u have t o f a r m v o l u m e .
W e q u i c k l y w e n t f r o m growing f o o d t o sustain ourselves t o
g r o w i n g so m u c h f o o d i t became a surplus—an e x p o r t i t e m and a
p o l i t i c a l t o o l . T h e f a r m became just another f a c t o r y p r o d u c i n g an-
other p r o d u c t t h a t w o u l d keep the U n i t e d States i n the global c a t b i r d
seat. T h e i n t e r n a l controllers, those farmers w i t h t h e i r ears t o the
land, d e t e r m i n e d t o pass o n good fertile soil t o t h e i r progeny, gave
way t o remote-distance controllers—agribusiness and p u b l i c policy.
T o serve these "distance princes," as Grassland author Richard
M a n n i n g puts i t , i n d u s t r i a l farmers abandoned t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f
managing t h e i r lands, such as rotating crops, l i m i n g and f e r t i h z i n g
w i t h animal m a n u r e , or p r o d u c i n g a diversity o f products i n case one
crop failed. Instead, t h e y "focused" t h e i r farms—selling o f f t h e i r
livestock and s w i t c h i n g t o one species g r o w n i n continuous cropping,
w h i c h is, i n effect, continuous robbing. T h e y p r o p p e d u p flagging
soil f e r t i l i t y w i t h artificial nitrogen fertilizer p r o d u c e d w i t h natural
gas. W e e d c o m p e t i t i o n was quelled w i t h herbicides, another petro-
l e u m p r o d u c t , w h i l e oil-based chemicals were used as a p r o p h y l a c t i c
against pest outbreaks ( w h i c h b y n o w were extreme, thanks t o acres
o f i d e n t i c a l plants w i t h identical vulnerabilities). Suddenly, f o r the
first t i m e i n t e n thousand years o f agriculture, farmers were b e h o l d e n
to t h e p r o t e c t i o n r i n g o f p e t r o l e u m and chemical companies, and
were said t o be g r o w i n g t h e i r crops n o t so m u c h i n soil as i n o i l .
Once o n t h a t t r e a d m i l l , the feedback loops began. Weeds and
pests are w i l y b y nature, and even i f y o u spray t h e m one year, n o t
all o f t h e m w i l l die. Those t h a t manage t o hack an i m m u n i t y explode
the n e x t year, r e q u i r i n g even heavier doses o f biocides. I n t h e esca-
lating w a r o f "crops and robbers," the m o r e y o u spray, the m o r e y o u
have t o spray.
W h o ' s winning? Since 1945, pesticide use has risen 3,300 per-
cent, b u t overall crop loss t o pests has n o t gone d o w n . I n fact, despite
our p o u n d i n g t h e U n i t e d States w i t h 2.2 b i l l i o n pounds o f pesticides
annually, crop losses have increased 20 percent. I n the meantime,
m o r e t h a n five h u n d r e d pests have developed resistance t o our m o s t
p o w e r f u l chemicals. O n t o p o f t h a t bad news, the last t h i n g w e w a n t
to hear is t h a t o u r soils are also b e c o m i n g less p r o d u c t i v e . O u r an-
swer has been t o rocket-boost f e r t i l i t y w i t h 20 m i l l i o n tons o f an-
hydrous a m m o n i u m f e r t i h z e r a year—as many as 160 pounds per
person i n this c o u n t r y alone.
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 19
Recentiy, the p r o t e c t i o n racket has j u m p e d t o a w h o l e n e w level
o f menace. T u n e i n t o T V i n an agricultural state, and y o u ' l l see a
slick c o m m e r c i a l f o r a crop seed t h a t comes pretreated w i t h a her-
bicide t h a t kills weeds b u t doesn't h a r m the growing seedling. Be-
cause the p l a n t has been specially b r e d to g r o w unscathed b y t h a t
b r a n d o f herbicide and none other, t h e company is assured f u t u r e
sales. There's something unsavory about this. A dependence f o r m s ,
and p r o d u c t loyalty is instilled w i t h n o question about the w i s d o m
o f using t h a t p r o d u c t . Evidently, this latest move has been i n the
o f f i n g f o r q u i t e some time. A c c o r d i n g t o a December 1982 Mother
Jones article b y M a r k Schapiro, at least sixty U.S. seed companies
were sold between 1972 and 1982, all o f t h e m t o chemical and pe-
t r o l e u m companies. A t last count, sixty-eight companies have plans
to i n t r o d u c e t h e i r o w n seed/herbicide combos. G o o d news, t h e y say:
N o w t h a t farmers d o n ' t have t o w o r r y about seedhngs s u f f e r i n g f r o m
year-to-year herbicide carryover ( w h i c h used t o l i m i t herbicide use),
t h e y can use as m u c h as they w a n t .
T h i s is the l a n d o f news t h a t s h o u l d w o r r y all o f us. A t last
count, leaching pesticide residues made agriculture the number-one
p o l l u t i n g i n d u s t r y i n this country. A t stake is groundwater, w h i c h
supplies h a l f the U.S. p o p u l a t i o n w i t h its d r i n k i n g supply, and w h i c h
is nearly impossible to clean once contaminated. Farm families al-
ready k n o w about c o n t a m i n a t i o n . Recent studies have s h o w n t h a t
people l i v i n g i n r u r a l parts o f Iowa, Nebraska, and Illinois are likely
to have pesticide residues i n t h e i r wells, and to have higher t h a n
n o r m a l risks o f developing leukemia, l y m p h o m a , and other cancers.
N i t r a t e levels ( f r o m f e r t i l i z e r ) i n the d r i n k i n g water o f m a n y f a r m
c o m m u n i t i e s also exceed federal standards, w h i c h may be w h y mis-
carriage rates i n f a r m families are unusually high.
Nitrates are n o t the only t h i n g draining f r o m f a r m l a n d . M o n e y
is, too. I n 1900, i f y o u p u t a dollar's w o r t h o f material and energy
inputs i n t o y o u r f a r m , y o u ' d produce $4.00 w o r t h o f crops, an i n p u t -
t o - p r o d u c t i o n ratio o f 1:4. Today, even t h o u g h w e p r o d u c e m o r e
f o o d , o u r genetically pauperized, o i l - h u n g r y crops cost m o r e t o grow.
I t takes $2.70 w o r t h o f oil-based inputs t o produce $4.00 w o r t h o f
crops, an i n p u t - t o - p r o d u c t i o n ratio o f only 1:1.5,
Moreover, because o f the crops and robbers feedback effect, w e
w i l l c o n t i n u e t o need m o r e and m o r e inputs. Already, C o r n e l l U n i -
versity ecologist D a v i d P i m e n t e l reckons t h a t society spends t e n k i l -
ocalories o f hydrocarbons to produce one kilocalorie o f f o o d . T h a t
means each o f us eats t h e equivalent o f t h i r t e e n barrels o f o i l a year.
 20 / Biomimicry
A u t h o r R i c h a r d M a n n i n g cuts t h r o u g h these statistics t o ask t h e i m -
p o r t a n t question: W h e n y o u h^ve a system t h a t is one p a r t f a r m e r
and nine parts o i l , w h o do y o u t h i n k w i l l have t h e u l t i m a t e power?
N o t small farmers, and certainly n o t the landscape.
A c c o r d i n g t o data collected b y I o w a State U n i v e r s i t y m 199J,
m o s t f a r m famihes n o w rely o n o f f - f a r m revenues f o r one halt of
t h e i r i n c o m e . Those w h o d o n ' t make i t w i n d u p selling t o those w i t h
ready c a s h - c o r p o r a t i o n s , syndicates, investors. T h i s spiral leads t o
f e w e r f a m i l y farms and a b r a i n drain f r o m the r u r a l countryside a
tragedy t h a t Wes Jackson calls " f e w e r eyes per acre." Already, 85
percent o f our f o o d and fiber comes f r o m 15 percent o f our farms.
These megafarms are hardly w h a t Thomas Jefferson envisioned w h e n
he saw a n a t i o n o f y e o m a n farmers tending t h e i r 160 acres, beholden
t o no one.
W h a t ' s most dangerous about this dependency—the crops o n
us and us o n p e t r o l e u m - i s t h a t i t keeps us t o o busy t o t h i n k w h a t
t h e real problems m i g h t be. Fertihzer, f o r instance, masks the real
p r o b l e m o f soil erosion caused b y a t i l l agriculture o f annuals. Pes-
ticides mask a second real p r o b l e m : the inherent brittleness o f ge-
netically identical monocultures. M o n e y b o r r o w e d t o pay f o r t h e
fossil-fuel inputs masks a t h i r d real p r o b l e m : the fact t h a t industria
agriculture n o t only destroys the soil and water, i t strangles r u r a l
c o m m u n i t i e s . T h o u g h w e d o n ' t w a n t t o a d m i t i t , our farins have
become factories o w n e d b y absentee interests. W i t h our help, they
are l i q u i d a t i n g the ecological capital t h a t t o o k t h e prairie five t h o u -
sand years t o accumulate. Every day, our soil, our crops, and our
people g r o w a l i t t i e more vulnerable.
W h a t I w a n t t o k n o w is, h o w l o n g can our denial hold?
Before I get t o o deep i n t o despair, I r e m i n d myself t h a t I a m headed
t o m e e t t h e one group o f researchers w h o have stepped f r o m denial s
shadow and made i t t h e i r business t o expose t h e c r u m b l i n g f o u n -
dations o f this system. T h e people at T h e L a n d I n s t i t u t e - f i f t e e n
staff members, nine interns, and three staff v o l u n t e e r s - a r e c o m -
m i t t e d t o devising an agriculture t h a t is, i n D i r e c t o r Wes Jackson s
words, " m o r e resilient t o h u m a n f o l l y . " O n one o f m y d r i v i n g breaks
I reread T h e L a n d Institute's literature, and its quiet, d e t e r m i n e d
tone assures m e as m u c h as i t amazes me. A t core these researchers
are farmers, and they t h i n k there is n o t h i n g m o r e sacred t h a n t h e
pact b e t w e e n humans and t h e land t h a t gives t h e m t h e i r f o o d . B u t
t h e y are also realists, and it's made t h e m revolutionaries. T h e y re n o t
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 21
a f r a i d t o acknowledge t h a t it's n o t j u s t a f e w problems in agriculture
t h a t need overhauling. It's the p r o k e m of agriculture i t s e l f
T h e p r o b l e m o f agriculture is an o l d and pervasive one, explains
Wes Jackson i n a series o f books i n c l u d i n g New Roots for Agriculture,
Altars of Unhewn Stone, and Meeting the Expectations of the Land. I t
comes f r o m an insistence on d e c o u p l i n g ourselves f r o m nature, f r o m
replacing natural systems w i t h totally alien systems, and f r o m waging
w a r on, rather t h a n allying ourselves w i t h , natural processes. T h e
result has been a steady loss o f ecological capital—the erosion and
salting o f soil, t h e steady domesticating and weakening o f our crops.
T o find our w a y back, says Jackson, w e have t o r e m e m b e r w h a t the
ancestors o f " o u r " crops were like i n t h e i r o w n element.
Once w i l d creatures, our agricultural charges were shaped b y an
ecological c o n t e x t t h a t bears l i t t i e resemblance to our f a r m i n g . T h e i r
natural ecosystems ran on sunhght, sponsored t h e i r o w n f e r t i l i t y ,
f o u g h t t h e i r o w n pest batties, and h e l d d o w n , even huilt, soil. B u t
l o n g ago, plants were r e m o v e d f r o m the original relationships they
h a d w i t h t h e i r ecosystems and pressed i n t o our service. N o w , writes
Jackson, " O u r interdependency has become so complete that, i f p r o -
prietorship is the subject, w e m u s t acknowledge t h a t i n some re-
spects they o w n us." T o break this codependent cycle, w e have t o
stop fighting our crops' battles and instead raise hardy crops i n a
f a r m i n g system t h a t brings o u t t h e i r natural strengths.
THE PARABLE OF THE PRAIRIE
"Essentially, w e have to f a r m t h e w a y nature farms." W e s Jaclcson,
sixty-year-old fourth-generation Kansas farmer and modern-day
Cain-raiser, arrived at t h a t simple conclusion years ago, before he
had t h e language t o speak o f i t . I t was his sixteenth summer and he
was away f r o m his f a m i l y ' s Kansas f a r m , r o p i n g and riding o n his
cousin's cattie ranch i n S o u t h D a k o t a . Fie was amazed t h a t no one
p l a n t e d or tended i t , yet the grass came u p year after year, d r o u g h t
or no drought, t h r o u g h snow and blistering sun, There were rattie-
snakes coiled right i n the m i d d l e o f it, and b u r r o w i n g owls standing
sentry outside t h e i r holes. "There was a rightness t o i t a l l , " he
says n o w .
A n o t h e r good rain f e l l w h i l e Jackson was w o r k i n g t o w a r d his
P h . D . i n genetics at Nori;h Carolina State. H i s adviser, Ben S m i t h ,
p o p p e d his head i n the door one evening and declared: " W e need
 22 / Biomimiay
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 23

wilderness as a standard against w h i c h t o judge our agricultural prac-

tices." W i t h this, the seed coat split, and a slow r o o t began to
burrow.
arrive. Jn t h e Land s t w e n t y years o f existence, its original 28
W h e n Jackson was thirty-seven, on the fast track t o tenure after
w r i t i n g a successful t e x t called Man and the Environment, he got
uneasy. T h o u g h he h a d an enviable post as creator o f t h e E n v i r o n -
m e n t a l Studies D e p a r t m e n t at California State U n i v e r s i t y i n Sacra-
m e n t o , he f e l t he wasn't where he was meant t o be. T o the
astonishment o f his colleagues, he and his w i f e , Dana, packed u p
t h e i r three kids and r e t u r n e d h o m e t o Kansas. T h e y m o v e d i n t o a
partially earth-sheltered house t h a t they h a d b u i l t along the Smoky
H i l l River, and i n 1976, they began a school t h a t focused o n sus-
tainable l i v i n g practices. T h a t school w o u l d become T h e L a n d Insti-
he te Is m e . "Starting where all our t h i n k i n g starts ' ^
t u t e , a n o n p r o f i t research organization devoted to "an agriculture
t h a t w i l l save soil f r o m being lost or poisoned w h i l e p r o m o t i n g a As w e wade i n t o the knee-high W a u h o b , Piper comes t o l i f e
c o m m u n i t y o f l i f e at once prosperous and e n d u r i n g . " T h i s n e w ag- unconsciously b e n d i n g and t u r n i n g the heads o f the p l a n t s " he t a f e
r i c u l t u r e w o u l d take wilderness as its m o d e l , nature as its measure. hke a teacher t o u c h i n g the heads o f students as they w o r k T W h

I n Kansas, t h e wilderness was tallgrass prairie, the natural ex- — " n S v '""^'^ '^"'^^'^ ^''^''^choked'wTf b l ™ Ï
grasses gently p o u r m g over, seeds setting, n e w shoots g r o w i n g r u n
pression o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g layers o f soil, the carnival o f weather, the
l i c k i n g o f fire, and the grazing o f elk and bison. Prairie is w h a t Kansas
l a n d wants t o be, b u t f o r t h e most part, is no more,
=:?S^fl^^^^^^
I a m startled, t h e n , b y w h a t I see w h e n I t u r n d o w n W a t e r W e l l
Road t o T h e L a n d I n s t i t u t e . W i t h no warning, the bristle o f w h e a t
fields yields t o a softer ensemble o f w i l d - h a i r e d plants, stems akimbo, s l z ~ ' f s ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " r ^ ^ " heights a ^ d ^ r s "
saturated w i t h color and raucous w i t h flowers and tasseled stalks. As
I w a t c h , w i n d enters hke a dancer onto a c r o w d e d floor, parting the repetMon ' ^^^""^'^ ^ ' ' ^ ^^^-^^^ - thdr
c r o w d , causing a b o b b i n g and dodging o f plants i n its wake. T h e Piper talks about t h e plants as i f t h e y are neighbors i n a mm
w h o l e t h i n g sways crazily f o r a m o m e n t , t h e n settles i n a perfect t h H ^ F " ^ ' " r '^"u^' ' ^ ^ ^ p - - o n e s thar^;- r j s " '
hush, like a b a n d ending a j a m b y feel.
A sign b y the road says t h a t this is T h e W a u h o b , a prairie m i -
raculously spared a sodbusting, probably because i t was u p gradient,
and h a r d t o get plows t o . M y car literally rolls t o a stop as I gawk,
so w e l c o m e is this sight after the acre u p o n acre o f r a m r o d efficiency
I've d r i v e n t h r o u g h . F r o m where I a m n o w , I can see b o t h w h e a t
field and prairie, and it's like a visual parable—Jacob and Esau, c u t
f r o m t h e same c l o t h b u t o f very d i f f e r e n t character. O n e is t h e ex-
pression o f imposed w i l l , the other t h e expression o f t h e land's w i l l .
A n understanding i n t e r n spots me and interrupts his organic garden-
? r "^'^^ n^°«t ° f a gentle r a i r he
ing chores t o give m e directions t o the office.
T h e L a n d Institute headquarters is a m o d e r n b r i c k house t h a t
was once h o m e t o an older couple. T h e bedrooms are n o w offices.

sie teaspoon, , 1 , tu„„An,. e a . , „ g , and excreting, ZéZZ J ,

 24 / Biomimiay How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 25

soil c r u m b b y c r u m b . T h r o u g h their magic, dissolved nutrients are on a prairie roster, and w h a t ratios they are in? Does i t m a t t e r w h e r e
released t o t h i r s t y roots or stored i n h u m u s - t h e t i l t h t h a t transforms t h e y g r o w i n relation t o one another? I n search o f answers. Piper
the prairie i n t o a l i v i n g sponge. read everything he c o u l d about prairie ecology, and t h e n spent seven
glorious summers u p t o his eyebrows i n w i l d pastures. H e and his
T h e character o f this b e l o w g r o u n d w o r l d is an expression of t h e
interns actually t o o k scissors and c l i p p e d and bagged all the vegeta-
bedrock, organic matter, rainfall, temperature, Hght conditions, and
tion i n certain plots. T h e y i d e n t i f i e d each and every plant, separated
most i m p o r t a n t , the p l a n t and animal c o m m u n i t y above. P w c k or
t h e m o u t i n t o piles, and t h e n d r i e d and w e i g h e d t h e m t o find o u t
p l a n t something n e w and y o u change t h e microecology shghtly.
w h a t grew there. T h r o u g h w e t years and d r y years, i n rich soil and
Plow, spray, and harvest every year, and y o u change i t p l e n t y Some
poor. Piper f o u n d t h a t prairies do have a p a t t e r n t h a t repeats itself,
o f the organisms y o u lose m i g h t be those t h a t sponsor f e r t i l i t y , or
an order i n the seeming chaos.
help stave o f f insect and disease attacks, or produce hormones t h a t
t e l l a f l o w e r t o u n f u r l or a r o o t t o push its snout deeper i n t o the soil. " T h e first t h i n g t h a t strikes us," says Piper, "is t h a t ninety-nine
I t takes years t o t u n e such an orchestra o f microhelpers, b u t j u s t p o i n t nine percent o f t h e plants are perennials. T h e y cover the
g r o u n d t h r o u g h o u t the year, h o l d i n g the soil against w i n d and break-
moments t o silence i t . , 1 1
ing t h e force o f raindrops. H a r d rain hits this canopy o f plants and
T h e secret o f the prairie is its ability t o m a i n t a i n b o t h above-
i t either runs gently d o w n t h e stems or i t turns i n t o a mist. By con-
g r o u n d and b e l o w g r o u n d assembhes i n a dynamic steady state. It's
trast, w h e n rain hits r o w crops, i t strikes exposed soil, packs i t , t h e n
not t h e f a c t t h a t n o t h i n g changes on the prairie (patches are always
runs o f f , taldng precious topsoil w i t h i t . " Researchers have actually
pulsing w i t h change], b u t t h a t the changes are never catastrophic. A
measured the difference; i n identical downpours, t h e y f o u n d t h a t
prairie keeps pest populations i n check, rebounds g r a c e f u l l y f r o m
you get eight times as m u c h runoflF f r o m a wheat field as f r o m a
disturbance, and resists b e c o m i n g w h a t i t is n o t — a forest or a w e e d
prairie.
garden. . t
'Trairies j u s t soak u p a b i g r a i n , " says Piper. " I can come o u t
" O u r goal at T h e L a n d Institute is t o design a domestic p l a n t
here hours later, and T h e W a u h o b still squishes w h e n I w a l k on i t . "
c o m m u n i t y t h a t behaves like a prairie, b u t t h a t is predictable enough
Besides being great sponges, perennials are also self-fertilizing
i n terms o f seed y i e l d t o be feasible f o r agriculture," says Piper. T o
and self-weeding. T h i r t y percent o f t h e i r roots die and decay each
illustrate, he heads downslope f r o m T h e W a u h o b t o stand in^the
year, adding organic matter t o the soil. T h e remaining t w o thirds o f
zone b e t w e e n t h e prairie and wheat field I saw earlier. " D o w n there
the roots overwinter, allowing perennials t o p o p open t h e i r u m b r e l l a
is our current agricultural ideal; we k n o w i t isn't sustainable, m a m l y
of vegetation first t h i n g i n the spring, long before weeds can struggle .
because i t loses soil and requires nonrenewable inputs. U p where
u p f r o m seed. A s w e w a l k t h r o u g h a particularly dense patch o f
y o u are, w e have a sustainable ideal, b u t i t w o n ' t f e e d us. Concep-
prairie. Piper crows, "See? Y o u w o u l d n ' t have a chance i n there i f
tually, w e ' d like t o be somewhere i n here, between the c o n t r o l l e d
you were a weed.
rigidity of the w h e a t field and the wildness o f t h e prairie."
" T h e second t h i n g t h a t strikes us about the prairie is its diver-
It's a concept t h a t I ' d read about i n chaos and c o m p l e x i t y l i t -
sity," Piper says. " W e have t w o h u n d r e d and t h i r t y - o d d species r i g h t
erature. There exists a sweet spot between chaos and order, gas and
here o n this k n o b — n o t j u s t one species o f warm-season grass, b u t
crystal w i l d and tame. I n t h a t spot hes the p o w e r f u l l y creative force
f o r t y species. N o t j u s t one n i t r o g e n - f i x i n g legume, b u t t w e n t y or
o f self-organization, w h i c h c o m p l e x i t y researcher Stuart K a u f m a n n
t h i r t y . T h a t means t h a t there w i l l always be some species or some
calls "order f o r f r e e . " T r o p i c a l agroecologist Jack E w e l also alludes
variety o f a species t h a t can do w e l l i n our highly variable Great
to this free ordering w h e n he says, " I m i t a t e the vegetative structure
Plains climate. I've been o u t here i n d r y years w h e n the grasses barely
of an ecosystem, and y o u w i l l be granted f u n c t i o n . "
reach y o u r knee and there's yucca everywhere. O t h e r years, after
As the first step t o w a r d an agriculture t h a t organizes itself i n t o
p l e n t y o f rain, y o u and I c o u l d stand three feet apart and n o t be able
arrangements o f strength. Piper's j o b was t o ascertain j u s t w h a t i t
to see each other t h r o u g h the b i g bluestem. T h e species c o m p o s i t i o n
was about the prairie's structure t h a t made i t so t o u g h . Is there a
remains t h e same, b u t d i f f e r e n t species excel i n d i f f e r e n t years."
rule o f t h u m b about w h i c h categories o f plants consistently show u p
 26 / Biomimicry
D i v e r s i t y is also the cheapest and best f o r m o f pest control.
" M a n y pests t e n d t o speciahze on one host p l a n t species, so w h e n
there's a diverse m i x , pests have a harder t i m e finding t h e i r target
p l a n t Even i f they manage to t o u c h d o w n somewhere i n t h e field,
t h e attack troops d o n ' t get very far. Disease spores m a y b l o w onto
the w r o n g plant, or' insect young m a y c r a w l i n t o t h e w r o n g b u d .
W i t h a diverse o f f e r i n g , attacks die d o w n b e f o r e they become epi-
'^^"'tL t h i r d signature o f the prairie is its f o u r classic plant types:
warm-season grasses, cool-season grasses, legumes, and composites.
Cool-season grasses come u p early, set seed, and t h e n b o w o u t of
the way, allowing warm-season grasses such as b i g bluestem t o rule
t h e rest o f t h e season. Legumes such as cat's-claw, sensitive brier,
and leadplant fix t h e i r o w n nitrogen, f e r t i h z i n g the prairie w i t h their
bodies. Composites, such as goldenrod, asters, and compass plants,
can flower anytime t h r o u g h o u t the season. A l t h o u g h these four
"suits" m a y vary i n p r o p o r t i o n f r o m place t o place, Piper f o u n d
t h e m i n every prairie he w a d e d t h r o u g h .
"Learning the secrets o f the prairie gave us a goal t o shoot Un
as w e s i f t e d t h r o u g h the countless combinations o f plants t h a t w o u l d
q u a l i f y as prairie m i m i c s i n our agriculture. W e k n e w w e ne.-ded
perennial grains g r o w n i n a polyculture, w i t h the four suits ol UK-
prairie represented. T h e only question was h o w many d i f f e r e n t spe-
cies i n each group w i l l w e have t o plant? Since it's impractical lo
have an agriculture w i t h t w o h u n d r e d species, h o w m u c h diversity
w i l l w e need t o get f u n c t i o n a l stability? O u r i n t u i t i o n t o l d us lhat
w e w o u l d probably have t o plant many m o r e species t h a n w e nwd
and l e t the assemblage shake d o w n over a f e w years t o the handlul
t h a t w o u l d p r o v i d e h u m a n f o o d . Just about then, ' c o m m u n i t y as-
sembly' studies started t o show u p i n the literature, and they sug-
gested t h a t y o u c o u l d get persistent c o m m u n i t i e s containing as low
as eight species. T h a t was encouraging t o us."
Breeding eight perennial crop species f r o m scratch looks more
feasible t h a n breeding t w o hundred, b u t it's still a daunting chal-
lenge Today, most o f the f o o d eaten around the w o r l d comes Irom
only about t w e n t y species, and none o f t h e m are perennials! S.jme
began as perennials, b u t over the ten-thousand-year odyssey of i^ant
breeding, w e systematicaUy removed t h e i r hardy perennial traits,
m a r c h i n g right b y the sweet spot between w i l d and tame, and do-
mesticating t h e m u n t i l they were annual b y nature.
A story is t o l d about the m o m e n t Wes Jackson reahzed the lull
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 27
oxti-nt o f this u n h a p p y extreme i n agriculture. Shortly after starting
his school, Jackson t o o k his students on a field t r i p to the eight-
thousand-acre Konsa Prairie near Manhattan, Kansas. O n e o f t h e m
asked the innocent question, " A r e there any perennial grains?," and
i l made Jackson t h i n k . W h e n he got back, he drew u p a list o f all
the cTops he c o u l d t h i n k of, separating t h e m into either annual or
perennial, herbaceous or w o o d y , vegetative or seed/fruit yielding. T o
ins surprise, there were crops t h a t fit i n t o almost all the categories,
hut there was a glaring blank i n the space f o r HERBACEOUS, SEED-
Yii-i.iviNG PERENNIAL. I t was a revelation i n black-and-white.
PERENNIAL OPTIMISTS
.Iaif<son and his staff started tearing apart the literature—surely
si)nicone must have done some p l a n t breeding on perennial grains.
'They were disturbed to find t h a t no one, save some folks looldng at
animal forage, had studied seed-yielding perennial grasses or legumes
or composites. T h e reason?
" I t was a nonstarter f o r career-oriented scientists," says Jaclcson.
"Tlie c o m m o n w i s d o m was t h a t perennials, w h i c h spend most o f
iheir energy b e l o w g r o u n d , could never be made to produce copious
seeds [the part t h a t humans eat]. I f they were to y i e l d m o r e seeds,
tiie thinking w e n t , there w o u l d be a t r a d e - o f f b e l o w g r o u n d , ancl
they'd lose their ability t o o v e r w i n t e r . "
.lackson, w h o ' d made a career o f bucldng conventional t h o u g h t ,
.said not so fast. T h e first question T h e L a n d Institute assigned i t s e l f .
was the one everyone else had slapped:
Can a perennial produce as much seed as an annual crop?
A f t e r t w o more years o f library safaris and actual p l a n t i n g ex-
perience. T h e L a n d Institute staff was convinced t h a t perennials
wM be bred to y i e l d p l e n t i f u l seeds w i t h o u t losing t h e i r perennial
traits. Illinois b u n d l e f l o w e r and w i l d senna, f o r example, were t w o
wild perennials that, w i t h absolutely no breeding, already ap-
l)roaclied the benchmark y i e l d (the floor range] f o r wheat i n Kansas:
eight hundred pounds per acre. Considering t h a t the w i l d relatives
(if some o f our crops have undergone four-, five-, even t w e n t y f o l d
•seed-yield increases at the hands o f talented breeders, the chances o f
i-'I'Piiif; yields f o r these n e w crops were good.
'I he t r i c k this t i m e around w o u l d be to increase seed y i e l d with-
t>Hl stripping the p l a n t o f its w i l d hardiness. Curious to see w h a t artifi-
 28 / Biomimiay
cially increased seed y i e l d w o u l d do to plant vigor, Jacksons
daughter, Laura Jackson, a researcher at the University o f N o r t h e r n
I o w a conducted an e x p e r i m e n t that showed t h a t a plant need n o t
sacrifice p h o t o s y n t h a t e - t h e ability to feed i t s e l f - w h e n i t puts o u t
lots o f seeds. I n short, t h e trade-offs were n o t as strict as everyone
imagined, and i t seemed t h a t the chimera T h e L a n d Institute w a n t e d
to create was w e l l w i t h i n the realm o f the possible.
I n 1978 the staff embarked on the painstaldng process of breed-
ing crops f o r the domestic prairie. T h e y w o u l d have t o possess n o t
only hardiness b u t also "crop c h a r a c t e r " - q u a l i t i e s like good taste
and ease o f threshing. Since the breeding o f most o f the crops w e
eat today was f a i r l y w e l l w r a p p e d u p by Abraham's t i m e , crop do-
mestication o f this sort was a brave n e w venture. T h e precedent f o r
this w o r k completely disappears w h e n y o u consider t h a t Jackson and
crew were shooting f o r crops t h a t were dependable, b u t not depend-
ent o n us. , 1
There were t w o ways they could w i n d u p w i t h a perennial
g r a i n - o n e , they c o u l d start w i t h a w i l d perennial and boost its seed
y i e l d and crop character, or t w o , they c o u l d start w i t h an annual t h a t
already h a d good crop character and cross i t w i t h a perennial w i l d
relative t o refresh its m e m o r y about h o w to survive the w i n t e r . N o w
all they needed were candidates. , r.
G o i n g on catalog descriptions o f native perennials m each of the
groups, t h e y ordered nearly five thousand d i f f e r e n t types of seed
f r o m governmental seed collections and planted t h e m i n the u n d u -
lating fields b y the Smoky H i l l River, Those t h a t survived w e l l m
Kansas weather and h a d a w h i f f o f a hope f o r h i g h seed y i e l d became
candidates i n t h e i r breeding program. T h e y planted the seeds and
w a i t e d anxiously, as farmers do, to see h o w the plants m a t u r e d . Be-
sides seed yield, t h e y were also looking f o r agronomic characteristics
i m p o r t a n t t o a farmer: reduced seed shattering (so seed heads d o n ' t
break open and spill their grain before harvest), u n i f o r m t i m e ot
m a t u r i t y , ease o f threshing, and large seed size.
T h e f o u r most promising candidates f o r perennial domestication
t u r n e d o u t t o be eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), a sprawl-
ing warm-season grass t h a t is a relative o f corn; Illinois b u n d l e f l o w e r
(Desmanthus tlUnoensis], a legume t h a t grows t a l l and produces a
baby rattle o f seed pods; m a m m o t h w i l d r y e {Leymus racemosus], a
stout cool-season relative o f wheat t h a t the Mongols used to feast o n
w h e n d r o u g h t claimed t h e i r annuals; and M a x i m i h a n sunflower [He-
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 29
lianthus maximüiani£), a composite t h a t yields oil-rich seeds, w h i c h
could be pressed to create vegetable o i l diesel f u e l f o r tractors. T h e
second approach—starting w i t h an annual and h y b r i d i z i n g i t w i t h a
perennial—led t o the m i x o f m i l o grain sorghum, w h i c h is already
used as a crop, and perennial Johnsongrass.
N o w t h a t T h e L a n d has its l i n e u p , the breeding has begun i n
earnest. T h e very best individuals f r o m each species are g r o w n t o -
gether i n one p l o t so t h a t they can cross-pollinate. W h e n t w o p r o m -
ising strains " m a t e , " t h e hope is t h a t even m o r e bodacious o f f s p r i n g
w i l l f o l l o w . T h e seeds f r o m each trial are planted o u t ( i n various
kinds o f soil t o make sure the differences are t r u l y genetic, or inher-
itable, and n o t j u s t environmental), and the best individuals are se-
lected t o cross-pollinate once again. This process is repeated u n t i l
the i m p r o v e m e n t s due t o crossing show signs o f diminishing returns.
O n l y t h e n w i l l the breeders call t h e m good and begin the fine-tuning
process t o b r i n g o u t each strain's best features.
• 1
So far, o p t i m i s m at T h e L a n d is high, w h i c h means a shghtly
deeper n o d f r o m the incredibly modest Jon Piper w h e n I ask w h e t h e r
he's pleased w i t h t h e i r progress. H e walks m e among the m o n o c u l -
ture and p o l y c u l t u r e plots w h e r e the best o f the best are s h o w i n g
their s t u f f Some collections o f eastern gamagrass are bravely resisting
various leaf diseases, and certain collections o f b u n d l e f l o w e r and
gamagrass are yielding w e l l despite some drought. The most vigorous
crosses between Johnsongrass and grain sorghum are s h o w i n g b o t h
high seed y i e l d and good r h i z o m e p r o d u c t i o n . (Rhizomes are the
u n d e r g r o u n d runners t h a t allow plants t o store starch f o r w i n t e r , and
thereby survive.)
I n terms o f seed yield, there are already some superstars. Even
t h o u g h its f o o d value has yet t o be explored, says Piper, Ilhnois b u n -
dleflower is yielding seed quantities that approximate t h e typical
y i e l d o f nonirrigated soybeans i n Kansas. For eastern gamagrass,
w h i c h can be g r o u n d i n t o a cornmeal and baked i n t o a palatable
bread, t h e p o t e n t i a l t o i m p r o v e seed yields is great, thanks t o a va-
riety t h a t was discovered along a Kansas roadside. T h e collector no-
ticed t h a t instead o f the n o r m a l flower stalk, w h i c h is composed o f
about one i n c h o f female flowers t o p p e d by f o u r inches o f male
flowers, this sport had all female parts ( w h i c h t u r n i n t o seeds) except
at the very t i p . I f aU yielded, the sport c o u l d produce u p t o f o u r
times the n o r m a l a m o u n t o f seeds. A s Piper shows m e one o f the
stalks, I notice t h a t the female organs are green. " E x a c t l y , " he says.
 30 / Biomimicry
" T h a t means t h e y can photosynthesize and pay t h e i r o w n bills,
meaning the p l a n t w o n ' t necessarily have to trade o f f f e w e r roots i n
order t o support m o r e seeds. That's w h a t w e ' l l be t r y i n g t o show."
By taking o n this perennial-grain breeding challenge, folks at
T h e L a n d Institute were already m u c l d n g i n t h a t part o f the m a p
t h a t w a r n e d "serpents he here." W h i l e they were at i t , they t h o u g h t
t h e y ' d t r y f o r another first b y choosing most o f t h e i r candidates f r o m
native stock. [ T h e only p l a n t i n their lineup t h a t isn't native is m a m -
m o t h w i l d r y e . ) T h o u g h native stock seems an obvious choice, i t
hasn't been t o other breeders. M o s t o f our crops are exotics, b r o u g h t
over i n our traveling bundles f r o m M e x i c o and Europe. T h e only
native plants t h a t w e have ever domesticated i n this c o u n t r y are
sunflowers, cranberries, blueberries, pecans, C o n c o r d grapes, and Je-
rusalem artichokes. T h e L a n d Institute is t r y i n g t o lengthen this short
list, I m o w i n g t h a t natives are t u n e d t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n t o sing i n har-
m o n y w i t h the m e l o d y o f local conditions.
W h i l e coaxing agronomic manners f r o m these plants w i U be a
Pygmalion task, g r o w i n g t h e m i n monocultures at least gives breeders
a chance t o compare apples w i t h apples. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , says Jackson,
w e can't stay w i t h monocultures. T h e real H o l y G r a i l is t o g r o w
t h e m i n polyculture—mixed species plots—since, as nature has
s h o w n us, only polycultures are able to pay t h e i r o w n bills.
POLYCULTURE SHOCK
Polyculture is n o t music t o a breeder's ears. W h e n y o u are w o r k i n g
i n a p o l y c u l t u r e , y o u take aU the difficulties t h a t y o u encounter i n
m o n o c u l t u r e breeding and m u l t i p l y t h e m . Y o u are n o t only selecting
f o r h i g h yields, large seed size, u n i f o r m m a t u r a t i o n t i m e , easily
threshed seeds, l o w shattering, w i n t e r hardiness, disease and pest
resistance, and climate tolerance, b u t also f o r c o m p a t i b i l i t y — a
plant's ability t o p e r f o r m w e l l or even exceed performance w h e n
g r o w n n e x t t o other plants.
T h e L a n d Institute staff was essentially faced w i t h designing an
agricultural dinner party, deciding w h o should be seated n e x t t o
w h o m t o m a x i m i z e the beneficial interactions and m i n i m i z e the det-
r i m e n t a l ones. N a t u r e arranges these lands o f matchups all the t i m e
t h r o u g h the slow culling o f natural selection. C o u l d T h e L a n d some-
h o w m i m i c and speed u p this process?
" T h e t r a d i t i o n a l scientific m e t h o d o f f e r e d one w a y t o go about
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 31
It, says Piper, " a n d w e w o r k e d this w a y f o r a w h i l e — p l a n t i n g o u t
seedlings i n m i x e d plots, p u r p o s e f u l l y p u t t i n g certain species n e x t t o
others so w e c o u l d investigate t h e i r interactions." T h e p r o b l e m was
t h a t the n u m b e r o f possible combinations is astronomical, and n o t
even a M e n d e h a n m o n k ' s l i f e w o u l d be l o n g enough t o t r y t h e m all
Just as Piper and his colleagues started questioning this reductionist
approach, t h e y began t o read about recent developments i n the field
of c o m m u n i t y assembly.
James D r a k e and Stuart P i m m o f the U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee
study w h a t i t takes t o arrive at an assembly o f species t h a t r e m a i n
i n e q u i l i b r i u m , a c o n d i t i o n farmers w o u l d obvously w a n t f o r t h e i r
doinestic prairie. U n l i k e T h e L a n d staff, they do t h e i r experiments
w i t h ecosystems i n a c o m p u t e r [artificial l i f e ) and w i t h aquatic or-
ganisms i n glass tanks [real l i f e ) . T h e y begin by adding species i n
various combinations and t h e n l e t t i n g t h e m w o r k o u t w h o w i l l sur-
vive and m w h a t ratio. Eventually, w i t h o u t intervention, t h e c o m -
m u n i t y shakes d o w n i n t o something t h a t is b o t h c o m p l e x and
p e r s i s t e n t - o r d e r f o r free. " B u t w e d o n ' t get order i m m e d i a t e l y "
says P i m m . " W e get i t after a l o n g p e r i o d o f adding species t o c o m -
munities and w a t c h i n g t h e m come i n , displace other species, and go
e x t i n c t i n t h e i r t u r n . " I n other words, having a history is w h a t makes
a c o m m u n i t y last.
I n his famous " H u m p t y D u m p t y " hypothesis, P i m m maintains
t h a t once y o u destroy a finished p r o d u c t o f c o m m u n i t y assembly
such as a prairie, y o u can't j u s t p l a n t those same species and expect
to p u t It back together again. There's no such t h i n g as an instant
prairie. A prairie restorationist m u s t give the prairie a successional
history, t h a t is, actually g r o w t h e prairie over a trajectory o f years
Sonie plants w i l l b l o w i n and others w i l l d r o p out, b u t as those
facilitating species change the soil and the fauna and flora around
t h e m , they make it possible for the final assembly to be there T h e y
w a r m u p t h e c r o w d f o r the real act.
n. "'^!'^ Tr^^'^"" scientists," says the understated
Piper, and f o r farmers w h o w i l l someday g r o w diverse perennial
grams, is h o w t o get t h a t order quickly. W e ' r e n o t i n the business o f
creating prairies over a thousand years. W h a t w e w a n t t o do is b u i l d
c o m p ex, persistent systems t h a t shake d o w n w i t h i n a very f e w
years, ^
N o r do they have a thousand years to do the research. W h a t
Piper and c o m p a n y have decided t o t r y , i n addition t o t h e i r m o r e
reductionist experiments, is a " s h a k e d o w n " like those t h a t occur i n
 32 / Biomimicry
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 33

Pimm's and Drake's experiments. First, they laid o u t sixteen plots

(sixteen meters b y sixteen meters), t h e n r a n d o m l y broadcast seeds u/rlT; I ^ ' ^ ' " b / i l ^ ^ " k i - g about the e q u i p m e n t t h a t w i l l
be needed t o harvest the d i f f e r e n t crops at d i f f e r e n t times o f year
t h a t represented the prairie's four "suits": warm-season grasses, cool-
season grasses, legumes, and composites. I n some plots they sowed V " ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ perennials is going t o be different,'"
only four species, i n others eight, twelve, and sixteen. There are four says Piper. I t 11 be m o r e like forestry i n t h a t y o u have t o w a i t a
w h i l e t o get t o a harvestable stage. Also as w i t h forestry, y o u can't
replicates o f each treatment. H a l f o f the plots are being l e f t alone t o
j u s t start over each year. Y o u can't decide t o g r o w another crop
develop as they w i l l , and t h e other h a l f are called "replacement"
because pests are bad or the weather doesn't cooperate. Instead
plots. A f t e r t w o years, any species i n the replacement plots t h a t have
you 11 have t o plan u p front f o r m u l t i y e a r c o n d i t i o n s - w e a t h e r mar-
d r o p p e d o u t or f a i l e d t o germinate w i l l be replaced. " W e w a n t t o
kets, et cetera. Y o u r best hedge against disaster is going t o be variety
give our target species every o p p o r t u n i t y t o j o i n the c o m m u n i t y , "
mftt'' b ' * ^ ^ f ^ ^ ^ - l ° t s o f paints i n your palette so t h a t n ó
says Piper. " I t m a y be t h a t m a m m o t h w i l d r y e can't establish itself
matter w h a t the conditions, some species w i l l still flourish "
i n the first year or the second year, b u t i t can i n the t h i r d . "
Besides getting the domestic prairie t o take, visionaries at T h e
T h e y ' l l keep track o f w h i c h species comes on line w h e n , and
L a n d also w a n t i t t o f u l f i l l its promise agriculturally, ft has t o c o m -
w h i c h o f the plots leads t o t h e i r desired c o m m u n i t y first. A l l the
pete reasonably w e l l w i t h w h a t farmers are n o w growing. T h e final
w h i l e they w i l l be tracking changes i n the c o m m u n i t i e s and l o o k i n g
three questions t h a t occupy Piper and company have t o do w i t h the
f o r rules and patterns about h o w stable c o m m u n i t i e s assemble.
p o l y c u l t u r e performance from t h a t pragmatic p o i n t o f v i e w
W i t h i n a f e w g r o w i n g seasons, they w a n t t h e i r target perennial grains
C a n the polyculture yieUs stay even with or actually overyieU those
to be w e l l represented, and to y i e l d abundantly year after year w i t h - oj monocultures?
out weeding or seeding. I f a f e w other noncrop species are present
O v e r y i e l d i n g is the p h e n o m e n o n b y w h i c h a crop yields m o r e
i n t h e m i x , so be i t . " I f a p l a n t is consistently present, i t probably
per u n i t acre w h e n it's g r o w i n g i n a p o l y c u l t u r e than w h e n it's i n a
plays a role i n m a i n t a i n i n g stability," says Piper. Eventually, the "rec-
m o n o c u l t u r e . T u r n s o u t t h a t plants g r o w n n e x t t o d i f f e r e n t b u t c o m -
i p e " or t r a j e c t o r y t h e researchers discover w i l l be something they
p l e m e n t a r y neighbors d o n ' t have to compete t h e way t h e y do w h e n
can o f f e r t o farmers.
g r o w n n e x t t o an identical plant. T h e y ' r e n o t jostling r o o t elbows f o r
T h o u g h they d o n ' t k n o w all the particulars, Piper thinks a t y p -
the w a t e r m a particular level, f o r instance. N o r are they c o m p e t i n g
ical recipe m a y w o r k like this: Y o u t h r o w i n t h e r e c o m m e n d e d m i x
for the same plane o f sunshine. A s a result, the members o f a Lersl
o f species ( m o r e t h a n y o u need), m a k i n g sure t h a t all i m p o r t a n t p l a n t
c o m m u n i t y are actually capturing m o r e resources (and yielding
groups are represented. T h e n y o u sit back and w a t c h the t r a j e c t o r y
m o r e ) t h a n t h e y w o u l d under constant same-species c o m p e t i t i o n .
u n f o l d . T h e t r a j e c t o r y m i g h t take five years, say, b u t y o u w o u l d be
T h e literature is replete w i t h examples o f overyielding w h e n
rewarded w i t h a complex, persistent system.
" R i g h t n o w , f o r instance, we're seeing a flush o f annual weeds t o Z T " ' ^ ' '"'^ ' ' " d squash are p l a n t e d
t h e first and second year. T h e fields l o o k a w f u l at first, like a t o t a l together. Piper s charge was t o show t h a t overyielding c o u l d happen
failure, b u t the perennial seeds are i n there and b y the second or w ^ h perennials as w d l . "Sure enough, we're seeing i t , " he s^ys,
t h i r d year, they j u s t go whoosh and come i n t o t h e i r o w n . Somehow, l e t t i n g a grin escape w i t h this news. " N i n e t e e n ninety-five was thé
the e n v i r o n m e n t filters o u t w h a t works f r o m w h a t doesn't w o r k , so Z A t J r u Ï / °^ polycultures o f eastern gamagrass, w i l d r y e ,
and Illinois b u n d l e f l o w e r . W h e n compared w i t h t h e i r performances
y o u are l e f t w i t h t h e m o s t stable c o m b i n a t i o n . W e ' r e studying h o w
m m o n o c u l t u r e plants i n m i x t u r e s have consistently overyielded "
this happens, and w h a t steps w e m i g h t take t o help i t t o happen."
Lan the polyculture defend itself against insects, pests, and weeds^
As t h e i r plots mature. T h e L a n d Institute w i l l be e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h
Studies at T h e L a n d are s h o w i n g t h a t w h e n plants are g r o w n i n
various management techniques to favor perennial grains and t o get
bicultures and tricultures, they're better able to fight o f f insects and
t h e c o m m u n i t y t o gel. T h e resultant recipe m i g h t include a r e c o m -
diseases t h a n w h e n they're g r o w n i n monocultures, ft makes sense
m e n d a t i o n t o b u r n i n year t w o , m o w i n year three, or graze livestock
i f y o u t h i n k about i t . Plants d e f e n d themselves against insects w i t h
 34 / Biomimicry
chemical " l o c k s , " and at most, an insect carries only one or t w o
"keys" t o the plants i t is adapted t o eat. A n insect t h a t finds itself
i n a field o f n o t h i n g b u t its target plant is like a burglar w i t h the key
t o every house i n the neighborhood. I n a p o l y c u l t u r e , where all the
locks are d i f f e r e n t , finding f o o d is more o f a chore. A m i x e d neigh-
b o r h o o d is equally f r u s t r a t i n g f o r diseases t h a t specialize i n one plant.
A fungus m a y fester o n an individual, b u t w h e n i t releases its spores,
the leaves o f invulnerable plants act as a flypaper, bringing the f u n g a l
rampage t o a halt. That's w h y , although pests exist i n prairie p o l y -
cultures, y o u d o n ' t see the runaway d e c i m a t i o n t h a t y o u see i n m o n -
ocultures. Invasions are contained.
Just as w i t h overyielding, most o f the experimental evidence f o r
resistance comes f r o m studies on annual plants i n polycultures. I n
1983, C o r n e l l biologists Steve Risch, Dave A n d o w , and M i g u e l A l -
t i e r i reviewed 150 such studies and f o u n d t h a t 53 percent o f t h e
insect pest species w e r e less abundant i n annual polycultures t h a n i n
annual monocultures. Similarly, Australian ecologist Jeremy B u r d o n
s u m m a r i z e d 100 studies o f t w o - c o m p o n e n t m i x t u r e s and f o u n d t h a t
there were always f e w e r diseased plants i n t h e p o l y c u l t u r e . So far,
t h e same seems t o h o l d t r u e f o r the perennial polycultures p l a n t e d
at T h e L a n d . " I n the t h i r d year o f testing," says Piper, " w e had a
sudden b u i l d u p o f beetles o n b u n d l e f l o w e r . B u t only i n the m o n o -
cultures. T h e b u n d l e f l o w e r t h a t was g r o w n w i t h gamagrass was fine.
Polycultures also seem t o reduce or delay the onset o f maize d w a r f
mosaic virus, w h i c h can be a p r o b l e m on eastern gamagrass." Farm-
ers are especially i n t r i g u e d b y these results, since they seem t o i n -
dicate t h a t pesticides c o u l d be scaled back or even e l i m i n a t e d i n
polycultures. W i t h the t h o u g h t o f pesticides' gone. Piper and his col-
leagues began fantasizing about eliminating another petroleum-based
c r u t c h : nitrogen fertilizer.
Can the polyculture sponsor its own nitrogen fertility?
T h e question o f h o w m u c h nitrogen f e r t i h z e r a domestic prairie
w o u l d need has n o t been definitively answered as o f this w r i t i n g . So
far, t h o u g h , signs are p o i n t i n g t o l i t t l e or none. I n experiments con-
d u c t e d w i t h annuals, soil f e r t i l i t y always looks stronger i n a p o l y c u l -
ture, especially w h e n legumes are i n the p l o t . T i n y baUs o n the roots
o f a legume [such as Illinois b u n d l e f l o w e r ] are h o m e t o bacteria t h a t
have the ability t o t u r n atmospheric nitrogen i n t o plant f o o d . A s a
result, legumes find a niche i n nitrogen-poor soils, t h r i v i n g w h e r e
other plants falter. Plants growing near the self-sufficient legumes
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 35,
m a y also benefit f r o m stored nitrates t h a t r e t u r n t o the soil w h e n the
legume sheds a leaf, turns over a p o r t i o n o f its roots, or lays d o w n
its last.
I n i n i t i a l investigations o f polycultures t h a t include Illinois b u n -
dleflower. Piper f o u n d that, as predicted, b u n d l e f l o w e r can g r o w
b e a u t i f u l l y and y i e l d w e l l even i n poor soil, leaving the sofl character
actually i m p r o v e d . A s Piper relates i n scientific papers, " T h e soil
nitrate concentration i n f o u r - y e a r - o l d Illinois b u n d l e f l o w e r stands at
t h e poorer soil site was nearly identical t o t h a t on the better soil site
despite very d i f f e r e n t i n i t i a l nitrogen conditions." G r o w i n g legumes
IS like having a crop t h a t yields a harvest and simultaneously fertilizes
y o u r field. W h i c h is w h y , o f course, n o prairie w o u l d be w i t h o u t
them.
Despite the promise o f T h e L a n d Institute's w o r k , w e ' r e a long day
away f r o m finding gamagrass bread i n our local supermarkets—
t w e n t y - f i v e to fifty years, i f these researchers are t h e only ones
w o r k i n g . " W e ' r e at the K i t t y H a w k stage," says Jackson. " W e ' v e
demonstrated the principles o f drag and h f t , b u t we're n o t yet ready
t o fly people across the A t l a n t i c i n a Boeing seven-forty-seVen "
T h e y are ready t o make some t h r i l l i n g claims, however. I n E u -
gene, Oregon, I saw Wes Jackson give an audience goosebumps w i t h
diis statement: " A f t e r seventeen years o f scientific research i n p u r s u i t
o f answers t o f o u r basic biological questions. T h e L a n d I n s t i t u t e is
ready t o f o r m a l l y state t h a t our c o u n t r y can b u i l d an agriculture
based o n a f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t paradigm t h a n the one humans
have f e a t u r e d f o r the last eight t o ten thousand years." N e v e r losing
his sly f a r m - b o y h u m o r , Jackson w a i t e d f o r the applause t o break
and t h e n added, " A n d n o t only that, b u t w e t h i n k i t Just m i g h t solve
all manner o f m a r i t a l problems and end sin and death as w e k n o w
i t . " A l t h o u g h the r o o m roared, there was no mistaking t h e serious-
ness o f w h a t Jackson and his friends had accomplished.
I f t h e eroding Breadbasket is t o be transformed b y the w o r k at
T h e L a n d Institute, i t w i l l have sweeping repercussions. B u t our
Breadbasket is only one smaU p a r t o f the w o r l d ' s agricultural land.
W h a t Piper and Jackson and the rest w o u l d never dream o f doing is
i m p o r t i n g prairie agriculture everywhere. T h e natural systems f a r m ,
designed i n nature's image, w o u l d n o t l o o k the same i n all corners
o f the w o r l d , because ecosystems d i f f e r so drastically across the
globe. "Take the difference between t r o p i c a l rain forests and prai-
 36 / Biomimicry
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 37

ries," says Jackson. " I n the moist jungle, where water can be too grains can be g r o w n i n the same field f o r m a n y years w i t h o u t d i m i n -
abundant, y o u w a n t water purgers—plants t h a t can give o f f water ishmg soil f e r t i l i t y .
vapor quicldy. I n the droughty plains, y o u w a n t water hoarders." T h e neighboring farmers are curious. Whereas they spend t h e i r
I n short, the genius loci—"genius o f the place"—should dictate days cultivating, weeding, and fertihzing, Fukuoka lets the straw and
t h e best agricultural system, given the local plant c o m m u n i t y , ch- clover do the w o r k . Instead of flooding his fields t h r o u g h o u t the
mate, soil type, and culture. season, Fukuoka uses only a b r i e f dousing of water to head off w e e d
W h a t can be i m p o r t e d f r o m T h e L a n d Institute, Jackson says, germmation. A f t e r t h a t he drains the fields and then worries about
is its methodology^—its approach to learning a native system, i n t u - n o t h m g , except an occasional m o w i n g of the paths between fields
i t i n g its "rules," and t h e n slowly trying to raise a stable c o m m u n i t y O n a quarter acre, he w i l l reap t w e n t y - t w o bushels of rice and
o f crops t h a t m i m i c s the structure and p e r f o r m s t h e f u n c t i o n s o f the t w e n t y - t w o bushels of w i n t e r grains. That's enough to feed five to
w i l d one. As the f o l l o w i n g stories w i l l show, the investigation is al- ten people, yet i t takes only one or t w o people a f e w days of w o r k
ready under way. to hand-sow and harvest the crop.
N a t u r a l f a r m i n g has spread t h r o u g h o u t Japan and is being used
on about 1 m i l l i o n acres i n China. People f r o m around t h e w o r l d
RIPENING PROOF A R O U N D THE W O R L D n o w visit Fukuoka's f a r m to learn b o t h f a r m i n g techniques and phi^
losophies. -The allure o f this system is t h a t the same piece of g r o u n d
" D o N o t h i n g " Farming in Japan can be used w i t h o u t being used u p , and yields can be consistently
good. Instead of p o u r i n g m o n e y and energy into the f a r m i n the f o r m
F i f t y years ago, w h e n Wes Jackson was a b o y weeding his family's of petroleum-based inputs, m o s t o f the investment is made u p
f a r m , a y o u n g m a n i n Japan named Masanobu Fukuoka t o o k a w a l k f r o n t — i n the farm's design.
t h a t w o u l d change his life. As he strolled along a rural road, he
" I t t o o k m e t h i r t y years to develop such s i m p l i c i t y , " says Fu-
spotted a rice plant i n a ditch, a volunteer growing n o t f r o m a clean
kuoka. Instead of w o r k i n g harder, he w h i t d e d away unnecessary ag-
slate o f soil b u t f r o m a tangle o f fallen rice stalks. Fukuoka was i m -
r i c u l t u r a l practices one b y one, asking w h a t he c o u l d stop d o i n g
pressed b y the plant's vigor and b y the fact t h a t i t was u p earlier
rather t h a n w h a t he c o u l d do. Forsaking reliance on h u m a n clever-
t h a n those i n all the surrounding cultivated fields. H e t o o k i t t o be
ness he j o i n e d i n alliance w i t h nature's w i s d o m . As he says i n his
the whisper o f a secret revealed to h i m .
book. One Straw Revolution, " T h i s m e t h o d completely contradicts
Over the years, Fukuoka w o u l d t u r n this secret i n t o a system m o d e r n agricultural techniques, ft t h r o w s scientific and traditional,
he calls " d o n o t h i n g " f a r m i n g because i t requires almost no labor o n f a r m i n g k n o w - h o w right o u t the w i n d o w . W i t h this k i n d of f a r m i n g
his part, and yet his yields are among the highest i n Japan. H i s recipe, w h i c h uses no machines, n o prepared fertflizer, and no chemicals i t
fine-tuned t h r o u g h t r i a l and error, m i m i c s nature's t r i c k o f succession IS possible to attain a harvest equal to or greater than t h a t o f t h e
and soil covering. I n early October, Fukuoka hand-sows clover seeds average Japanese f a r m . T h e p r o o f is r i p e n i n g r i g h t before y o u r eyes."
i n t o his standing rice crop. Shortly after that, he sows seeds o f rye
and barley i n t o the rice. ( H e coats the seeds w i t h clay so t h e y w o n ' t
Permaculture D o w n Under
be eaten b y birds.) W h e n the rice is ready f o r harvest, he cuts i t ,
threshes i t , and t h e n t h r o w s the straw back over the field. By this
W h e n ecosystems are efficient and stable, t h e y d o n ' t require as m u c h
t i m e , clover is already w e l l established, helping t o smother weeds
w o r k as those k e p t i n the vulnerable first stage o f succession. A u s -
and fix nitrogen i n the soil. T h r o u g h the tangle o f clover and straw,
tralian ecologist B i l l M o l h s o n , like Wes Jackson, advocates keeping
rye and barley burst u p and begin t h e i r c l i m b t o w a r d t h e sun. Just
some crops o n the l a n d f o r m a n y years, to bring f a r m i n g as close as
before he harvests the rye and barley, he starts t h e cycle again, toss-
It can come to nature's efficiency.
ing i n rice seeds t o start their protected ascent. O n and o n the cycle
For years, M o l l i s o n has w o r k e d on perfecting a system w h e r e b y
goes, self-fertilizing and self-cultivating. I n this w a y rice and w i n t e r
small-scale farmers w o u l d set u p a low-maintenance garden, a w o o d -
 38 / Biomimicry
land, and an animal and fish f a r m and t h e n become s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t -
f e d , clothed, and p o w e r e d b y local resources t h a t are literally r i g h t
at hand. Designing with nature's w i s d o m is at the core o f this f a r m i n g
philosophy, w h i c h is called permaculture, f o r permanent agriculture.
I n permaculture, y o u ask n o t w h a t y o u can w r i n g f r o m the land, b u t
w h a t the l a n d has t o o f f e r . Y o u r o l l w i t h the weaknesses and the
strengths o f y o u r acreage, and i n this spirit o f cooperation, says M o l -
hson, the l a n d yields generously w i t h o u t d e p l e t i o n and w i t h o u t i n -
ordinate amounts o f b o d y w o r k f r o m y o u . T h e most laborious p a r t
o f p e r m a c u l t u r e is designing the system t o be self-supporting.
T h e idea is t o lay o u t crops so t h a t those y o u visit most f r e -
q u e n t l y are close b y y o u r d w e l h n g ( M o l l i s o n calls i t edible
landscaping) and those t h a t require less vigilance are set o u t i n con-
centric circles farther f r o m the house. Everywhere, there are plants
i n t w o - or three-canopy schemes, t h a t is, shrubs shaded b y small
trees, w h i c h are shaded b y larger trees. A n i m a l s graze beneath all
three canopies. D i p s and f u r r o w s i n the l a n d are used t o cache rain-
water and t o irrigate automatically. W h e r e v e r possible, permacul-
turists i n v i t e external forces such as w i n d or flooding to actually help
do the w o r k . T h e y b u i l d w i n d m i l l s , f o r instance, or p l a n t crops o n
floodplains, w h e r e they can enjoy a yearly pulse o f alluvial sediment.
Choosing synergistic planting arrangements—using " c o m p a n i o n
plants" t o c o m p l e m e n t and bring o u t the best i n one another—is
key to a successful agriscape. T o m a x i m i z e these beneficial unions,
the p e r m a c u l t u r i s t creates a l o t o f edge—transition zones b e t w e e n
t w o habitats t h a t are notoriously f u l l o f l i f e and interaction. M o l l i s o n
is also f o n d o f using interactions between animals i n place o f h i g h -
energy inputs or machinery. One example is a greenhouse/chicken
coop w h e r e plants are stacked on stair-stepped benches. T h e chick-
ens roost o n the benches at night, enjoying the w a r m t h l e f t over
from the day's solar radiation. T h e y add t o the heat w i t h their o w n
bodies, h e l p i n g the plants survive the f r o s t y dawns. I n the m o r n i n g ,
w h e n t h e greenhouse becomes too hot, the chickens m o v e i n t o the
forest f o r grazing. As t h e y search f o r nuts and acorns shed b y the
p l a n t e d trees, they c o m b the ground hke rakes, aerating and manur-
ing the soil w h i l e snatching u p tree pests. H u m a n s eat t h e eggs and
eventually the flesh o f these chickens, b u t i n the meantime, t h e y
enjoy t h e i r services as cultivators, pest controUers, greenhouse heat-
ers, and self-fed fertihzers.
MoUison learned this baUet o f efficiency firsthand w h e n he
w o r k e d i n t h e forests o f Austraha i n the late sixties. As a re-
H o w Will We Feed Ourselves? / 39
searcher, he was trained t o describe the biological w o r l d and leave
i t at that. B u t M o l l i s o n t o o k the next step t h a t is crucial i n b i o -
m i m i c r y : H e saw lessons f o r streamlined l i v i n g emerging f r o m the
forest and v o w e d to apply t h e m to a n e w Idnd o f agriculture. T o -
day i n Australia m a n y farms are n o w w o r k i n g according t o t h e per-
m a c u l t u r e principles he has popularized, and an international
p e r m a c u l t u r e institute, w i t h branches t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d , is
t r a i n i n g people t o disseminate the technique. By m i r r o r i n g nature's
most stable and p r o d u c t i v e communities, and t h e n l i v i n g r i g h t i n
the m i d d l e o f t h e m , M o l l i s o n believes, h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s can
begin t o participate i n t h e i r beauty, harmony, and Earth-sheltering
productivity.
N e w A l c h e m y Farm on Cape Cod
A n o t h e r example o f ecoculture sprouting i n place o f agriculture can
be f o u n d o n Cape C o d , at the offices o f t w o o f the country's most
innovative bioneers, John and N a n c y T o d d . T h e y f o r m e d the N e w
A l c h e m y Institute i n 1969 to design l i v i n g spaces and f o o d p r o d u c i n g
systems t h a t w o u l d use nature as a m o d e l . T h e forest-in-succession
was t h e conceptual guide f o r t h e i r t o t a l l y self-sustained f a r m .
" C o n c e p t u a l l y our f a r m begins at the b o t t o m o f the numerous
fish ponds, and extends u p w a r d t h r o u g h the water t o the g r o u n d
cover f o r m e d b y the vegetable and forage crop zone w h e r e livestock
graze. I t t h e n rises t h r o u g h the shrub layer t o the canopy f o r m e d b y
the trees t h a t produce f r u i t , nuts, timber, and fodder crops. F o l l o w -
ing this p l a n w e are h o p i n g to m a i n t a i n the f a r m i n a dynamic state
o f ongoing p r o d u c t i v i t y w h i l e i t continues t o evolve ecologically I n
the d i r e c t i o n o f a forest," T o d d writes i n his 1994 book. From Eco-
cities to Living Machines. L i k e MoUison's permaculture. N e w A l -
chemy's f a r m is designed so t h a t every l i v i n g c o m p o n e n t has a
m u l t i p l e f u n c t i o n — s h a d i n g and fertihzing, f o r instance, as weU as
yielding an edible harvest. W h e r e v e r possible, the w o r k o f machines
(and, b y extension, humans) is replaced b y the w o r k o f biological
organisms or systems.
O n e o f the Todds' inspirations was Javan farms i n Indonesia,
where unconventional (to us, anyway) agriculture has t h r i v e d f o r
centuries. T h e Javanese f a r m is nature i n miniature, and i t shows the
restorative processes o f planned succession. "Successional or ecolog-
ical agriculture differs from ordinary f a r m i n g i n t h a t i t adapts t o
changes over t i m e . I n early phases, annual crops and fish ponds m i g h t
 40 / Biomimicry
d o m i n a t e t h e landscape, b u t as the landscape grows and matures, a
t h i r d dimension develops as tree crops and livestock come m t o t h e i r
o w n T h e key is t o m i r r o r the natural tendency o f succession w h i c h ,
over t i m e , creates ecosystems that are effective and stable utilizers
o f space, energy, and b i o t i c elements."
Three-Story Farming in Costa Rica
Succession is also at t h e heart o f a Costa Rican version o f N a t u r a l
Systems A g r i c u l t u r e . T h e t r o p i c a l forests here are p a r a d i s e s - c o r -
nucopias o f irrepressible vegetation and edible foods ripening under
a natural heat l a m p and mister. It's therefore all the nrore iromc, and
perhaps telling, t h a t jungles like this have made such poor sites f o r
g r o w i n g conventional crops. The first f e w years after clear-cutting
and/or b u r n i n g a p r i m a r y forest, crop yields are good, b u t t h e n they
d r o p precipitously. I t makes sense i f y o u reahze t h a t the same f o r c e
t h a t creates t h e j u n g l e - d e l u g e s o f r a i n - c a n also leach nutrients
f r o m u n p r o t e c t e d jungle soil after clearing, w h e n there are no plants
around t o soak u p water. C r o p harvests also remove even m o r e n u -
trients from the site. A f t e r a f e w years o f this n u t r i e n t e x t o r t i o n , t h e
soil q u i c l d y tires.
N a t u r a l clearings i n the jungle meet an entirely d i f f e r e n t tate.
T h e y are q u i c l d y revegetated by a parade o f species t h a t take over
one after another, sinldng roots, spreading canopies, sheddmg leaves,
and restoring f e r t i l i t y t o the site. N u t r i e n t s i n the system are k e p t m
play i n the green g r o w i n g biomass—nutrients " o n the stunnp _
John J. E w e l , a botany professor at the U n i v e r s i t y of Florida,
Gainesville, hypothesized t h a t i f y o u c o u l d simulate a natural re-
g r o w t h o f jungle using domestic crops as stand-ins f o r t h e w i l d spe-
cies y o u c o u l d achieve the same f e r t i l i t y - b u i l d i n g p h e n o m e n o n and
actually i m p r o v e the system rather t h a n deplete i t . T h e t r i c k is t o
start w i t h crops t h a t m i m i c the first successional stage (grasses ancl
legumes), and t h e n add crops t h a t m i m i c the n e x t stage (perenmal
shrubs), all t h e w a y u p to the larger trees—nut crops, f o r mstance^
T o test t h e i r hypothesis. Jack E w e l and colleague Corey Berish
cleared t w o plots i n Costa Rica, l e t t i n g t h e m naturally reseed t o
jungle. I n one o f the plots, every time a jungle p l a n t sprouted, they
w o u l d dig i t u p and replace i t w i t h a h u m a n f o o d crop t h a t h a d the
same physical f o r m . A n n u a l f o r annual, herbaceous perennial f o r her-
baceous perennial, tree f o r tree, vine f o r v i n e - i t was as i f nature
were guiding t h e hands o f the agronomists. T h e parade o f volunteers
How Will We Peed Ourselves? / 41
to the natural system [Heliconia species, cucurbitaceous vines, Ipom-
oea species legume vines, shrubs, grasses, and small trees) were re-
placed by plantain, squash varieties, y a m , and (by the second or t h i r d
year) fast-growing nut, fruit, and timber trees such as Brazil nuts
peach, p a l m , and rosewood.
T h i s domestic jungle o f crops l o o k e d and behaved like the real
jungle i n the p l o t n e x t door. B o t h plots h a d similar fine r o o t surface
area and identical soil f e r t i l i t y . T h e researchers also p u t i n t w o con-
t r o l plots: a bare soil p l o t and a p l o t p l a n t e d i n a r o t a t i n g m o n o c u l -
ture—maize and beans f o l l o w e d b y cassava, f o l l o w e d b y a timber
crop. W h i l e the bare soil and the r o t a t i n g m o n o c u l t u r e lost their
nutrients very rapidly, the "domestic j u n g l e " remained f e r t i l e .
Several years before Ewel's paper came out, British p e r m a c u l -
turahst Robert H a r t also pubhshed some concrete recommendations
for c r o p p i n g systems t h a t w o u l d m i m i c the jungle ecosystem. T h e y
i n c l u d e d cassava, banana, coconut, cacao, rubber, and l u m b e r crops
such as Cordia species and Swietenia species. A t the end o f its suc-
cession. Hart's c r o p p i n g system w o u l d be a three-tiered canopy
m i m i c a n g the structure o f the j u n g l e as w e l l as its n u t r i e n t cychng'
natural pest c o n t r o l , and w a t e r - p u r g i n g f u n c t i o n . T h e t r i c k t o keep-
ing t h e soil fertile, says H a r t , is t o choose perennial crops w i t h lots
of leaves anc^ roots, so they can p r o t e c t the soil from h a r d rains, store
nutrients i n biomass, and p u t organic m a t t e r back i n t o the soil w h e n
they shed. H a r t also f o u n d i t i m p o r t a n t t o use plants t h a t f o r m sym-
biotic associations, as w e l l as deep-rooted plants t h a t p u m p e d n u t r i -
ents from d i f f e r e n t depths o f the soil. I n this way, the g r o u n d was
kept c o n t i n u a l l y covered, yields were p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h o u t the year
and each set o f n e w crops prepared the soil physically and even
chemically f o r the n e x t stage. Once the succession progressed t o tree
crops, farmers c o u l d selectively harvest t i m b e r and b u r n t h e peren-
nials every f e w years t o start the cycle again. Besides s u p p o r t i n g local
farmers, this sustained usefulness m a y also help t o slow the relentiess
clearing o f p r i m a r y jungle.
The N e w England H a r d w o o d Forest
Radical as i t seems n o w , m i r r o r i n g ecosystems is n o t a n e w concept.
Sir A l f r e d H o w a r d , w h o m m a n y credit w i t h the i n v e n t i o n o f organic
agriculture, t a l k e d about f a r m i n g t o fit the land i n his 1943 b o o k
An Agricultural Testament, as d i d J. Russell S m i t h , i n his 1953 b o o k '
Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture. S m i t h w a n t e d to see eastern
 42 / Biomimicry
hillsides replanted w i t h tree crops, w h i c h seemed t o suit t h e hills
better t h a n t h e erosion-causing r o w crops planted after t h e great
green w a l l o f N e w W o r l d forest was t o r n d o w n .
S m i t h l o o k e d t o the eastern deciduous forest as a m o d e l o f d i -
versity and stability. H e described the great n u m b e r o f niches p r o -
v i d e d b y the various tree-canopy levels as w e l l as shrubby and
herbaceous understories. Thanks to t h e diversity, he w r o t e , pests are
k e p t under c o n t r o l and birds and b r o w s i n g animals are given m a n y
places t o make a l i v i n g . Fine fibrous roots o f w o o d y understory plants
act like a prairie's sod t o h o l d soil and retain nutrients. Fallen leaves
and debris are slowly and steadily recycled i n t o n e w plant life, pre-
v e n t i n g leaching and downslope loss o f critical nutrients. T h e organic
l i t t e r also encourages the g r o w t h o f m y c o r r h i z a — f u n g i t h a t f o r m
associations w i t h roots and f u r t h e r e x t e n d t h e i r water-searching
p o w e r . Every n o w and then, w i n d or disease or h g h t n i n g takes o u t
a tree, creating a gap where succession and renewal can begin again.
Early agriculture o n these soils, practiced b y N a t i v e Americans,
was also successional i n nature. T h e tribes practiced small-patch ag-
r i c u l t u r e , raising beans, squash, corn, and tobacco on t w e n t y - to t w o -
hundred-acre plots. A f t e r eight to ten years, the native farmers
w o u l d m o v e on and allow t h e land t o lie f a l l o w . I n the twenty-year
hiatus before the farmers returned, succession w o u l d resume and
f e r t i l i t y w o u l d be restored. T h i s s h i f t i n g m e t h o d required tribes t o
be nomadic, b u t i t m i m i c k e d the natural forest d y n a m i s m b y creating
small patches t h a t were allowed t o revert t o forest.
I n his book, S m i t h bemoaned t h e loss o f soils and p r o d u c t i v i t y
t h a t occurred w h e n w h i t e settiers began t o f a r m m o r e permanently
o n these sites, deforesting hillsides and p l a n t i n g r o w crops. T h e f a r m -
ing d i d n ' t fit the land, he claimed. Instead, he proposed p l a n t i n g
structural analogues—nut- and f r u i t - b e a r i n g trees as the only fitting
crops f o r forest-growing land. One scheme t h a t bore o u t his dream
was a f a r m o f honey locust trees ( w h i c h bore seed crops) w i t h an
understory o f Chinese bush clover (a perennial legume suitable f o r
grazing and haying). This system yielded crops and supported ani-
mals, all w i t h m i n i m a l labor, l o w management costs, and good w e e d
control. H e r e p o r t e d returns o f 4,500 pounds o f hay per acre per
year, 2,920 pounds o f honey locust nuts per acre per year o n average,
w i t h a peak o f 8,750 pounds o f nuts per acre i n eight-year-old trees.
T h e features t h a t made the h a r d w o o d forest sustainable i n the
w i l d w e r e repeated here: a tree crop i n the overstory, a stable u n -
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 43
derstory t o p r o t e c t the soil and retain nutrients, a biological nitrogen
source, and a grazing or browsing animal component. U n f o r t u n a t e l y
S m i t h s recommendations f e l l largely on deaf ears w h e n his report
was first issued. T h e fact t h a t his w o r k has been republished b y Island
Press recently, w i t h a f o r e w o r d b y W e n d e l l Berry, is a h o p e f u l sign
that the idea o f nature-based f a r m i n g is sprouting once again.
The Desert Southwest
W h e r e prairies and forests fear to tread, the m o d e l f o r f a r m i n g is an
u n l i k e l y o n e - t h e scrubby, spiny desert o f the A m e r i c a n Southwest
Across the Sonoran, the Chihuahua, and the Mojave, rainfall is er-
ratic and strongly seasonal, and soils m a y vary every f e w feet These
uneven conditions lead to a patchiness o f v e g e t a t i o n - p l a n t s cluster
m f e r t i e alluvial fans, w h i l e on m o r e barren stretches, they space
themselves o u t t o get all the water they can. Besides d i v i d i n g up the
space, they also divide u p the season. M a n y species b l o o m and set
seed only w h e n water is available, b e c o m i n g dormant as the summer
blisters o n .
These strategies, w h i c h allow plants to take advantage o f
ephemeral resources and to endure l o n g d r y spells, were m i r r o r e d i n
the f a r m i n g methods o f original peoples w h o flourished here f o r
thousands o f years. T h e Papago and Cocopa peoples continue to live
here, gathering their foods f r o m b o t h w i l d plants and c u l t i v a t e d des-
ert plants and legumes, all o f w h i c h are native to the place, thus
adapted to m a k i n g the most o f h m i t e d resources. Ethnobotanist Gary
Paul N a b h a n made readers aware o f their agricultural practices i n :
his book Gathering the Desert.
T o the extent possible, writes Nabhan, the Papago synchronize
their agriculture w i t h the local seasonal clock. Planting, f o r instance
IS t i m e d t o the emergence o f desert a n n u a l s - r i g h t before or after
nourishing rains. By p l a n t i n g only o n flood-watered alluvial fans, they
avoid having t o intensively irrigate, w h i c h i n t h a t d i m a t e o f excessive
evaporation w o u l d leave poisoning salt i n the upper registers o f the
soils^ Besides annuals t h e Papago also sow succulents, grasses, and
w o o d y plants f o r f o o d and fiber. Interspersed w i t h the crops are w i l d
mesquite trees, l e f t i n the fields because they can fix nitrogen and
gather deeply stored soil nutrients. L o n g before agronomists Imew
w h y this c o m p a n i o n p l a n t i n g w o r k e d , the Papago were p r a c t i d n g i t
having taken their cue f r o m the "genius o f the place "
 44 / Biomimicry
H o w Will We Feed Ourselves? / 45

Rodale's Regenerative Agriculture

o f f aUows the grass farmers t o do w h a t had been unthinkable i n the
old system—take a vacation.
N o t a l k o f organic agriculture w o u l d be complete w i t h o u t a m e n t i o n
. ' " ' l i r ' ' f''™^ signals a change i n h o w the farmers see
o f t h e Rodale f a m i l y , whose legacy includes the Rodale Press as w e l l
themse ves. T h e y consider themselves solar harvesters n o w - t u r n i n g
as such publications as Organic Gardening Magazine, New Farm, and
sunhght m t o grass and t h e n i n t o meat and m i l k , " says Stephanie R i t t -
Prevention, a magazine devoted t o health issues. L i k e MoUison's per-
maculture, Rodale's "regenerative agriculture" uses biological struc- MadLÏ ° n-'''^ '^'''^ o f Wisconsin-
Madison] o n the swelhng m o v e m e n t and h o w and w h y i t is spreading
t u r i n g t o increase the efficiency o f n u t r i e n t and energy flows so t h a t
low-energy inputs are leveraged into high p r o d u c t i v i t y . Succession is n.^ife i T " ' T ; r "^^^ ^"^^ dLe to'comm^
also used strategically. Crops are carefully chosen t o change the soil nity h f e m the r u r a l M i d w e s t , " says R i t t m a n n . "Because these farmers
flora and fauna i n a w a y t h a t anticipates the needs o f the next crop. are t r y i n g something completely new, they are all at t h e entry level i n
terms o f k n o w - h o w ^ N o one is a complete expert on managLg grass
For instance, practitioners may plant a crop that causes the w e e d
pasture f o r t h e i r herds. I n fact, one o f their only guides is a b o o k caTd
c o m m u n i t y t o s h i f t t o w a r d species t h a t are not a p r o b l e m f o r the
n e x t crop. O r they m i g h t emphasize nitrogen and soil-carbon 1^59 B r v t d T ' Tf''^" ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ~ ' ^ t A n d r é Voisin i n
b u i l d u p i n one part o f the r o t a t i o n cycle t o increase the p r o d u c t i v i t y 1959. Beyond this, they t u r n to one another f o r advice, and have
o f subsequent crops. Finally, researchers at Rodale have spent some f o r m e d a long-di.tance support c o m m u n i t y . " They visit one another's
t i m e , as Jaclcson has, looking f o r perennial replacements f o r annuals farms periodically t o share w h a t they're learning and t h e y produce a
m o n t h l y newspaper cahed The Stockman Gras!Grower l l is fi l e d
such as wheat, rice, oats, barley.
w i t h candid dialogue between producers.
T o g r o w good pasture, grass farmers face m a n y o f t h e same
Letting the Cows O u t in the M i d w e s t
challenges t h a t prairie restorers face. T h e y begin w i t h an alfalfa field
then sow i n about f o u r species o f grass. A s the years w i n d o n w i l d
C r o p growers are n o t the only ones caught i n the b o x canyon o f
P ants infiltrate, some that the farmers have n L seen b e f o e As
industrial f a r m i n g . For years now, dairy farmers i n the upper M i d -
west have been c u t t i n g hay w i t h machines instead o f letting the cows R t m a n n says they are w a t c h i n g succession on their lands and c o m -
graze i t . They've been tractoring the fifty-pound bales i n t o their ar- the p l o w ' ^^"'^ " " S ^ t 1 - ^ - l - k « d like before
tificially l i g h t e d and heated suction-milking barns.
T h e y are also using n e w ways to assess the health o f t h e i r pas-
N o w all t h a t is changing. D a i r y farmers are opening the doors
ture, and here's w h e r e the f a r m e r becomes a naturalist. O n e m a l '
t o b o t h their minds and their barns i n a nature-based m o v e m e n t
t
Tcld n absolutely t h r i l l e d to hear a strange
called "grass f a r m i n g . " D a i r y farmers w h o have switched t o grass
f a r m i n g are n o w letting t h e i r cows m u n c h at least three o f the five
hayings i n t h e field. T h e y report t h a t they enjoy the w o r k o f bringing
I^^^Z^^^
T w r Z t r ^^^^
"
^^^^^ ^
^^"'^^ ^""'^^^^^ ° f thousands o
"^^^^^^y ^ - ^ h z e d :
the cows t o their f o o d rather than the other w a y around. Grass f a r m - lhat s wha a healthy pasture is supposed to sound l i k e , " he t o l d
ers also find that t h e i r cows are healthier and their bills are slimmer. b Z T e t t Z ' Z T r ' ^^"'^ °f g - s farming
M a n u r e i n the fields means they can pare back their fertilizer bills, before he finally heard birdsong r e t u r n i n g to his pastures. N o w h f
and because they hay w i t h machinery only twice, they also save counts and catalogs the b i r d diversity around his pastures as a way
m o n e y o n f u e l and machine wear. o f assessing t h e i r health. O t h e r grass farmers l o o k t o c o w p i e s - I
cowpie m a healthy m i c r o f a u n a and m i c r o f l o r a should break d o w n
A f t e r a f e w years, m a n y o f the farmers are shifting to an even m three weeks t i m e i n m i d s u m m e r . I f it's around any longer the
m o r e natural cycle. Instead o f miUdng their cattle year-round, they farmers teU R i t t m a n n , they start to w o r r y . '
" d r y t h e m o f f " d u r i n g the winter, so they can calve all at once i n
" W h a t they are d o i n g is learning h o w to read nature instead
A p r i l and be ready t o go back to the grass i n the spring. T h i s dry-
o f s i m p l y relymg on the w o r d o f a pesticide salesman," she says " I
 46 / Biomimicry
t e l l t h e m they are starting t o act like ecologists, and they j u s t shake
t h e i r heads and smile. ' N a h . It's just f a r m i n g , ' they t e l l m e . " Smart
farming.
RADICAL DEPARTURES: H O W D O WE
GET OFF THE TREADMILL?
T h e spread o f the grass-farming idea should be studied carefully f o r
clues. Just h o w does an idea "take" i n the i m a g i n a t i o n o f a group
t h a t is culturally and economically entrenched i n a certain w a y o f
doing things? H o w w i l l T h e L a n d I n s t i t u t e sell its idea t o farmers
w h o are already treading water as fast as they can just to keep up?
H o w do y o u spring t h e m i n d free f r o m its fears?
Wes Jackson is w e l l aware o f aU the things our minds have t o
overcome. For starters, he describes the m i n d shaped b y reductionist
science, the A m e r i c a n experience, evolution, and affluence. " W e
have convinced ourselves t h a t the universe is comprehensible i n
small separate pieces, t h a t there is always m o r e f r o n t i e r , t h a t any
n e w technology is adaptive, and t h a t there are, as author Wallace
Stegner says, 'things once possessed t h a t cannot be done w i t h o u t . ' "
T h i s m i n d c o n d i t i o n i n g makes i t t o u g h f o r us t o t h i n k o f the w h o l e ,
respect nature's l i m i t s , or pass u p w h a t technology promises, be i t
convenience, w e a l t h , power, predictability, or cheap f o o d . H o w ,
t h e n , w i l l the Breadbasket become a domestic prairie?
" N o t all at once," says Piper. " W e ' l l begin b y o f f e r i n g N a t u r a l
Systems A g r i c u l t u r e as an alternative o n Conservation Reserve Pro-
gram lands." T h e Conservation Reserve Program [CRP) was begun
i n 1985 t o heal the hemorrhaging scars f r o m the f e n c e r o w - t o -
f e n c e r o w era. Farmers are p a i d an average o f $48 an acre t o retire
t h e i r erodible lands and p l a n t t h e m t o perennial grass. So far, 36.5
m i h i o n acres have been planted t h r o u g h CRP ( i f y o u add the l a n d
set aside i n previous programs, i t comes t o over 100 m i l h o n acres o f
grassy slopes). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , many o f those acres were p l a n t e d i n
exotic grasses t h a t are o f l i m i t e d use t o w i l d l i f e and o f f e r " f o c u s e d "
farmers ( w h o abandoned t h e i r livestock) no w a y t o make an income.
Perennial polycultures o n those same lands w o u l d o f f e r farmers
an i n c o m e i n a d d i t i o n t o h o l d i n g d o w n t h e i r soils. T h e y c o u l d collect
t h e i r i n c o m e i n one o f three ways. T h e y c o u l d hay t h e domestic
prairies, harvest t h e seed f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n , or, i f they have
livestock, simply graze t h e m . This way, the i n c o m e w o u l d come back
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 47
to the farmer, instead o f being shipped o f f t o the manufacturers o f
pesticides and fertilizers. T h e t i m e is right f o r this sort o f transition
Piper feels, because t h e CRP is due t o sunset soon, and i t m a y n o t
be renewed. I n a survey conducted b y the O h i o Soil and W a t e r
Conservation Association, 63 percent o f farmers said they were p l a n -
ning, f o r economic reasons, t o p l o w u p t h e i r CRP lands i f subsidies
dry u p . Perhaps, i f they hear about T h e L a n d Institute's w o r k , they
can h o l d o u t f o r a w h o l e n e w idea—that of healing the soil'while
growing food. T o a c u l t u r e accustomed t o causing damage, t h a t
sounds sweet t o the ear.
B u t perennial polycultures w o n ' t take over the w h o l e f a r m land¬
scape, predicts Piper. T h e r e are some noneroding b o t t o m l a n d s t h a t
are p e r f e c t l y suitable f o r p l a n t i n g i n r o w crops—under an organic
regime, o f course. " B u t that's only one eighth o f our c r o p l a n d , " he
says. " T h e other seven eighths consists o f erodible soils and sloping
ground, and i t suffers w h e n r o w - c r o p p e d . O n these lands. N a t u r a l
Systems A g r i c u l t u r e makes m o r e ecological sense." B u t w i l l i t make
sense t o farmers?
U l t i m a t e l y , the strongest persuader is l i k e l y to be changing eco-
n o m i c conditions. W h e n the w a y farmers (or anyone else, f o r t h a t
m a t t e r ) have been d o i n g things becomes economically u n c o m f o r t a -
ble, t h e y w i l l be eager t o t r y something new. This m a y happen w h e n
fossil fuels begin t o r u n out, m a k i n g f a r m inputs such as gasoline,
fertihzer, and pesticide p r o h i b i t i v e l y expensive. W h e n t h a t timé
comes, w e ' l l do w h a t any species does under the pressure o f change.
W e ' l l start shopping around f o r alternatives and adopt t h e m o s t cre-
ative one, j u m p i n g t o t h e n e x t evolutionary level.
A t T h e L a n d , they call this n e x t level "the sunshine fdt'ure." l¥
you ask, staff members w i l l indulge i n a dream o f w h a t a f a r m i n the
sunshine f u t u r e w o u l d l o o k like: T h e n e w Breadbasket farmers w o u l d
t e n d domestic prairies—seed-producing perennial m i x t u r e s — w h i c h
w o u l d b u i l d soil instead o f squandering i t . Because o f its chemical
diversity, t h e f a r m w o u l d naturally p r o t e c t itself f r o m most pests,
t a m p i n g d o w n populations before they reach epidemic levels. Weeds
w o u l d be managed b y the chemical interaction o f plants and b y shad-
ing. N u t r i e n t s w o u l d be h e l d i n the soil instead o f leaching o u t . Pes-
ticide and f e r t i h z e r use w o u l d be m i n i m a l , maintenance light, and
plantings i n f r e q u e n t . A f a r m e r c o u l d start over w i t h a n e w crop o f
perennials every three t o five years, b u t w o u l d do so b y choice, n o t
by necessity.
Livestock w o u l d also require less babying. Beef cattie are n o w
 48 / Biomimiay
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 49

being b r e d w i t h b u f f a l o , f o r instance, to produce animals w i t h

tougher hides, like barns o n t h e i r backs. These beefalo c o u l d be l e f t

mmm
outside i n w i n t e r , obviating the need f o r l u m b e r t o b u i l d protective
structures. T h r o u g h o u t the year, they c o u l d be m o v e d f r o m one p o -
l y c u l t u r e t o another i n a r h y t h m t h a t does n o t jeopardize flowering
and seed set. T h e i r wastes w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o the c r u m b structure
o f the soil, w h i c h , along w i t h root action, allows the sod t o w i c k
moisture i n and allocate i t slowly. M o r e w a t e r - h o l d i n g capacity
w o u l d mean less call f o r irrigation. I t m i g h t even encourage springs
to reopen as u n d e r g r o u n d reserves are recharged.
U n t i l w e are f a r m i n g i n the sunshine f u t u r e , Jackson has w r i t t e n ,
groups like T h e L a n d Institute are, i n the B u d d h i s t sense, " m a k i n g
a p a t h and w a l k i n g o n i t . " Research, economics, and c o m m u n i t y w i l l
all play a role i n h o w successful their j o u r n e y is. T h e foUowing is an
a t t e m p t at an itinerary.

Consulting the Genius of the Place: Research

Wes Jackson compares the typical agricultural researcher t o the p r o -

verbial d r u n k a r d w h o is looking f o r his lost keys under the streetlight.
W h e n asked w h y he is l o o k i n g here w h e n the keys were lost u p t h e
street, he replies t h a t the l i g h t is better here. I n like fashion, our
research institutions have searched f o r agricultural advances where
t h e m o n e y i s — i n the glare o f industrial f a r m i n g . Taxpayers f o o t the
biU i n the f o r m o f appropriations to US D A research and i n the f o r m
o f 20 percent investment credits t o n e w private research facilities. poison us w i t h ? T h e L a n d I n s t i t „ r ^ U^A u • • '^ger neeaies to

W h a t are w e paying for? Right n o w , the b u l k o f research helps

to shore u p the system o f f a r m i n g t h a t is already i n place. M o s t
disease dollars, f o r instance, are spent on diseases t h a t afflict only
crops g r o w n i n continuous culture, a system w e I m o w is anathema
to soil f e r t i l i t y . Instead o f investigating markets f o r alternative crops
(those t h a t can be g r o w n i n r o t a t i o n ) , our economists continue t o
i n v e n t n e w markets f o r t h e b i g i n p u t - h u n g r y f o u r : wheat, corn, rye,
and soybeans. A n d , o f course, a l o t o f m o n e y goes t o w a r d breeding
crops t h a t w i l l w i t h s t a n d chemicals.
" W h e r e are our values?" asks G a r y Comstock, a philosopher at
I o w a State University. " N o w t h a t atrazine has t u r n e d u p i n the weUs
o f some f a r m families, 2 , 4 - D has been l i n k e d w i t h n o n - H o d g k i n ' s
l y m p h o m a i n farmers, and Alachlor, the most heavily used herbicide
on corn, is suspected t o be a carcinogen, w h y are land-grant univer-

g a n , a g „ s s t h e c o m m i t t e e t o l d Jackson: " w " l , u l T o t t n °'

::rz!-e:iS:txt^^^^^^^^^^
s«.e.e„.
which a d „ , . , .'A _ a g r i c T o ^ l t e t h Z S ™
 50 / Biomimiay
A spontaneous cheer combusted i n t h a t r o o m , and w e gave Wes
Jackson a standing ovation.
Setting U p the Books: Energetics
A f t e r w e all sat d o w n , Jackson started rhapsodizing about his latest
passion. He's been telling everyone w h o w i l l listen t h a t accounting
is going t o be the most exciting profession o f t h e n e w century. A c -
counting. W e laugh, and t h e n he explains t h a t ecologists are a breed
o f accountant. O n e o f t h e ecologist's p r i m a r y tools f o r measuring
and describing the sustainability o f ecosystems is t o draw a circle
around t h e system, t o t e u p aU the inputs and outputs, and t h e n
analyze the energy cycles inside the circle. A g a i n and again, i n terms
o f energetics, natural systems miraculously " p e n c i l o u t " — t h e y re-
m a i n viable w i t h o u t d r a w i n g d o w n t h e i r resources. I f w e are t o
s w i t c h t o a m o r e natural agriculture, says Jackson, our systems m u s t
also p e n c i l out, i n at least t w o ways: 1) Economically, they m u s t
sustain farmers and t h e i r communities, and 2) ecologically, they
m u s t pay t h e i r o w n energy bills and n o t d r a w d o w n the resources o f
t h e local landscape or the planet.
T h e surest p a t h to sustainable f a r m i n g , says Jackson, is t o make
sure the lion's share o f rewards runs t o the f a r m e r and t h e landscape.
M a r t y Strange, codirector o f the Center f o r Rural A f f a i r s , puts i t this
way: " T o be sustainable, agriculture m u s t be organized economically
and financially so t h a t those w h o use the l a n d w i l l b e n e f i t f r o m using
i t w e l l and so t h a t society w i l l h o l d t h e m accountable f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e
to do so." For society, i t m a y mean changing economic policies so
t h a t our well-being, i n c l u d i n g our e n v i r o n m e n t a l well-being, is re-
flected i n t h e gross national p r o d u c t . I t may mean pricing f o o d c o m -
modities t o reflect t h e i r true costs. I t may mean e l i m i n a t i n g some o f
t h e tax breaks t h a t encourage the substitution o f capital f o r labor
and essentially subsidize irrational f a r m expansion and over-
p r o d u c t i o n . I n t h e i r place, says Strange, w e s h o u l d design policies
t h a t give a hand t o farmers w h o are m o r e likely t o treat the l a n d
w e l l — t h o s e o n owner-operated, f a m i l y - h e l d , and internally financed
farms. T o stay viable, these farms m u s t u l t i m a t e l y break the u n -
healthy c o u p l i n g they n o w have w i t h the p e t r o l e u m and chemical
industries.
W h e n e v e r y o u break the cycle o f dependency, y o u inevitably
hear the anguished moans o f the addict i n w i t h d r a w a l . W i t h o u t large
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 51
farms and fossil-fuel amendments, w i l l w e still be able to feed our-
selves? W i l l w e be able t o feed the w o r l d ? Piper's answer to the first
question is yes. " A l t h o u g h yields m a y n o t be as h i g h , w e ought t o
be able t o f e e d ourselves and t h e n some. Consider t h a t w e have had
a grain surplus every year since the thirties i n this country, and t h a t
eighty percent of our grain is not fed to people but to livestock " ( W e
f e e d cows grain to " f i n i s h t h e m , " t h a t is, to marble t h e i r meat w i t h
the f a t t h a t clogs A m e r i c a n arteries.) Piper feels there's obviously
some slack t o be taken u p here. A s f o r feeding the w o r l d , he says,
" M a y b e the better goal w o u l d be to enable the w o r l d t o feed i t s e l f '
But that's another subject.
T h e p o i n t is t h a t the sanctity o f seeldng higher yields—the ag-
r o n o m i c equivalent o f the search f o r gold—makes i t v i r t u a l heresy
to d r o p d o w n to m o r e reahstic yields, t o w h a t the l a n d w f l l support
over t i m e . T h e L a n d reahzed t h a t i n order t o defend the yields o f
perennial p o l y c u l t u r e against those o f conventional monocultures, i t
w o u l d have t o somehow level the playing field. Piper puts i t this
way: " I f w e said to a w h e a t field, 'Sponsor your o w n f e r t f l i t y , g r o w
w i t h o u t pesticides or diesel f u e l f o r t r a c t i o n , ' t h e n w h a t w o u l d the
yields be? Once y o u take away the crutches o f i n d u s t r i a l f a r m i n g ,
w o u l d ft be m o r e economical t o g r o w perennial polycultures or con-
ventional crops?"
Piper answers his o w n question cautiously; " T h e perennial po-
l y c u l t u r e scheme—planting a prairie t h a t stays p u t — i s designed f o r
low i n p u t s . C u t t i n g d o w n on maintenance, fertilizer, and pesticides
is b o u n d t o save money, perhaps enough t o make this f o r m o f f a r m -
ing as c o m p e t i t i v e as its fuel-dependent cousin." Jackson is less cir-,
cumspect: "Perennial polycultures w o u l d beat t h e pants o'ff
conventional crops g r o w n i n a sustainable way. Period. B u t n o w w e
need the data to prove i t . "
O n c e again. T h e L a n d staff w e n t t o the literature, and once again
they w e r e disappointed. There were studies on organic (pesticide-
tree) farms, b u t none on organic farms t h a t also grew t h e i r crops w i t h -
out fertilizer and w i t h o u t diesel f u e l . A f t e r t w e n t y years, a lack o f
published data h a d come t o l o o k m o r e like a red cape t h a n a stop sign
to this group. So i n 1991, they p a w e d at the g r o u n d a f e w times and
began t h e Sunshine Farm project: one h u n d r e d and fifty acres con-
ventional crops, tractors t h a t use vegetable o i l f o r f u e l , p h o t o v o l t a i c
panels f o r electricity, d r a f t horses f o r some field operations, l o n g h o r n
cattie f o r manure and meat, hens t h a t t u r n compost (then t u r n a p r o f i t
 52 / Biomimicry
How Will We Peed Ourselves? / S3

w i t h eggs), and broilers t h a t forage i n alfalfa. I n all, a demonstration

f a r m where biological and solar energy are expected t o pay t h e bills.
"Sunshine Farm is really one b i g accounting p r o j e c t , " says M a r t y
Bender, t h e towheaded energy accountant o f t h e f a r m . O v e r coffee,
he stokes u p his c o m p u t e r and shows m e a giant database. " W e d r a w
a b i g circle around t h e f a r m i n our minds, and t h e n w e c o u n t u p
everything t h a t comes i n t o the f a r m and everything t h a t goes out,
using techniques t h a t are very similar t o w h a t ecologists use to de-
scribe the energetics o f an ecosystem. W e literally measure the size,
weight, and a m o u n t o f everything—every fencepost, every galva-
n i z e d gate, every f o o t o f chicken w i r e , every plastic pail. W e figure
out h o w m u c h energy i t takes society t o make t h a t product, and
t h e n w e record i t i n kilocalories."
T o track labor. Bender has devised a t a x o n o m y o f tasks done on
the f a r m — w e e d i n g , fence-mending, broiler feeding, and so on, so
t h a t every finger t h a t is l i f t e d can be accounted f o r i n Idlocalories. A
t r i p t o the store f o r ten-penny nails takes f u e l , labor, and the energy
society expended to manufacture the nails—all debits against the
good examples . ™ „ X l X £ , r ° ° ' T ° " ' T ' " ' " *•=

o*a. Axt!:id:r ^.xt m™s:"

f a r m . I n t u r n , everything the f a r m produces—all crops, livestock,
biofuels, and so on—is recorded as an asset. T h e t r i c k is t o balance
the budget so the f a r m is n o t a drain o n the planet.
Bender's energy estimations come f r o m an enormous literature Becoming Native to This Place; C o m m u n i t y
search. W h e n y o u are w i t h h i m , he f r e q u e n t l y dashes to his w a l l o f
filing cabinets t o grab one o f the hundreds o f articles he has gathered,
w i t h titles like " T h e E m b o d i e d Energy C o n t e n t o f Polyethylene
Pipe." Each article is covered w i t h t h e f u r i o u s l y scribbled notes
(sometimes corrections) t h a t are his trademark, an artifact o f his b r i l -
liance.
"There's n o t h i n g else even remotely as t h o r o u g h as the Sun-
shine F a r m database," Bender tells me. "So far, we've logged over
twenty-seven h u n d r e d transactions and we're n o t even h a l f t h r o u g h .
weather
other,
Tnd X t t T ' ectT
^P"'*
''''''''''' *° the
^"^^'^t^' diseases, and each
Keeping t h e ecological books this w a y w i l l t e l l us w h e t h e r a f a r m
can r u n o n sunlight and keep its books balanced^—that is, pay all its
o w n bills w i t h o u t going i n t o debt t o the larger e n v i r o n m e n t . " I n percent o f the U S n o n u l a t f o n '^'''^PP'^^^^g' this p o i n t , only 1
other words, can the f a r m itself produce enough f o o d over t i m e t o is falling H a l f o f .11 , T ^""'^'''^ and t h a t figure
support t h e h u m a n and animal labor, provide f u e l f o r its machines,
and manure f o r its fields? Can i t do all this and g r o w crops t h a t w i l l
reimburse society f o r the energy embedded i n material o f f - f a r m p u r -
chases? Answers like these w i l l tell us w h a t agriculture really costs,
and perhaps, says Bender, suggest a m o r e accurate, l o n g - t e r m cost
f o r w h a t w e eat. "That's real i m p o r t a n t . "
Jackson notes t h a t this loss o f farmers is n o t the first b u t the
 54 / Biomimiay
second wave o f loss. N a t i v e Americans were the repository o f a m u c h
longer c u l t u r a l history, b u t we've already m o v e d t h e m o f f the land.
N o w w e ' r e o n t o our second wave o f "surplus" people. I f N a t u r a l
Systems A g r i c u l t u r e ' is t o be successful, insists Jackson, w e need a
h o m e c o m i n g o f people w i l l i n g t o "become native t o t h e i r place,"
t u n i n g t h e i r senses t o local conditions, and f a r m i n g the l a n d i n a w a y
t h a t w i l l last. Y o u can't expect people t o b u y small farms and re-
populate the countryside, however, unless they are able t o make a
l i v i n g and a f u l f i l h n g l i f e f o r themselves f a r f r o m t o w n . T h a t w i l l
require a restoration o f c o m m u n i t y , says Jackson, n o t because it's
nostalgic b u t because " m o r e eyes per acre" is a practical necessity.
M o v e d b y this belief, Jackson decided t o learn w h a t he c o u l d
about h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s i n rural areas. " W e asked the question,
w h y shouldn't h u m a n communities r u n o n sunlight and recycle m a -
terials the w a y natural communities do? W h y can't our h o m e places
be sustainable instead o f simply being quarries t o be m i n e d b y t h e
extractive economy and t h e n abandoned? A f t e r all, native peoples
l i v e d here f o r hundreds o f years, i n far greater concentrations t h a n
w e have today i n some rural counties. H o w was i t t h a t the l a n d c o u l d
support t h e m i n a sustainable way?"
T o answer that, Jackson decided t o spend some time w i t h the
remaining inhabitants o f one o f the quarries—the fifty-some-odd
townspeople o f M a t f i e l d Green i n Chase C o u n t y , Kansas (the site o f
W i l l i a m Least H e a t - M o o n ' s PrairyErth]. D u r i n g the late 1980s and
early 1990s, he b o u g h t the abandoned elementary school (a beau-
t i f u l , ten-thousand-square-foot b r i c k structure b u i l t i n 1938) f o r
$5,000, the hardware store f o r $1,000, and w i t h some friends, seven
abandoned houses (including one he plans t o retire i n ) f o r less t h a n
$4,000. H i s nephew b o u g h t the bank f o r $500, and T h e L a n d I n -
stitute b o u g h t the h i g h school gym f o r $4,000. Friends and employ-
ees o f T h e L a n d have since begun t o move i n t o t o w n , restoring t h e i r
homes w i t h used l u m b e r and other renewable technologies and
t r a n s f o r m i n g the school i n t o an education center and conference
space f o r artists, scholars, and teachers interested i n becoming native
to t h e i r places.
E m i l y H u n t e r is the smart and passionate coordinator o f the
M a t f i e l d Green Project. "Forget Paris," says H u n t e r . " T h e c u l t u r a l
capacity t o live sustainably resides right here, i n the residents o f M a t -
field Green, those people w h o decided to stay after the b o o m - a n d -
bust and figured o u t h o w . W e realize t h a t i f w e w a n t t o j o i n t h e m
i n this b e a u t i f u l tallgrass prairie, we can't repeat the mistakes o f the
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 55
extractors. W e have to hve i n a w a y t h a t doesn't spend the ecological
capital o f the H i n t H i l l s region. Instead we're asking, w h a t is the
w i s d o m being expressed today b y this tough, rooted t o w n ? It's been
p r u n e d and b u r n e d back b y the fossil f u e l economy, and maybe ft's
back t o rootstock. W h a t can w e safely graft onto that? H o w can w e
create patterns o f sustainability together? T h e people o f M a t f i e l d —
like Evie M a e Reidel w h o knows w h a t phase o f the m o o n is best f o r
p l a n t i n g potatoes—can help us discover those patterns. W i t h their
help, w e can teach other homecomers."
For n o w , the learning takes place over coffee at the restored l u m -
beryard and i n meetings at the renovated school. Each m o n t h the
Tallgrass Prairie Producers, a cooperative devoted to raising p r l i r i e -
f e d cattie, gathers t o strategize i n one o f the o l d , high-ceilinged class-
rooms. D u r i n g t h e summer, workshops w i l l be held here f o r teachers
w h o are designing a place-based c u r r i c u l u m f o r rural schoolkids.
I n the meantime, staff from T h e L a n d are conducting an envi-
r o n m e n t a l history o f the area t o see decade b y decade h o w land use
has changed. This is the first phase o f an ecological c o m m u n i t y ac-
c o u n t i n g p r o j e c t designed t o determine t h e h u m a n carrying capacity
of a place. " W e k n o w w e are i n d e f i c i t , " says H u n t e r . " O u r j o b is
to find o u t h o w to be sustained b y a place w i t h o u t b a n k r u p t i n g i t
O u r teachers are the prairie and the people w h o have been shaped
by the prairie f o r generations."
Jackson says residents here and i n similar c o m m u n i t i e s are "the
n e w pioneers, homecomers bent o n the m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k f o r the
n e x t century—a massive salvage operation t o save the vulnerable b u t
necessary pieces o f nature and c u l t u r e and t o keep the good a n d ,
a r t f u l examples before us." . ,•
CROSSING INTO THE EDDY
M a t f i e l d Green, Sunshine Farm, and other right-living projects around
the w o r l d are attempts t o create counterpoints to the extractive
economy, to "keep the good and a r t f u l examples before us." I t h i n k
o f t h e m as eddies i n a t u r b u l e n t w h i t e w a t e r river.
A n eddy is a pocket o f calm water t h a t f o r m s as water passes
around a rock, leaves the downstream current, and curls back u p -
stream t o f o r m a magic haven i n the rock's shadow. It's a place a
kayaker can d u c k i n t o w h e n she needs t o rest, take stock, or rescue
less maneuverable boats from calamity.
 56 / Biomimicry
G e t t i n g y o u r boat i n t o an eddy is h a r d worlc. Y o u m u s t cross
t h e line o f tension, t h e r i p between the downstream t o r r e n t and the
curling upstream flow. I t takes some m o m e n t u m and a vigorous,
well-placed paddle brace t o p i v o t across the eddy line and i n t o t h e
sanity o f smoother water. I n the same way, our transition t o sustain-
ability m u s t be a deliberate choice t o leave the linear surge o f an
extractive economy and enter a circulating, renewable one.
Wes Jackson thinks i t appropriate t h a t agriculture be the first
eddy w e enter. H e has o f t e n cahed agriculture the Fall, the beginning
of o u r estrangement f r o m nature. " I t is fitting t h e n t h a t the healing
o f c u l t u r e begin w i t h agriculture," he says. N a t u r a l Systems A g r i -
culture is as d i f f e r e n t f r o m conventional agriculture as the airplane
was f r o m the train. It's an evolutionary leap i n i n n o v a t i o n .
T h e difference w i t h w h a t w e are doing, says Piper o f T h e Land's
w o r k , is t h a t no one can i m m e d i a t e l y cash i n o n i t . A f t e r aU, w h e n
seed companies or chemical companies see a c r o p p i n g system t h a t
needs no seeds or chemicals, they're more likely t o fight i t t h a n j o i n
it. T h e only logical champions o f this r e v o l u t i o n are consumers w h o
care about h o w t h e i r f o o d is grown, small independent farmers, and
a government t h a t represents t h e m . T h e transition w f l l start slowly,
predicts Jackson—if w e ' r e lucky, scattered examples o f a circulating
renewable economy w f l l appear right alongside the extractive one,
and people w i f l suddenly see t h a t they have a choice.
A l r e a d y people are supporting agriculture t h a t attempts t o w e a n
itself f r o m fossfl fuels, at least where pesticides and excessive t f l l i n g
are concerned. T h e p o p u l a r i t y o f certified organic foods, f o o d - i n -
season restaurants, and c o m m u n i t y supported agriculture ( C S A ) are
a f e w examples o f eddies t h a t are f o r m i n g i n the river. T h r o u g h
CSAs, city dweUers subscribe w i t h a local organic farmer at the be-
ginning o f t h e season, t h e n p i c k up a bag b r i m m i n g w i t h fresh p r o -
duce each w e e k o f the summer. The farmer gets the m o n e y u p f r o n t ,
and the buyer shares i n the risk, agreeing t o eat whatever crops do
weU and do w i t h o u t those t h a t fail. I n this way, consumers learn t o
eat w i t h t h e cycles o f the local landscape and have the satisfaction
o f k n o w i n g t h e i r f o o d is g r o w n nearby and i n conscientious ways.
A c c o r d i n g t o RusseU U b b y , director o f the M a i n e Organic Farm-
ers and Gardeners Association, 523 farms i n N o r t h A m e r i c a are n o w
doing business via this pre-pay share m e t h o d . Wisconsin has the
most, he says, f o l l o w e d b y N e w Y o r k and California. T h e largest o f
t h e farms supplies m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d famihes yearly.
T h a t m o r e people are beginning to care about this aspect o f our
How Will We Feed Ourselves? / 57
lives does n o t surprise m e . T h e idea t h a t f o o d is m o r e t h a n a c o m -
m o d i t y is deep w i t h i n us, w h i c h makes the t h o u g h t o f a square t o -
m a t o seem outrageous, or at least distasteful t o most o f us. W e k n o w
t h a t t h e scale o f f a r m i n g should be smaller and m o r e personal—that
the l a n d w o u l d be better served by stewardship t h a n b y massive
tractors sporting six T V s . T h e novelist Joseph C o n r a d said t h a t there
are o n l y a f e w things t h a t are really i m p o r t a n t f o r us t o I m o w and
t h a t all o f us k n o w t h e m . W e w a n t o u r farmers t o be breaking o f f
an ear o f corn t o taste a kernel right before harvest. W e instinctively
w a n t t h e m to h e f t the soil, t o smell i t and k n o w what's w r o n g or
right about i t . A n d I t h i n k t h a t i n s t i n c t comes f r o m our biological
urge t o survive. It's t h a t visceral c o m m o n sense t h a t causes a p a r t o f
y o u t o rejoice w h e n y o u see crocuses r e t u r n i n g and to be revolted
w h e n y o u hear about tons o f U.S. topsoil washing i n t o the G u l f o f
Mexico.
Food is something w e have i t i n our genes to care about, and
w e have been severed f r o m t h a t caring f o r too long. I f w e c o u l d once
again regard t h e act o f g r o w i n g f o o d as a sacred, biological act t h a t
connects us t o all l i v i n g creatures, perhaps w e w o u l d clamor f o r a
system o f f a r m i n g t h a t builds c o m m u n i t i e s , maintains balanced pest
populations, keeps soil o u t o f rivers, and doesn't t r a f f i c i n chemicals
t h a t are ahen t o our tissues. Perhaps w e ' d seek o u t examples o f prac-
tical reverence, like those o f Wes Jackson and BiU M o l h s o n and M a -
sanobu Fukuoka.
O n the surface, these m e n seem t o be tilting at w i n d m i l l s , buck-
ing a strong sea o f " h o w it's always been," and railing at habits ac-
q u i r e d t e n thousand years ago. I n reality, they are the conservatives,
secure i n t h e knowledge t h a t t h e i r ecomodel is older t h a n agricul-
ture, and t h a t i t w i l l be here long after oil-driven agriculture is a
m e m o r y . This is n o t really a n e w fangled t h i n g w e are i n v e n t i n g here,
insists Jackson. I t is j u s t a matter o f discovering w h a t is already there
and m i r r o r i n g i t .
A l l i n all, I t h i n k nature-based agriculture w i U be nourishing i n
the best sense o f t h e w o r d — a n honest and honorable w a y t o take
our place i n the f o o d w e b t h a t connects all l i f e . W e have lived too
long b y hubris, i m p o s i n g disruptive patterns o n the land, squaring
the circle. I f w e as a country, or as a global net o f communities, are
t r u l y c o m m i t t e d t o sustainabflity i n aU things, agriculture m u s t be
first on our agenda, the first meal o f the n e w day. A change this
grand w i l l take the cooperative w i U o f aU o f us, and ft w i l l be based
on t h e one characteristic w e all share—a p r i m a l need t o eat. W h e n
 58 / Biomimiay

w e begin t o insist o n nature-based f a r m i n g (or, as Jackson says, w h e n CMAPTFR 3

t r e n d y people i n restaurants start whispering, " D o y o u believe so-
and-so is still eating annuals?"), then w e ' l l have planted a giant pad-
dle brace against t h e rapids o f environmental disaster. W e ' l l have
crossed i n t o t h e eddy, showing the w o r l d , and ourselves, t h a t i t can
be done.
HOW WILL WE HARNESS ENERGY?
LIGHT
INTO LIFE:
GATHERING
ENERGY
LIKE A LEAF

Pond scum" may be a synonym for "pnmitwe," but the tiny or-
ganisms that compose it easily beat the human state of the art when
It comes to capturing energy from the sun. Some purple bacteria an-
swering to that unflauering description use light energy with almost
95/a effiaency-more than four times that of the best man-made sohzr
cells.

-University of Southern California news release

August 22, 1994

The energy sector in industrialized societies is probably the single

largest economic contributor to global environmental degradation-
~JT2'I'^T992 ^ " ' ^ ' ^ " ^ ° " ^"'^•"Sy " " ^ the Environment

When I first began dreaming about this book, I would sit at the edge
waSr'f f ^^^7^tch Montana clouds skate upside down across the
water s surface. At mght, I'd watch the moon pole-vault up and over.
That was before duckweed moved in and stole the big sky show

r,at,e?rn^'''* ' ^'''''^ "^'^^ ^ ^^^^^le round leaf, as thin as

paper and no wider than a pencil eraser. It spends its winter aUve at
On A M ""J "'"'^ P""'^' ^^^^'"S its own stored starch,
and t h e T t I if ^^"^i^g an appointment,
and then, to put it mildly, it multiplies. In a matter of weeks, it ha
 60 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 61

stretched a hving l i d o f lime-green leaves across every square i n c h o f

water surface. By August, w h e n the leaves o f cattails and cotton- U e sTn^rfur^^Th" 5 ' " " ' " " ^ ^"^^y ^ ^ y ' ^bove our heads,
woods have g r o w n dark and dusty, d u c k w e e d is still exuberantly sunn Iv 1 ° f hydrogen provides enough light energy to easily
supply all our energy needs w i t h o u t b u r n i n g a drop o f S i . I f only
green, so springtime green t h a t people stop t h e i r cars to stare. W e w e had a w a y to p l u g i n .
t h o u g h t i t was w e t paint, they tell me.
E n masse, d u c k w e e d spreads an impressive solar array—one
So far, we've l i v e d b y the grace o f green plants, and w e owe b o t h
plant, a mere quarter o f an i n c h across, can m u l t i p l y t h r o u g h the
our hves and our lifestyles to t h e m . Consider i h a t everything v^e
sheer energy o f sunhght t o cover an area the size o f a f o o t b a l l field
consurne, f r o m a carrot stick t o a peppercorn filet, is the p r o d u c t o f
i n a couple o f months. B u t there is n o t just one; there are millions
P ants t u r n m g sunhght i n t o chemical energy. O u r cars, our c o m p u t -
o f t h e m . I screen t h e m o f f ; they grow i n b e h i n d me, like splinters
c use t L f lT,'".' ^ " ^^^^ ° " photosynthesis as w e l l , ' b e -
f r o m t h é Sorcerer's broomstick. This spasm o f photosynthesis—sun-
l i g h t transformed i n t o acres o f green tissue before m y eyes—is m o r e 600 m Sin Tl "^'^^^^^ compressed r e m a i ; s o f
t h a n just m y nemesis. It's a miracle. r h ' u i f Ah T ^"^'"^^^ their bodies
I d chem' • f P / f ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ - b o ^ n plastics, pharmaceuticals,
That's w h a t most folks t h o u g h t before the late eighteenth century and chemicals also spring f r o m the loins o f ancient photosynthesis
w h e n scientists began experimenting w i t h leaves t o learn " f r o m In fact, other t h a n rocks and metals, it's h a r d to find l y r a w r ^ t e l l
whence t h e i r mysterious nourishment came." This was at a t i m e , we use that was n o t once alive, o w i n g its u l t i m a t e existence t o plan
remember, w h e n mice were believed t o spontaneously arise f r o m r e l e a ! th f '"t ' " f ^ ^"'^ ^^ore i t as f u e l . T o
piles o f rags. Joseph Priestley, an English amateur chemist, mystified re ease that energy, w e b u r n the plants or p l a n t products either
internally, inside our cells, or externally, w i t h fire
the curious w h e n he published the results o f his bell jar experiment
For m y m o n e y the discovery o f fire, as ballyhooed as i t was
i n 1 7 7 1 . H e had sealed a mouse and a candle inside a jar, and the
was vastly overrated^ Fire was fine f o r a w h i l e - i t kept us w a r m T d
mouse had died, asphyxiated b y the " i n j u r e d air." Miraculously,
w h e n Priestley added a m i n t plant to the m i x , he c o u l d add a new c^mbustr "^'^ ^ " ' ^ ^ " ^ "^'^^ gone'beyond fire-
mouse, and i t w o u l d live. Vegetation, he t o l d the w o r l d , can some- combustion m furnaces or i n engines is still the p r i m a r y egg i n our
energy-producing basket, and i t hasn't b r o u g h t us one i n c h closer t o
h o w repair air.
B u t i n the devilish w a y t h a t photosynthesis research seems t o
w o r k , Priestley was plagued f o r years b y disappointment w h e n he
iSTmt • ' r f ' ^'^^ f-^^ h - to rising c a L n
dioxide C O ) levels calvmg A n t a r c t i c a icebergs, swelhng ocean lev-
els, and the hottest decade o n record : •
t r i e d to repeat these experiments. Historians t h i n k he m u s t have
m o v e d his jar t o a darkened corner o f his lab, n o t k n o w i n g t h a t l i g h t of c a ^ i T t ^ " ' " i i '^«al, w e release great quantities
played a role i n the release o f oxygen f r o m the m i n t leaves. Mouse S u e T f compressed d u r i n g the Cretaceous
after mouse k e p t passing out. I t t o o k eight more years before D u t c h Period. -The giant ferns and dinosaurs o f those days decomposed i n
physician and chemist Jan Ingenhousz d i d the same experiment near oxygen-starved conditions and never had a chance to complete t h e f t
a sunny w i n d o w and h a d a l i g h t b u l b o f revelation b l i n k on. decay e y c k N o w we're finishing the j o b w i t h a bonfire, con u m i n g
n a year w h a t t o o k one h u n d r e d thousand years o f organic g r o w A
T h e rest is history. W e n o w k n o w t h a t photosynthesis, w h i c h
o f o r m . Like a huge bellows, our bonfire breathes i n o x y g e n T n d
means " p u t t i n g together w i t h l i g h t , " is the process b y w h i c h green
exhales an unearthly q u a n t i t y o f C O , , a greenhouse gas.
plants and certain algae and bacteria take carbon dioxide, water, and
A f l u x this extreme i n a closed system like our biosphere poses
sunlight and t r a n s f o r m t h e m i n t o oxygen and energy-rich sugars. I n
the same danger y o u w o u l d face i f y o u b u r n e d the f u r i ^ t u r e insSe
the meantime, animals like us take that oxygen and those sugars and
t r a n s f o r m t h e m back i n t o carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Thanks your house w i t h the w i n d o w s closed. For the last one h u n d r e d years
t o t h e sun, m i n t and m i c e and m e n all thrive. we ve been doing j u s t t h a t - b u r n i n g the heirlooms made from an'
c ent sunhght, ignoring the f a c t t h a t contemporary sunlight Z s
W e on this bell jar called Earth are l u c k y t o be so close to such
streammg m every w i n d o w . Instead o f feeding dead plants t o our
 62 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 63

fires all these years, perhaps w e should have been studying the living
fantastic scopes. Consider t h a t i n the small duckweed t h a t floats atoo
ones, carefully copying t h e i r magic.
n i y p o n d , there are fifty thousand chloroplasts (the c e l l h i e or S ¬
e l l s w h e r e photosynthesis occurs) f o r every square millimeter o f L f

AN U M B I L I C A L CORD TO THE SUN wRh l r ^ ? o f membranes filled

T h o u g h neither popular nor profitable i n the shadow o f still-spouting
oil rigs, the idea o f sun-wrought energy has g r o w n tendrils i n great
minds f o r m a n y years. Back i n 1912, an Italian chemistry professor
n a m e d G i a c o m o C i a m i c i a n w r o t e i n Science magazine about a w o r l d
i n w h i c h smokestacks w o u l d be felled t o make w a y f o r forests o f
clean glass tubes, w h i c h w o u l d m i m i c the "guarded secret o f plants"
and photosynthesize the f u e l w e needed.
H o w close have w e come t o Ciamician's dream? Eighty years
later, w e have acres o f s h i m m e r i n g solar cells made o f silicon, a ma-
terial never f o u n d i n the b l u é p r i n t s o f green plants. A f t e r first testing
t h e m i n the panels o f spaceships, we n o w use photovokaics (PVs)
to p u m p water, l i g h t homes, r u n laptops, charge batteries, and sup-
p l e m e n t the electric grid. PVs can cover a r o o f t o p or make digkal
numbers dance i n the tiniest o f calculators, b u t they w o n ' t do actual
chemistry ( m a k i n g storable f u e l f r o m Hght] the w a y plants do. A n d
although they're smaller and more affordable t h a n w h e n they first
came out, photovokaics are still nowhere near as compact, efficient,
or incredibly cheap as the organic modules assembled b y plants.
W h i c h brings u p another p o i n t o f envy. Every m o r n i n g , as our tech-
nicians d o n t h e i r w h k e suits and static-free moonboots t o assemble
high-tech solar cells i n toxin-laden factories, the leaves and fronds
and blades outside their w i n d o w s are silently assembling themselves
by t h e trillions.
A f t e r all these years, and despite the deluge o f photochemistry
papers published every week across the w o r l d , the secret o f p h o t o -
synthesis remains guarded. Fragmentary ghmpses o f the process re-
veal themselves, b u t the w o r k i n g m o d e l is still r i d d l e d w i t h black
boxes (unexplained parts o f the process) and mystery molecules
code-named Q and Z .
Part o f the p r o b l e m is t h a t the actual harvesting o f energized
particles o f l i g h t (photons) is n o t mechanical i n a macroscopic way,
a w a y t h a t w e can see w i t h our naked eye. O u r strongest electron
microscopes can go only so far, showing us where photosynthesis
occurs, b u t n o t h o w . T h e "gears" o f photosynthesis are molecular,
composed o f groups o f atoms t h a t fly b e l o w the radar o f even these
w i t h molecular pigments and proteins afl arranged i n a fantastically
p r e c ^ e choreography. A t least, that's w h a t our best guess tells us
tures ' ^.^"^^ " ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ i " - s i t i n g f o r actual p S
for p r o o f i^f^-" process, b u i l d theories, and h u n t
soars^nT""""/'"' knowledge, the s p i r k o f C i a m i c i a n still
ttato s b T r ^ ' " ' photosynthesis researchers. These inves-
S i n l ' T ^ ^ guarded secret t o begin
tha fl V ^ ^ ^ ^ f 1^ f ' ^ - i ' ^ i l - ' a solar cefl o f molecular p r o p o r t i o n s
hat w i U t u r n l i g h t energy i n t o electricity, i n t o a storable f u e l , or
i n t o the spark w e need to do chemistry at r o o m temperature and i n
ft in ! Ï ! 5 *° ^'"^ guarded secret and the w a y to m i m i c
It i n a shgh l y d i f f e r e n t way. Some rally b e h i n d the cry o f "Charge
separation!" Others say, " W e need to b u i l d an antenna! ' S t i f l o X e r s
shy f r o m using organic b u i l d i n g blocks and instead a i m to remake
nature s design m inorganic f o r m . Each lab is taking a d i f f e r e n t tack
across t h a t great ocean o f promise, like boats o f d i f f e r e n t des^ns n
a great America's C u p o f science.
11 l ^ ^ j i T ' ' f ^ l i g b t e d t o read t h a t one team i n A r i z o n a had
c u t m o t l l ' " ' " " f ' '^^^^^'^ ^ ° g ^ * - - - g a n i c m o l e
thenZ f P i T y n t h e t i c reaction center, and ft h a d rivaled
t h e q u a n t u m y i e l d o f photosynthesis! T h e y were r o u n d i n g the-buoy
M . h excited shouts and h o r n b l a s t s - p a p e r s i n the prestigious j o u r -
b t t ^ x r b t d ^ ' r r ' - " ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^^
slrit'^ f ° ^ ' P ^ ' " ' *° P " " the sun, the A r i z o n a
State University campus i n T e m p e w o u l d be the p e r f e c t setting
Fresh f r o m a M o n t a n a w i n t e r and stifl peeling o f f m y parka I was
intoxicated b y the sounds o f a southwestern c a m p u s ' t h e t h u n k o
tennis balls, t h e laughter f r o m flower-filled grottoes, the incessan
birdsong m the palms. I showed u p at the Center f o r Early Event
L T r t t t f r ^ ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^
But i t was hardly a vacation f o r J. Devens Gust, Jr., and crew
T h e y h a d just gotten w o r d t h a t the deadline on t h e i r m a j o r N a t i o n a l
 64 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 65
Science Foundation grant had been b u m p e d u p , and drafts were fly-
ing between offices hke sideways snow. Despite the pressure, G u s t —
chemist, professor, and leader o f the center—crafted a schedule t h a t
turns l i g h t i n t o l i f e ""^^ 'P''^' ^"'^ ^ l^^^rn h o w the sun
w o u l d allow m e t o meet experts f r o m each facet o f t h e i r w o r k , f r o m
the folks w h o disassemble t h e real photosynthetic powerhouses t o
those w h o assemble t h e m i m i c s f r o m scratch. A s Gust explained,
the t e a m h e l d i n aggregate w h a t w o u l d be too onerous f o r a single ELECTRON PINBALL
scientist t o k n o w , f r o m an understanding o f the " q u a n t u m uncer-
t a i n t y o f electron movements i n t h e near-red spectrum o f l i g h t " a l l
the w a y t o " h o w t h e corn plant i n Indiana likes its soil, and w h y . " t t T b i f e ^ h ^ t i ^ f f ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ' r - p - i ^ ^ - '
Labs o n orie floor h e l d glowing jars o f some o f t h e w o r l d ' s most t e r i u m is t o capture t W ^ and photosynthetic bac-
ancient bacteria, w h i l e i n the seismic-steady basement, cutting-edge increase their o d T t t s e p h o o t h " ^ ^ " ^ *° ^ ° ^elp
lasers h u m m e d . O n t h e floors i n between, seemingly ordinary or-
light-sensitive p i g m e n t s - c h l l h 7 '^''^^ ^^'^^ °f
ganic chemistry labs cooked u p molecules that were closer t o re- noids-that
sembling nature's solar collectors than anything else ever made.
M y t o u r at t h e center was a mental decathlon o f sorts, each
conversation stretching m y understanding o f all t h a t is involved i n fluid-filled sac c a l l e ^ t M a S d H I H " ^'"''""^^ ^
up like water bafloonsTnside 1
m i m i c r y o f this k i n d . Each t e a m member k n e w photosynthesis f r o m
his or her o w n scale or discipline or means o f measure, b u t as a ™ a k e a green p l a n t g " e n i t
i f n o t m i l h o n s ' i n even
Zl^rtt
l:^;^tl P^"*^'
" " ' " ' ^ ° f thousands,
w h o l e , they w o r k e d as a single organism. A n d t h a t organism, I got
the distinct impression, was i n t h e race o f its l i f e .
the ^ ^°"^P°P - e n n a s i n

Biochemist Thomas A . M o o r e , a leprechaunish baby boomer w h o d o w n t o one o f the ' X o l t h e t - ' ^ " " " ^ 1 ^t
tries his best t o be a curmudgeon, is f r o w n i n g at his c o m p u t e r screen ded i n t h e thylakoid's skL E a l ^ ^ " t e r s , " also embed-
w h e n I w a l k i n . Epithets i n a soft Texas accent. A s i f i n response, thousand-atom assemCwiA t s T w r T r ^P""^^"^'
his M a c i n t o s h lets o u t w i t h a guitar r i f f : " T h a t ' l l be t h e d a y / w h e n antennas. At its heart is a p ï r o f t w o h t l ° ^ " " ^ ' ^ ^""^P^P
y o u say good-bye-yie-yie/ t h a t ' l l be t h e day . . . " O n his growl, i t ecules t h a t do t h « actual a C b r ' " ' ^ ' ^ ^ i ^ " ^ ' ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ' ^ «^ol-
backs d o w n . tral, w h e r e l i g h t beSr^es f ' r d t lift Photosynthesis C e n ,
"It's t e l l i n g m e t o get t o w o r k , " he stage-whispers, " b u t w e ' l l
Phyll-ro^nralll^^^^^^^^ this chloro-
ignore i t . "
just like t h e ones y o u see in t h ' ^ f ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ t t e r - a r e electrons in orbit,
This seems t o please h i m . T o m M o o r e is the k i n d o f person w h o
rubs his hands together w h e n he's about t o dive i n t o something—a
detergent. These eLctronVaV . ^ ^T' A t o m i c cleaning
same ones that, w t ^ c o o r i ^ ^ a Ï " ' ^ '
debate, a good meal, a p r i c k l y scientific question. There's a certain
y o u r Enghsh m u f f i n s f o r vou T ^ . T °' '"'"'"""t, w i l l toast
gusto w i t h w h i c h he tears o f f pieces o f l i f e and chews t h e m u p .
to keep y o u r m i n d ' s eve on t h l P^':^"'-^ Photosynthesis, y o u have
W h e n I ask h i m t o explain photosynthesis, he visibly brightens and
leaf absorbs t h e enerJofTh ' 1 ° " ^ o f electrons. W h e n a
(after how m a n y years o f teaching?) literally leaps u p t o t h e w h i t e
b o a r d and starts drawing. "It's amazing," he tells m e . "Being able t o around t h e c h l o r o p ï ^ ^ e r s : ' e ^ T e d l h ^ ^ r h '^^^'^^
m i m i c even a small p a r t o f this process reassures m e — I say t o myself, to other molecules, sett^n, o f f ! I " '^'^ ^tart t o migrate
see?, this isn't magic." split, oxygen is f r e e d and carbon J ' ' ^ ï ^ ' ^ t i o n in w h i c h water is
Magic or not, m i m i c r y doesn't d i m i n i s h the w o n d e r t h a t M o o r e leaf like t h e d u c k w e e d it t Z ^ t w o T i ^ ^ " 'Tf ^"^^^ ^
obviously feels. Every n o w a n d then, i n between bursts o f impas- CPS I and PS „ ) to . c c ^ : ; : ^ ^ ^ ^ P^otosystems
Each photosystem stakes o u t its o w n p o r t i o n of the l i g h t spec-
 66 / Biomimicry
t r u m . Photosystem I I , f o r instance, absorbs wavelengths t h a t are 6 8 0
nanometers long (reddish h g h t ) , and this absorption causes one o f
the electrons circling the central chlorophylls t o h o p t o a higher
energy orbital, like a p i n b a l l being sprung i n t o play. Before i t can
relax back t o its o l d orbital, discharging its energy as useless heat, an
"acceptor" molecule stationed nearby snatches the electron away.
B u t r i g h t n e x t door t o the acceptor, there's another molecule that's
an even better acceptor, and zapl, i t steals the electron. T h e electron
continues traveling like a h o t potato, tossed molecule t o molecule
away f r o m the c h l o r o p h y l l . I n a f e w h u n d r e d t r i l l i o n t h s o f a second,
a negative charge winds u p at one end o f a chain o f acceptor and
donor molecules, and a positive charge w i n d s u p at the other. T h e
positive charge is actually a " h o l e " o n the central c h l o r o p h y l l , cre-
ated w h e n the electron was w h i s k e d away.
Since nature abhors this sort o f hole, a nearby molecule code-
named Z donates an electron and resets the c h l o r o p h y l l , sort o f like
a p i n b a l l machine reloading w i t h a new ball. Soon it's o f f t o the races
again, w i t h another energetic p h o t o n o f l i g h t captured and a n e w
electron being sprung o u t o f its orbital and i n t o play.
I n t h e meantime, the first hot-potato electron t h a t has been
traveling f r o m acceptor t o acceptor n o w j u m p s the p i n b a l l table en-
t i r e l y and goes t o the other photosystem, PS I . There i t meets a
central c h l o r o p h y l l t h a t has recently absorbed a p h o t o n o f l i g h t ( 7 0 0 -
nanometer wavelengths) and sprung its o w n electron i n t o play. T h a t
leaves i t w i t h a hole, w h i c h is conveniently reset b y the electron
h o p p i n g over f r o m PS I I . Again, there is a hot-potato toss i n PS I as
the electron moves f r o m one acceptor molecule t o another. T h e elec-
t r o n eventually moves to the outside o f the t h y l a k o i d membrane,
w h i l e the positive charge (all the way back at particle Z i n PS I I )
remains close to t h e inside o f the membrane.
A t this p o i n t , M o o r e wheels around and points his marker at
me, " A n d w h a t do y o u have w h e n y o u have a positive charge o n
one side o f a membrane and a negative charge o n the other?" He's
hke a demented game show host, I have no idea. " M E M B R A N E
P O T E N T I A L ! " he shouts, as i f we've h i t D o u b l e Jeopardy.
Every n o w and t h e n , y o u discover a scientist's true fetish, the
concept t h a t absolutely floors t h e m . G i v e n the chance to explain i t
t o t h e u n i n i t i a t e d , they stop flatfooted f o r a m o m e n t . T h e re is so
m u c h c r o w d i n g at the door w a i t i n g t o get o u t — h o w w i l l t h e y begin?
" T h e d i f f e r e n c e , " he goes slowly, patiently, " b e t w e e n a dead
b a c t e r i u m and a live one is membrane potential. I n living cells, t h e
How Will We Harness Energy? / 67
concentration o f chemicals or charges inside the enclosing membrane
s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e concentration outside. T h e l a w o f entropy says
t h a t all systems w a n t t o go to a position o f l o w e r e n e r g y - t h e y w a n t
t o equalize uneven gradients or concentrations. That's w h y a spot o f
m k breaks u p i n w a t e r - t h e concentrated i n k molecules d i f f u s e i n t o
the water and the water molecules d i f f u s e into the i n k Once the
concentrations are equal, the system can relax.
" A process like photosynthesis actually creates unequal gradi-
ents. I t moves negative charges t o the outside o f t h e t h y l a k o i d
membrane leaving a b u i l d u p o f positively charged ions inside This
polarizes the membrane, m a k i n g the inside o f the sac d i f f e r e n t f r o m
the outside. T h e charges on either side o f the membrane w a n t to
recombine, to release t h e i r energy and relax; that w o u l d be a d o w n -
h i l l reaction, the most natural t h i n g i n the w o r l d . B u t because the
membrane is i n the way, the tension remains high. Y o u r car battery
does t h e same t h i n g - i t separates charges as a w a y o f storing energy
L i v i n g cells, like cars, can use t h a t energy potential. T h e y use i t t o
i m p o r t nutrients, t o get neurons t o spark, t o get cells t o talk t o one
another, or t o get muscles t o move. O n a cellular level, l i f e lives i n
the tension between unequal concentrations, unequal charges.
M e m b r a n e p o t e n t i a l equals chemical and electrical p o t e n t i a l equals
A t this p o i n t , having n o t cracked a cellular biology t e x t b o o k f o r
rnany years, I f e l t the concept w o b b l e o u t o f m y reach a l i t t l e . M o o r e
the consummate teacher, r e t u r n e d to the leaf
the r^T^''''^, potential has a l o t t o accomplish i n plants, namely
the feeding and f u e l i n g o f an entire planet. First, there's the s p h t t i n g
o f water. W i t h each e ectron t h a t the PS I I c h l o r o p h y f l springs into
play, t h e molecule Z donates one o f its electrons to "reset" chloro-
p h y l l . Z eventually donates f o u r electrons to PS I I , T o reset its pos-
itive holes, i t teams u p w i t h a w a t e r - s p l i t t i n g complex t h a t strips
f o u r electrons f r o m water ( H , 0 ) , This liberates oxygen, w h i c h per-
colates o u t o f the leaf, and hydrogen ions ( H ^ ) , w h i h g stuck
mside t h e t h y l a k o i d sac. H y d r o g e n ions, being positively'charged;
w a n t desperately t o even the score and get to the outside w h e r é
negative charges reside.
I n t h e meantirne, at the outside o f the membrane, one shutded
electron after another is handed o f f t o a molecule called N A D P -
NTT^P? u ^ r ' ' ' ^ ' ^ ' ^ " phosphate). This h a n d - o f f trans-
f o r m s NADP-^ i n t o the electron carrier N A D P H , w h i c h has m i g h t y
reducing powers (the ability t o give electrons to other c o m -
 68 / Biomimicry
pounds). This means t h a t i n t h e n e x t stage o f photosynthesis, t h e so-
called dark phase, N A D P H can give electrons t o C O , , and thus
"reduce" i t t o sugar, C H 2 O . B u t i t can't do t h a t w i t h o u t a sideldck^—•
a molecule t h a t w i l l p r o v i d e energy.
"And here," says M o o r e , "is where t h e membrane p o t e n t i a l
comes i n . "
T h e only w a y f o r t h e t r a p p e d hydrogen ions t o get o u t o f the
t h y l a k o i d sac is t h r o u g h an enzyme " c h a n n e l " called a c o u p l i n g fac-
tor. I n t e x t b o o k cartoons, i t looks like a toadstool, w i t h a stem span-
n i n g t h e m e m b r a n e and a bulbous head sticking outside. As t h e plus
charges escape t h r o u g h this c o u p l i n g factor, they extract a t o l l — t h e y
t u r n a c o m p o u n d called adenosine diphosphate ( A D P ) i n t o adeno-
sine triphosphate ( A T P ) b y adding a t h i r d phosphate. This t h i r d
phosphate is h i t c h e d t o t h e other t w o w i t h a high-energy b o n d , and
i t is here t h a t t h e energy o f t h e sun is stored. D u r i n g t h e dark re-
actions, A T P ' s high-energy b o n d is severed and t h e energy is used t o
t u r n C O 2 i n t o sugar.
T h e chemistry t h a t stored this energy c o u l d n ' t have occurred
w i t h o u t t w o charges, a plus and a minus, being banished t o opposite
ends o f a membrane, sent packing by the p o w e r o f ordinary, garden-
variety sunlight. A n y t i m e y o u have a positive and negative charge
separated like that, y o u essentially have a battery, a battery p o w e r e d
by t h e sun.
M o o r e takes another deep breath. " W e began t o w o n d e r i f w e
c o u l d make a solar battery b y h o o k i n g a sun-sensitive p i g m e n t to a
string o f donor and acceptor molecules. W e w a n t e d t w o things. First,
we w a n t e d t o get charge separation—a plus at one e n d o f t h e string
and a m i n u s at the o t h e r — a n d second, w e w a n t e d the charges t o
stay separated long enough f o r us t o accomplish w o r k . "
" W o r k " c o u l d take many f o r m s : I ) H o o k wires t o the ends o f
t h e molecular string t o get an electric current, 2) use i t t o split water
and produce clean-burning hydrogen gas, 3) use i t as a p o w e r pack
to drive solar-based m a n u f a c t u r i n g , or even 4) use i t as a s w i t c h f o r
c o m p u t i n g near t h e speed o f light.
" O n e day, w e m a y even convince our string o f molecules t o go
i n t o t h e m e m b r a n e o f an artificial c e l l , " says M o o r e . "Instead o f
b o i l i n g chemicals f o r several hours i n toxic solutions t o make plastics
or other products, y o u c o u l d b u i l d a t i n y reaction vessel, give i t a
p o w e r pack, and stand back so y o u ' r e n o t b l o c k i n g its sun." W h a t ' s
science fiction f o r us—clean-burning f u e l and chemistry i n sunhght—
How Will We Harness Energy? / 69
is commonplace f o r plants. Somebody needs t o t e l l A r i s t o d e that the
gods are i n the k i t c h e n after all.
SOLAR ALCHEMY
Speculation is a lovely sport, b u t as any o f t h e scientists at t h e center
w d l t e l l y o u , it's one t h i n g t o w o r k o u t a p r o t o t y p e o f a donor-
pigment-acceptor device on paper. It's q u i t e another animal t o ac-
mally h o o k the molecules together so t h e y ' l l transfer electrons
I'utting t h e o r y i n t o practice means t a k i n g small steps i n t o u n c h a r t e d
( b y humans at least) terrain, w o r l d n g f r o m maps t h a t are sketchy at
best. B u t considering the f a c t t h a t photosynthesis produces 3 0 0 b i l -
lion tons o f sugar a year, i t is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e w o r l d ' s m o s t massive
chemical operation. Every pine needle and p a l m leaf can do ft T h e
more I t h o u g h t about i t , t h e m o r e amazed I was that no one h a d
taken C i a m i c i a n u p on his dare. H o w hard c o u l d i t be t o duplicate
the first f e w picoseconds, the electron transfer part? A n d w h y
haven't w e done this before?
T h a t was before I saw the molecular m a p o f a photosynthetic
reaction center. Devens Gust has a f u l l - c o l o r r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a p u r -
ple bacterium's reaction center i n his office, and he and I spent a
w h i l e j u s t a d m i r i n g ft. T h e visual was relatively n e w t o those w h o
had been s t u d y i n g photosynthesis f o r years. As Gust examines i t , his
black eyes focus like a hawk's on a gopher hole, and f o r a m o m e n t
1 lose h i m .
Devens Gust is a deep river o f a man, possessing a trademark
calm that plays w e l l i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h T o m Moore's q u i c k pas-
sion. W h i l e T o m and his research partner A n a ( w h o is also his w i f e )
are usually i n t h e office l o n g after t h e dinner hour. Gust closes his
door at five and rarely shows u p at t h e lab on weekends. "Devens
can get m o r e done i n a f o r t y - h o u r w e e k t h a n m o s t o f us get done i n
seventy," T o m M o o r e tells me. Before I l e f t , Gust p u l l e d o u t a m a p
and helped m e plan a road t r i p across A r i z o n a , showing m e w h e r e I
c o u l d find Anasazi ruins t h a t the tourists pass by. " T h a t sounds like
Devens," said M o o r e . " H e actually has t i m e t o go h i k i n g ! " A n d t i m e
enough, w i t h a deadline l o o m i n g , t o show m e the heart o f w h a t
inspires his t e a m .
T h e reaction center is a startlingly b e a u t i f u l device, composed
of several chemical groups called cofactors, set like jewels i n a tan-
 70 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 71

gled bird's nest o f p r o t e i n — w h a t scientists call the p r o t e i n pocket.

W i t h Bunsen burners and glassware. H e squats, reaches b e l o w one o f
W h e n y o u connect the cofactor dots, y o u get something t h a t loolcs
the lab benches, and opens the double doors, reveahng a series o f
like a wishbone, w i t h a c h l o r o p h y l l pair i n the center and t w o curv-
w a r m , b r i g h t l y l i t chambers filled w i t h large jars.
ing bones o f cofactors facing one another w i t h near m i r r o r symmetry.
T h e y r e m i n d m e o f the jars y o u find i n country saloons, b o b b i n g
T e n thousand atoms are choreographed i n the membrane just so,
w i t h p i c k l e d eggs. Some o f the jars contain a sludgy b r o w n substance
w i t h a geometry t h a t allows t h e m t o play the p i n b a l l game o f elec-
w h i l e others are a mossy green. H e moves these aside t o find a jar
t r o n transfer. Faced w i t h a b l u e p r i n t this complex, w h a t steps w o u l d
of p u r p l e bacterium, Rhodopseudomonas viridis, the color o f an Easter
one take t o b u i l d a solar battery f r o m scratch?
egg dye, b u t thicker. A s he holds i t u p t o the light, I see no m o v e -
" W e k n e w i t w o u l d be ludicrous t o t r y t o duplicate anything as
ment, no sculling backstrokes or t w i r l i n g whipcords. These bacteria
c o m p l e x and finely evolved as t h i s , " says Gust. " N a t u r e has a three-
I remember, are far b e l o w m y capacity to see, and the jar t h a t W o o d -
biUion-year j u m p o n us here." T h e p u r p l e b a c t e r i u m w e are admir-
b u r y IS h o l d i n g m u s t contain billions o f individuals. A s w e speak
ing is a sun-harvesting microbe that researchers r o u t i n e l y study f o r
r e p r o d u c t i o n and a t t r i t i o n swell and shrink the p o p u l a t i o n .
clues to photosynthesis. It's sort o f the f r u i t fly or E. coli o f p h o t o -
^ For a l o n g t i m e , W o o d b u r y tells me, they had t o w o r k f r o m
synthesis research because it's easy t o culture, easy t o read geneti-
inference, guessing h o w the cofactors were positioned, because there
cally, and structurally simpler t h a n green plants. It's m o r e akin, they
was n o molecular p i c t u r e o f the reaction center. " O n e o f t h e most
believe, to the first photosynthesizers t h a t arose three b i l l i o n years
dramatic advancements i n photosynthesis i n this century was t o fi-
ago. Instead o f t w o photosystems, p u r p l e bacteria make do w i t h one
nally get our pictures back f r o m developing and see a bacterial re-
t h a t is analogous to PS I I . "Because people have been studying the
action center molecule by molecule. T h e reason i t t o o k so long is
p u r p l e b a c t e r i u m so intensively, its reaction center has f e w e r black
because this assembly w e are dealing w i t h is so tiny-taldng its p i c -
boxes t h a n any other system; it's the closest t h i n g t o a b l u e p r i n t t h a t
ture w i t h something as b i g as a h g h t ray w o u l d be like b o u n c i n g a
our t e a m has.
tennis ball against a poppyseed."
" O u r goal was t o pare d o w n the reaction center and m o d e l only
Instead, scientists had t o use small X rays t o take the pictures
its essence. W e w a n t e d our device to work like this, even t h o u g h w e
T h e technique is called X - r a y crystallography, because the molecule
Icnew i t w o u l d n o t look at all like t h i s . " T h e natural reaction center,
t o be shot" IS first crystaUized—its molecules are fined u p so they
f o r instance, uses t h a t tangled scaffolding o f proteins t o embed and
are all facing the same way, i n dress-parade perfection. T h e X - r a y
h o l d independent cofactors. N o t w a n t i n g t o tackle anything as c o m -
beam passes t h r o u g h the molecule, and the p a t t e r n o f the d i f f r a c t e d
plex as a p r o t e i n pocket, the team t o o k a d i f f e r e n t route. I n their X rays is recorded as an array o f spots on a photographic plate.-.This
device, the cofactors float i n a beaker o f l i q u i d , bonded t o one an- p a t t e r n tells scientists h o w t h e atoms are arranged i n the m o l e c u l e —
other w i t h great care via organic chemistry techniques. what's n e x t to w h a t . T h e toughest p a r t o f the process is getting the
" T h e bonds m u s t duplicate the scaffolding's magic—they have molecule t o c r y s t a l l i z e - a p r o t e i n crystallographer can easily spend
to h o l d the molecules at the correct geometry and distance f r o m one eight t o fifteen years t r y i n g t o get a good crystal and p i c t u r e o f one
another t o p r o v i d e the proper pathways f o r electron transfer. T o type o f molecule.
accomplish this feat o f m i m i c r y , " says Gust, " w e peered over na-
T h e key to getting a good crystal is to completely dissolve the
ture's shoulder, t r i e d something, peered over nature's shoulder again.
molecules i n w a t e r first. W i t h proteins t h a t live i n membranes, this
Lately, we've been going to N e a l a l o t . "
IS no mean trick. H a v i n g an a f f i n i t y f o r f a t (membranes are double
layers of f a t ] b u t n o t water, membrane proteins simply c l u m p u p i n
N e a l W o o d b u r y is a chemist t u r n e d photosynthesis sleuth w h o uses the b o t t o m o f a beaker instead o f dissolving. I t wasn't u n t i l scientists
genetic scissors and glue, laser scopes, and millions o f bacteria t o do" learned to h o o k w a t e r - l o v i n g helper molecules t o t h e m t h a t the re-
his detective w o r k . " H a v e y o u seen t h e m ? " asks W o o d b u r y , leading action centers were able t o blossom i n water and finally have t h e i r
m e across t h e h a l l t o the bacteria g r o w t h lab. T h e lab looks like any picture taken.
college biology lab, w i t h long benches and overhead shelves crammed
T h e scientists w h o achieved this feat ( G e r m a n chemists H a r t -
 72 / Biomimicry
m u t M i c h e l , Johann Deisenhofer, and Robert H u b e r ) w o n the N o -
bel Prize i n C h e m i s t r y f o r i t i n 1988. " U n t i l t h e n / ' says W o o d b u r y ,
" w e h a d been guessing about w h a t elements were i n the reaction
center, and h o w t h e y m i g h t be oriented i n relation t o one another.
T h e pictures showed us exactly h o w nature's geometry works t o en-
hance the transfer o f electrons. N o w w e have some definite plans t o
inspire us."
Still, w h e n W o o d b u r y looks at these bacteria, the picture i n his
m i n d ' s eye is m u c h m o r e detailed than w h a t the rest o f the w o r l d
sees f r o m the n e w molecular maps. Even before the maps were
drawn, he and other geneticists had been p r o b i n g p u r p l e bacteria
w i t h t h e i r o w n set o f tools, sequencing the proteins and m a k i n g de-
ductions based o n carefully controlled mutations. "1 k n o w every
amino acid i n t h a t p r o t e i n pocket," says W o o d b u r y . " B u t k n o w i n g
w h a t they are and k n o w i n g , w h a t they do are t w o d i f f e r e n t things.
These days, w e w a n t t o go b è y o n d mere structure. W e w a n t t o k n o w
h o w structure affects f u n c t i o n — w h a t exactly makes i t w o r k so w e l l .
1 find this o u t b y distorting or even ' t u r n i n g o f f one piece o f the
structure at a t i m e , t h r o u g h a process called mutagenesis." S i m p l y
p u t , W o o d b u r y uses biotechnology to create m u t a n t bacteria w i t h a
specific defect i n their reaction centers. " T h e question w e ask is, h o w
does this specific change affect their ability t o photosynthesize?
That's h o w w e learn w h i c h parts o f the reaction center are most
important."
T h e p u r p l e b a c t e r i u m cooperates i n a notable way, w h i c h is
w h a t makes i t such a m o d e l organism t o w o r k w i t h . N o t only is i t a
simple system, consisting o f j u s t one k i n d o f reaction center, b u t i t
is also ambidextrous w h e n i t comes t o garnishing energy f r o f n d t s
w o r l d . I t can photosynthesize one m o m e n t , t h e n s w i t c h t o o x i d i z i n g
its f o o d t h r o u g h respiration j u s t like w e do. As W o o d b u r y says,
" T h a t flexibility means w e can tinker w i t h its photosynthetic m e c h -
anism, and even i m p a i r i t a b i t , w i t h o u t r u n n i n g the risk o f k i l l i n g
the patient."
I t r y to imagine the size o f its reaction center, given t h e fact
t h a t i t is t u c k e d i n t o a membrane o f a b a c t e r i u m t h a t W o o d b u r y
tells m e is o n l y one t o three microns long. Several thousand o f these
bacteria c o u l d fit i n t o the p e r i o d at the end o f this sentence. N o w
imagine that the reaction center inside this b a c t e r i u m is itself only
about t h i r t y angstroms b y eighty angstroms. A n angstrom is one
t e n t h o f a b i l l i o n t h o f a meter. I f y o u h a d a string o f beads, each one
How Will We Harness Energy? / 73
an angstrom, and y o u w a n t e d to span an i n c h , y o u w o u l d need t o
stnng together 2 5 0 m i l h o n beads. N o w t i c k óff the firs t h ' y f
TicTofp" U T ^'r' ^^^^ h o w w i d e the reaction center is
T i c k o f f eighty, and you've got the reaction center end to end
A n electron moves d o w n one side o f that wishbone-shaped
reaction center at a speed that is equally astonishing," says W o o d
bury. I t s measured m p i c o s e c o n d s - t r i l l i o n t h s o f a second " T o
cornprehend this t i n y number, consider t h a t one picosecond is 1 X
10 seconds and the age o f the E a r t h is about 1 X 10'^ days T h a t
means a picosecond is to a second as a day is t o the age o f the Earth.
t n i l :i ^I ^T'^'"^ ° f picoseconds f o r an electron
o make i t f r o m the nside o f the m e m b r a n e t o the outside. By the
t i m e y o u can f o r m a t h o u g h t , charge separation c o u l d have happened
m a n y m i l l i o n s o f times. H o w do y o u spy on a molecular c o m p l e x
that small, and capture a process t h a t fast i n the a c t '
T h e answer t o the size question is t h a t y o u d o n ' t spy on one
aTote T h T ? r T ' ^^^^ ^"he o f reaction centers
at once. T h e t r i c k is t o give t h e m a "start" pulse o f l i g h t so t h e y all
begm photosynthesizing at the same t i m e . T h a t way what's hap-
pening at any one m o m e n t t o the group is also what's occurring f n
each reaction center. ^"'"ug m
flash I n ^ t ^ ' f j " 1 ' ' ' " ' " ^ ' ^ " ' " ' ^ ' ' " ^ ^ ^ ' h ultrafast laser pulses that
flash on t o take t h e reaction center's " p i c t u r e " at various stages o f
t Z Z T r ° * ï " ^ ^ " ' " ^ P^^^'^g^^Phy f o r myself, I w e n t
d o w n t o t h e laser r o o m where W o o d b u r y had laid o u t a track f o r
the laser l i g h t t o go around. Imagine a Christmas train set w i t h hght
r"r7andT b ' " ^ ' ' f °^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ - ^ heam splitters/ m l - '
Z ; !u7 f ° ^ " ^ ^ d ° " ^ials o f p u r i f i e d
LrentT h . T ^^^^^^^^ ^ burst o f co-
herent h g h t (oscillating u p and d o w n i n perfect step, at the same
phase and wavelength). I t excites t h e reaction cente s and causes
t h e m t o begin t h e i r h a n d o f f o f electrons. W h f l e that happens, W o o d -
b u r y probes the vial w i t h a second beam t o see what's u p
th.. fl " ' ' " ' ^ " " f ^ T " ^ " "^^^ ' h s o r b at a precise wavelength and
then fluoresce-emit l i g h t as i t releases the energy. B u t w h e n that
molecule is excited b y sunlight, f o r instance, i t w i l l c h a n g e T t " h a p e
and absorb and fluoresce at a d i f f e r e n t wavelength, [ T h i s is the idea
b e h i n d m o o d r i n g s - w h e n the chemicals heat u p and change shape
they absorb (and reflect) a d i f f e r e n t color o f l i g h t . ] This spectral
signature' changes continuously as a molecule moves n d p a r t i d p a t e
 74 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 75

i n photosynthesis, the electrons h o p p i n g f r o m one spot t o the next.

By tracking these changes i n spectral signature, w e can spy o n w h a t
t h e molecule is d o i n g . "
A f t e r pulsing t h e vial o f reaction c é n t e r s w i t h a "start" hght,
W o o d b u r y dials a n e w wavelength o n the laser and begins p r o b i n g
w i t h t h a t beam. H e snaps picophotos at discrete intervals o f t i m e ,
l o o k i n g f o r fluorescence. " T h e molecule changes shape as ft moves
t h r o u g h the reaction. W e ' r e w a t c h i n g carefully, and w h e n the m o l -
ecule absorbs the probe beam and emits hght, w e note the t i m e .
T h i s teUs us t h a t at one p o i n t three picoseconds, i t h a d a s p e c t r u m
like this, and was i n this particular stage o f t h e reaction. W e t h e n he e „ o , e „ e and p o r p h y r i n w o u l d ha.e to h a « 41 o S r ,
repeat this p r o b i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t wavelengths o f h g h t t o get a c o m - l a p p i n g somewhat tr. hf>U orbitals over-
plete p i c t u r e , really m o r e o f a m o v i e , o f h o w t h e molecule changes antenna st^Ie A ^ u f ^ h e i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ 7 ' ' ^ "'^^ ^ ° ^^e other,
t h r o u g h t i m e . T h e reaction centers f r o m our m u t a t e d bacteria w i U againstconLtionaliml,^^^^^^^^^^^
f u n c t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y from w f l d bacteria. B y c o m p a r i n g the m o v i e o f
t h e m u t a n t ' s changes w i t h the m o v i e o f a w i l d reaction center, w e
pie bacteria came out, w e were t h S to^L tht ^ T ° ^ ' T
t r y t o guess h o w the m u t a t i o n has affected photosynthesis."
W o o d b u r y induces t h e changes i n t h e w f l d reaction center b y
r e w r i t i n g the genetic b l u e p r i n t (editing the D N A sequence). " W h e n
pleasure. " W e were spot o n . " ' ^ " " " " ^ ^^^h
I puU o u t a piece t h a t makes photosynthesis shut d o w n entirely, I
The Dyads
figure, here's s o m é t h i n g i m p o r t a n t , and I go teU Devens and T o m . "
Devens G u s t puts ft this way. " f t ' s as i f N e a l is digging inside a
c o m p u t e r and r e m o v i n g r a n d o m parts o f software programs. Say w e
w a n t t o k n o w w h a t makes w o r d processing t i c k . O n e day he removes
tirr.rtïïtroifrrot,'^:;r
the fonts, and w e can't t y p e anymore. So w e say, f o n t s m u s t be p u l l e d ahead i n t h a t k g o f fc r a « P a Ï l T . ^ u"
i m p o r t a n t . Let's go m o d e l t h e m . "

N o one wakes u p one m o r n i n g and decides t o m o d e l something as

big as a reaction center; the quest grows organically from m u c h h u m -
r„d-xrre£ï?"^^^^^^^^
bler beginnings. Years ago, T o m and A n a M o o r e were h o t o n the pathway''-' l ^ e r o f f e r ^ ^ t T ^ ' " f ? ^ ' ' "^^^P^^i-S
t r a d o f antenna f u n c t i o n — t h e sateflite dish t h a t expands the plant's none. TLS second o r b t was^es^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^"i"
at h a n d and slightly l o w e r T r e n e r ' k K ' '
reach. T o m h a d done his graduate w o r k o n carotenoids (the p i g -
scape. T h e t r i c k Jas to b o n d a f \h^^^" ^he energy land-
ments i n antennas), w h i c h at t h a t t i m e h a d n o t been aU t h a t weU
electron orbitals overlapped " ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^° ^hdr
characterized or m a p p e d . H e and A n a were t r y i n g t o isolate carot-
enoids f r o m l i v i n g systems t o see h o w t h e y w o r k e d , b u t ft was p r o v -
ing d i f f i c u f t . Devens Gust, i n t h e meantime, was w o r k i n g w i t h
molecules cafled porphyrins, w h i c h are cousins o f c h l o r o p h y f l and
also appear i n antennas. and the c h a r g ^ r e ^ i r e / m ^ b ^""'^^ ^ack
A t l u n c h one day. G u s t and T o m M o o r e , w h o h a d never w o r k e d before i t c o J d be us"d "^^^^^^ i n g the energy
together, began talking about t h e f t separate b u t m u t u a l antenna centageofphotonsthattcc^Ilt^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 76 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 77

the charge-separated state hved only ephemerally—one t o ten p i -

coseconds." Since that's t o o short to get chemical w o r k done, i t
wasn't a good m i m i c o f photosynthesis.
" O u r task was t o get the charges to separate q u i c k l y and t h e n
h o l d t h e m like t h a t — t o slow d o w n recombination. P u t t i n g some
physical distance b e t w e e n t h e plus and minus charges seemed like a
good delay tactic. W e asked ourselves, w h a t i f w e were t o add an- of „ e r a 1 „ X l : r
other molecule t o the donor-acceptor dyad and make i t a donor-
donor-acceptor string, a triad?" Gust and M o o r e had already had
l u c k h o o k i n g carotene and p o r p h y r i n together i n a donor-donor pair.
By adding a quinone as an acceptor, they w o u l d create a triad. I h \
1979, they set t h e i r sails.

The Triad

O n paper i t l o o k e d like a straight shot t o the b u o y . B u t i n the lab,

winds are ficlde, and n o t h i n g is as s m o o t h as y o u m i g h t imagine,
especially w h e n the waters are uncharted. D r . A n a M o o r e w o u l d be handle t o the nexTeroun v happening, you're also adding a
the actual b u i l d e r o f the molecule, the wet-lab chief w h o w o u l d p u t
i t together one agonizing organic reaction at a t i m e .
I f G u s t has the eyes o f a perched hawk, t h e n A n a Moore's are
a raven's—cocked, curious, and piercing. Like T o m , she is riveted
b y her w o r k and tells m e that she dreams solutions t o k n o t t y p r o b -
all over a g a i n - ^ a d d i L ! Z Z f ' "^''^"^ ^^^es and begin
lems i n her sleep, or they occur to her u n b i d d e n i n the shower. For
ing Each o T t h f^ P'"otecting, bonding, and deprotect-
our talk, w e go o u t t o one o f the terra-cotta benches t h a t I spied on
T u b b t g at j u s t ^ ^ P ^ ^ f - - t a n t - a chemical S
the w a y i n . H e r e w e are bathed i n unadulterated A r i z o n a sunlight,
time. I t m a y T n W v e 2 z n^^^^^^^^^^ ^-^"1 ''''''
c o n t e m p l a t i n g a process t h a t m i g h t make the p o w e r o f t h a t sunlight
you have b u i l t y o u r molecule ' ' ' ' ' ' " P ° ^ ^^^^ ^ t i f ,
as available t o us as i t is t o the nearby vines. A n a M o o r e illustrates
the f u t u r e as she sees i t , filling m y n o t e b o o k w i t h chemical g r a f f i t i .
M o r e t h a n anyone else, M o o r e speaks w i t h an engineer's sensi-
beak:i:d^SanTvï:g:ï "^-^^° -
b i l i t y , as i f t h e chemical groups, w h i c h were so h a r d f o r m e t o v i -
sualize, are actual bone and brick, strung together w i t h hinges and
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Devens was 1 P ^ ' " " ' ^ Museum of
joints. She talks m e t h r o u g h the synthesis process i n a strong A r g e n -
tinean accent, speaking faster and faster as her excitement builds,
colleague o f ou's n a ^ d Pau ^Z^^^^^^ '""T' "^^^ '
like a roller coaster after the crest.
" W e decided t o b i n d the groups together w i t h amide bonds,
w h i c h is w h a t amino acids are j o i n e d w i t h . A m i d e bonds are stable
and versatile^—we figured these bonds w o u l d keep our molecule
strung o u t i n a line, r i g i d enough so t h a t i t w o u l d n o t f o l d back o n g.an'dthen%ot:Ct;^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
itself and mechanically recombine the charges. T h e only p r o b l e m is
t h a t f o r m i n g these lands o f bridges takes many, m a n y steps."
 78 / Biomimicry
H o w Will We Harness Energy? / 79

bring the work-in-progress h o m e w i t h me and p u t i t i n the fridge. I

had t w o small c h i l d r e n i n day care, and b y the t i m e I had gotten to ' ~ ^ : S i of f„.
the office, I had been o n five subways, all w i t h m y precious vial. I t
t o o k me a year and a h a l f t o finally assemble a molecule t h a t we
t h o u g h t w o u l d w o r k . T h e m u s e u m d i d n ' t have the spectroscopes we The Pentad
needed f o r testing so I h a d t o send the vial o u t to Saclay f o r J T o m
and Devens to test." '
T o m M o o r e picks u p the story. " W e k n e w that w h e n w e irra-
diated i t , i f i t was w o r l d n g properly, the negative charge w o u l d r u n
one way, leaving a positive charge at the other end. T h e positive
Moor, „1.,°" ' m ê ^ w e 1 ' T 11 ™ "
charge on one end w o u l d cause the assembly t o absorb l i g h t at a
particular wavelength, so that w h e n w e had that final p r o d u c t (a
charge-separated state) w e ' d see a large j u m p o n our detector i n -
struments. Sure enough, w h e n we probed i t w i t h a certain wave- that's :,„, belt * ? ° T C h ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
length, w e saw an enormously large signal. W e were j u m p i n g u p
and d o w n , and about t o call Ana, w h e n the technician came o u t
red-faced and t o l d us he had set the probe at the w r o n g wavelength
so that w h a t w e had just seen was not accurate. I t was a tremendous
l e t d o w n and w e t h o u g h t , that's i t . It's n o t going t o w o r k . B u t t h e n
w e set the t h i n g u p correctly and, lo and behold, i t w o r k e d . T h e
signal was even stronger! A n a t o o k the t r a i n o u t t o Saclay, and, being
O oTilT\"i""^"^^^ ''^"'^'"'"^ ^ " " e n like this: C-P -P-Q-
the D o u b t i n g Thomas that she is, she w a n t e d t o r u n the c o n t r o l
again."
" W h e n I saw i t w i t h m y o w n eyes," says A n a M o o r e , " I Icnew
i t was t r u e . "
Perhaps the most amazing t h i n g was h o w l o n g they were able
t o keep the plus and minus separated i n the triad. "Before this, the
longest charge separation (using a dyad) h a d l i v e d ten t o one h u n d r e d better and better arrentr^r u •1 7 " - t o - n g h t hneup features
picoseconds before collapsing together i n a burst o f heat. There was
no w a y to grab h o l d o f the potential. B u t w i t h the triad, w e w a t c h e d
i » t h e energy l a n d , p an^Lt, t ''''"'"•-
the clock t i c k o f f the digits and we c o u l d n ' t believe our t i m i n g . I t
lasted and lasted—two h u n d r e d to three h u n d r e d nanoseconds, ten
thousand t o one h u n d r e d thousand times longer t h a n the dyad! For
the first t i m e , w e h a d sufficient distance and staying p o w e r t o envi-
sion doing some real chemistry at the ends."
Standing i n Saclay, France, thousands o f miles f r o m home, the
photosynthesis m i m i c s stared at the instruments, t h e n at one an-
other, t h e n back at the instruments. T h e y ' d done i t ! T h e y ' d glided
r o u n d the b u o y i n the race the w h o l e w o r l d o f photochemistry was
watching. Gust presented the paper at a G o r d o n Research C o n -
 80 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 81

or " h o l e " t h a t is l e f t is neutralized or " f i l l e d " b y an electron from

the molecule t o the l e f t .
T o a n t h r o p o m o r p h i z e like crazy, let's say the five chemical
groups (5-4-3-2-1) are spectators at an o u t d o o r concert. T h e y are all
wearing lap robes. A breeze l i f t s the lap robe o f f o f 3. N u m b e r 2 is
eager f o r another lap robe, so he steals i t away, w i n d i n g u p w i t h t w o
lap robes. N u m b e r 1 is even m o r e eager and steals the extra lap robe
from 2. I n the meantime, poor n u m b e r 3 has lost his robe and is
cold. A generous soul at his l e f t , n u m b e r 4, donates his robe. N u m -
ber 5, being even m o r e generous, gives 4 his robe. N o w n u m b e r 5
is robeless (positive charge) and n u m b e r one has an extra robe (neg-
ative charge).
I n the parlance o f chemical graffiti, the lap-robe shuffle w o u l d
l o o k like this, w i t h l i g h t energy m o v i n g l e f t t o right, and electrons
m o v i n g l e f t t o r i g h t t o neutralize holes l e f t b e h i n d b y donated elec- SPANNING A MEMBRANE-
trons: CATALYST W I T H A P O W E R PACK

(*}= excitation of energy, (—}= extra electron, and ( + } = hole left behind N o n e o f the scientists was t o o anxious t o talk about applications
by a donated electron.

Step 1. Light excites P,„ C P,„* P Q Q able to b u y molecular batteries at W a l - M a r t . T h e team at A S U i !

Step 2. Energy transfers from P,„ to P C F,„ P* Q Q
Step 3. A n electron transfers from P to Q C P,,„ P+ Q - Q
Step 4. A n electron transfers from P,„ to P C P,„+ P Q ~ Q
Step 5. A n electron transfers f r o m C to F and Q to Q C+ F„, P Q

Because t h e shape o f a molecule and its interactions w i t h neighbors

determine j u s t h o w l i k e l y i t is t o donate or accept an electron, pentad
builders have a variety o f "Icnobs" they can t w e a k t o increase the rate
o f electron transfer. T h e y can change t h e chemical structure o f t h e out o f n e n t i * ' " \ * i n k s t h a t r o o f t o p photovokaics w i f l be made
molecules, t h e i r distances f r o m one another, or even t h e i r interactions
w i t h the s u r r o u n d i n g m e d i u m , w h i c h at this p o i n t is a l i q u i d solution.
Someday, N e a l W o o d b u r y speculates, they may even be able t o e m - unlikely to last t w e n t y years on y o u r r o o f W h a t about lichens I ask
bed t h e pentad i n a membrane, surrounded b y p r o t e i n scaffolding t h a t
w i l l f u r t h e r speed or slow d o w n the transport o f the electron.
The t r i c k t o pentad twealdng is to use a l i g h t t o u c h , says Gust.
" Y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o have the energy differences b e t w e e n steps t o o
great, because w i t h each step a l i t t l e o f t h e i n i t i a l sun-energy t h a t
came i n t o the system is lost. T o o large a d r o p w o u l d mean the loss continue, he says silicon photovokaics are likely to keep c o X l
o f t o o m u c h energy. Instead, y o u w a n t a shallow series o f steps, each
one d r o p p i n g d o w n only a l i t t l e i n the energy landscape. Say y o u
W h a t sets the p e n t a d apart from silicon cells, however, is its
 82 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 83

size—at eighty angstroms, a pentad is a very t i n y d o u b l e - A battery

t h a t is activated b y light. I n a w o r l d where machinery is fast ap-
proaching the molecular scale, there w i l l be p l e n t y o f call f o r van-
ishingly small batteries. I f y o u c o u l d find a w a y t o h o o k t h e m t o a
grid, I suggest, y o u c o u l d p o u r bilhons o f pentads i n t o a can o f paint
and layer y o u r house w i t h sun harvesters! O r paint the h i g h w a y sys-
first w e ' l l have t o imp^rytldr e c o g n Ï e ' Z ' r
we have t o get the m'olecule t
t S S 7
b'^
t e m w i t h t h e m ! " T r y doing t h a t w i t h a r o o f t o p p h o t o v o f t a i c , " laughs and hne u p i n the r i g h t direction nT^"'^^ ^^e membrane, enter i t ,
M o o r e , T h e n he arches an eyebrow, looks b o t h ways, and leans t o - the interfacial relatiL b ^ e e n t Ï Z d " ' T ! ^ ^ ' ^ *° '^^^^ ^^^^
w a r d m e . " D o y o u k n o w w h a t w i l l be really amazing? W h e n w e find
a w a y t o get this t h i n g t o e m b e d i n an artificial membrane. Then
w e ' l l be cooking.
l u t i o n . " A s she speaks I
the grant a p p I S o n
!r
encounter i n the membraneTav?r w h
r'^'-J^^
P'"^*^^"^
it's just floating i n so-
" ^ ™ ^ g ' P^^S^-g words i n t o
" W h a t w e have n o w is essentially an electron transfer device,"
he explains. ' W h a t w e w a n t t o do next is w h a t photosynthesis does howiï'Xl''"' teases. " W e ' f l show y o u
next, w h i c h is t o convert charge separation i n t o membrane p o t e n t i a l
[he never misses a chance t o b r i n g this u p ] . T o do this, we have t o
design an artificial cell, p u t the molecule i n the membrane, and shine
l i g h t o n ft. I f w e can do that, w e w i l l have converted l i g h t i n t o a catalysts, those w o r k h ó r s e l r o t e ' t^^^^^^ P^t^^s to
voftage across a membrane. T h e n w e can make use o f any o f t h e ing molecules together md s v l ^ ' . l l '°^^^^
biological paradigms f o r using potential. P u m p i n g ions, m a k i n g A T P catalysts w o r k w f t h a m a z t g t e ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ T ' ^^^^ ^ P ° * ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^
(the gasoline o f l i f e ) , i m p o r t i n g sugars—anything biochemistry does tion. g specmcity, h o n e d over eons o f evolu-
w i t h potential, w e can do once w e learn t o incorporate molecules Biochemists have a w h o l e arsenal ^ ,
i n t o membranes." can take o f f the shelf, c r m p o u n r i t ; ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Scientists already k n o w h o w t o make an artificial cell—they p u t along D N A , m a k i n g thousands o f c ^ e f X ï ï ' b S T "
lipids (the molecules t h a t make u p ceU membranes) i n water and tions are f o r the m o s t r,s,rt tU Ï biochemical reac-
shake t h e m u p so t h a t t h e y self-assemble i n t o w a t e r y spheres called - i x i n the c a t ^ r a l f t L r ; ™^ ' ' ^ ^ ^^^^
liposomes. I f G u s t and the Moores c o u l d install t h e f t molecule i n
inputs ofen.r^'SL:;;Lt;i:T£:''''' —
the skin o f one o f those bubbles, along w i t h the toadstool-shaped
couphng factor t h a t makes A T P , they c o u l d shine l i g h t on ft and n.anu^:ratV^^^^^^^^^^^ we
make t h e f u e l o f l i f e . "Just t h i n k , " says T o m M o o r e . " W e w o u l d
demonstrate t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f A T P i n a light-driven system." ^ ' ^ ^ : ^ t J : s ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
W h a t t o do w i t h it? M o o r e sighs. " W e l l , first, I ' d stand back go t o the shelf andT^^k o u t a d ^*^P^'
and admire i t f o r a long t i m e . T h e n I suppose w e c o u l d m i m i c an its o w n power p a c k ^ f p e T t a ^ ' ^ o ' ^ i r ^V^'^'^^'^ ^^th
u p h i l l reaction t h a t needs energy—like the assembly o f a p r o t e i n . and B and hft ft w i t h light and i t w o u M ^ ^
Put i n everything a cell needs t o make proteins—a ribosome system, A B f o r y o u w i t h the k i f d o f sp c t o ^ ^ t ^ - ' ^ - - g
D N A , amino acids—and t h e n shine a l i g h t o n ft and see i f ft w i l l way, we w o u l d be able to b u i l d c h e ' * 2 t^^"", achieves. I n this
c r a n k ' o u t a piece o f p r o t e i n , like i n s u l i n . " R i g h t n o w insulin is made
water, using sunhght as t h e e n e ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ '""^ '^^'^^^'y'
by genetically engineering E. coli bacteria. T h e day m a y come w h e n byproducts N o w ' w l som^^^^^^^^^ P™'^"""^ " ° " ° - i ^ -
w e c o u l d dispense w i t h t h e bacteria that have t o be f e d and k e p t at for a w h f l e . ""'''^^"^ '^«"^d stand back and admire
certain temperatures and instead have t i n y n o n l i v i n g factories—sacs
w i t h p o w e r packs i n t h e f t skin. Being f e a r f u l o f genetic tinkering,
even w h e n it's done w i t h E. coli, I like this alternative.
 84 / Biomimicry
HYDROGEN DREAMS
Finally, i f w e are to m i m i c a green plant's real planetary coup, w e
m u s t find a w a y to use the l i g h t o f the sun to r u n a chemical reaction
t h a t w o u l d net us a storable, high-energy f u e l . W i t h all due respect
to plants, sugar and starch are n o t w h a t w e humans had i n m i n d
(plants already do a fine j o b o f maldng those f o r us]. W h a t does
interest us is the possibility o f producing hydrogen gas f r o m sunlight
and water.
H y d r o g e n is the w o r l d ' s cleanest storable f u e l — i t can be derived
f r o m water, and w h e n y o u b u r n i t , y o u release pure water again.
H y d r o g e n is also the f u e l o f choice i n fuel-ceU technology. Fuel cells
are portable devices t h a t take hydrogen gas and use i t t o generate
electricity, right i n y o u r car, f o r instance. A t this p o i n t , fuel-cell tech-
nology is still an elusive goal—no one can get the chemical reaction
to w o r k f o r m o r e t h a n a f e w hours. I f and w h e n the barriers are
overcome, the demand f o r hydrogen gas w i l l be immense.
T h e alchemy needed t o "crack" water and extract hydrogen gas
does n o t l o o k d i f f i c u l t on paper. N a t u r e does i t all the t i m e w i t h the
help o f an enzyme called hydrogenase. Hydrogenase takes hydrogen
ions ( H + ] and, w i t h the addition o f electrons, makes H , gas, w h i c h
can be b u b b l e d o u t o f the solution. Photosynthesis produces all the
needed ingredients. I t releases hydrogen ions f r o m water and shuttles
electrons i n t o the hands o f N A D P + , w h i c h becomes the electron
carrier N A D P H . As l o n g as w e have hydrogen ions and this constant
source o f electrons, w e should be able t o add hydrogenase and collect
our H , gas f o r free, right? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it's n o t t h a t simple. H y -
drogenase is n o t c o m f o r t a b l e i n the presence o f oxygen, and after a
f e w hours o f p u m p i n g o u t a product, i t is overcome b y oxygen, and
the reaction grinds t o a halt. Technology watchers predict t h a t it's
j u s t a m a t t e r o f t i m e , however, before someone perfects the side
reactions. W h e n they do, the w o r l d w i h come looldng f o r a sun-
harvesting p o w e r pack t o provide the charge separation. Chances are
the pentad, or an even newer and i m p r o v e d m o d e l based on the
reaction center, w i l l be o n t h e short list o f candidates.
COMPUTING A T T H E SPEED O F LIGHT
I n the m e a n t i m e , the most likely application o n the h o r i z o n is a
marriage that's h a r d t o picture: technology m i m i c k e d f r o m the
How Will We Harness Energy? / 85
w o r l d s most ancient organisms breathing l i f e i n t o a brand-new gen-
eration o f computers. These organic-sihcon hybrids, sporting
switches the size o f a molecule, w i l l make P e n t i u m p d s seem as
p i o d d m g as the v a c u u m - t u b e d E N I A C f r o m the fifties
Today's computers use a series o f switches to store and transmit
electronic b i t s - t h e zeros and ones o f digital code. The s w i t c h e s "
htu h ' ^^'^ *° trains o f electrons pass
t h r o u g h whenever they receive the r i g h t signals. Conversely, some
switches can be shut d o w n t o b l o c k the flow o f electrons. W h ^ t most
of us d o n t realize is h o w slow and labored this process really i s -
w i t h a linear series o f switches, t h e c o m p u t e r can do only one cal-
culation at a t i m e , i n sequence. C o m p u t e r s o f the f u t u r e w i l l be more
hke b r a m s - t h e y w i f l have three-dimensional webs o f switches. T h e
signals, instead o f traveling via electron flow, w i l l be encoded o n l i g h t
Z Z T f V ' * ' n P ^ ' ' ^ ° f ^ ' g h t . Say y o u w a n t t o send the
eSmctrl? - ^ 1 1 t h i r t y or so v o l u m e s - f r o m Boston to
Baltimore. I f y o u send i t o n today's copper wires and squeeze ft i n t o
ThaTfT"? ' r f p h o n e hnÏ
for h a l f the day. T h a t same transmission sent via light waves i n a
hair-tbn optical fiber w o u l d show u p i n less than one second
T o equip these optical wunderkinds, technologists w i l l need
hght-sensitive switches, the smaller the better. A device like the pen
hotstfr^o t ' ' " . f ^ '^"'^ its electrons and
holes are positioned] i n response t o a certain frequency o f light
makes an ideal s w i t c h , H f t ft w i t h light, and the negative and p o s i f v é
ch rges w f l l zip t o opposite ends o f the pentad. W h e n the s w i t c h is
b s o r L t 2 7 ' ^ ' ' ' ï l ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' " y '^^'^"^^^ '^^P' therefore
ITnl f . % f "f h g h t spectrum (the m o o d -
ring p h e n o m e n o n ] This means t h a t the pentad can he c o n t r o f l e d - f t
red h h f T ^ " ' ^ ^ f ™ " ^ ' '"''"^ - h i c h i t absorbs only
red light, f o r instance, t o a state i n w h i c h i t absorbs only green l i g h t
In c o m p u t e r hngo, those states are called o f f and on, zero and o f e
Gust and T o m M o o r e have been daydreaming p u b l i c l y about
the possibility o f mstalling pentad switches b y the millions i n a d u -
a s w i t c h where h g h t is h u r t l i n g t h r o u g h at 960 n m , a charge-
separated pentad w o u l d b l o c k t h a t h g h t by absorbing ft aLd stopping
Its transmission. Essentially, ft w o u l d s w i t c h o f f the flow. Conversely
 86 / Biomimicry
a pentad i n its relaxed state w o u l d n ' t absorb the 960 n m l i g h t and
w o u l d therefore let i t pass. W e could toggle these molecular switches
f r o m a relaxed state t o a charge-separated state by h i t t i n g t h e m w i t h
a preparatory pulse o f hght, essentially opening or closing t h e gates
to the transmission o f bits and bytes.
This last apphcation m a y seem far f r o m the inspiration o f photosyn-
thesis, u n t i l y o u remember t h a t b y finding a new apphcation f o r the
machinery o f photosynthesis, w e are being the u l t i m a t e b i o m i m i c s .
" N a t u r e is famous f o r r e t r o f i t t i n g an existing technology t o accom-
plish m a n y d i f f e r e n t things," T o m M o o r e reminds me. W i t h a f e w
modifications, he says, the same mechanism t h a t turns carbon d i -
oxide plus water plus energy i n t o sugar and oxygen is simply r u n i n
reverse whenever w e eat a salad or a s t r o g a n o f f W e take sugar and
oxygen and break t h e m d o w n t o energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
W h a t these m i r r o r reactions have i n c o m m o n is w h a t cuts across t h e
p l a n t and animal Idngdoms: the miracle o f membrane polarization.
I n f a c t ( I ' m sounding m o r e like T o m M o o r e every m i n u t e ) , it's a
c o m m o n t h e m e i n aU biological functions, i n c l u d i n g t h i n l d n g . As y o u
read this sentence, the membrane p o t e n t i a l i n y o u r nerve cells is
h e l p i n g y o u send signals, process i n f o r m a t i o n , and, i n short, c o m -
pute. Suddenly, playing a game o f Tetris o n an artificial photosyn-
thesis c o m p u t e r doesn't seem so strange—it's just another acorn t h a t
has faUen, and n o t all t h a t far f r o m the tree.
Later t h a t week, t h i n l d n g about aU this as I make m y w a y among
the Anasazi ruins t h a t Devens Gust h a d t u r n e d m e o n to, I begin t o
smile. A f t e r all these years, w e are only n o w l o o k i n g to leaves as a
source o f inspiration. U n l i k e t h e Anasazi, w e have b u i l t too many o f
our labs facing the w r o n g direction, away f r o m t h e sun. " I hope y o u
get y o u r grant," I say o u t l o u d , and t h e n I lean back against the
circular w a l l o f a ceremonial kiva, and faU asleep i n t h e s o f t rays.
PHOTOZYMES
M o n t h s later, w h e n I m e n t i o n A S U ' s pentad light-harvesting efforts
to James G u i l l e t o f t h e University o f T o r o n t o , he nods his head.
" T h e y ' r e impressive, and they w o r k w e l l . " A p o l i t e silence. " A s l o n g
as y o u have something t o p l u g your laser i n t o . B u t w h a t happens
w h e n y o u w a l k outside and h o l d t h e m u p t o ordinary, n o r t h e r n Ca-
How Will We Harness Energy? / 87
nadian sunlight? Can y o u get an electrical current? Even better, can
y o u get f u e l o u t o f them? That's w h a t I w a n t t o do "
A n d t o do that, G u i l l e t is tackling a d i f f e r e n t p a r t o f the p h o -
tosynthetic machinery. W h i l e Gust and M o o r e are m o d e l i n g the re-
action center G u i l l e t attempts to b u i l d w h a t he thinks every reaction
center w i l l u l t i m a t e l y need: a w a y t o get t h e d i f f u s e drizzle o f sun-
hgh t o h i t h o m e . I n plants it's done w i t h p i g m e n t antennas, and i f
G u i l l e t succeeds, the A S U t e a m m a y be able t o m a r r y a f u l l - f l e d g e d
antenna t o its pentad and do chemistry i n water. B u t that's getting
ahead of the story.
.1, ' ' ^ ' / T ' P"'"""^ ^""'^ to be seeking his o w n p a r t o f
t h e artificial photosynthesis Grail. H e lives i n a cold, dark c o u n t r y
t h a t uses m o r e energy per capfta t h a n any other i n the w o r l d Be-
cause sunny days are n o t t e r r i b l y p l e n t i f u l , GuiUet is interested i n
finding a w a y t o w r i n g a storable f u e l o u t o f the sun, something to
b u r n d u r i n g those w i n t e r m o n t h s - s o m e t h i n g like hydrogen. T h o u g h
he can be suspenseful about his plans, I t h i n k he m a y be onto some-
t h i n g . H i s track r e c o r d - p a p e r s , awards, patents, businesses-speaks
of a m a n w h o lets no moss g r o w o n a good idea.
T h o u g h he r e t i r e d f r o m teaching several years ago, G u i l l e t m a i n -
ains an o f f i c e at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o and stifl comes i n regu-
larly. H e r e he keeps one f o o t i n academia and another i n private
industry, w h e r e his career began. " I was trained i n the private sector
where practica applications were k i n g , " he tells me. " B u t w h e n I
transferred t o t h e university, they w a n t e d m e to give all t h a t u p " ft
was m an era w h e n the real prestige i n science lay i n the field o f
physics, w h e r e elegant theories and u n i f y i n g concepts were badges '
y o u c o u l d shine. D e e p i n the throes o f "physics envy," as it's called,
the head o f his department actually t o l d h i m he shouldn't be p r o -
ducing anything patentable. T o GuiUet's c r e d f t he flatly ignored the
advice and has been patenting inventions and fledging companies
ever since
O n e o f his inventions is Ecolyte, the plastic that degrades i n t o
small pieces w h e n the sun shines on i t .
''J have f o u r times as m a n y inventions as B e n j a m i n Franklin "
he tells me, and I ' m pushing f o r one h u n d r e d . " Somewhere be-
tween here and one hundred, he m a y j u s t invent a device t h a t spins
energy f r o m t h e sun i n t o a f u e l t h a t can r u n y o u r car. W h e n i t de-
buts I t m a y j u s t sneak u p on his d o w n - s o u t h competitors. T o hear
G u i l l e t t e l l I t he and t h e y are i n paraUel races w i t h some very d i f -
f e r e n t g r o u n d rules.
 88 / Biomimicry
I n the U n i t e d States, says G u i l l e t , the m i l i t a r y approach is o f t e n
e m p l o y e d t o get reaUy b i g things done, w i t h the M a n h a t t a n Project
being the m o d e l . B u t t h a t w o n ' t w o r k this t i m e , he predicts. " B u y i n g
high-tech lasers [like the ones t h a t zip around N e a l W o o d b u r y ' s train
set] has always been a staple o f solar energy research. B u t I d o n ' t
t h i n k solar energy devices are going t o come via big-ticket ap-
proaches. I d o n ' t t h i n k nature works at t h a t scale."
W e are strolhng t o w a r d a French restaurant i n the university
district, and he pauses t o p l u c k a leaf f r o m one o f t h e many trees
l i n i n g t h e n a r r o w road. " T h i s is the solar energy device t h a t everyone
w o u l d love t o m i m i c , " he says, handing i t t o m e like a flower. " A n d
this device doesn't do chemistry under the concentrated, coherent
light o f lasers. Lasers are very intense, whereas sunlight is m o r e dif-
fuse—like a drizzle instead o f a h a r d r a i n . "
A t this p o i n t he stops abd squints u p t o the sun. "Even t h o u g h
a l o t o f sunlight falls t o Earth, ft is notoriously h a r d t o collect. T h e
t r o u b l e is timing. Green-plant photosynthesis requires t h a t n o t j u s t
one b u t t w o photons h f t t h e reaction centers o f the t w o photosys-
tems i n r a p i d succession. This ' t w o - p h o t o n event' has t o occur w i t h i n
the l i f e t i m e o f the excited state, or the side reactions w i l l fizzle—
there's j u s t n o t enough energy i n one p h o t o n t o drive the process."
Statistically, n o bookie i n t h e w o r l d w o u l d p u t m o n e y on t w o p h o -
tons h i t t i n g the same square centimeter o f a leaf at almost the same
time. N a t u r e , o f course, has taken these dismal odds and t u r n e d
t h e m i n t o sure bets.
Leaves do i t , algae do i t . Even photosynthesizing bacteria do i t .
T h e y u n f u r l an antenna t h a t photons can't resist. D e v o t i n g a lion's
share o f t h e f t c h l o r o p h y l l , photosynthesizers spread o u t a receiving
array o f p i g m e n t molecules, about t w o h u n d r e d f o r each reaction
center. Each lollipop-shaped antenna molecule turns its p o r p h y r i n
ring, like t h e face o f a sunflower, t o w a r d the i n c o m i n g photons.
W h e n a p h o t o n hits anywhere i n the array, i t excites an electron i n
p o r p h y r i n t o a higher orbftal, and before the electron can decay back
to its original orbftal, the energy (not the electron' itself, j u s t t h e
energy) migrates t o an adjacent p o r p h y r i n r i n g poised t o receive the
energy. " T h e energy m i g r a t i o n is like the sound waves t h a t migrate
from a struck t u n i n g f o r k , " says G u i f l e t . "Eventually, a t u n i n g f o r k
across the r o o m w i f l 'catch' the energy and start resonating w i t h the
same f r e q u e n c y . "
I n a leaf, the m i g r a t i n g energy funnels q u i c k l y d o w n t o its des-
t i n a t i o n b y being passed antenna t o antenna. H a v i n g a w h o l e array
How Will We Harness Energy? / 89
o f these ringlike pigments o n the l o o k o u t f o r energy is like having
your w h o l e r o o f coUect rain instead o f just the opening o f the rain
barrel, says G u i l l e t . " I n f a c t , " he says, " f t y o u h o l d u p an antenna
o f t w o h u n d r e d p i g m e n t molecules instead o f just one, y o u are f o r t y
thousand times m o r e likely t o have a second i n f u s i o n o f p h o t o n en-
ergy h i t the m a r k w h e n i t needs t o . "
T o do a n y t h i n g close t o photosynthesis—to split water f o r h y -
drogen f u e l using sunhght, f o r instance—Gufllet contends w e w i f l
need t h a t second p h o t o n i n f u s i o n . " O n c e y o u w e a n yourself o f f la-
sers, y o u realize y o u ' r e going t o need t w o photons arriving onstage
at almost exactiy t h e same time. N o matter h o w good y o u r reaction
center is, ft w o n ' t have anything t o w o r k w i t h unless y o u can harvest
photons f o r i t . " Once he faced t h a t fact, says Gufllet, he decided to
let others perfect charge separation w h i l e he figured o u t h o w t o
make an artificial antenna.
' ' I w a n t e d t o see i f energy w o u l d migrate along a linear chain
of hght-sensitive pigments the w a y ft does along a large array. I chose
naphthalene, an organic c h r o m o p h o r e used f o r maldng dyes and sol-
vents, because i t was related t o the light-sensitive parts o f c h l o r o p h y l l
molecules. I strung thousands o f these naphthalenes together i n a
long repeating chain called a p o l y m e r [a string o f like molecules], ft
may help i f y o u t h i n k o f i t as a l o n g pearl necldace on a flexible
strmg. W h e n I p u t this i n solution, ft cofled u p . W h e n I flashed i t
w i t h light, one o f the naphthalene chromophores p i c k e d u p the en-
ergy, w h i c h t h e n began to travel, n o t j u s t pearl to pearl along the
chain b u t also h o p p i n g t o other parts o f the chain t h a t were coiled
nearby." G u i f l e t refers t o t h e r a n d o m h o p p i n g o f energy as "the •
d r u n k e n sailor's w a l k . "
G u i l l e t also recognized t h a t i n the leaf, nature manages t o gently
direct this r a n d o m w a l k — l i k e p u t t i n g the d r u n k e n sailor on a sloping
drainfield so he eventually heads t o w a r d the b o t t o m . I n the plant's
case, the " b o t t o m " is the reaction-center chlorophylls, w h e r e the
action really begins. Each step along the way, each antenna, is at a
shghtly l o w e r level i n the energy landscape. H e a d i n g from h i g h en-
ergy to l o w e r energy is hke going d o w n a slippery slope; the energy
can't travel t h e other way, so i t gets t r a p p e d at the central c h l o r o -
phylls.
G u i l l e t w a n t e d to m i m i c nature's t r i c k w i t h his single chain.
" A f t e r fishing the photons o u t o f the drizzle, I w a n t e d t o have all
the energy r e p o r t t o a single location at the end o f the chain—a basin
in the energy landscape." Once i t was t r a p p e d i n a central spot, he
 90 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 91

c o u l d devise a w a y t o use the energy t o make and break chemical

bonds, to split water, t o make pharmaceuticals, t o do all sorts o f
chemistry.
A n t h r a c e n e p r o v e d t o be a perfect basin^—Guillet p u t i t at the
end o f the chain, and after the naphthalene necldace was flashed
w i t h light, the spectral signature changed, signaling t h a t the energy
h a d m o v e d . " T h a t signal was a h e a r t w a r m i n g sight. I k n e w i m m e -
diately t h a t most o f the l i g h t energy had l e f t the naphthalene and
landed i n t h e anthracene. T o t o p i t o f f , the process was also e f f i -
c i e n t — n i n e t y - f i v e o u t o f every one h u n d r e d photons o f l i g h t cause
anthracene t o l i g h t u p . T h i s ninety-five percent conversion rate rivals
photosynthesis, w h i c h t o l d us w e can b u i l d antennas w h i c h are just
as good as nature's antennas are at collecting p h o t o n s . "
N o w t h a t y o u can trap the energy, I asked, w h a t can y o u do
w i t h it? G u i l l e t brightens here, and I sense t h a t m o m e n t w h e n a
scientist wears his heart on his sleeve—^for T o m M o o r e i t was
membrane p o t e n t i a l , and f o r ftm G u i l l e t , I t h i n k it's chemistry i n
water. " L i f e has some very universal, c o m m o n strategies—tricks
t h a t i t uses across the b o a r d because they w o r k so weU. O n e o f
these is d o i n g chemistry i n w a t e r — w h e t h e r it's i n a tree, a corn
plant, or a b r a i n c e f l — t h e solvent o f choice is water." W e , o f
course, have been p u r s u i n g a d i f f e r e n t tack. W h e n w e make plas-
tics, synthetic fibers, coatings, pharmaceuticals, agricultural c h e m i -
fori o / Z t ' C d •">•*
cals, and other products o u t o f p e t r o l e u m products, w e use organic
solvents, w h i c h can give o f f t o x i c emissions and are h a r d t o store
and dispose o f safely. Once G u i f l e t got his energy necklace t o
w o r k , he started fantasizing about m a k i n g these organic solvents
r e . c . „ „ .hat , „ . . i„ „ a . „ anarXt^^t.^i^X
obsolete. " I t h o u g h t , w h y n o t m i m i c nature and use the benign
fluid o f l i f e as t h e m e d i u m f o r chemistry?"
I n his w f l d e s t dreams, GuiUet began t o see his p o l y m e r antenna
ushering i n a n e w era i n w h i c h chemical-manufacturing plants w o u l d
be t r u l y plantlike. "There was only one p r o b l e m , " he tells me.
"Naphthalenes hate w a t e r . " L i k e membrane proteins, naphthalenes
ha, a^^ö: itixtsi'tr^K t'^ i
are water-fearing and w o n ' t stay suspended f o r very long. H i s solu-
t i o n was t o attach some water-loving molecules t o the chain, giving
t h e p o l y m e r a Jekyll and H y d e personality. T h e hydrophiUic groups
w o u l d h a p p i l y mingle w i t h water, w h i l e the naphthalenes w o u l d
cluster at t h e center, f o r m i n g a cozy h y d r o p h o b i c pocket.
T h i s JekyU and H y d e personality is a repeating t h e m e i n c h e m -
istry, even w h e n t h e chemistry concerns laundry. It's because o f t h e
soap molecule's split personality, i n fact, t h a t w e can get our clothes
 92 / Biomimicry
How Will We Harness Energy? / 93

PCBs. These c o m m o n industrial chemicals ( f o u n d i n 4 0 percent o f

all electrical e q u i p m e n t ) are n o w being f o u n d everywhere, even i n
arctic waters. T h e reason PCBs are so u b i q u i t o u s is t h a t they are
resistant t o b r e a k d o w n i n sunlight. Conventional cleanup o f PCBs
and other pollutants is o f t e n stymied b y the fact t h a t the pollutants
are present i n trace amounts, spread over large bodies o f water.
Photozymes o f f e r an ideal solution because they can scavenge
o u t PCBs, even w h e n they are present i n concentrations o f only a
f e w parts per m i l h o n , and then, w i t h the help o f l i g h t energy, they
can chew o f f the o f f e n d i n g chlorines f r o m PCBs, rendering t h e m
harmless. I t w o u l d w o r k like this, G u i l l e t explains: A PCB molecule
w o u l d be attracted to the center o f the micelle, and once there, a
shot o f l i g h t energy w o u l d cause one o f its chlorine bonds to sever.
T h e micelle w o u l d t h e n release the c r i p p l e d PCB, and another w o u l d
enter. I n a week or t w o , after half a dozen dechlorinating trips t o
the center, every PCB molecule w o u l d be c h e w e d t o a n o n c h l o r i -
nated, biodegradable state.
Instead o f tearing something d o w n , I ask h i m , w i l l w e also be
able t o make something using photozymes? "Yes! Y o u ' d be surprised
where .hey spread „„. i„ " fc™ t y e ^ s t t he""'" "
h o w m a n y reactions can be carried o u t w i t h l i g h t instead o f heat or
pressure or harsh chemicals. W e ' v e shown, f o r instance, t h a t y o u can
m i x photozymes w i t h the precursors o f v i t a m i n D and make i t i n
one step instead o f the several i t n o w takes—energy courtesy o f the
sun. W h i c h means, o f course, a l o t o f energy. W e figured w e c o u l d
make the entire annual Canadian c o n s u m p t i o n o f v i t a m i n D i n a
backyard s w i m m i n g p o o l w i t h the existing efficiency o f our process."
W i t h the p h o t o z y m e , photochemistry becomes very specific—
y o u get t h e p r o d u c t y o u w a n t w i t h o u t t h e side or ancillary reac-
tions t h a t produce products y o u d o n ' t w a n t . T h e process can also
be calibrated. Y o u can adjust the molecular w e i g h t o f the p h o t o -
zyme, engineer the pocket so that only certain h y d r o p h o b i c com^
pounds can get i n , or m a t c h the energy levels o f the antenna t o
particular substrate molecules so t h a t t h e antenna " f i n d s " and ex-
cites just t h e right substrate i n a stew o f molecules. Besides being
efficient and using the boundless energy o f the sun, the p h o t o z y m e
is a durable workhorse. O n c e y o u extract the v i t a m i n D or w h a t -
ever p r o d u c t y o u are m a k i n g f r o m the solution, the p o l y m e r can
be used again.
N o t t h a t "chemistry au n a t u r e l " is a complete panacea, says
G u i l l e t . I t brings problems o f its o w n , t h e same problems t h a t nat-
 94 / Btomimicry

is a nuisance, w h a t is a b r i l h a n t m o d e l o f efficiency and e l e g a n c e - CHAPTER 4

all float to shore at once. GuiUet's inspiration is the Cheshire cat t h a t
I can't catch, part o f t h e ineluctable genius t h a t surrounds us.
" I k n o w exactly w h a t this is," I t e f l h i m .
"Incredible, isn't i t ? " he says, and w e smile at one another as
he pours a smafl m o u n t a i n o f i t i n t o m y w a i t i n g hands.
A r t i f i c i a l duckweed. Patent n u m b e r 84.
HOW WILL WE MAKE THINGS?
FITTING
FORM TO
FUNCTION:
WEAVING FIBERS
LIKE A SPIDER

Though environmental policy makers have focused on the growing

glut of garbage and pollution, most of the environmental damage is
done before materials ever reach the consumer. Just four primary ma-
tenals industries-paper, plastics, chemicals, and metals-account for
71 percent of the toxic emissions from manufacturing in the United
States, according to the researchers. Five materials-paper, steel, alu-
minum, plastics, and contamer glass—account for 31 percent of U.S.
manufacturing energy use.

— J O H N E . Y O U N G and A A R O N SACHS, autiiors of The Next

Effiaency Revolution: Creating a Sustainable
Materials Economy

We are on the brink of a materials revolution that will be on a par

with the Iron Age and the Industrial Revolution. We are leaping for-
ward into a new era of materials. Within the next century, I think
bxomimetics will significantly alter the way in which we live.
- M E H M E T SARIKAYA, materials science and engineering professor
University of Washington

T h a t s w h y babies' heads are s o f t , " said the m a n r i d i n g d o w n t h e

escalator as I was heading u p . " T h e y haven't completely mineralized
yet. Babies heads? I ran u p m y escalator and j o i n e d h i m o n t h e
d o w n ride, f f e was going w h e r e I was going.
T h e Materials Research Society ( M R S ) meeting is h e l d every
 96 / Biomimicry How Will We Make Things? / 97

year i n d o w n t o w n Boston, filling three o f t h e m a j o r hotels to capac- HEAT, BEAT, A N D TREAT

i t y Everywhere y o u l o o k there are scientists—3,500 strong—carry-

mmmê
ing t h e i r t w o - i n c h - t h i c k b o o k o f seminar abstracts i n materials
science, a field most o f us have never even heard of. Strange, because
materials science literally touches everything w e t o u c h ; every object
w e w a l k on, ride i n , p i c k u p , p u t on, or p o u r f r o m is made o f a
material or several d i f f e r e n t materials. Y e t the people w h o w o r r y
about shatter resistance, tensile strength, and surface chemistry—the
ceramists and glass engineers, the metallurgists and p o l y m e r scien-
tists—are soundly unsung. I d o n ' t Icnow any Idds w h o w a n t t o be
materials scientists w h e n they grow u p .
M a y b e the field is just t o o new. Materials used t o be manufac-
t u r e d solely b y nature, and w e t o o k w h a t w e were g i v e n — w o o d ,
hide, silk, w o o l , bone, and stone. Eventually people learned to fire
slurried sand i n t o pots ahfl h a m m e r i r o n f r o m the Earth. T h r o u g h o u t
history, our progress as a people has been date-stamped b y the types
o f materials w e used—the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the I r o n A g e
t h e Plastic Age, and n o w , some w o u l d say, the A g e o f Sihcon. W i t h
each epoch o f civilization, w e seem t o have distanced ourselves f u r -
ther f r o m l i f e - d e r i v e d materials and f r o m the lessons they teach us.
I n the v i v i d g l o w f r o m the slide shows f e a t u r e d at S y m p o s i u m
S (the bio-inspired-materials segment o f the meeting), I began t o see
t h a t nature has at least f o u r tricks o f the trade w h e n i t comes t o
m a n u f a c t u r i n g materials;

1. L i f e - f r i e n d l y m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes
2. A n ordered hierarchy o f structures
3. Self-assembly
4. T e m p l a t i n g o f crystals w i t h proteins Life "Xiu.,*/ f " ' " ' f ' T ° ' 'o I " ' «-tegy

Each o f t h e tricks was n e w t o me, and probably n e w t o many o f the

other conference attendees w h o k e p t stopping b y o u t o f curiosity.
W h a t sets the b i o m i m i c s apart f r o m t h e i r peers is t h a t nature's canon
has become t h e i r o w n . I f the b i o m i m i c s had their way, these lessons
w o u l d be the backbone o f every materials engineer's education. For
t h e purposes o f this chapter, we'U take the short course.

T h e people i n S y m p o s i u m S have l i t t i e allegiance to t h e h e . t

 98 / Biomimicry
i n t h e shdes all seemed t o be wearing M o n a Lisa smiles. Somehow,
o u t o f the w o r l d ' s most c o m m o n chemicals, like carbon, calcium,
water, and phosphate, t h e y fashion the w o r l d ' s m o s t c o m p l e x ma-
terials. A s any b i o m i m i c i n the r o o m c o u l d t e l l y o u , the S m Sym-
p o s i u m S stands f o r surprise.
THE H A R D STUFF FIRST
T h e papers presented t h a t w e e k split along t w o lines, the m o s t l y
inorganic (the hard) and t h e m o s t l y organic (the s o f t ) . N a t u r e s i n -
organic materials are t o u g h , used f o r skeletal structure or protective
armor, the shells and bones and spines and teeth o f t h e natural w o r l d
T h e y are crystallized versions o f Earth-derived m a t e r i a l s - c h a l k and
phosphates, manganese and silica, even some i r o n t h r o w n i n f o r
" b i t e " Since organisms d o n ' t produce these inorganic mmerals i n
t h e i r o w n bodies, they m u s t find a way t o t e m p t and tame the par-
ticles o f t h e E a r t h t o settie and crystallize i n j u s t the r i g h t location
I f y o u ' r e a s o f t - b o d i e d m o l l u s k l i v i n g i n t h e rock-and-roll of t h e t i d a l
zone, f o r instance, the best place t o have a shell crystaUize w o u l d be
r i g h t over y o u r head.
Oyster Envy
R i c h H u m b e r t owns a w e t s u i t t h a t doesn't quite keep hinr w a r m .
Even w i t h a neoprene mask strapped over his bearded face, he m u s t
let his eyes show, and b y the time he bursts u p f o r air, his robber s
mask o f exposed skin is a p a i n f u l shade o f p u r p l e . A l l o f w h i c h makes
d i v i n g f o r abalones i n Washington's San Juan Islands a lonely voca-
tion. , , 1 • Portraits o f the nacre taken f r o m above show a f u r t h e r c o m -
" M o s t people prefer t o encounter t h e i r abalones m souvenir
shops," he teUs m e . " B u t I like t o get i n w i t h t h e m , see where they
live " H e pantomimes the h u n t f o r me. " Y o u reach d o w n f o r t h e m
t h r o u g h the m u r k y tidal wash, feeling w i t h y o u r hands. T h e outer
shell is drab and scabby w i t h barnacles. It's h a r d t o believe t h a t inside
there's this s m o o t h , l u m i n o u s , m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l l i n i n g . T h e idea is t o
grab t h e m as soon as y o u t o u c h t h e m , before they can suction t h e m -
selves t o t h e r o c k . " r i • • r ^
A t i c k l e d abalone can be w i c k e d l y fast. So p o w e r f u l is its t o o t
suction t h a t i f y o u miss t h e magic m o m e n t , y o u have t o p r y i t f r o m
the r o c k w i t h a tire i r o n . For abalone aficionados like H u m b e r t , a
How Will We Make Things? / 99
p r y j o b is the sign o f a hacker, and he w o u l d rather t u r n c o m p l e t e l y
p u r p l e t h a n resort t o one.
M o s t people w h o h u n t abalone eat the meat and sell the shell
b u t f f u m b e r t dives and plucks f o r w h a t he can learn. He's p a r t o f
the University o f Washington's team investigating abalone nacre the
smooth inner coating t h a t is dehcately swirled w i t h color and best
o f all i f y o u ' r e a ceramist, h a r d as nails. "Ever t r y j u m p i n g on an
abalone shell? asks H u m b e r t . " A car could drive over these guys
and n o t faze t h e m . " Back at the lab, he has t o fire u p industrial
machmery t o break the outer shell and nacre i n t o pieces. O n e s h e l l -
a b e a u t i f u l eight-inch p l a t t e r - w i l l be enough t o last t h r o u g h a year
of research.
T o t h e naked eye, the piece o f nacre t h a t H u m b e r t hands m e
looks s m o o t h and featureless. T h e n he shows me an electron-
microscope p i c t u r e o f the same piece i n cross section. Standing o u t
m bold, black-and-white relief is the intricate crystal architecture
t h a t accounts f o r the shell's ability to shrug o f f stress. L o o k i n g i n
f r o m the side, y o u see hexagonal disks o f c a l c i u m carbonate (chalk)
stacked i n a b r i c k - w a l l m o t i f
I f y o u l o o k closely between the bricks, y o u can see a n a r r o w
niortar o f squishy p o l y m e r . T h e p o l y m e r acts like a t h i n smear o f
chewing g u m - i t stretches ligamentiike w h e n the disks are p u l l e d
apart and i t slides and oozes i n response to head-on stress. I f a crack
does get started, the b r i c k - w a l l p a t t e r n forces the crack t o f o l l o w a
tortuous path, stopping i t i n its tracks. A s a result, "Abalone is t w i c e
as t o u g h as any ceramic w e Icnow o f - i n s t e a d o f breaking like a m a n -
made ceramic, t h e shell deforms under stress and behaves like a •
metal, says M e h m e t Sarikaya, whose name appears i n the credit
hne f o r m a n y b e a u t i f u l electron-microscope pictures o f abalone
p l e x i t y ^ O n any one level o f the b r i c k w a l l , the hexagonal disks are
t w i n n e d : T h e i r shapes and placement echo one another, as i f a m i r r o r
IS between t h e m . I n d i v i d u a l disks are composed o f t w i n n e d " d o -
mams t h a t also m i r r o r one another. Even the grains w i t h i n each
d o m a i n are t w i n n e d , showing the mathematical r e p e t i t i o n and
beauty t h a t characterize natural f o r m .
Closer t o home, a s o f t material i n our o w n bodies has become
the poster tissue f o r this concept o f r e p e t i t i o n at many scales T h e
unrave ed t e n d o n " d r a w i n g ( w h i c h got a l o t o f screen time at the
meeting) shows a hierarchy t h a t is almost unbelievable i n its m u l t i -
leveled precision. T h e t e n d o n i n y o u r f o r e a r m is a t w i s t e d b u n d l e o f
 100 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 101

cables, like the cables used i n a suspension bridge. Each i n d i v i d u a l

cable is itself a t w i s t e d b u n d l e o f thinner cables. Each o f these t h i n -
ner cables is itself a t w i s t e d b u n d l e o f molecules, w h i c h are, o f
course, twisted, helical bundles o f atoms. A g a i n and again a mathe-
matical beauty unfolds, a self-referential, fractal kaleidoscope o f en- minerals and organic p o l y m e f s 1^ u " "'"'''T o f inorganic
gineering brilliance. phosphate deposited i n T o l y m l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ i - -
I n the h u m a n tendon, i n the abalone shell, i n the stacked p l y -
w b o d l i k e layers o f the rat's t o o t h — o v e r and over again at the meet-
ing, this issue o f "structure granting f u n c t i o n " came to the fore. T h e
m u l t i l e v e l e d c o m p l e x i t y o f these materials is r e f e r r e d t o as an ordered
hierarchical structure, w h i c h seems t o be nature's second t r i c k o f the
trade. F r o m the atomic level all the way t o the macroscopic, preci-
sion is b u i l t i n , a n d strength and f l e x i b i l i t y foUow,
B u t h o w does nature manage t o create t h a t microstructure? A n d
h o w can w e do the same? A n s w e r i n g those questions is at the very
heart o f w h a t b i o m i m i c s are t r y i n g t o do. " W e w a n t t o do m o r e t h a n
just copy d o w n the angles and the architectures o f nature's designs
or b u i l d our materials i n t h e i r image," says ceramist Paul Calvert
f r o m the University o f A r i z o n a Materials Laboratory i n Tucson.
" W h a t w e really w a n t t o do is imitate the m a n u f a c t u r i n g process,
t h a t is, how organisms manage t o grow, f o r instance, perfect crystals
and f o r m t h e m i n t o structures t h a t w o r k . "
A l l o f t h e materials scientists I talked t o agreed w i t h Calvert's
assessment. T h e y were i t c h i n g t o grow lattices w i t h dress-parade per- Pearb of Wisdom
f e c t i o n , t o c o n t r o l crystal size, shape, orientation, and location, es-
pecially i n the w o r l d o f ceramics.
T h e ceramics w e ' r e most familiar w i t h are glass, porcelain, con-
croscope can reveal " T h a t Sankaya's elec.ron m f -
crete, mortar, bricks, and plaster, b u t as Paul Calvert says, "Ceramics
have gone f a r b e y o n d t o i l e t fixtures and cereal b o w l s . " T h e y are n o w mortar'stickiag brJfaltTh™":; ^° h T T ° " . * " "
being used i n all kinds o f high-tech apphcations—as insulators,
guides, bearings, wear- and temperature-resistant coatings, and i n
devices t h a t need certain optical, electrical, and even chemical char-
acteristics, such as sensitivity t o gases or the ability t o accelerate a
chemical reaction. For ah w e are asldng ceramics t o do, it's ironic
t h a t w e ' r e still using Stone Age techniques t o manufacture t h e m .
Basically, w e take earthy inorganic particles and subject t h e m t o heat
or pressure i n order t o squeeze t h e m together i n t o a substance t h a t
is hard. Says Calvert; " O u r biggest p r o b l e m is cracking—britdeness.
I n recent years, we've been maldng incremental progress b y m a k i n g
our grains finer and finer. W e finally have t h e m d o w n t o the nano-
meter size, b u t we're still plagued by britdeness."
 102 / Biomimiay

H u m b e r t . I n the case o f the abalone, the organism builds n o t j u s t ""•^^^l^^eMakeThingsryjos

one r o o m b u t an entire apartment b u i l d i n g , laying d o w n one story
o f rooms after another, each slightly offset f r o m the one b e l o w t o
accomplish the interlocking b r i c k - w a l l rnotif.
Inside each r o o m is seawater saturated w i t h c a l c i u m ions and
carbonate ions—charged particles t h a t w i l l eventually land and ag-
gregate i n t o a crystal o f calcium carbonate (chalk). Because the ions
are charged, they d o n ' t j u s t r a n d o m l y precipitate o u t o f s o l u t i o n —
they are attracted t o oppositely charged chemical groups p r o t r u d i n g acids stick o S into t h *° ^^eet^some J ^^^^"Pa-
f r o m the walls o f the rooms. Once t h a t first layer o f ions settles out, walls, floor and e !• ^ ^ i l e others arT ^ T f '"'^o
i t sets t h e tone f o r t h e rest o f the crystal. L i k e the bits o f dust i n the Mari^efiSe h i " ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^"^^ors. DanfeJ ^ '"'^^'^^'^ the
supercooled beaker o f y o u r high school chemistry lab, the first ions
w i l l act as seed kernels or nucleators, and the rest o f the ions w i l l
settle around t h e m , g r o w i n g a crystal o f a particular shape. Since the
crystal's strength and f u n c t i o n depend o n shape, the ions' landing
locations t u r n o u t t o be key.
T h e mollusk, evolutionarily eager t o b u i l d a shell o f herculean
strength, f o u n d an ingenious way t o get those ions to settle i n t o a
particularly strong shape. Here's h o w i t works: A f t e r the f r a m e w o r k
of rooms is assembled, the m o l l u s k releases t e m p l a t i n g proteins i n t o
the inner rooms. These proteins self-assemble i n t o a " w a l l p a p e r "
t h a t peppers the r o o m w i t h an orderly array o f negatively charged
landing sites. I f w e were the size o f atoms, w e could w a l k among
the chemical groups and feel their electrostatic p u l l , beckoning t o
n
i na
cr
e
. ^Zk
''1 orientiraS t "'f ^'^ ^^rVl '^T
positively charged ions i n the seawater, such as calcium.
T o visualize the proteins i n this special wallpaper, a q u i c k b i -
ology lesson is i n order. Proteins ( w h i c h make u p 50 percent o f the
dry w e i g h t o f every l i v i n g cell) are large 3 - D molecules t h a t begin
as long necldaces o f dozens or even hundreds o f chemical groups
called amino acids. Each amino acid has a d i f f e r e n t constellation o f
charges, and w h e n the chain is released i n t o the fluid o f the cell,
those charges cause the p r o t e i n t o f o l d u p i n a very particular way.
T h e f o l d i n g pattern has a l o t to do w i t h h o w the amino acids take
to water. N e u t r a l , water-fearing amino acids w i l l b u r r o w i n t o the cen-
ter o f t h e p r o t e i n complex, w h i l e the charged, water-loving ones w i l l
take t o the periphery. T h e amino acids also interact w i t h one another—
some repelling their neighbors and straining t o get away, others meet-
ing i n a b o n d . W h a t results is a three-dimensional shape, a f o r m
u n i q u e l y suited to its f u n c t i o n . A p r o t e i n m a y have a structural role i n . " f ^ ^ " ^ ^ r f ^^^^^^^^
the body, assembling i n t o tissues and skeletons, or i t m a y have a
 104 / Biomimicry
Self-assembly, then, is nature's t h i r d t r i c k o f t h e materials trade.
Whereas w e spend a l o t o f energy b u i l d i n g things f r o m the t o p
d o w n - t a k i n g b u l k materials and carving t h e m i n t o s h a p e - n a t u r e
does t h e opposite. I t grows its materials f r o m the g r o u n d u p , n o t by
b u i l d i n g b u t b y self-assembling.
Self-assembly rides the r i o t o f forces r u l e d b y classical and quan-
tum physics. L i k e charges repel hke charges, b u t opposites attract.
W e a k electrostatic bonds h o l d molecules together gingerly, and as
conditions change, they can easily correct and adapt. Stronger, m o r e
permanent bonds are consummated w i t h the help o f lock-and-key
catalysts called enzymes.
Before any k i n d o f b o n d can be f o r m e d , however, wandering
molecules m u s t first collide, like guests at a-cocktail party. T h e en-
ergy t h a t keeps molecules m i n g l i n g comes f r o m w h a t scientists call
B r o w n i a n m o t i o n , n a m e d after Robert B r o w n , an early-nineteenth-
century botanist w h o asked the w o r l d , " H a v e y o u ever n o t i c e d t h a t
p o l l e n grains stay suspended i n water all b y themselves?" ( I n those
days, an observation Uke t h a t could make y o u famous.) A generation
later A l b e r t Einstein explained t h a t the p o l l e n grains are b u o y e d by
t h e f a c t t h a t invisible water molecules are continually Icnocking i n t o
and m o v i n g t h e m . T h i s restless bumper-car action o f m o l e c u es also
occurs i n air, w h i c h is w h y dust particles l o o k as tf they're dancing
i n sunbeams. i i vi
Once molecules collide, those t h a t are shaped peg t o hole hlce
Lego blocks snap d u t i f u l l y together. A l l o f this assembly u n l i k e our
b u i l d i n g o f materials, is energetically " d o w n h i l l . " ft's order f o r free.
Proteins are amenable t o this sort o f self-assembly because of their
shapes and t h e f t "electric" personalities ( h o w their charges are dis-
t r i b u t e d ) These precise qualities are set f o r t h b y genes—informa-
tional templates t h a t contain the code f o r maldng proteins. Once
gene-templated proteins self-assemble i n t o t h e f t accordion sheets,
they themselves become the templates f o r m a k i n g exquisite shells.
T h e t e m p l a t e d becomes the template. , ,.,,
W h i c h leads t o nature's f o u r t h t r i c k o f the trade—the ability to
customize materials through the use of templates. Whereas w e m u d d l e
by i n our industrial chemistry w i t h final products t h a t are a m i s h -
mash o f p o l y m e r - c h a i n sizes, w i t h most t o o long or too short t o be
o f ideal use, nature makes only w h a t she wants where éhe wants and
w h e n she wants. N o waste on the c u t t i n g - r o o m floor.
I f w e w a n t t o emulate nature's m a n u f a c t u r i n g , w e have t o get
How Will We Make Things! / 105
backstage and i n t e r v i e w the proteins, those templaters t h a t make
precision assembly possible at body temperatures. W e have t o learn
their a m m o acid sequences and figure o u t h o w to produce t h e m i n
commercial quantities. W i t h the help o f these "invisible hands " the
biomimics hope w e m a y be able to sculpt w i t h geometric precision
and do away w i t h "heat, beat, and treat."
The Great Protein Sequence Hunt
M e h m e t Sarikaya's eyes, the color o f T u r l d s h coffee, flash a w a r n -
ing to each m e m b e r o f the b i o m i m i c r y team. "Before w e do any-
thing, we've got t o find t h e p r o t e i n sequence." H e is literally straining
w i t h impatience, d e t e r m i n e d t o be part o f the first team t o find t h a t
protein-sequencing data. " W e are n o t the only lab w o r l d n g on this "
he confides t o m e at a harried luncheon meeting, " b u t w e are the
only ones o n the right t r a c k . " A s he describes ft the race f o r a test
tube f u l l o f honest-to-god, framework-and-wallpaper proteins is f u -
rious, and Sarikaya, elbows flafling, wants t o w i n . I b r i e f l y imagine
h i m crossing the finish line and renaming the field Biomehmetics
Later, w h e n I t e f l m y j o k e t o someone w h o works f o r h i m , they say
they are sure he has already proposed ft.
R i g h t n o w , Sarikaya is on the w a r p a t h because he feels the t e a m
IS stalled. I a m attending a preparatory meeting f o r an u p c o m i n g
science conference at w h i c h t e a m members w i l l present t h e i r w o r k
Rich H u m b e r t , the abalone diver-scientist, is showing pictures o f his
latest experiments. So far, H u m b e r t has managed t o get a r a n d o m
m i x o f abalone proteins t o f o r m "artificial pearls" against the side o f
a test tube. W h e n the pearls are cut open and m a g n i f i e d , you' can
see p r o t e i n (stained orange) c r o w d e d i n t o circular layers. This lay-
ered jawbreaker" doesn't have the exquisite brick-and-mortar ar-
chitecture o f real nacre, b u t at least i t implicates p r o t e i n i n a
supervisory role. This has p l u n g e d H u m b e r t deep i n t o speculation
about h o w nacre development m i g h t have evolved, and he w o u l d
take*° ^ ' ' ^ ^ ' f " " " " ' ' h o u t the time ft w i l l
H e wants H u m b e r t to find the abalone proteins responsible f o r
nucleation, so the team can attach t h e m to the surface o f an object
dip the decorated object i n seawater, t h e n w a t c h the nacre crystal-
lize. T h e sooner the better. T h e m i l i t a r y is equally interested i n this
Idea o f stronger coatings, because i t , like the abalone, is o f t e n i n
zones of serious insuft and i n j u r y , where fracture resistance w o u l d
 106 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 107

be a virtue. T o t h a t end, the O f f i c e o f N a v a l Research has awarded

a three-year grant t o the U W t e a m t o investigate abalone shell, a ^ ^ - - k , customizing them through ar-
study o f w h a t they call "layered nanostructures."
T h e t e a m at the University o f W a s h i n g t o n is w o n d e r f u l l y inter-
ing a 2 t molÏnT^S^^^^^^^^ ^^"^ ^ioprocess-
disciplinary, and i t is here that I see t h e f u t u r e o f b i o m i m i c r y . E n -
ogy, we genetically ai r A a c rt^^^^^^ W i t h biotechnol-
gineers and materials scientists are w o r k i n g alongside microbiologists,
splicing in a gene from a l t h ^ manuf^^^^^.^ processes by
p r o t e i n chemists, geneticists, and Renaissance thinkers like C l e m e n t
we take the h u m n'ert^^^^^^^^^ To make insulin, forinstance^
Furlong.
E. coli. By cutting J Z Z e^^f ' " ^ ^^^ce it into
I f there is a c o u n t e r p o i n t t o Sarikaya's intensity, i t is C l e m Fur-
simply imitating a tecChtTTu^^^^^^
long's ease and patience. Furlong is R i c h H u m b e r t ' s supervisor and
practiced. Genes from o n . ^ t h a t bacteria themselves have long
leader o f his o w n department i n medical genetics. Deep i n the maze
to completÏy d fferem sn ' ' " ' 1 f ^ ' " ' " ' ' ' ^^^^^^ transferred
o f a huge b u i l d i n g , I find h i m shoehorned i n t o an office t h a t threatens
m i c r o c o l has b e t aU^^^^^ t h a t ' s h o w the global
to collapse around and o n top o f h i m . Papers are stacked atop filing
But human genes to h . Z f Z ; : : ! ^ Z b ^ ^
cabinets all the w a y u p t o the h i g h ceilings. Tables are heaped w i t h
journals f r o m h a l f a dozen disciplines, and computers lie about i n
I can^hTJL'relïïS^^^^^^^^ ^^-f-^^
various stages o f undress, their circuitry hanging like mattress stuff-
that interphylum line to take f'^ "'^ ^o cross
ing. Furlong and his students have j u s t b u i l t five computers f r o m
mail-order parts this week, and he is positively gleeful about h o w
insert it i n V a n o t h t i t e l l l r^ f T u T ^^^^^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ and
easily one can assemble a Ferrari o f a machine. H e finds a piece o f could culture whole cells fromThe 1 1 - - f o r t a b l e if we
blank paper [no small task i n t h a t office) and writes u p a parts list J ^ t h o s e cells. F o r m a n f - ^ ; ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
f o r me, w i t h exact prices f r o m m e m o r y , as i f he were w r i t i n g a recipe
f o r his favorite hors d'oeuvre. For Furlong, I suspect, science is a w a y
t o get p a i d f o r tinkering.
Somewhere i n those stacks—he points t o the dusty neighbor-
h o o d near the ceiling panels—there are patent certificates f o r Fur- this techniqueTthe w H l e h " T ' ^ ^^'™^^ ^^at I could about
long's inventions. H e has a h e f t y vita as w e l l — l o t s o f papers o n would be i;on;d ouÏ s o t '""^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^h cell culturing
medical genetics—but he seems most p r o u d o f the things he has
made. A n e w Furlong invention, i n fact, may be instrumental i n the
team's quest t o m i m i c abalone shell. X t d C t r m l E ^ ^ ^ ^ T K 7 ' " - h e r t ) , the dip-and-
" O n c e w e sequence the p r o t e i n , " he says, " w e ' l l have to find a protdn's m a i u p t ^ m mer^r halfway home. K n o w i n g the
way t o produce lots o f it. W e can't continue c h o p p i n g u p the shells."
segment of D N A tha Ï th Ï c n T " f ' f ' ^ ' ^ ' ^^"thesL a
Besides the risk o f overcollecting t h e species, t h e grinding is h a r d o n
protein." T h e y ' h inser t ^ D N A " ^ ^ ^ ^o make nacre
the p r o t e i n s — i t either truncates or destroys t h e m .
W i t h luck, t h l £ T i o T w r / f • best.
A n alternative w o u l d be to conscript the t r u s t y E. coli bacteria
( f o u n d i n the h u m a n gut) t o make those proteins f o r us. I t w o u l d n ' t
be t h e first t i m e w e harnessed bacteria t o help us make products.
For thousands o f years, w e have used yeast, bacteria, and molds f o r
b r e w i n g beer, m a k i n g w i n e , leavening bread, and c u l t u r i n g cheese.
Today, bacteria g r o w n i n vats are persuaded t o produce f o o d addi-
tives, antibiotics, industrial chemicals, vitamins, and m o r e . W e have
~ . o r e t t : t e ^
 208 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 109

or t w e l v e transparent partitions slide i n t o the b o x like shces o f bread bands t o a paperlike sheet and literally cut o u t the bands n f A
i n a loose loaf. O n each glass p a r t i t i o n there are thousands, millions,
of i m m o b i h z e d E. coli capable o f producing one perfect p r o t e i n after
another. A flow o f l i q u i d nutrients surrounds t h e m , and oxygen b u b -
bles u p f r o m the b o t t o m .
As Furlong explains, " T h e same flow t h a t carries i n nutrients
w i l l , at the other end o f the box, flush and carry o f f the p r o t e i n they
are producing. This protein—caU i t p r o t e i n A — w f l l flow i n t o a got a t z • ' • ° ' ^ " " « ^ '""•^
beaker. B u t say y o u w a n t e d an assembly o f t w o proteins. Y o u c o u l d
engineer one strain o f E. coli t o produce p r o t e i n A , another t o p r o - Fishing for Templates
duce p r o t e i n B, and t h e n place t h e m i n fifty-fifty proportions on the
glass slides. Y o u ' d t h e n have proteins A and B flowing i n t o solution,
finding one another, and self-assembling i n the beaker. W a n t a d i f -
f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n o f proteins? Put a d i f f e r e n t shce o f p r o t e i n fac-
tories i n . " i
T h e proteins can be anything the b i o m i m i c m i g h t imagine—
=::rg=^
proteins t h a t w o u l d nucleate an even harder coating than abalone, T h a t q u e s t i o n - t h e code f o r p r o t e i n - i s a carefully crafted
or perhaps a t h i n film o f crystals w i t h electrical or optical qualities. DNA segment sitting i n the cells o f abalone. T o find this part c d Ï Ï
W h f l e Furlong dreams o f h o w w e m i g h t use t h e bioreactor, H u m b e r t
and company are t r y i n g to find the abalone proteins t h a t w i f l take
the shakedown cruise.

R i c h H u m b e r t describes this p r o t e i n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , sequencing, and

cloning strategy as i f he's telhng me h o w t o cook a roast. First y o u
extract a stew o f proteins f r o m the intervening layers o f the nacre
and t r y t o separate o u t and i d e n t i f y as m a n y proteins as y o u can.
M o s t o f t h e m t u r n o u t t o be insoluble (they w o n ' t stay dissolved i n
solution), and as such, they aggregate at the b o t t o m o f a vial and
can't be separately named. Those t h a t do dissolve i n an acetic acid
solvent are afl y o u have t o w o r k w i t h ; t o separate t h e m , y o u first
r u n t h e m t h r o u g h an electrified gel. Z T c o l oZ r ' " ^fe-forms. This ge-
T o prepare f o r this gel electrophoresis, y o u add detergent t o the
proteins, w h i c h neutralizes t h e i r charges and equalizes t h e f t shapes.
Y o u t h e n p o u r the soapy proteins near the t o p o f a slab o f p o l y m e r
gel and t h r o w t h e switch, shooting an electric charge t h r o u g h the
gel. T h i s starts t h e proteins s h i m m y i n g d o w n t h r o u g h the gel, m o v -
ing at d i f f e r e n t speeds depending on h o w heavy they are (the lighter
=S55~r-—^^^^
they are, the faster t h e y are). A f t e r a w h f l e y o u see a banding effect
as the proteins settie t o certain locations i n the gel. fc b i sae„„«c supply houses, you order a kit th.t e L . S y t" kes
Each band represents a d i f f e r e n t protein. Y o u transfer these
the fssue f r o „ fc abalone and transforms the m e s l i e r RNA
 no / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / i n
f o u n d i n the cehs i n t o complementary D N A . T h e n y o u go fishing i n
this p o o l o f c D N A , t r o l l i n g u n t i l y o u r D N A probe finds a comple-
mentary strand and sticks t o i t .
T h e m a t c h u p is possible because o f t h e laws o f complementar-
ity. T h a t is, i f y o u have a base A o n y o u r D N A strand, i t w i l l always G r o w i n g Crystals Nature's Way
m a t c h u p w i t h a base T on the c D N A , a C w i l l always b o n d w i t h a
G, and so on. Chances are, your relatively small fishing probe w i l l
h o o k o n t o a m u c h larger segment o f c D N A , thereby calling attention
p'^^^^'S'Li:^^^^^ ^ - e l Morse, D e -
to the w h o l e gene—the one that holds the instructions f o r h o w to versity o f California at Santa B b a r a u ^ ' t P ' ^ T ^ ^''^^-SV, Uni-
make an abalone shell p r o t e i n . I f all this works, y o u fish o u t t h a t need t o Icnow about abalone 1 . f l""™"^ ' " " ^ h as t h e y
abalone gene, convince an E. coli t o accept i t , and cross y o u r fingers the Washington t e l £ ; i Z l T m ^ T t '
i n the hope t h a t i t w i l l produce, or "express," the p r o t e i n f o r y o u . o f insoluble proteins hose thTt 1 ' *° ^'""'^ ^^e stalemate
T o find o u t w h e t h e r t h e E. coli has cooperated, y o u need some beaker instead o f ^ l ^ . to tlrT'"'^^^ b o t t o m o f the
way o f seeing w h i c h colonies (out o f thousands spread o n t o p e t r i solved rarely r e v e r d t h e V e o r n T t " '^T'^'' ^e dis-
dishes) are p r o d u c i n g abalone p r o t e i n . T h e best w a y to do this is to than w a i t f o r a complete eaTnl s t T ^ '"Ï ^'^er
go fishing again w i t h another biological probe, this t i m e a molecule bank on the one large l e X W f ' '"^ ^ ' " ^ ^ ^ ^o
t h a t excels at recognizing proteins: an antibody. O u r i m m u n e system of acidic amino acid g r o u p s l ah f h ' P^-^P^nderance
produces antibodies b y the miUions w h e n w e are invaded b y a f o r - T h e y made t h e m s e l v e f a T o S i n a X ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ "^'^"-•
eign molecule. L i k e attack troops, the antibodies recognize this f o r - amino a c i d s - a s a stand-in f o r t l r Ï t w ' ^ " ' ^ ^ '^'^^^ ° ' ' ^ ' ^ ' ^
eign o b j e c t b y its shape, t h e n g l o m o n and interfere w i t h its
f u n c t i o n i n g . W h a t H u m b e r t and company need are antibodies t h a t v i n c e t e r a n X g T e t t ^ ^ ^ h a d to con-
w i l l g l o m o n to the shell proteins i n a plate o f E. coli. For this trick, act like t h e walls and floors and eeil f ^ ^^at w o u l d
they p u l l o u t a rabbit. T h e surface they c w T c a l d t " ^ ' °^ ^^affolding.
A f t e r H u m b e r t purifies the protein, f r o m nacre, he w i l l i n j e c t Basically, it's a s l i f k l é p Ï t t Z Z T ^ ^ ^ ^ °^
some o f this m o l l u s k p r o t e i n into a rabbit. T h e rabbit's i m m u n e pan o f water. Each molecrfle s b u l b ^ 1 ' ^ ^ ^ ^ P ^
system, unused t o m o l l u s k proteins, w i l l see t h e m as foreign and the f a t t y t a f l i s n e u t r T B e c a u s e w i v"u ' \ ' ^ ' ' ^ ' ^ ^'°^P ^nd
create antibodies shaped t o fit t h e m . H u m b e r t w i l l t h e n extract these head is attracted, ^ t i t ^ J Z l V ü ' ^ ^ ^ ^
antibodies f r o m t h e rabbit's b l o o d and m o d i f y t h e m so t h a t the n e x t L-B film, these molecules are Z 1 ^^^^^te an ;
t i m e t h e y attach t o a p r o t e i n , the attachment w i l l trigger an effect and t h e n herded together b v a bo ' '''^ ^^ter.
t h a t H u m b e r t w i l l be able t o detect w i t h his instruments. Thus la- The b o o m actuafly s o u t h e s the T ""^"^^ ^^e surface
beled, t h e antibodies are t h e n spread o n t o t h e dishes o f E. coli, and u p " - w i t h w a t e r - w T n g h ads Z 7 " ï'"'^^^ ^^ey "stand
i f abalone proteins are anywhere o n the plate, the antibodies w i l l tending above. I n the c f r t o o , L X e s ^ '''' -
head r i g h t over and stick t o t h e m . U s i n g instruments t o detect a
"score," H u m b e r t can t h e n p l u c k o u t those E. coli colonies t h a t are
expressing t h e m o l l u s k p r o t e i n and let t h e m reproduce t o t h e i r pours some g ag a c c o T d l n r t " ' " ^ - l e c u l e s , Morse
heart's content. T h e y and t h e i r offspring w i l l be the n e w tenants o f W i t h the h e l p ^ t c h e r ^ t r C j T ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^'^ ^^^^ter.
C l e m Furlong's condo b y the sea—the bioreactor. sheet embeds^tsel i H h e fattv^^^^^^^ ? t °^ P^^ein
But w h a t happens w h e n w e do find a w a y t o produce abalone charged pleats hang d o w n i n t o t h ^ w T '' "^^'t^^^y
proteins t o our heart's content? W i l l our crystals g r o w as w e l l as landing Sites, j u s t as'in the a t n ' C^^^ ' - j ^ e r of
abalone's do? Can w e use slightly d i f f e r e n t proteins and produce
slightly d i f f e r e n t , custom-made crystals? These questions can be an-
C^S&^^t:j?T^-~^^
Morse has f o u n d he ^ ^ S S X t d ^ ^ ^ ^
 112 / Biomimicry How Will We Make Things? / 113

f o r m . H e is n o w on t o stage t w o , t r y i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e " p r u n i n g the outer shell, we're just building a crystal sheet-like the braided
proteins t h a t are also present i n abalone, t h o u g h t t o float around m rugs m those apartments.''
the abalone " r o o m s " and terminate crystal g r o w t h . In Rieke's lab I see some of the first experiments, which, de-
So far, Stuckey and Morse have used only c a l c i u m carbonate spite the groundbreaking work that went into them, are decept veiy
(chalk) t h é choice o f abalones. O t h e r biomineralizers i n nature (the humble-lookmg. They are simply glass microscope shdes that have
sixty species t h a t have been f o u n d so far) are k n o w n t o w o r k w i t h been dipped m a coating of polystyrene substrate, the same stuff used
many m o r e exotic materials. Curious about these other materials, to make squeeze bottles, bottie caps, and drinking glasses. Rieke uses
Peter Rieke o f the Pacific N o r t h w e s t Labs is going o u t o n a ledge. polystyrene as his substrate because it's a polymer (a repeating chaTn
l l k T r H ^ ' ^ t ^ ^ " ^ ^° hiopolymei sheets tha't moh
Crystal Windshields T\u" 'J'^^'^T'^" polystyrene with sulfonate groups
simflar to the acidic sulfate groups associated with nucleation fn r^oh
Peter C Rieke, m o u n t a i n cUmber and materials scientist, takes b o t h lusks. In his spare time, Rieke has experimented with other T b -
his recreation and his science to the edge. W h e n I visited h i m at his hlrTb d / dozen functional groups associated with otïer
Richland, Washington, lab, he was b u n d l e d i n a three-blanket head hard-bodied creatures. The mineral ions he's paraded past these
cold t h a t he caught w h f l e hanging against a r o c k face one snowy groups -elude lead iodide, calcium iodate, and L n oxide, in add"
n i g h t i n Yosemite N a t i o n a l Park. T h e n e x t t i m e I saw h i m , half a tion to good old calcium and carbonate
year later at t h e Boston M R S meeting, he and his wheelchair were In the real world these humble-looking thin-film coatings could
being hoisted onto a speaker's p l a t f o r m t h a t was n o t handicap- have a variety of apphcations. General Motors funds part of Riek^s
accessible H e h a d b r o k e n his neck and other bones i n a c h m b i n g
w S : i l l d " T : V' " ' " " ' ^ ' ^ ^'^^' ^^'"^P--t coatings for he
f a f l t h a t should have k i f l e d h i m . W h e n he greeted the M R S confer-
windshields of Its electric cars. "One of the reasons we areftt driving
ence c r o w d w i t h t h e customary " I ' m glad t o be here," he paused a
electric cars" says Rieke, "is because we can't find a way to seaUn
beat and-then added, "believe m e . " heat and air-conditioning, which escape through the hghtwe ght
L i k e Morse, Peter Rieke is also t r y i n g t o grow crystals on a t h m plastic windows. Right now it takes too much energy to W the
film b u t instead o f using L - B films, he's t r y i n g lab-made films cafled cars comfortable power their engines. If we c o u l f find a way to
S A M s or self-assembled monolayers. Instead o f being perched o n
bhn W t ^ ' ^ ^ r ' '"""^ - - I d remove a b g'tum!
the water's surface, S A M s are films t h a t coat glass shdes at the b o t - bhng block from that technology."
t o m o f a tray o f solution. Instead o f adding wallpaper t o the film the Car companies also need coatings for their drive gears pref-^
way Morse and Stuckey's m e t h o d does, t h e charged chemical groups
S i not'w 7 ' ^t^^^^^ *hin as a second sIdnTut'
i n S A M s are part o f the film itself. T h a t gives Rieke the ability t o
will not wear down. Coatings now applied to these many-faceted
play w i t h S A M s the w a y a mosaic artist plays, w i t h tile. " W h e n w e gears are essentially spray-painted on in a technique cafled "mass
create the film, w e can place our f u n c t i o n a l groups wherever w e transfer limited." It is literally limited in that the spray do"n'
w a n t t h e m , presenting a mosaic o f positive or negative charges t o
the ions," he says. T h e ions t o u c h d o w n on these landing sites and deat''t;^RX ^"""^^1 "^hrt i u l d be
wTi r ' f '°"^d d""!^ the plastic parts in a so-
crystals b l o o m f r o m t h e m . " U l t i m a t e l y , w e ' f l be able t o g r o w several lution of organic molecules which would adhere to every nook and
d i f f e r e n t types o f crystals o n the same patterned film."
T h o u g h Rieke's w o r k takes its inspiration f r o m the organic t e m - c X ' s ' Tr a b '''^ ' solutLrof pre
plating o f seashells like the abalone, he admits t h a t it's n o t nearly as as ttractr ""'"r "^^^-"l- -t
as attractors-nucleating sites for crystaflization-and you'd wind
c o m p l e x . " I t ' s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t w i t h t h i n films, w e re up with a highly dense, perfectly oriented and ordered thin fifm "
stifl w o r l d n g i n only t w o dimensions," he says. ' W h e r e a s nature
builds a w h o l e apartment complex b e t w e e n the abalone b o d y and lïrkLrpïtfrzï!.!:^::^
 114 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 115

Besides abrasion- or corrosion-resistant protective coatings,

free crystals w r a p p e d i n organic membranes. Engineers can t h i n k
w h i s p e r - t h i n films are also coveted b y industry f o r electronic, mag-
of any n u i n b e r o f uses f o r such small, p e r f e c t l y f o r m e d , indepen-
netic, and optical devices i n w h i c h precise and t i n y crystals are
dent crystals^ For instance, w h e n y o u use magnetite as a catalyst to
needed t o store, transport, or relay signals o f h g h t or electrons. Be-
speed u p chemical reactions, y o u w o u l d rather have a m i l l i o n
cause they are so t h i n , the films c o u l d be b u i l t u p i n t o m u l t i l a y e r e d
small, separate spheres ( w i t h a l o t o f surface area exposed t o the
devices composed o f a semiconductor layer, an oxide dielectric layer,
reaction) than a h u n d r e d large spheres. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w i t h o u t be-
a magnetic layer, or a ferroelectric layer f o r electro-optical devices.
ing pre-organized i n balloonlike separators, most processed magnet-
D e p e n d i n g o n w h a t k i n d o f m i n e r a l y o u use, y o u c o u l d also use the ite winds u p stic d n g together because o f the magnetic force
crystallized coating as a sensor, a catalyst, or even an ion-exchange between the particles.
device.
T o remedy this, M a n n has f o l l o w e d the bacteria's lead, success-
A simple, t w o - b a t h d u n k i n g — f i r s t i n template molecules, t h e n
f u l l y g r o w i n g crystals i n lab-made vesicles. He's even b u i l t his organic
i n a b a t h o f crystal precursors^—would be a l i b e r a t i o n f r o m today's
balloons i n various sizes and 'shapes, showing t h a t curved, organic
slow and expensive methods o f p r o d u c i n g high-density precision
surfaces can also help us shape tiny single crystals w i t h precision,
films. "Nature's idea o f mineralization t e m p l a t e d b y proteins w o u l d
Recentiy, M a n n has u t i h z e d an even smaller c o m p a r t m e n t f o r m e d
revolutionize t h i n - f i l m technology," says Rieke. Even something as
by a single cagelike p r o t e i n called f e r r i t i n , (Ferritin is the p r o t e i n
simple as an audiocassette or a c o m p u t e r disk c o u l d be vastly i m -
that sequesters i r o n oxide i n our bodies, thus keeping rust o u t o f our
proved. I r o n - o x i d e crystals, c o m m o n i n magnetic bacteria and i n gas-
cells,) G r o w i n g a crystal inside one p r o t e i n w o u l d take t e m p l a t i n g
t r o p o d teeth, are w h a t h o l d the zeros and ones i n our magnetic to a n e w h i g h ( w h i c h , sizewise, is a n e w l o w )
media. R i g h t n o w , t h e y are essentially p i l e d onto the surface i n dis-
A n o t h e r w a y t o " g r o w " a three-dimensional crystallized struc-
array. Lassoing and r o p i n g these crystals i n t o alignment w i t h p r o t e i n
ture is t o begm w i t h a q u i v e r i n g b l o c k o f jellylike p o l y m e r studded
templates w o u l d allow m o r e crystals t o fit o n a disk, h o l d i n g more
WI h morganic minerals. A s the j e l l y sets, the minerals inside crys-
bits and bytes.
talhze, and the result is a c o m p o s i t e - a flexible p o l y m e r s t i f f e n e d b y
U l t i m a t e l y , Rieke's t e a m hopes t o b u i l d a catalog o f mineralizing
swarms o f inorganic crystals. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f hardness and flex-
systems, s h o w i n g w h i c h crystal grows o n w h i c h substrate i n w h i c h ibflity, say the materials scientists, w o u l d come i n handy i n every-
concentration. " W e ' r e learning the principles o f crystallization as w e S o w ° t h ; ' ^ ° ^ P ' ^ ^ ^ ; ° apphance design. Imagine a l i v i n g - r o o m
go along," he says, " b u t it's still very m u c h a black art. I t t o o k us w i n d o w t h a t IS as rigid as glass, yet able t o bend and bounce back
three years o f fiddling t o learn the i r o n - o x i d e system, b u t n o w that w h e n assaulted b y your neighbor Idd's basebafl.
w e have the recipe d o w n , no one else w i l l have t o reinvent i t . I n the
Right n o w , w e can create composites only by placing the fibers
f u t u r e , materials engineers w o n ' t have t o start f r o m scratch every
or c r y s t a l layer b y layer, w h i c h is slow and expensive; crystals grow-
t i m e they need a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l coating. T h e y ' l l j u s t b u y a k i t and
ing on t h e i r o w n inside p o l y m e r w o u l d allow us to create readily
read the instructions: 'Use this S A M i n this concentration o f this
solution f o r this long.' " Tritt n r T " ' T
p r o d u c t i o n costs and p o l l u t i o n .
^""^'"'^ ' d^^"^^tic r e d u c t i o n i n
Three-Dimensional Crystal Containers
Fabbers

But w h y stop at t w o dimensions? Stephen M a n n , a biomineraliza-

W h a t i f y o u w a n t a three-dimensional material t h a t has an even m o r e
t i o n expert i n Bath, England, is re-creating three-dimensional p r o -
exacting crystalline order? W h a t i f y o u w a n t a w h o l e computer m o n -
t e i n sheathing, using t i n y balloonlike compartments t o mineralize
itor say, mac^e o f crystals i n b r i c k - w a l l architecture? That's a job
small particles. H i s inspiration comes f r o m the vesicles t h a t living
tor J - U t e m p l a t i n g , say the scientists, using proteins that w i l l s e l f
cells use t o trap ions and precipitate o u t minerals. One-celled mag-
assemble i n t o a scaffolding. I n the meantime, f o r those w h o still w a n t
netotactic bacteria, f o r instance, produce i n c r e d i b l y t i n y , defect-
to p u t nature s blueprints t o w o r k , there's a halfWay technology t h a t
 116 / Biomimicry
H o w Will We Make Things? / 117

c o u l d give us a taste o f f u t u r e c o m p l e x i t y . It's called f r e e - f o r m man-

terial. Crystals c o u l d be allowed t o g r o w naturally, or t h e y m a y be
u f a c t u r i n g , and w i t h the aid o f computers, i t allows us t o b u i l d 3 - D
treated i n some w a y to accelerate g r o w t h . T h e next layer c o u l d be
objects f r o m t h e g r o u n d up, one layer at a t i m e .
composed o f an entirely d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l . " Even w i t h i n a layer a
Engineers have been using this technology f o r years t o b u i l d
mixture o f t w o or m o r e materials c o u l d be used, a l l o w i n g y o u t o
plastic prototypes f r o m design sketches. T h e y take a design, digitize
blend from one material t o another i n a gradient. " A gradient o f one
i t i n three dimensions w i t h C A D (computer-assisted design) soft- material to another makes f o r a stronger j o i n t and ehminates the
ware, and t h e n electronically slice the design i n t o very fine cross- need f o r glues or snaps. N a t u r e uses b l u r r e d boundaries all the t i m e ,
sectional layers, like those y o u see i n magnetic resonance imaging avoiding abrupt interfaces, w h i c h are crack prone and require some
( M R I ) scans. Each slice is a complete b l u e p r i n t f o r t h a t l a y e r — i n - kind o f fastening together," says Calvert.
c l u d i n g its dimensions and w h a t material i t should be made of. T h e
This k i n d o f layerwise g r o w t h should also give engineers the
software sends these coordinates to the ink-jetlike heads o f a r a p i d
ability to vary the dimensions w i t h i n a part, just as bone varies i n
prototyper, or "fabber," w h i c h w i l l " p r i n t " the object f r o m the
o>ientation and density t h r o u g h o u t its length, becoming thicker and
g r o u n d u p , layer by layer, u n t i l a three-dimensional finished p r o d u c t
thinner m places. Using the fabber, w e c o u l d conceivably f o l l o w na-
is b u i l t . Instead o f i n k o n paper, the heads shine a laser beam onto
ture's design plans m u c h m o r e closely t h a n w e have ever been able
the surface o f a vat o f a l i q u i d p o l y m e r t h a t hardens i n the presence
to do.
o f a laser. Here's a description f r o m the "fabber page" o n the
Internet. For n o w , Calvert and his company have n o t attempted anything
more c o m p l e x t h a n some rings and cylinders made o f t w o materials
and once, a high-tech Easter b u n n y figurine f o r an A p r i l display'
T o print, say, a coffee cup, a fabber trains its computer-guided laser
Easter bunnies b u i l t layer b y layer i n 3 - D m i g h t n o t constitute a
beam onto a vat of the liquid polymer, T h e laser first scans a solid
matenals r e v o l u t i o n , b u t airplane wings or car bodies j u s t m i g h t
circular region on the surface of the liquid, hardening it into a disk—
Imagine being able to make light, strong composite skins f o r solar-
the base of the cup. T h e n that base, w h i c h rests on a platform in the
p o w e r e d cars w i t h o u t the use o f h i g h heat or chemicals. O r being
vat, is lowered about five thousandths of an inch, just enough for a
able to fashion a spare p a r t f o r your car w h e n y o u are i n a remote
thin film of liquid polymer to wash over it. T h e laser traces a hollow
area, using c o m m o n materials like chalk or sand. Sound like Star
circle over this liquid, forming the bottom layer of the cup wall, w h i c h
Trek? Stay t u n e d . W i t h nature's blueprints and Paul Calvert's ma-
fuses w i t h the base. Layer after layer, the laser traces the cross section
chine, science fiction m i g h t j u s t materialize i n t o fact.
of the cup, building it from the bottom up—including the handle. B y
printing one cross section at a time, a fabber can build objects that
are m u c h more complex than a coffee cup.
THE SOFTER SIDE OF M A T E R I A L S SCIENCE-
HIGH-TECH ORGANICS
For the b i o m i m i c s w h o study shell- and t e e t h - b u i l d i n g technologies,
the fabber's m o v i n g - f r o n t technique is familiar. Nature's t w i s t is t h a t
O f all the materials made b y biology, minerals star i n only a p o r t i o n
instead o f j u s t one material, t w o or m o r e m a y be used—a layer o f
L i f e has also created a b o u n t y o f resilient, organic materials—skin
chalk separated b y a layer o f proteins, f o r instance. Paul Calvert is
blood vessels, tendons, silk, adhesives, and cellulose, j u s t to name a
n o w w o r k i n g w i t h a company i n A r i z o n a to r e t r o f i t a fabber so t h a t
few. A t t h e M R S meeting, the fans o f these organic tissues gave the
he w i l l be able t o b u i l d bio-inspired composites o f more t h a n one
biomineralists a r u n f o r their money.
material.
N o t t h a t the t w o groups were far apart w h e n i t came t o nature's
Paul Calvert loses his n o r m a l nonchalance w h e n he talks about
trade secrets. L i k e b i o m i n e r a l i z e d structures, organic materials are
t h e possibilities. " A layer o f t e m p l a t i n g proteins may be laid d o w n ,
also hierarchically ordered. T h e i r structure is just as f a i t h f u l l y coupled
f o r instance, and t h e n along t h a t f r o n t , a layer o f m i n e r a l precursors
to f u n c t i o n . T h e y are t e m p l a t e d t o order, and they are s e l f assembled
c o u l d be laid d o w n . W e c o u l d use i n k - j e t heads t o deliver the m a -
at h f e - l o v i n g temperatures and pressures, w i t h no t o x i c aftertaste
 118 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 119

T h e only difference between the soft and the hard is where the
precursors or b u i l d i n g blocks originate. W h e n a b o m b p r o o f covering
is required, inorganic minerals f r o m the Earth come t o the rescue.
B u t w h e n something m o r e flexible is needed, l i f e can b u i l d every b i t
o f i t f r o m organic (carbon-based) b u i l d i n g blocks. Here, proteins be-
come m o r e t h a n directors or scaffolds; they actually are the material.
T o find this softer side o f materials science, I traveled t o the
salty tureen o f l i f e on the other coast t o see h o w a small blue mussel
uses a w a t e r p r o o f adhesive t o tether itself t o sohd objects i n t u r b u -
a bivalve wants to setde d o l u ""^^ "^hen
l e n t tides. University o f Delaware researcher J. H e r b e r t W a i t e , te-
ft sticks out it fleS f o o X S T r " n^'^^ ^°
nacious i n his o w n right, is happily stuck o n Mytilus edulis. A f t e r
t h i r t y years o f study, he's begun t o p r y loose the secret b e h i n d the
creates one of these th^ad a t nl T'J^' ' ^^^^^^^
real, live superglue made f r o m protein.
says. The whole t h i n g t calS^^^^^^ ^""^^os," fie
facture is nothing short o f Ï n t a s Ï '''' —
Byssus as Usual ciaJdtnt

" W e have Batman and Spiderman," yefls H e r b W a i t e at the t o p o f

his voice. H e is yelling because the A t l a n t i c breezes i n December .rooye, and thl 2 \ & ^he
are fierce and w e are o u t o n a pier i n the marsh grasses, kneeling adhesive protein between the plaaue a n d ^ h f ''^^^^'^
beside a rusting fishing boat o w n e d b y the University o f Delaware's process, including curing of the adh . ^ '''t''' '""'''^
M a r i n e Sciences lab. " B u t mussels are every b i t as talented. I can't minutes. ^ ^ adhesive, takes only three or four
believe w e have no mussel superheroes."
W a i t e wears a British driving cap, and a f u l l beard and b r o a d
chest a la H e m i n g w a y . H e is reefing u p something heavy, p u l l i n g
two S T e t r : ^^^ii^^-'^'''^t' -
h a n d over h a n d on a t h i c k and shmy rope. Finally the dark waters it's staked down ft can '^^'^^.^^ly opposing the stresses. Once
part and a f o u r - f o o t - w i d e cage comes u p , its sides encrusted w i t h that makes trbulence a S ^ ^ " ^ t « ^ ^ ^ ^^^ing
navy-blue bivalves called Mytilus edulis, c o m m o n b o t h t o salt sweeping in food and sw^p^^^^^^^^^^^ ' ^ r ^ ^ ^elt,
marshes and appetizer menus. ( I a m glad n o w t h a t w e declined t o ductive cells-are delivered =.n^ , " gametes—repro- ,
order t h e m at the restaurant where w e h a d l u n c h . W e were talldng mussels to date and mate T^'T'' ^^^^
t o o highly o f t h e m t o start d i p p i n g t h e m i n d r a w n b u t t e r . )
" H o w do y o u suppose they are hanging on?" he yells, and I
reahze I d o n ' t k n o w bivalves w e f l . I l o o k closely and begin t o see
hundreds o f small translucent threads, extending like plastic tethers ther along than we are. T L V W 1 - ^ ^ ^^^^^^^^ "'"^''^^
f r o m t h e bivalves t o t h e cage. lems we are grapnlin^ w t h ^"^^ already faced and solved the prob-
"Those tethers are called byssus [ p r o n o u n c e d biss-us], and thetidalzone hTd t o l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ '-tance .^.fe, wanting to eat in
they're more amazing than anything y o u can imagine. There's f o u r underwater, w t w^:;^^^^^^^^^^
or five patents r i g h t there t h a t industry w o u l d love t o have." T h a n k - dustry has been stn,P>,Iin. f ' because our adhesive in-
f u l l y , W a i t e agrees t h a t it's too cold t o be standing here staring at
that can work ft moisf conc^Ïf "^^^ an adhesive
gaping bivalves. W e d r o p t h e cage and r u n back to the Cannon H a l l
of reach. M u s s e W ^ t y t r : ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^'^ -
marine lab, a b u i l d i n g t h a t looks f o r all the w o r l d like a ship gone
aground. I t even has porthole-shaped w i n d o w s .
 120 / Biomimiay
a l i t t l e better. B u t o u r primers are notoriously unreliable. W a t e r
eventually eases its w a y under b o t h t h e p a i n t and t h e primer, b u b -
b l i n g our house p a i n t and spreading a rash o f rust across our t r u s t y
Toyotas. W a t e r is also t h e enemy i n t h e apphcation stage, w h i c h is
w h y w e always have t o d r y o f f a surface before w e glue anything t o
i t . That's also w h y w e have t o dry-dock o u r boats t o repair t h e m ,
and w h y w e have t o use stitches i n surgery instead o f glue. W e are
flummoxed b y the fact t h a t crafty mussels are able t o spread adhesive
i n t h e deep, cure i t w e t , and t h e n count o n i t t o stick t o just about
anything, all w h i l e surrounded by water. H o w do they do it?
" T h e y do i t w i t h chemistry," says W a i t e , " a n d I became ob-
sessed w i t h finding o u t w h a t k i n d o f chemistry." I l o o k t h r o u g h t h e
glass, b u t t h e byssus-buflding mussel "plays poker," h i d i n g most o f
w h a t ft is doing inside its fleshy f o o t . W a i t e has used molecular
probes and other ingenious techniques t o spy o n each part o f t h e
process. A s m y interpreter, W a i t e explains w h a t he thinks is hap-
pening inside the f o o t , and w h a t w e w o u l d do i f we were a t t e m p t i n g
a simflar feat, ft's t h e classic " t h e m and us" story t h a t b i o m i m i c s are
so good at telling.
Cleaning the Surface
" O K , " W a f t e says, " p r e t e n d I ' m edulis." H e sticks o u t his arm t o
represent t h e fleshy part o f the mussel's b o d y t h a t protrudes f r o m
t h e shell, and w i t h his hand, he begins t o creep along the surface o f
the lab table. " T h e mussel uses its f o o t t o shop around f o r a likely
surface, and w h e n i t finds one i t likes, i t cleans i t w i t h s q u i r m i n g
motions."
W e clean surfaces too, he tefls me, m a i n l y because our adhesives
really need the help. " T h i s table m i g h t l o o k smooth, b u t i f y o u c o u l d
see its molecular terrain, y o u ' d see hills and vafleys—bumps o n t h e
surface composed o f positive or negative charges. I f y o u w a n t e d a
coating o f some sort—a sheet o f positive charges—to stick, y o u ' d
ideally w a n t a surface t h a t had afl its negative charges exposed. B u t
i f t h e surface was uneven and some o f t h e negative charges were
h i d d e n i n vafleys, ft w o u l d n ' t be easy t o get a b o n d . Because o u r
adhesives aren't very talented, w e have t o spend a l o t o f t i m e pre-
paring t h e perfect surface f o r t h e m . A s q u i r m here and there
w o u l d n ' t do i t f o r us."
How Will We Make Things? / 121
Applying the Primer
A f t e r a rather casual cleaning, the mussel presses the t i p of its foot
d o w n o n t h e surface like a plunger t o squeeze t h e water aside and
then deposits a mucous seal around t h e edges N e x t the m? 1
f b S i i h r r f '-''^^
a bell-shaped c a v i t y - a v a c u u m space. M i m i c k i n g t h e v a c u u m f o r
rnation, W a i t e presses his p a l m p e r f e c t l y flat o n t h e lab t a b " n d
then cups It. " N o w I ' m ready t o manufacture a thread and disk and
attach I t t o t h e surface w i t h an adhesive " '
I f only i t were t h a t easy f o r us. Before w e can lay d o w n o u r
adhesives W a i t e explains, w e usually need some sort o f p r i Z t h !
l i s T " ^ ° f ^°"'^^'^S' M o s t surface molecule
w o u l d rather b o n d w i t h water than j u s t about anything else A n d
once water grips t h e surface, t h e adhesive loses its place f w h i c h ft
w h y y o u can usually get a w i n e label o f f b y soaking L b o ^ ^ '
A p r i m e r is designed t o c o n f o u n d water, ft occupies t h e chem-
' t o r ? L t ° m! hV"t"^ r P^^'^*^"^' - ^ f f - t h i d i n g t ï e
hooks t h a t m i g h t get caught u p i n a reaction w i t h water m o l e
cules. O n glass surfaces ( w h i c h love w a t e r ) , w e p r i m e w f t h siknTs"
L e enL h T^P'*^^ ^ e glass, t h e outward-facing siSe
presents chemical hooks t h a t can b o n d w i t h t h e adhesive or some
other p o l y m e r i c material such as p a i n t '
B u t even o u r specialty primers are f a r f r o m f o o l p r o o f I f water
sTit h th ^ " , l T " Z ^'^^"^^^ ' " ' " ^ ^ ^ t o enter t h r o u g h a c ade or
sc atch, t h e y fl slip under t h e adhesive or p a i n t and ouLmpete the
enough a d T ™ ' ' ^ ' " ^ ' " ^ ' ^ ^ ^^^^ had a t a l e n t ' d '
enough adhesive suggests t h e mussel, w e w o u l d n ' t need primers t o
c W good adhesion. A n d w e w o u l d n ' t have t o w o r r y about ou
p a m t blistering o r o u r cars rusting away.
Laying the Adhesive
In t h e ceiling o f the bell-shaped cavity o f the mussel's f o o t are jets
nro '•''"1 Tl *° t w o - m i c r o n - w i d e balls o f i q u ' d
proteins t h a t fii.t coalesce, t h e n harden or cure i n t o an adhesfte
via the cross-hnking o f tangled strands o f p r o t e i n . I n t h e m u s s e f l
o f th t f '^"^^«•"^ hanging together
o f the glue), and they b i n d t o t h e surface too, i n what's Called
Conveniently, these hooks are b u i h r i g h t into the p r o t l
T h e other items needed f o r t h e cross-linking reaction-^a c h e m i -
 122 / Biomimiay
cal i n i t i a t o r t o k i c k i t o f f and a catalyst t o speed i t up—are also r i g h t at
hand. T h e i n i t i a t o r f o r this chemical reaction is oxygen, w h i c h comes
free f o r the taking i n seawater. A catalyst also comes free, b u n d l e d
w i t h each mussel p r o t e i n molecule. A f t e r h e l p i n g t o speed the cross-
l i n k i n g , i t conveniently becomes a structural p a r t o f t h e glue.
O u r adhesives are w o e f u l l y underequipped b y comparison. W e
have t o add n o t only an i n i t i a t o r to get things going (oxygen isn't
enough) and a catalyst t o speed things u p , b u t also a separate cross-
l i n k i n g chemical. That's three steps instead o f one. Despite all this
e f f o r t , getting good cohesion and adhesion i n one p r o d u c t is still a
dream.
Creating the Foamy Plaque
N e x t , the mussel manufactures the solid-foam disk t h a t anchors the
end o f t h e thread. T h i s plaque is made o f d i f f é r e n t proteins t h a t
squirt o u t óf jets i n t h e bell-shaped cavity. Once released, t h e y
t h i c k e n t o t h e consistency o f shaving cream and t h e n harden i n t o a
sohd f o a m containing air bubbles, like S t y r o f o a m .
"Why a holey substance?" I ask. " W o u l d n ' t a solid mass be
sturdier?"
Maybe, says W a i t e , b u t sturdiness is n o t the only t h i n g a mussel
needs. F l e x i b i l i t y is also a v i r t u e . A f o a m w i U d e f o r m m o r e easily
t h a n a solid w i l l — a l l o w i n g ft t o give a l i t t i e . T h i s means mussels can
p e r c h t h e i r plaques o n surfaces like pilings or m e t a l stanchions,
w h i c h expand and contract over the course o f a t i d a l cycle. W h e t h e r
a mussel is baking i n the sun or bathed i n c o l d water, its plaque w i l l
give w i t h o u t breaking.
Equally i m p o r t a n t , a sohd f o a m knows w h e n not t o give. As
W a i t e explained, " I f y o u n o t c h a solid substance, like glass f o r i n -
stance, and apply force, y o u ' l l get a crack propagating 'catastroph-
ically' as t h e materials scientists like to say. Use a holey material like
f o a m , and the crack w i l l travel only t o the first v o i d and t h e n lose
steam. It's called a crack-stopping strategy. I n w o o d , the voids are
those l o n g i t u d i n a l tubes w h e r e the sap travels. W h e n y o u c u t a l o g
across t h e grain y o u keep h i t t i n g t h e m — t h a t ' s w h y y o u stand logs
on end i n order to split t h e m . "
W h e n w e make a solid w i t h holes—^Styrofoam, f o r instance—
w e use what's called a b l o w i n g agent t o force bubbles i n t o a vat o f
t h i c k e n i n g polymers, or plastic. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the b l o w i n g agents o f
choice are CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), w h i c h , w h e n released t o t h e
air, react w i t h t h e atmosphere and tear u p t h e ozone layer. I n l i g h t
How Will We Make Things? / 123
of the hole gnawed i n the atmosphere above Antarctica, global lead-
ers have begun t o call f o r bans o n the p r o d u c t i o n and use o f CFCs
The hrst phaseout i n this c o u n t r y started i n 1996, as specified by the
M o n t r e a l Protocol o n Substances t h a t D e p l e t e the Ozone Layer and
the 1989 revisions t o the Clean A i r A c t .
W i t h the C F C ban o n the h o r i z o n , industry was anxious to find
a w a y t o make S t y r o f o a m w i t h o u t ozone-depleting chemicals. T h e
m i l i t a r y was especially m o t i v a t e d , since i t regularly tests explosives
against t h i r t y - f o o t - t h i c k sheets o f the s t u f f One m a j o r consumer, the
Picattiny Arsenal i n N e w Jersey, spearheaded research i n t o a C F C -
free process.
Its elegant solution answered a question that W a i t e h a d been
struggling w i t h . " W h a t I c o u l d n ' t figure o u t was h o w the mussel
could produce a solid f o a m w i t h o u t using a b l o w i n g agent. W h e n I
read about the n e w gas-free process, I said, o f course, this is h o w
mussels m u s t do i t ! H e r e w e are, toasting t h e inventors o f the n e w
S t y r o f o a m at award ceremonies, n o t realizing t h a t mussels have been
quietiy d o i n g the same t h i n g f o r m i l l i o n s o f years "
T h e o l d w a y o f m a k i n g S t y r o f o a m is t o p o u r styrene molecules
i n t o orgamc solvent and w a f t f o r t h e m t o l i n k i n t o p o l y m e r chains
thousands o f monomers long. As the chain grows, the s o l u t i o n be-
comes t h i c k e r and thicker, eventually t u r n i n g the consistency o f pea-
nut b u t t e r and t h e n peanut b r i t t i e . Somewhere i n between, y o u b l o w
i n a gas t o f o r m air s p a c e s - w h i c h i n t e c h n k a l lingo is called " i n -
w e l r a s CFCs ' ^'"^""'^ ^° ^"^^^^ ' l " ^ * ^
Finally, someone w o r k i n g o n the p r o b l e m thought: Instead o f .:
i n j e c t i n g a gas phase, w h y d o n ' t w e p u t a l i q u i d phase i n t o the l i q u i d
p h a s e - h k e o i l i n t o w a t e r - a n d have one l i q u i d evaporate w h i l e the
other solidifies? T h e b i g p r o b l e m was t h a t styrene molecules are j u s t
Ike o i l - t h e y hate water and t e n d t o s i m p l y settie o u t i n clumps at
the b o t t o m o f a beaker l o n g before the water evaporates
T h e chemists w o r k i n g on this p r o b l e m should have j u s t taken a
break and gone t o the biggest salad bar i n t o w n . A s i t turns o u t the
r i d d e o f keeping an oily h q u i d suspended i n water has a simple
solution one t h a t w e benefit f r o m every t i m e w e dress our radicchio.
Colloidal chemists call ft the "salad dressing m o d e l "
I n prepared dressings, f o o d manufacturers add egg w h f t e s t o
f o r m an emulsion t h a t keeps o i l droplets d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t the
vinegar so y o u d o n ' t have t o keep shaking t h e bottie. This process
works because egg-white proteins are molecules w i t h w a t e r - l o v i n g
 124 / Biomimiay
How Will We Make Things? / 125

heads and f a t t y , water-fearing tails. T o get away f r o m water, the f a t t y

tails all p o i n t t o w a r d o i l droplets, w h i l e the water-loving heads stick
o u t i n t o the vinegar. Y o u w i n d u p w i t h separate o i l droplets, each
surrounded b y a sldn o f egg-white molecules. Carried b y these e m -
issaries, t h e o i l droplets stay suspended.
Instead o f using egg whites t o escort t h e styrene monomers, the
n e w - S t y r o f o a m researchers used detergent molecules, w h i c h are also
schizophrenic w h e n i t comes to water. T h e i r f a t t y tails circle around
W h e n we produce fibers from c r o » - l i n k e d polymer we too
a small group o f styrene monomers, f o r m i n g a " m i c e l l e " — a t i n y
us ,e.s „ shoo, the r . w m..erial , „ . o a chamber. W e k o ^ a . ^
reaction vessel w i t h styrene inside. Literally thousands o f these de-
tergent micelles begin t o f o r m i n the beaker. Inside each one, the
styrene monomers begin l i n k i n g u p i n t o a chain. W h e n neighboring
micelles collide, the t h i c k e n i n g substance f r o m one micelle brealcs
t h r o u g h its detergent w a l l and forms a bridge t o the growing chain
i n the n e x t micelle. This happens repeatedly u n t i l all the micelles
are connected i n a gianf, solidifying meshwork. Before y o u k n o w i t ,
t h e tables have t u r n e d , and the water that once surrounded the sty-
renes is n o w t r a p p e d inside their slowly stiffening lattice. As the folks
f r o m Picatinny f o u n d out, y o u can p i c k u p the solid lattice, p u t i t
o n a d r y i n g b l o c k t o w i c k o u t all the water, and voila], y o u have air
inside a solid, sans CFCsl
f n technical lingo, this is called a phase inversion. Styrene inside
water becomes water inside polystyrene. Waite's theory is t h a t the
same phase inversion happens i n the mussel's b e l l jar. T h e plaque
proteins drop i n t o water, and as they cure, t h e water becomes presumably t o give the thread t h e A P ^ ^ ^ ^ f ^'^^ «tdfer,
t r a p p e d inside t h e i r t h i c k e n i n g cross-links. W h e n the water drains
out, the mussel has a solid f o a m plaque containing air bubbles, w h i c h
is t h e n w r a p p e d i n sealant.

I w o n d e r aloud h o w m a n y other things the l o w l y mussel had beaten

us to, and w h a t w e c o u l d learn that was new. " W e haven't even
^^^^
gotten t o the byssus thread," says W a i t e w i t h a b r i e f smile. H e can
see m e getting h o o k e d on edulis, and i t pleases h i m . I n his under-
stated way, he is absolutely on fire t a l k i n g about this bivalve. T h e
lab has long ago e m p t i e d o u t and the lights i n the parking lots have
flickered on, and neither one o f us has budged f o r hours.

Self-assembling the Thread

T h e thread is t h e translucent p r o t e i n fiber that connects the mussel's
soft b o d y t o the f o a m y plaque. " T o f o r m the thread," explains
W a i t e , "the entire f o o t b o d y forms a l o n g i t u d i n a l groove, curling i n
 126 / Biomimiay
Sealing the Thread
" T o me, the transparent sealant that coats and protects the byssus is
one o f its m o s t exciting features," says W a i t e . "Byssus is f o o d , after
all—ft's p r o t e i n . T h e only t h i n g that keeps i t f r o m being eaten i m -
mediately b y the voracious microbes i n the sea is its sealant."
A f t e r t h e thread and plaque are f o r m e d , the w h o l e structure
gets coated w i t h yet another set o f p r o t e i n granules t h a t coalesce,
spread o u t evenly, and set t o a lacquerlike finish. (The process here
is u n c a n n i l y like the one w e use to coat tiny t i m e capSules.) For its
finale, the mussel secretes a releasant over everything—a mucuslike
substance t h a t allows the n e w l y cast thread and plaque t o separate
f r o m its m o l d . L i k e a curator uncovering a brand-new painting, the
mussel removes its f o o t and the sealed byssus sparkles i n the sea light.
A l t h o u g h the sealant is itself made o f protein, its structure makes i t
impervious to microbes, at least at first.
" W h a t ' s neat about the sealant is t h a t i t doesn't stay perma-
n e n t l y i m p e r v i o u s t o microbes. The mussel may use its byssus f o r a
f e w hours or a f e w days. W h e n it's t i m e to m o v e on, i t leaves its
byssus b e h i n d . I n t w o or three years, the sealant falls apart and the
microbes get t o feast.
" T h e reason t h a t excites m e , " says W a i t e , "is t h a t w e have a
lot o f consumer products t h a t w e use b r i e f l y and t h e n t h r o w away."
H e goes i n t o a lab drawer and pufls o u t a b o x o f hundreds o f pipette
tips. H e pours t h e m o n the slate t o p and they scatter. "Petrochem-
ically deijived plastics like this w i U v i r t u a l l y last forever i n a l a n d f i f l .
O u r greatest sin is this overengineering—we may n o t be able to live
forever, b u t w e make darn sure t h a t our waste w i f l . "
Waite's idea is to make disposable things t h a t w i U last only as
l o n g as w e need t h e m . " W e could use natural materials like coUagen,
silk, rubber, cellulose, or c h i t i n [ f r o m crab shells] t o produce fibers
or containers or whatever, and t h e n seal t h e m w i t h the mussel-type
sealant. A f t e r t w o or three years, t h e sealant brealcs d o w n and m i -
crobes i n the l a n d f i f l invade the degradable material underneath.
Back i t goes, i n t o the f o o d chain.
" W h e n y o u take a natural p o l y m e r and coat i t w i t h a natural
p o l y m e r t h a t degrades m u c h more slowly, t h e n y o u ' r e going t o w a r d
ideal design t h a t doesn't fly i n the face o f m o d e r n technology. W e
can stifl have some t h r o w a w a y items, b u t instead o f b u r y i n g or b u r n -
ing t h e m , w e can compost t h e m . T h e degradation can be p u t o f f ,
b u t n o t i n d e f i n i t e l y the w a y i t is n o w . "
N o w o n d e r W a i t e wants someone t o make edulis a superhero.
How Will We Make Things? / 127
Jwhol d ? ' " ' ^ ' ' ^ ^ ' y ""^'""''y ^ " ' ' " ^ l w ° " W support
a w h o l e mdustry. O n e reason ft m a y have taken innovators so long
to l o o k at edubs was suggested to m e b y Randy Lewis, a silk re
searcher at the University o f W y o m i n g . " N a t u r a l materials are c i f -
ficuft to m errogate," he t o l d m e . " T h e y ' r e o f t e n insoluble proteins
m e a m n g tt s t o u g h t o get t h e m t o separate out. They're usually huge
m o ecules, and u n t i l very recently, w e haven't had the tools t o v i -
sualize t h e m . Some o f t h e most interesting are composed o f h i g h l y
repetitive sequences, w h i c h , once they are broken i n t o pieces, are
hke a Jigsaw puzzle w i t h only one c o l o r - h a r d to p u t back together
again. A s a result, even i f f u n d i n g agencies agree t h a t silk or bioad-
hesive IS an interesting material, they're n o t certain y o u ' f l be able to
^ ^ ' ^ " ^ " ' ^ " ^ ^""^^ ^°™^*h[ng else that's ^
t.r- rr*"! ' ' ' ' ' ' ''^^"S '° set t o the b o t t o m o f a natural m a -
terial f o r longer t h a n most. W h e n I ask h i m h o w m a n y o f the byssus
pro eins he has l e f t to characterize, he is cagey. " W e l l , so far we've
characterized f o u r proteins called Mytilus edulis f o o t p r o t e i n or
M E F P l t h r o u g h 4. M E F P l is the sealant, M E F P 2 is the structural m o l -
ecule m f o a m , M E F P 3 looks like ft's present at the f o a m interface b u t
t h a t m a y be a l i m i t a t i o n o f o u r technique. I d o n ' t Icnow w h a t M E F P 4
IS yet. W e ve also got t w o collagens f r o m the thread, three D O P A -
containing proteins [ D O P A is 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine], and one
T Z ^ n l r '° D O P A - c o n t a i n i n g p L e i n and as m a ^
as ten m i n o r proteins and an e n z y m e . " Suddenly he stops c o u n t i n g
left f ' ^ " " ' ^ ^ ^ ' " y '^^"'^^^t-te on h o w m a n y I have
how f ' ' ^""^ " m o u n t a i n - y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o l o o k u p and see
pout one ff oZo t m 7front
u t one ' ° o f the
; ' ^other.
^r^'^P- "'^^y * i n g t h a t helps is t o
"So t o speak." A n d w i t h that, he smiles a very dry H e r b W a i t e
I n the m e a n t i m e , i n d u s t r y has heard about this universal superglue
and companies ike A l l i e d Signal are hovering over Waite's w o r k
W h a intrigues thern is the fact t h a t mussel glue w i f l stick to j u s t
i v h T because o f its elegant b i f u n c t i o n a l c h e m -
istry t h a t cross-hnks internally w h i l e also c o u p l i n g to a surface.
h n k i n ? All 1 ''r"?'^ '^'"^'''^y ^ " ^ ° l ^ - d i n the cross-
hnking, A l h e d Signal cloned w h a t i t t h o u g h t was the gene f o r the
themT ZT'T'^- f '''''
P^^'^^^^^S ft W a i t e also t o l d
t h e m t h a t the chemistry depended o n a catalyst t h a t cross-links the
 128 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 129
p r o t e i n — i t converts tyrosine residues i n t o D O P A residues, and then,
along w i t h oxygen, they t u r n i n t o orthoquinones, w h i c h are the basis
for cross-linking. T h o u g h he knew w h a t the catalyst d i d , W a i t e still
wasn't sure w h a t i t l o o k e d like. Instead o f w a i t i n g f o r W a i t e t o c l i m b
t h a t m o u n t a i n . A l l i e d Signal scientists simply used a c o m m o n , o f f -
the-shelf catalyst—one t h a t is extracted f r o m mushrooms. " T h e y
missed t h e w h o l e p o i n t , " says W a i t e . " T h e mussel's catalyst is spe- c » envision c ™ r e l t f „ , l r " T ' J "
cially constructed t o first help w i t h t h e cross-linldng and t h e n t o sive quantities), J i the* u L 'it as a ' T c S n t "fh"" ""'"^
become a structural part o f the glue. That's w h y it's packaged i n a The protein filters could be insti led „„ sh ' V " ' " ' " S
one-to-one ratio w i t h t h e p r o t e i n . Y o u can't use a nonstructural cat- and then analyzed for me.al r ï ï d t s "
alyst and hope t o get away w i t h i t . Y o u ' r e ignoring the c r u x o f the
puzzle."
Sure enough, after years o f cloning e f f o r t , A l l i e d Signal p r o -
duced an adhesive p r o t e i n t h a t w o u l d n ' t adhere. " I t converted
D O P A t o quinone b u t i t d i d n ' t lead t o coating or glue. A l l w e got
was a b r o w n i s h flocculeht [a w o o l l y mass at the b o t t o m o f the
b e a k e r ] , " says Ina Goldberg, w h o w o r k e d o n the research. T h e y de-
cided they c o u l d n ' t w a i t f o r the catalyst t o be i d e n t i f i e d f u l l y , so the
research f o l d e d .
I n t h e meantime, a group i n Massachusetts called Collaborative hke t i d r j t t r n r ' i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ T
Research is s i m p l y c h o p p i n g u p the mussel f o o t and selling the p u - many engineers admit th f t t r e ' s merit ^ k ^
r i f i e d p r o t e i n as a cell-and-tissue adhesion p r o d u c t called Celltak. cles make it a long-term hair n„11 ? obsta-
It's n o t a universal glue yet, b u t i t does w o r k w e l l t o coat p e t r i sure the mate.nal ï r e X w ^ t h f ^ ^ ^ ' ' ^ f ^ ' " " " "^'^^ ^ave to be
dishes and entice cells t o settle d o w n and g r o w o u t w a r d i n a nice
sheet. W o r d has i t t h a t Collaborative Research is about t o start mar-
k e t i n g a p r o d u c t similar to Celltak t h a t is derived f r o m recombinant
D N A . I t w i l l sell the plates itself, precoated. I n the meantime, a
company i n C h i l e is c h o p p i n g u p large cholga mussels—^they can be
as large as a shoe—and separating o u t the p r o t e i n t o sell as a p e t r i A l o n g Came a Spider
dish coating.
Using t h e r a w precursors i n the f o o t is one t h i n g , b u t d o i n g w h a t
the mussel does w i t h those precursors is another. N o one has yet
d u p l i c a t e d the process b y w h i c h the mussel builds its fiber, its clanpesl who is';oTflippe^t\'^^^^^^^^^^^ ' ^ ' ' ^ ^ ^""^^'^^^
being silked. A gossamer th r i d f ' ^"'"S ° " """^^^^ -^ile
plaque, its adhesive, or its sealant. W a i t e thinks w e may have better
at a steady clip Z ^ d b f a m f " " ° " ^er enormous abdomen
luck, i n the short t e r m , l o o k i n g at yet another o f the mussel's m a n y
talents. I t seems t h a t the same adhesive p r o t e i n t h a t binds so adeptly
to metals i n rocks or o n stanchions also clamps o n t o heavy metals

« ""^'-"'^ -
t h a t the mussel ingests i n its f o o d . I n this way, the mussel stores the
toxins i n its byssus rather t h a n i n its body, and w h e n i t moves t o
greener pastures, i t jettisons the byssus and leaves the heavy metals prodSjtcl':n°e"'irdt
behind.
etues,1.1
spinneret, and endred iith i ^ " " " " J
of „h,ch tlt^^'LZot^^l/r.fir'aS:
'^""^^'« ° ™
 130 / Biomimiay
nologist Theodore H . Savory once remarked, " S i l k is the w a r p and
w o o f o f the spider's l i f e . "
M a n y spiders begin their lives as eggs swaddled i n silk and take
t h e i r first t r i p via a t h i n strand t h a t catches o n air currents and "bal-
loons" t h e m t o new, distant homes. W h e n hunger strikes, some spi-
ders spin a nearly invisible snare, w h i l e others spin dense sticky
sheets t h a t snag insects the w a y flypaper does. Stfll others dispense
w i t h w e b spinning altogether, simply e x t r u d i n g a single silken strand
w i t h a sticky b a l l attached. " T h e ball is h u r l e d , gaucho-style, at i n -
sects flying by, w h i c h are t h e n lassoed i n and c a l f - r o p e d , " writes
entomologist M a y R. Berenbaum i n her b o o k Bugs in the System. Silk
also figures p r o m i n e n t l y i n the sex lives o f spiders. I n courtship, silk
m a y be laced w i t h pheromones [sex attractants), like a handkerchief
sprayed w i t h cologne. Once the w o o i n g has w o r k e d , males m a y spin
m o r e silk t o i m m o b i l i z e the female [ w h o is j u s t as likely to eat her
suitor as t o mate w i t h hirri). Stfll n o t w a n t i n g t o get t o o close, he
deposits his sperm i n t o a special l i t t l e package o f webbing, w h i c h he
inserts i n t o t h e female. Even i n death, writes Berenbaum, spiders'
lives are t i e d u p i n silk. Certain species o f spiders are Icnown to w r a p
the remains o f a dead c o m p a t r i o t i n specially w o v e n shrouds.
Lately, this mysterious material has also become central t o the
lives o f a small cadre o f materials scientists. A s Christopher V i n e y
drops another cricket T i n y ' s way, he seems m o r e surprised t h a n I
t h a t his career has come t o this. " I ' m a metallurgist!" he says, feign-
ing defensiveness. "Really! I ' m a licensed physicist! I haven't taken
a biology class since h i g h school!" I begin t o p i c k u p some o f the
paraphernalia festooning his room^—a rubber spider, m a c r a m é spi-
derwebs, a can o f slug c h o w d e r ("Please d o n ' t add salt," the label
cautions), b i o l o g y journals, an article t h a t refers t o h i m as the Spider
M a n . " O K . " H e t h r o w s open his large hands and shrugs. " S o I w e n t
astray."
" A s t r a y " began i n h i g h school i n South A f r i c a w h e n V i n e y had
a biology teacher w h o was also a m u s e u m curator. " H e veered w i l d l y
o f f t h e syllabus, regaling us w i t h stories about cracking the D N A
code and other exciting developments going o n at the m o m e n t i n
science. H i s enthusiasm was absolutely infectious. A s a result, w h e n
I applied t o Cambridge, I actually d i d better o n m y entrance exams
i n biology t h a n I d i d i n physics and chemistry, w h i c h was w h a t I
w a n t e d t o go i n t o . I eventually w o u n d u p studying m e t a l l u r g y i n t h e
N a t u r a l Sciences program, w h i c h was the most interdisciplinary op-
H o w Will We Make Things? / 131
t i o n available. I d i d n ' t learn a t h i n g about welding, b u t I d i d learn
about atoms and molecules."
O n e o f the most i m p o r t a n t classes V i n e y t o o k was an elective
that taught h i m a skill he w o u l d later use w h i l e surfing between
disciplines: crystallography. Crystallography is the study o f h o w or-
ganic and inorganic materials, under certain conditions, assume very
ordered shapes and structures called crystals. T h e atoms i n a crystal
line u p i n predictable spacings and stay t h a t way, giving y o u some-
t h i n g hke three-dimensional wallpaper, w i t h a pattern t h a t repeats
itself i n all directions. A h q u i d has a m u c h m o r e r a n d o m arrange-
m e n t o f molecules. There is no p a t t e r n t o help y o u describe or pre-
dict exactly w h e r e the molecules are.
I n between the order o f a crystal and the disorder o f a l i q u i d is
a material called a l i q u i d crystal, w h i c h has some qualities o f b o t h
It's a h q u i d w i t h its molecules arranged i n orientational b u t n o t p o -
sitional order; t h a t is, the molecules are all aligned i n some d i m e n -
sion—they're facing the same w a y — b u t they aren't positioned i n a
predictable pattern. T h o u g h V i n e y d i d n ' t Icnow i t at the time, his
early fascination w i t h these semi-ordered crystals w o u l d lead h i m
chrectly i n t o T i n y ' s w e b .
" A c t u a l l y , i t afl started one Saturday n i g h t w h i l e I was o n the
couch reading d i r t y physics magazines," he laughs. " I came across
an article b y Robert Greenler [physics professor. University o f W i s -
consin-Milwaukee, and president o f t h e A m e r i c a n O p t i c a l Society]
on w h y y o u can see rainbows i n spiderwebs at d a w n and dusk I t
c o m b i n e d optics, w h i c h I love, w i t h silk, w h i c h I k n e w very l i t t i e
about. A s i t turns out, no one else d i d either. W e ' d been cultivating
s i l k w o r m silk f o r f o u r thousand years, b u t w h e n Greenler needed the
refractive i n d e x (a very c o m m o n measurement) f o r spider silk, he
had t o guess at i t .
" T h i s made m e curious about the refractive index o f spider silk
I d i d a test and realized t h a t i t was very h i g h . Usually, a h i g h re-
fractive m d e x points t o some sort o f crystaflinity, and that's j u s t w h a t
w e f o u n d i n spider sflk—small crystaflites embedded i n a r u b b e r y
m a t r i x o f organic p o l y m e r . S o m e h o w the spider had learned t o m a n -
ufacture a composite [ t w o types o f material i n one], three h u n d r e d
eighty m i l l i o n years before w e decided composites w o u l d be all the
rage!"
A s a metallurgist, V i n e y k n e w t h a t this unusual structure m u s t
i m p a r t an equally unusual f u n c t i o n . Sure enough, the stellar p r o p -
 132 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 133

erties o f spider silk are enough t o make materials scientists suspect

V i n e y guessed t h a t the r a w silk somehow w e n t t h r o u g h a l i q u i d
typos. C o m p a r e d ounce t o ounce w i t h steel, dragline silk is five times
stronger, and compared t o Kevlar ( f o u n d i n b u l l e t p r o o f vests), it's XttTr^^'^Z ''''''T' *^°"S^ ^ P - - - t , Ihis w o u l d
m u c h tougher—able t o absorb five times the i m p a c t force w i t h o u t ahgn he molecules and give t h e m a j u m p on their ordering. T o be
brealdng. Besides being very strong and very t o u g h , i t also manages e n a b l e o f achievmg the h q u i d crystal state, V i n e y figured, ' h e sub-
to be h i g h l y elastic, a hat t r i c k that is rare i n any one material. I f u m t s - p r o t e m s - w o u l d have to be "anisotropic" i n structure " A n
y o u suspend increasingly heavy weights f r o m a steel w i r e and a silk amsotropic substance is one t h a t has a definite directional order "
fiber of the same diameter, t h e i r brealdng p o i n t is about the same.
7ol^7l ' T h e u n c o o k e d strands o f spaghetti i n a b o x are anS>-
tropic. T h e y l o o k d i f f e r e n t depending on whether y o u are v i e w i n g
But i f a gale force w i n d blows, the strand o f silk (five times lighter
t h e m end on or from the side. T h e opposite o f anisotropic w o u l d be
i n w e i g h t ) w i l l do something the steel never c o u l d — i t w i l l stretch
4 0 percent longer t h a n its original length and bounce back good as dir u ' " ' ^ ^ " ^ ^ P ' S ^ ^ « ^ ' - h i c h looks the same i n all
new. U p against our stretchiest nylon, spider silk bungees 30 percent directions. A l t h o u g h most people t h o u g h t soluble spider p r o t e i n was
isotropic, I was expecting t o see anisotropic rods o f some sort "
farther.
This energy-absorbing elasticity comes i n handy w h e n moths silk u?de 1 ' " ' ' " ' " " " P y - " " ^ ' ^ he to l o o k at the raw
silk under a polarizing l i g h t microscope, an i n s t r u m e n t i n v e n t e d over
and other "meals on wings;' come h u r t l i n g i n t o the w e b at t o p speed.
Instead o f breaking, t h e gossamer strands stretch, giving o f f most o f
use. N o t only d i d V m e y Icnow the instrument, he had become some-
t h e i r i m p a c t energy as heat. Fully spent, t h e w e b recoils so gently
w h a t o f an expert even w r i t i n g a modern-day manual o n its use.
t h a t i t doesn't t r a m p o l i n e the m o t h back out. " N o n e o f our metals
T h e polarizing l i g h t microscope uses the same principle as polarized
or high-strength fibers can come even close t o this c o m b i n a t i o n o f
sunglasses. O n l y mstead of one filter, i t has t w o - o n e cuts o u t every
strength and energy-absorbing elasticity," says V i n e y . A c c o r d i n g t o
hmg except l i g h t vibrating vertically, w h i l e the other cuts o u t every-
Science News reporter Richard L i p k i n , i n a January 2 1 , 1995, article,
t h m g except h g h t vibrating horizontally. For most objects this
spider silk is so strong and resilient t h a t o n t h e h u m a n scale, a w e b
accounts f o r ah the l i g h t passing t h r o u g h , so y o u see onty daricne
resembling a fishing net c o u l d catch a passenger plane i n flightl
n the scope. A n anisotropic material, however, plays w i t h the p o -
A n o t h e r characteristic i n silk's favor is its unusually l o w glass-
larization state o f l i g h t . " W h e n V i n e y l o o k e d at l i q u i d spider sdk
transition temperature. This simply means t h a t silk has t o get very,
espeaally at the edges o f a slide w h e r e i t was drying, he clearly saw
very cold before i t becomes b r i t t l e enough t o break easily. I n the
light c o m i n g t h r o u g h the filters, a sure sign o f anisotropy. " I n f a c 7
f r i g i d temperatures t h a t parachutes encounter, f o r instance, spider
silk w o u l d make ideal l i g h t w e i g h t lines. O t h e r uses f o r a fiber as roTthat' 5' f
r o d t h a t was t h i r t y
r "'^'^^^
times longer t h a n i t was w i d e "
l - ' - d to,be ; •
strong as spider silk w o u l d be b u l l e t p r o o f fabrics, cable f o r suspen-
T o check his h u n c h , V i n e y consuhed the p r o t e i n sequencing
sion bridges, artificial ligaments, and sutures, t o name j u s t a f e w . T h e
data published b y Randy Lewis o f the U n i v e r s i t y of W y o m i n g and
question is, h o w w o u l d w e go about pacldng so m u c h f u n c t i o n i n t o
Dave Kaplan o f the U.S. A r m y , only to m e e t w i t h more frustration
such a small package?
Spider silk begins as a p o o l o f raw l i q u i d p r o t e i n sloshing around Pop Beads and Slinkys
i n a gland t h a t V i n e y says looks like "the business end o f a bagpipe."
T h e amino acid sequences o f r a w h q u i d silk d i d n ' t seem t o corre-
T h e r a w silk (a l i q u i d p r o t e i n ) travels f r o m the gland t o a n a r r o w
spond t o any p r o t e i n t h a t w o u l d f o l d u p i n t o a rod. I n fact, the
d u c t before being squeezed t h r o u g h one o f t h e six spinnerets—
repetitious sequences p o i n t e d to a p r o t e i n that, w h i l e i t was ii^ the
m i n u t e groups o f nozzles at the spider's back end. T h e miracle is
^ a n d was most likely t o be tangled and globular, "like a b a l l o f w o o l
t h a t w h a t goes i n t o the spinneret as soluble l i q u i d p r o t e i n (easily
the eat s got en h o l d o f ' The water-fearing amino acids i n the chain
dissolved i n w a t e r ) , somehow emerges as an insoluble, nearly water-
were p r o b a b l y h i d i n g i n the m i d d l e o f the ball w h i l e the w a t e r - l o v i n g
proof, h i g h l y ordered fiber. " I t ' s enough t o make a fiber manufac-
amino acids h u n g o n the periphery. This arrangement w o u l d n ' ^
t u r e r very jealous."
change u n t i l the ball was physically sheared by the spinneret
 134 / Biomimicry
How Will We Make Things? / 135

I n a way, this made sense. Globular molecules floating i n water

globular proteins line up into a pop-bead necklace, which squeezes
w o u l d be a good w a y t o store the p r o t e i n i n the gland. W h e n the
through the spinneret to become a silk fiber T h . Z 1 ''^j
spider t w i s t e d and scurried t h r o u g h its days, the globules w o u l d sim-
p l y r o l l w i t h the punches, and the spider d i d n ' t have t o fear "be-
partly flexible and partly rigid, like freilrJtilkfZ'Z:
c o m i n g constipated w i t h its o w n silk" i f the h q u i d p r o t e i n somehow phous part grves, but the stiff crystalline domains don'I gle m e n
sheared i n t o fiber f o r m . B u t i f there were only globular molecules, ÏvstaflL re T ^ ' ^ ^ ' ' ^"^'^ ^^^s interrupted by Ae
t h o u g h t V i n e y , w h y was the polarizing l i g h t microscope showing T r S erialT' f "tT ' ^ ' ^ T " ^^^^^ explains why
undeniable evidence o f rodlike structures? the material goes from being a soluble liquid to an insoluble fiber
Once the water-fearing portions of the proteins crowdTgether thev
" T h e mystery unraveled f o r me w h e n I attended a lecture b y resist water ensuring that the silk won^ fafl apart ' ' ^
one o f m y coUeagues i n the bioengineering department," he says.
T h e speaker was talking about actin, a p r o t e i n t h a t self-assembles to R.ndvT ' ""'^^l' some, like silk researcher
Randy Lewis, don't agree with it. Lewis feels he has evidence ha
help f o r m our muscles. A c t i n is essentially a globular p r o t e i n , b u t
the baUs h o o k u p t o one another—like the baubles i n a kid's p o p -
bead necldace—to f o r m a chain. A s V i n e y l o o k e d at the cartoon
graphic, something breached and leaped f r o m his subconscious.
"There was m y r o d l " he said.
V i n e y turns o n his c o m p u t e r and w e l o o k at cartoon depictions
o f his evolving t h e o r y o f spider silk f o r m a t i o n . H e n o w hypothesizes
t h a t the r a w h q u i d sflk leaves the gland and travels t h r o u g h a t h i n
d u c t j u s t before entering the spinneret. A s i t squeezes t h r o u g h the
duct, water is w r u n g o u t o f the p r o t e i n and calcium is added. (Cal-
c i u m is w h a t allows actin globules t o h o o k u p , so V i n e y thinks i t
m a y also be at w o r k here.) T h e globules h o o k u p i n a pop-bead
necklace, m a k i n g t h e solution one thousand times less viscous, be- th jury IS out and the debate is lively, afl the investigators in s^d
cause t h e rodlike assemblies can n o w slide past one another. It's
analogous to p u t t i n g lanes o f traffic o n a h i g h w a y sliding past one
another, versus the mess t h a t is a laneless, lawless M a n h a t t a n j a m .
Connected, aligned molecules are n o t only easier t o push
t h r o u g h t h e spinneret, t h e y are also m o r e susceptible t o the shearing
action t h a t turns l i q u i d p r o t e i n i n t o fiber. Because the globes are
unable t o r o f l o u t o f the way, the squeeze t h r o u g h the spinneret
disrupts the water-loving residues o n their periphery, exposing their
water-fearing parts.
"These h y d r o p h o b i c parts go ' A R R R G G l ' and cluster together
as tightly as t h e y can," says V i n e y . T h e y assume a zigzag shape,
f o l d e d accordion-style i n t o pleats. O n e pleated sheet stacks o n t o p
o f another, as close as t h e y can get t o lock o u t the water. T h e water-
l o v i n g portions o f the proteins remain loose and curly at the edges,
f o r m i n g t h e springy m a t r i x t h a t the accordion crystal parts are e m -
bedded i n . one end „ d p „ c e s s , higk-.eeh m a J Z . t e " „ ^ 1 " * " "
V i n e y ' s m o d e l has a pleasing simplicity and completeness: T h e
 136 / Biomimiay
How Will We Make Things? / 137

t h e processing regime t h a t spiders use. W e have t o m i x u p a batch

o f precursor and duphcate the physical j o u r n e y f r o m the glands o u t
to the spinnerets. It's t h a t j o u r n e y t h a t helps i m p a r t a certain m i -
crostructure t o the fibers.
" W h e n w e scale this j o u r n e y up f o r industrial use, w e have t o
be able to give t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g crew exact specifications: w h a t
concentration o f p r o t e i n they should use, h o w b i g the rods i n the
l i q u i d crystal should be, h o w m u c h c a l c i u m they w i l l need, h o w
m u c h water t h e y should squeeze out, and h o w fast they should spin
out t h e fibers t o o b t a i n a silk w i t h desired properties. By t w e a k i n g th.s gave m only an infinitesimal amount. I f we eve, hoprd , „ ' „ „
any one o f those variables, w e may be able to customize the silk f o r
d i f f e r e n t uses. For me, the processing is t h e really i n t r i g u i n g part o f r t r i " " ^ ™ " • » » -
this story."
W h i l e V i n e y w o r k s o n scaling up t h e process, there are other
scientists e x a m i n i n g the p r o t e i n precursors t h a t w i l l make all o f this
possible. Silk is after all a biological material—a p r o t e i n t h a t self- "Our first shot o u t o f the barrel was to isolate the f u l l len^xth
assembles, under a gentle shear force, i n t o a fiber. T h e p r o t e i n h u n t -
ers I visited are deep i n the gland o f the orb weaver, h o p i n g t o
characterize the source o f silk and find a w a y t o produce ft w i t h o u t
T i n y ' s help.
do ng some v,ork on the wild gene, b u , we realized we'd toeas '
Silk Maneuvers ' r
W h e n I first l a i d eyes o n D a v i d L . Kaplan, i t was i n a p h o t o , one of r s X : L l ^ 5 e i i r o : r o t " ^ —
those rare shots t h a t captures a person's essence. He was standing
b e h i n d a glass case, peering n o t at the camera b u t at a six-inch-long
orb weaver spider. H i s eyes absolutely shone w i t h entrancement—
hke t h e eyes o f a c h i l d at the zoo, staring t h r o u g h a w i n d o w at an
animal t h a t is staring back at h i m . flat's
mat s ww hheer e: science
' ' ° " turns^"'^
t n ""'''"^^'^'y
art \^r^ Si° - t h your g u' ' T d
K a p l a n is entranced f o r nearly f o u r t e e n hours a day, arriving at
the U . S . A r m y ' s Research, D e v e l o p m e n t and Engineering Center i n
N a t i c k , Massachusetts, long before his employees arrive, and leaving
long after they leave, " f t ' s never a d u l l m o m e n t , " he tells me, " Y o u our homemade D N A and m a £ the p r o S n f o r T '° '"^^^
learn one t h i n g about nature, and y o u come u p f o r air w i t h t e n more i o m a k e a l o n g story short, ft w o r k e d . E. coli expressed the
things t o pursue. W e are right o n the verge o f so m u c h , so m u c h protein, giving us something t o test and learn f r o m . W e w a n t t o ee
t h a t has no precedent," w h a t properties ft has, and t h e n figure o u t w h y : W h a t T s i t about
K a p l a n is always o n the move, usually traihng a person or t w o this ammo acid sequence t h a t m i g h t have given rise to th
w h o wants t o see h i m . H e dftects f o r t y - f i v e people i n all (those I
t a l k e d t o rave about h i m ) and is responsible f o r overseeing t h e tech-
nical aspects o f every study going on i n the biomolecular materials
department at N a t i c k . O n e o f his favorite projects is the quest t o oe awe t o t e l l a fiber designer, i f y o u w a n t resilience t r v this re
synthesize a gene f o r a silldike p r o t e i n . peatmg sequence o f amino acids f o l l o w e d b y t h a t r ' e S n g se-'
 138 / Biomimicry
quence. Slowly b u t surely, we're b u i l d i n g an i n f o r m a t r o n m f r a t r u c -
t u r e - a knowledge base t h a t w i l l allow us t o make matenals the
wly nature does W h a t w e learn f r o m spiders w i l l be h e l p f u l f o r
any p o l y m e r processing. W e ' r e n o t the only ones b y any means.
Randy Lewis is w o r k i n g w i t h the w i l d gene o u t y o u r way, he
tells m e .
I n the w i n d y t o w n o f Laramie, W y o m i n g , R a n d o l p h V . Lewis has
the sequences to w h a t he believes are t w o protems at w o r k m the
spider's gland. H i s t e a m at t h e University o f W y o m i n g used genetic
engineertag " p r o b e " techniques like those used o n abalone shell t o
isolate portions o f the t w o genes t h a t code f o r t h e thread-producmg
proteins. T h e y t h e n inserted these gene fragments each representing
only about one t h i r d o f the real genes) i n t o E. coli and success u l l y
expressed proteins, "Vfe even processed t h e m i n t o fibers, b u t they
d i d n ' t m a t c h the qualities o f dragline silk. O u r truncated genes were
obviously missing something i m p o r t a n t . " N o w Lewis s team, like
Kaplan's, is w o r k i n g t o synthesize a gene t h a t m a y come closer t o
t h e qualities materials scientists are l o o k i n g f o r .
L e w i s is applying f o r grants t h a t w i l l allow h i m t o analyze dif-
f e r e n t kinds o f silk f r o m d i f f e r e n t kinds o f spiders, h o p i n g t o learn
more about t h e s t r u c t u r e - f u n c t i o n relationships K a p l a n t a l k e d a b o u t
ïïe too, is t r y i n g t o come u p w i t h the u l t i m a t e cookbook t h a t w i l l
allow fiber manufacturers t o l o o k u p the properties they w a n t i n a
silk p r o t e i n , t h e n find t h e amino acid recipe f o r those properties^
W a n t a better fiber? Start w i t h a better p r o t e m , and template your
^ ^ T e w l s ' s foray i n t o d i f f e r e n t spiders and d i f f e r e n t silks rnalces m e
w o n d e r w h e t h e r w e are studying the best possible models. A l l of our
c u r r e n t knowledge comes f r o m studies o f only t w o kinds o f thread
spun b y f e w e r t h a n fifteen species, o f orb weavers a subset t h a t
makes u p only one t h i r d o f all t h i r t y thousand described spider spe-
cies. Is an even better p r o t o t y p e w a i t i n g o u t there somewhere.
Back i n Seattle, I pose this question t o Christopher V i n e y whose
n o r m a l l y c h e e r f u l , mischievous face clouds. H e thinks carefully. A s
i n all o f biology, m o d e l systems are chosen because they are easy o
w o r k w i t h , he explains, and t o some extent because other people
have already set the track f o r y o u . B u t yes, there probably is a
stronger tougher, stiffer fiber being p r o d u c e d r i g h t this m i n u t e b y a
How Will We Make Things? / 139
spider t h a t w e k n o w n o t h i n g about. A spider whose habitat m a y be
going u p i n smoke.
" A n d do I feel an urgency t o learn w h a t 1 can before these
models go e x t i n c t ? " he asks. H e looks around his office, o u t t h e
w i n d o w , and after a w h i l e , back at me, as serious as I've yet seen
h i m . " W e l l , " he says, i n t h a t w a y t h e British have o f r e t i r i n g from
a t o p i c . " I suppose i t w o n ' t h u r t t o have m y metallurgy w a i t a f e w
more years." H e stands and I stand, and f o r the first t i m e all day, w e
check the clock.
Horns for the Rhino's D i l e m m a
W i t h species like the rhinoceros, the c o u n t d o w n to e x t i n c t i o n is n o t
just speculation—it's an ongoing spectacle. There are only 2,300
black rhinos i n all o f A f r i c a , d o w n from 65,000 as recently as 1970.
Z i m b a b w e ' s w i l d p o p u l a t i o n , t h o u g h t t o be 1,400 i n m i d - 1 9 9 1 , is
d o w n t o a shocking 250 animals. Asian rhinos are f a r i n g no better.
T h e Sumatran r h i n o p o p u l a t i o n has been cut i n h a l f i n the last t e n
years, w i t h numbers n o w t o t a l i n g f e w e r t h a n 600.
T h e reason rhinos are i n decline is because o f the five t o ten
pounds o f p r o t e i n t h a t shapes itself i n t o a h o r n (or t w o ) p r o t r u d i n g
unicorn-style from the rhino's head. Poachers risk being shot o n sight
to Idll a r h i n o , , b u t i f they can get the h o r n and get away, they earn
an a m o u n t equal t o a year's wages. T h e h o r n lords reap the real
money, t h o u g h — t h e y sell t h e horns on the black m a r k e t f o r tens o f
thousands o f dollars each. H a l f o f the horns used t o go t o t h e M i d d l e
East, where t h e y were c r a f t e d i n t o dagger handles t h a t Yerneni m e n
strapped o n d u r i n g t h e i r r i t u a l i n i t i a t i o n i n t o m a n h o o d . A single dag-
ger m a y have cost $30,000, b u t the status conferred on the m a n w h o
w o r e ft was deemed w o r t h t h e price. These days, m o s t horns find
t h e f t w a y i n t o Eastern medicines. R h i n o h o r n p o w d e r is t h o u g h t t o
cure stomachaches, skin blemishes, a lackluster libido, and even, p u r -
portedly, a lousy singing voice.
A l t h o u g h legal sales have d i m i n i s h e d since the 1977 international
ban o n sale o f r h i n o h o r n ( C I T E S ) , rhinos continue to be k i l l e d and the
horns b l e d o f f slowly t o the black market. Poaching has gotten so bad
in N a m i b i a t h a t officials began a dehorning program, sawing o f f the
t r o p h y as a w a y to spare the animals' lives. Perversely, t h e slaughter
continues, this time w i t h dehorned rhinos. " W h a t w e n o w t h i n k is
that t h e h o r n lords are h o p i n g to see the rhinos go extinct, w h i c h w i l l
 140 / Biomimiay
increase the value o f t h e i r stockpiled horns," says Joe D a n i e l , a rhino
researcher at O l d D o m i n i o n University i n V i r g i n i a .
I traveled t o O l d D o m i n i o n because I had heard t h a t D a n i e l , a
zoologist b y training, h a d teamed u p w i t h a metallurgist named A n n
V a n O r d e n , and they had a plan t o help stop the slaughter. I t w o u l d
be b i o m i m i c r y at its best.
W h a t the w o r l d needs, say D a n i e l and V a n O r d e n , is a facsimile
rhinoceros h o r n t h a t is inexpensive to make. " F l o o d i n g the market
w i t h this h o r n , i d e n t i f y i n g i t as a facsimile and h o p i n g to get other
cultures to accept i t — t h a t may be our only o p t i o n . O r rather the
rhino's only o p t i o n . I f w e w o r k i t o u t so t h a t h o r n lords are able to
make a p r o f i t i n v o l u m e seUing, they may decide i t is no longer w o r t h
t h e i r w h i l e t o risk t h e poaching."
H i s t o r y bears t h e m out. Whenever w e have given people con-
v i n c i n g substitutes f o r a coveted material, i t has helped t o conserve
the original. Rubber trees were n o t so heavily tapped, f o r instance,
nor pearls so voraciously fished, after artificial substitutes became
available. T h e key is t o o f f e r a duphcate material t h a t is almost as
lustrous, almost as rubbery as the real t h i n g . T h e l o w e r price speaks
f o r itself, and i n the process, native organisms are freed from our
h u n g r y grasp. TT i
B u t r h i n o h o r n is an especially t o u g h case f o r mimickers. H a l o e d
as ft is w i t h magical and medicinal qualities, consumers are l o a t h to
accept any substitutes. W h e n I asked w h a t the h o r n is made of, A n n
V a n O r d e n d r u m m e d the table w i t h her fingernails, " f t ' s k e r a t i n —
the same t o u g h , fibrous p r o t e i n that's i n y o u r fingernails and yorir
haft. There's absolutely no p r o o f t h a t r h i n o h o r n can do w h a t it's
t o u t e d t o do, no m o r e t h a n your ground-up fingernails could, ft's n o t
the k e r a t i n itself, however, b u t the u n i q u e w a y t h a t it's structured
t h a t gives r h i n o h o r n its coveted strength and luster. I f w e could
induce keratin t o self-assemble i n t o t h a t structure, w e ' d have the
viable substitute w e need."
T h e t w o collaborators w h o hope t o p u l l this o f f m e t serendip-
itously w h e n V a n Orden's husband, a physicist at O l d D o m i n i o n ,
came to Daniel's b r o w n - b a g seminar o n i n f r a s o u n d and rhinos. W h e n
D a n i e l m e n t i o n e d he needed some help preparing samples o f rhino
h o r n f o r the microscope, A n n ' s husband suggested her f o r the j o f t
V a n O r d e n picks u p the story: " I was w o r l d n g at Langley Research
Center at the t i m e studying corrosion, and needless t o say, rhinos
were n o t i n m y annual w o r k plan. So I code-named m y folder
How Will We Make Things? / 141
Rufus (the name o f the b u l l at V i r g i n i a Zoological Park w h o had
donated a b r o k e n - o f f piece o f his h o r n ) and kept i t t o m y s e l f "
A t l u n c h . V a n O r d e n l o w e r e d an unpolished c h u n k o f Rufus's
h o r n i n t o m y p a l m . "Be c a r e f u l , " she j o k e d . " W h a t y o u ' r e h o l d i n g
IS w o r t h about ten thousand dollars." A t the fractured edge, I c o u l d
see fibers called spicules sticldng out. T h e y were t i p p e d w i t h points
at each end, hke porcupine quills. "This is an ingenious design. A s
one o f those spicules tapers to a p o i n t , i t makes r o o m f o r another
tapering spicule to take o f f I n this way, the fibers are interdigitated
and t h a t s w h y y o u see a zigzag break w h e n the h o r n b r e a k s - s o m e
points are sticldng out, some holes are l e f t b e h i n d "
B u t Where's the hair? I ask her. I n almost every b o o k I ' d read
(and one t h a t I ' d w r i t t e n ) , r h i n o h o r n had been described as bundles
o f hair tightly packed together. She smiled. " I Icnow, b u t that's n o t
w h a t I saw w h e n I sectioned ft." Chances are, no biology department
had ever sectioned and prepared the h o r n f o r microscopy i n exactly
the w a y V a n O r d e n d i d . She treated ft as she m i g h t a piece o f m e t a l
that h a d corroded. She sawed a cross-sectional shce and sanded i t
starting w i t h 3 0 0 - g r f t sandpaper, w o r l d n g u p to 1,200-grit, and fi-
nally polishing i t to a scratch-free finish w i t h a d i a m o n d slurry and
an alumina polish. She t h e n examined i t under a polarizing l i g h t
j
microscope (the type V i n e y used o n spider silk) as i f i t were a piece
of m e t a l A color p h o t o o f her cross section was hanging i n her office
w i t h a blue r i b b o n on ft having w o n first prize i n Polaroid's science
photography contest.
T h e h o r n was indeed b e a u t i f u l i n cross section. I t was as ftsome-
one h a d taken a b u n d l e o f sohd, copper-colored quills and ent across
t h e m , leaving a landscape o f w h a t l o o k e d like cells. T h e softer cen-
ters o t the spicules h a d g f t e n w a y under the sander, leaving l i t t i e
concave depressions i n the m i d d l e o f each cell. As V a n O r d e n ex-
plained, the concave depression is the central core o f the spicule-
that core is a fiber t h a t grows from a f o l l i c l e at the base o f the rhino's
horm A r o u n d this core, keratin-producing c e l l s - n o w dead, flat-
tened, and cornified like skin c e f l s - l a y i n concentric fashion, l o o k i n g
hke g r o w t h rings on a tree t r u n k . T h e y produce w h a t amounts to a
hard, m u l t i l a y e r e d keratin sleeve around each fiber. A r o u n d the out-
side o f thfs sleeve, there's another k i n d o f keratin, also fibrous, that
serves as the m a t r i x or m o r t a r between the spicules. Despite w h a t
all the textbooks said, the h o r n was n o t hair at all; i t was a composite
made o f t w o f o r m s o f keratin i n the same material.
 142 / Biomimicry
How WiU We Make Things? / 143

W h e n V a n O r d e n looked at the magnified h o r n slice w i t h her

materials scientist eyes, she immediately recognized the pattern: " I t
looked just hke the graphite-fiber-reinforced composite w e use f o r
the skin o f the Stealth bomber! Y o u take graphite fibers, w h i c h are
very s t i f f and i n f l e x i b l e — t h e y break before they bend—and encase
cow r h t " ; „ « tr.*' t ' t i '^"^ ™
t h e m i n a resin w h i c h is flexible—it bends before i t breaks. Y o u w i n d
calves fro,n a.taci Bulls „se , to 7 ff" ' ' T *>
u p w i t h something r i g i d b u t very t o u g h t o break. That's w h y c o m -
posites are so w o n d e r f u l ; they add u p t o something more t h a n the
disputes, and .11 r L 2 L ê I ' . ' T'^'""" •™">"»1

sum o f t h e i r parts." to do .11 this r h i r h o „ r h , , '"""^ T° *k

Besides the Stealth bomber, graphite-reinforced composites are the t i p as «è . Z t ° ' L l i T Z T J ' ' ' ' ' f - " t " """"
also used i n the masts o n America's C u p sailboats, the bodies o f
Formula O n e race cars, high-end guitars, tennis rackets, and Boeing's
new l i g h t w e i g h t 777 airplane, w h i c h w f l l fly farther and faster on
less f u e l . " I n engineering this composite, i t seems we've coevolved," flat topped and takinT.11 X --instead of being
says V a n O r d e n . " W e ' v e invented something nature has already been
using f o r sixty m i l l i o n years."
N e x t she showed me a picture o f another l a n d o f composite—
sihcon carbide fibers embedded i n a l u m i n u m oxide [a ceramic ma-
t r i x ] — a n d p o i n t e d o u t t h e differences. " W e make this composite b y
laying fibers d o w n b y hand and t h e n p u t t i n g a b l o c k o f ceramic on
of r h ^ Ï t r n t h ^ i t t l ^ L ^ i T ' ' ' ^ T Ï f ' ' ' '
top. W e combine the t w o under pressure and heat, so the ceramic The evidence of self heTlÏ uV P°^^<=^«~the abihty to heal.
resohdifies i n and around the fibers. W e have t o be careful t o keep Picture. " I f y o u o o f S ^ ^ ^ the beautiful Polaroid
the fibers a certain distance apart, t h o u g h , because i f they diffuse polymer, essLtially heaS^^^^^^^ ? Z;^'^'"^, ^^at has infilled with
i n t o one another under those extreme conditions, the resufling c o m - I considered this imnossihl h ' ' ^ ' , ^ ^ " ' ^ 1 - B u t as a biologist,
posite is n o t as resistant t o breakage." living cells in th rilvl^rt" 'A"^ '^^'^ ^
Because our heat-and-beat processing doesn't l e n d itself t o t h a t idea that there m i g ^ b e s o L t h 1 T " - ^ ^ ^ T * ^ ° " S ^ ^ -
level o f control, w e can't o p t i m i z e the w a y nature can. T h e rhino's possibility that we could t i r f *e horn opened the
h o r n , w h i c h self-assembles f r o m w i t h i n , has densely packed spicules
that are carefully spaced and n o t t o u c h i n g . T h i s better "packing tttough . L e ^ t f t : ^ : : : f ^ ^ z
density" makes f o r a tougher h o r n . M a t r i x and fiber are also chem-
ically simflar, and consequently are able t o b o n d w e l l at the inter- v e L u a r i a V i l X can T""" " '
faces. because they L ' t 1 Ï e „ a"es^r T'" " " T ' ° '''' " "^''^"P-
A n o t h e r difference between our composite and nature's is i n
the shape o f the fibers. I n cross section, t h e synthetic fibers i n the
down there, took the hÓr„rmri fl'""''' » f t » . I fcw
Stowing m é d i u m , Ï k e r S i o ^ y S T c é S l t t " '
carbon-graphite composite are u n i f o r m l y r o u n d , w h f l e the r h i n o fi-
bers vary i n size and shape. W h a t does remain u n i f o r m l y t h i c k
t h r o u g h o u t is the mortar^—the keratin m a t r i x . ay d'own for a L j r T o p s y - . *° " " ^ »'
" A g a i n , this makes great sense f r o m a materials science p o i n t of
v i e w , " says V a n O r d e n . " I t may be t h a t a certain thickness o f m a t r i x
has t o be there as a b u f f e r against insults. I f the fibers were abutted
together w i t h o u t a b u f f e r , and y o u broke one, y o u c o u l d break t h e m
 144 / Biomimiay
How Will We Make Things? / 145

h o m depolymerizes [breaks d o w n i n t o its b u i l d i n g blocks], flows t o

the crack, t h e n repolymerizes t o fiU i n the gap. T h a t got us t h i n k -
ing—maybe w e c o u l d do something simflar. Maybe w e c o u l d de-
^^^^^
polymerize r h i n o keratin and induce i t t o reassemble around a core
o f r h i n o hair."
Daniel's idea is t o practice o n something like horsehair. Horses
have t w o types o f h a i r — t h e r o u g h t a f l hair t h a t is used f o r v i o h n
bows, and t h e softer hair o f the coat. First he w o u l d depolymerize
the coat hair i n t o a h q u i d , t h e n lay the t a f l hairs side b y side i n the
h q u i d solution and p u t i t under pressure. T h e keratin w o u l d , it's
hoped, polymerize around the nucleus o f the larger fibers, f o r m i n g
connectors t h a t gather afl the hairs together.
T h e same sort o f technique is already being done w i t h bone,
says V a n O r d e n . " A dental surgeon can take bone and treat ft so
t h a t just the hydrox:(apatite is l e f t . T o b u f l d u p the jawbone f o u n -
dation beneath an i m p l a n t , f o r instance, t h e y ' f l cut open a patient's
j a w and p u t i n this hydroxyapatite. W h e n t h e person's bone cells
come i n contact w i t h this hydroxyapatite, they say, 'Hey, w e f o r g o t
to calcify thisT and t h e y ' f l make n e w bone i n t h a t spot. W e ' r e h o p i n g
t h a t our h q u e f i e d horsehaft cefls m i g h t see the t a i l hairs and say,
' O h , hair tissue. W e f o r g o t to gather afl this together.' ft ft w o r k s
w i t h horsehair, w e ' f l do the same t h i n g w i t h r h i n o k e r a t i n — w e ' U
provide t h e hair, the keratin, and the r i g h t conditions and say, 'Struc-
t u r e yourself 1' "
A l t h o u g h i t seems like a blue-sky idea t o g r o w r h i n o horns f r o m
scratch this way, ft may n o t be. " H e c k , " says V a n O r d e n w i t h her
trademark enthusiasm. " I f y o u t o l d us t h i r t y years ago w e ' d be p u t -
t i n g graphite fibers i n a resin m a t r i x , ft w o u l d have seemed far-
f e t c h e d . T o d a y we're playing doubles tennis w i t h composites like
this."
T h i r t y years ago, there were many, m a n y more rhinos t h a n there
are today. N o matter h o w far-fetched or whatever else m a y come
f r o m this research i n terms o f composite innovations, any attempts
to stop r h i n o slaughter w i U be weU w o r t h t h e e f f o r t . I n fact, ft's one
o f the best uses o f b i o m i m i c r y I can imagine. This t i m e , we're learn-
ing t o i m f t a t e an animal n o t t o save ourselves (dftectly) b u t t o save
another species from "an end to b i r t h . " It's b i o m i m i c r y come f u U
circle, a glimpse o f the good w e c o u l d do w i t h this n e w science tf
w e choose t o .
T h a t sets m e t h i n k i n g about w h i c h agencies, or w h i c h f o u n d a -
tions, have had the foresight t o sponsor this t y p e o f research. W h e n

CHAPTER 5 in the w i l d . Part o f Glander's mission as ark director is t o see t o i t
%§w •
HOW WILL WE HEAL OURSELVES?
EXPERTS
IN O U R MIDST:
FINDING
CURES
LIKE A C H I M P
Nature is the supreme chemist. With all due respect to the brilliance
of chemists, I don't think a chemist could dream up a molecule like
Taxol. [Taxol, a promising new cancer drug, is found in the bark of
the Pacific yew tree [Taxus brevifolia] in the Pacific Northwestf
— G O R D O N C R A G G , chief of the natural products branch,
National Cancer Laboratory, Frederick, Maryland
What matters is that we swallow our hubris and start acknowledg-
ing that animals have many things to teach us.
— R I C H A R D W R A N G H A M , M I C H A E L HUFFMAN, K A R E N STRIER,
and E L O Y R O D R I G U E Z , zoopharmacognosy pioneers
K e n n e t h Glander's office at the D u k e University Primate Center in
D u r h a m , N o r t h Carolina, has a p e r f e c t l y r o u n d , high-dome ceiling
t h a t feels like i t m i g h t be thatched, and t h a t an A f r i c a n village m i g h t
be r i g h t outside. Instead, t h e back door leads t o t h e Carolina piney
v/oods, a h u m i d o r o f coniferous spice and o l d , f u m i n g leaves. I n t h e
m o r n i n g drizzle, Glander tilts back his head, catching sparkling drops
o n t h e d r o o p i n g handles o f his w a x e d mustache. I n t h e u p p e r m o s t
canopy o f trees, small balls o f f u r c u r l u p against the rain: five h u n -
d r e d lemurs, some o f the most p a i n f u l l y endangered primates i n the
w o r l d . Aye-ayes, sifakas, and other prosimians are being b r e d i n this
arboreal ark i n t h e event t h a t they become c o m p l e t e l y zeroed o u t
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 147
lhat they keep themselves healthy.
B u t these woods are h a l f a w o r l d away and vegetatively d i f f e r e n t
Irom t h e lemurs' h o m e i n Madagascar. " I t t o o k m e five years t o
convince people y o u c o u l d l e t these animals r o a m i n these woods
w i t h o u t fear o f t h e m poisoning themselves on our mushrooms. Even
though people die f r o m eating mushrooms a l l t h e t i m e , I h a d a
hunch these primates were smarter than t h a t . "
Primates are smarter t h a n that, a n d so are elephants, bears
birds, a n d even insects. W i l d things live i n a chemically charged
w o r l d , and t h e i r goal i n l i f e is t o p i c k t h e i r w a y t h r o u g h t h e maze
of poisons and find a packet o f energy or perhaps a dose o f curative.
W e humans were once as omnivorous as they, able t o p i c k and
choose between t h e good, t h e bad, and t h e bitter,
Today, w e are beginning t o r e t u r n t o w i l d places t o search f o r
new drugs and n e w crops ( o r w i l d genes t o add spunk t o o u r o l d
standbysj. G i v e n o u r domesticated and d u l l e d senses o f taste a n d
smell, however, w e n o w screen t h e forest f o r p r o m i s i n g plants i n a
time-consuming way. Instead o f innately sensing the best, w e collect
It all and painstakingly sort t h r o u g h i t . G i v e n t h e r a p i d acceleration
of plant extinctions, w e n o longer have time f o r this b u c k s h o t ap-
proach.
T h e r e are m o r e t h a n f o u r h u n d r e d thousand platits and as m a n y
unique chemicals t h a t w e have yet t o explore as possible medicines
or foods^Before they're all gone, say the b i o m i m i c s practicing "biora-
tional ' c^rug and crop discovery, w e need t o consult t h e talented
taste buds o f w i l d connoisseurs and f u r - c o v e r e d pharmacists . T h e y
have, after all, been "native t o this place" f o r millions o f years longer
t h a n even o u r most astute agronomists or medicine men. T h e y k n o w
w h a t t o eat and w h a t t o avoid, w h a t w i l l make t h e m sick, delay the
b i r t h o f an off'spring, give t h e m energy, or arrest a case o f diarrhea
1 hey are t h e experts w e have been too arrogant t o consult. N o w i n
this era o f massive loss and l i t t i e time f o r screening, w e are beginning
t o tap t h e m o n t h e i r f u r r y , scaled, feathered, and exoskeletoned
shoulders and ask, " W h a t ' s t h a t y o u ' r e eating?"
CHEMICAL WARFARE, PASSIONFLOWER STYLE
I n order t o appreciate the gustatory talent these w i l d experts possess
It helps t o focus y o u r m i n d o n a fine hallucination. T h i n k o f yourself
 148 / Biomimiay
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 149

as a plant, r o o t e d i n place, unable t o s w i t c h y o u r t a i l or t w i t c h y o u r

flanks. Y o u are the succulent object o f desire f o r countiess microbes,
insects, and animals t h a t can't photosynthesize t h e i r o w n f o o d . Y o u
m a y parry t h e i r attacks w i t h leathery leaves, thorns, or perhaps b u r -
r o w i n g nettles, b u t y o u r warfare o f choice is chemical.
T h e stew o f so-called "secondary c o m p o u n d s " t h a t y o u , the
plant, produce are w h a t gives the green w o r l d its flavors, fragrances,
spices, medicines, and poisons. I t is w i t h these chemicals t h a t y o u
b i t e b a c k — b u r n i n g , r e v o k i n g , intoxicating, or even kiUing those t h a t
dare t o eat t o o m u c h o f y o u .
Prornethean p o w e r . A s a w i l d herbivore, however, y o u can't crank
u p the J e n n - A i r range w h e n faced w i t h a suspect plant. Y o u have to
d e t o x i f y the poisons i n plants internally, using your o w n c h e m cal
aboratory. I n the end, n u t r i t i o n becomes a wrestling m a t c h betwSn
the plant's chemical p r o f i l e and y o u r physiology
Things get really interesting w h e n the p l a n t changes its chemical
p r o f i e. W h e n stressed b y p o o r soil or moisture loss, for i n t a n " a
ssing
i n ge ll ee adf D Z''' '""'T^'
D ee p e n d i n g on the terrain, one tree m i g h t be fine
t ° t o eat

w h i l e the same species i n a p a t c h o f poorer sofl m a y h o U a b i t t e ;

N o w focus o n another h a l l u c i n a t i o n . Imagine yourself as a w f l d
harvest T h e very act of p u n c t u r i n g a leaf m a y cause a tree t o % h
herbivore c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a jungle f u f l o f defensive plants, each one
doing its best t o get y o u t o keep y o u r b i g square teeth t o y o u r s e l f l i t t l e aT w t " ^ ' ^ ^ ' ^ of t o x i n s - c h a n g i n g its chemistry l Ï a
h t t i e as for y m i n u t e s t o p r o t e c t the rest of its leaves. A s a herbivore
I t w o u l d make a good c o m p u t e r game, actually. Here are the rules:
y o u never Icnow w h a t you're going t o get, n o t f r o m forest t o f o r e s t '
A r m e d w i t h o n l y y o u r senses, y o u r powers o f observation, and y o u r
tree t o tree or even f r o m one side o f a tree t o the other
m e m o r y , y o u have t o gather y o u r o w n f o o d . Before m o v i n g o n t o
Even i f y o u r system is e q u i p p e d t o d e t o x i f y a t o x i n i t takes
t h e n e x t level o f play—surviving long enough t o pass on y o u r
energy t o b o o t o f f e n d i n g molecules o u t o f y o u r liver, r e p a f t y o u
genes—you have t o garner just the r i g h t amounts o f vitamins, essen-
t i a l amino acids, proteins, and other nutrients t o survive. Z Z h T \ Z " ' °^ ^ ^ ^ d P ° ^ - - d cells i n y o u r
m o u t h , stomach esophagus, intestine, and so on, I f y o u spend m o r e
I t m a y l o o k l i k e the Garden o f Eden o u t there, b u t nature's
m e n u is a m i n e f i e l d . Even i f a f o o d doesn't kiU y o u o u t r i g h t , its thTfood ^u"^"^^ ^ receive from
secondary compounds can rob y o u o f nourishment. T h e l i n e u p o f v t u don t r ' T ""^'1 ' ' ' ^ ' '^^S^*^^*^ ™ * r i - t — But i f
p l a n t poisons includes alkaloids, phenohcs, tannins, cyanogenic gly- l e l t f ' ° ^ i ^ , ^ ^ - ^ d a r y compounds, t h e y ' f l filibuster y o u r d i -
cosides, and terpenoids, afl possessing devilish ways t o discourage gestive system. Either way, y o u m a y l o o k like you're feastfng b u t
digestion. Alkaloids such as nicotine and m o r p h i n e , f o r instance, i n - y o u c o u l d be steadily starving. A n d natural selection, w h i c h deal
harshly w i t h foolish genes and foohsh choices, w o n ' t let A a t go on
terfere w i t h y o u r nervous system. Cyanide [a t a n n i n ) and cardiac
glycosides dive straight i n t o y o u r muscles, w r e a k i n g havoc w i t h y o u r
for long. A n out-of-balance diet w i f l eventually weaken y o u and
those genes ( y o u r genes!) w f l l be edited o u t o f the p o p u l a t f o n ^
heart r h y t h m . T h e respiratory i n h i b i t o r i n passionflower (cyanogenic
glycoside) w i f l literally take your breath away. O r , i f y o u ' d like, p l a n t
hallucinogens w f l l liberate y o u f r o m y o u r good sense and get the
der llZ7::lZ "^"^ ^^-^^ - P ^ - - blan-
der, there are at least three dietary strategies y o u can adopt. Y o u can
be a specialist hke the eucalyptus-chomping k o a l a - e a t i n g one p l a n t
p l a n t o f f the h o o k i n the process. (As ecologist Paul E h r l i c h says, " I f
t h a t y o u r w h o l e digestive system is dedicated to d e t o x i f y i n g . O r y o u
a deer nibbles a hallucinogenic p l a n t and t h e n h a p p i l y trots o f f i n t o
can be a generalist and eat small amounts o f lots o f diffa^ent spedes
the arms o f a cougar, i t is u n l i k e l y t o r e t u r n t o pester t h e p l a n t . " )
O t h e r toxins h o l d nutrients hostage, gridlocldng digestion. T a n - r i t o ' '° Z ' '''' «f toxin sprLTng
out the r i k. O r y o u can do w h a t our p r i m a t e ancestors d k l : eat a
nin, f o r instance, binds peptides (the b u f l d i n g blocks o f proteins) so
h m i t e d selection o f plants b u t be very p i c k y - s e l e c t i n g o n l y t h e
t i g h t l y t h a t t h e y can't be teased o u t b y the digestive enzymes t h a t
c W e s t parts o f the plants so t h a t y o u net m o r e nutrients A a n
n o r m a l l y disassemble f o o d . O t h e r t o x i n s w o r k b y p i n n i n g the arms
o f these digestive enzymes. Either way, the p r o t e i n remains u n b r o -
ken and unused, and y o u go hungry. T h e only w a y t o loosen the grip safetv°rnsne"r" ' ^^'^ ™ nutritionists or U S D A
safety inspectors, our p r i m a t e ancestors k n e w h o w to p u t together a
o f digestion i n h i b i t o r s is t o heat the o f f e n d i n g p l a n t t o 100 degrees
Celsius, w h i c h is w h y t h e discovery o f fire gave early humans a t r u l y S I o t h e t l ^^^^•.^T'°":,^'^^''^ ^^^^^'^ ^hop tire s ^ f e l r-
kets o f the plains, jungles, and seas, avoiding the dangers w h i l e cash-
 250 / Biomimicry
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 151

ing i n o n digestible nuggets o f n u t r i t i o n . I n a c o u n t r y where milhons

are spent each year on diet and n u t r i t i o n advice, w h y haven't w e
consulted t h e mammals, birds, and insects t h a t successfully act as
t h e i r o w n nutritionists? M i g h t their choices show us w h a t w e may
I n a 1978 study, D o y l e M c K e y and his colleagues renorted .
have been meant t o eat, i n a p u r e l y biological sense?

SMART EATING: WILD CONNOISSEURS

Strangely enough, n o t m u c h research has focused o n the chemical

intricacies o f animal f o o d choice. Glander, one o f the f e w p r i m a t o l -
ogists w h o has published on the subject, devised a w a y t o demon-
strate the n u t r i t i o n a l c o m m o n sense o f t h e new guests [Lemur fulus)
EfH;=H—^^^^^^^^
at his Primate Center. "Before placing t h e m o u t i n the forest, I gave
the lemurs t e n leaves—leaves f r o m local species like sweet g u m t h a t
they had never seen before.^ I made sure there were no o u t r i g h t p o i -
sons ( n o t w a n t i n g to take any chances w i t h an endangered species]
b u t I d i d include five leaves t h a t contained digestion i n h i b i t o r s dnd
five w i t h o u t . A f t e r sniffing and p u n c t u r i n g like trained tasters, they
spft o u t the bad and swallowed the good. T h e i r m e n u was a balanced
m i x o f leaves w i t h the highest digestibility, the highest n u t r i e n t con-
tent, and t h e lowest t a n n i n content. W e c o u l d n ' t have h i r e d a n u -
t r i t i o n i s t t o do a better j o b . "
Glander's h u n c h about primate palates was developed w h i l e
studying t h e discriminating tastes o f m a n t l e d h o w l e r monkeys
{Alouatta palliata)—a tree-dwelling species native t o Costa Rica,
Panama, and M e x i c o . H e h a d foUowed the howlers day after day,
w a t c h i n g t h e m m o v e t h r o u g h t h e jungle like p i c k y eaters at a dinner
b u f f e t — e a t i n g only certain leaves, or certain parts o f leaves from one
tree, w h i l e ignoring a neighboring tree o f the same species. T o find
o u t w h y , he chemically p r o b e d b o t h the plants they ate and those
they passed over. T u r n s o u t t h e plant material t h e y avoided was
either ftill o f alkaloids and condensed tannins (especially v i r u l e n t
p r o t e i n hoarders] or conspicuously l o w i n p r o t e i n and unbalanced i n
amino acid counts. H e concluded i n his paper: " H o w l e r s are c h e m -
ically astute; they consistently chose material o f the highest n u t r i t i v e
value and passed u p t h e low-value material w i t h secondary c o m -
pounds."
Katherine M i l t o n , a professor o f anthropology at the U n i v e r s i t y
o f California, Berkeley, w o u l d have t o agree. She studied howlers o n
Barro Colorado Island i n Panama, examining w h a t age leaves they
 152 / Biomimicry
Cravings
I n his famous "cafeteria" studies o f a half-century ago, Johns H o p -
kins's C u r t P. Richter b r o k e rat c h o w i n t o its constituent parts and
placed t h e m i n eleven separate dishes: proteins, oils, fats, sugars, salt,
yeast, and so f o r t h . G i v e n u n l i m i t e d quantities, rats m i x e d and
matched, p r o c u r i n g a diet that, w i t h fewer calories, allowed t h e m to
g r o w faster t h a n rats f e d the n o r m a l chow. I n fact, the nutritionists
were surprised b y t h e choices—they finally had t o a d m i t t h a t the
rats h a d composed a better n u t r i t i o n a l diet t h a n t h e makers o f the
rat c h o w l
Scientists t h i n k t h a t a craving f o r a complete diet may have also
i n f l u e n c e d h o w America's great b u f f a l o herds m o v e d across the land-
scape. O n e t h e o r y holds t h a t t h e i r traditional routes purposely i n -
cluded salt hcks and other reliable sources o f v i t a l minerals. T h e
continual r o a m i n g also m a y have helped the bison avoid grass tetany,
a springtime malady t h a t affects fenced livestock. T u r n e d o u t t o fresh
green fields, horses and cows sometimes binge o n i m m a t u r e grass,
w h i c h is h i g h i n nitrogen and potassium, b u t l o w i n available mag-
nesium. I f there are no sources o f magnesium i n the field, t h e spring-
time "feast" can leave livestock w i t h the "grass staggers" or even k i l l
t h e m . I f livestock have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o range, however, they w i f l
avoid grass tetany b y balancing their nutrients. I n the same way,
w h i t e - t a f l e d deer w i f l assiduously search f o r a balanced diet, m o v i n g
m e t h o d i c a l l y t h r o u g h t h e woods and fields, cobbling together the
nutrients t h e y need. Bucks are even choosier t h a n does, searching
f o r plants t h a t contain enough potassium, calcium, and magnesium
to f u e l t h e i r fantastic spurt o f antier g r o w t h . " T h i s nutrient-specific
eating looks p r e t t y smart t o us," says Bernadette M a r r i o t t , behavioral
ecologist and deputy director o f t h e Food and N u t r i t i o n Board at the
N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f Sciences. " W e c o u l d use s o n i é lessons."
I f o u n d M a r r i o t t i n a chic office b u f l d i n g tucked^near Canal Park
i n G e o r g e t o w n , a p l u m l o c a t i o n f o r the N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f Sci-
ences! T h e security was oddly strict, b u t M a r r i o t t was w e l c o m i n g .
Petite, dark-haired, and dignified, she impressed m e as someone w h o
m i g h t have been shy at a f o r m e r stage o f life, b u t w h o has n o w
t u r n e d her shyness i n t o a personal power t h a t says w h a t is i m p o r t a n t ,
b u t w i f l n o t shout t o be heard. F r o m a w i n d o w t h a t spanned the
w i d t h o f her office, a corona o f afternoon l i g h t framed her head and
streaked i n t o her soothingly darkened office. B e h i n d her o n a cre-
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 153
denza were photos o f H i m a l a y a n peaks and batiks o f m a n y - a r m e d
dancers. O n her desk, a figurine o f India's rhesus m o n k e y — t h e spe-
cies she had s t u d i e d — h e l d her business cards u p t o visitors.
Like m a n y b i o m i m i c s I talked t o , M a r r i o t t was d r a w n t o the
zone b e t w e e n t w o disciplines. T o satisfy an interest i n biology and
psychology, she decided t o study w h y animals choose the foods they
do and w h a t e f f e c t this has o n social e v o l u t i o n . " I studied rhesus
monkeys [Macaca mulatta], w h i c h are phenomenally finicky eaters.
T h e y spend a l o t o f t i m e preparing f o o d t o eat, stripping o f f the
edges o f a leaf, or eating j u s t the m i d r i b . I wondered: H o w do t h e y
learn and remember w h i c h foods are safe and nutritious? A r e they
keying i n o n color, shape, texture, or is i t something else?
" W h e n I w a t c h e d and analyzed behavioral patterns, i t t u r n e d
out t h a t s h a p e — w h i c h I t h o u g h t m i g h t be the key t o t h e search
image—was n o t statistically i m p o r t a n t . This l e d m e i n t o t h e c h e m -
istry lab t o do a n u t r i t i o n a l analysis o f everything they ate, [ L i k e
Glander, she was delving i n t o u n e x p l o r e d t e r r a i n here,] W h a t I
f o u n d astounded m e . These monkeys managed t o p i c k a diet t h a t
was p e r f e c t l y balanced. T h e only t h i n g lacking, however, was some
minerals t h a t they needed."
L o o k i n g back o n it, k n o w i n g rhesus needed minerals, she says she
shouldn't have been surprised t o see t h e m eating soil. " A s a West-
erner, y o u r first instinct is t o say, d o n ' t p u t t h a t i n y o u r m o u t h . B u t w e
k n e w f r o m t h e i r behavior t h a t i t wasn't a m i s t a k e — i t was something
i m p o r t a n t . " T h e monkeys make a special t r i p t o a particular c l i f f ,
where t h e y scratch the sofl w i t h t h e i r fingers and t h e n eat i t . A f t e r
m a n y years o f use, an actual cave is f o r m e d , b i g enough f o r a m o n k e y
to stand i n . Usually, one site is used religiously b y the entire t r o o p .
W h e n researchers p i c k e d sites at r a n d o m and t r i e d starting caves f o r
the monkeys, the rhesus came and investigated, b u t w o u n d u p back at
t h e i r o w n site. T h e y w o u l d actually f o r m lines outside and w a i t t h e i r
t u r n rather t h a n go somewhere else and start digging.
Once she began asldng, M a r r i o t t learned t h a t m a n y people i n
A f r i c a eat d i r t , as do people i n this country. " I t ' s cafled geophagy,
and i n t h e U n i t e d States, it's very covert, taboo. Whenever I speak
on this subject, people come u p t o m e and t e f l m e they have an aunt
or a neighbor w h o eats dirt. It's never them, o f course," she says w i t h
a slight w i n k .
Turns o u t there's an industry i n d i r t eating. I n the Italian mar-
kets o f Philadelphia, y o u can b u y c o m m e r c i a l l y produced cakes o f
 154 / Biomimiay
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 155

soil stamped w i t h insignias o f their origin. "Georgia d i r t is supposed

new and i m p r o v e d b o d y t o p u t y o u i n a better survival position t h e y
to be p r i m e , " says M a r r i o t t , " b u t w h e n I have t r i e d asldng merchants
w h a t i t is, they s i m p l y say, 'It's good f o r y o u . I t ' l l help y o u have chanir '° ' " ' ^ yourself the b u i l d i n g blocks to make t h a t
strong babies.' T h e y never say it's d i r t . "
Morphologists t e l l us t h a t certain b o d y structures w o u l d be i m -
W h e n M a r r i o t t first w a t c h e d the rhesus eating soil, she t h o u g h t
possible t o b u i l d w i t h o u t enough o f the right lands o f f o o d . T o b u i l d
maybe they were after bugs or tubers, b u t an analysis o f the soil
a bram, f o r instance, y o u need miles o f l i p i d ( f a t t y ) membrane t o
showed n o t h i n g o f the l a n d . D o n a l d E. V e r m e e r o f George Wash-
w r a p around neurons, and lots o f vascular tissue to feed those neu-
i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y i n Washington, D . C . , theorized t h a t the d i r t m i g h t
rons. B o t h components are made o f essential (long-chain) f a t t y acid
chemically b i n d to and neutralize stomach acids, h e l p i n g t o quell
derivatives, w h i c h are chemically m a n u f a c t u r e d i n a herbivore's
stomach upset. Sure enough, his structural analysis showed the pres-
body, starting w i t h the fats i n leaves and seeds. A n easier w a y t o
ence o f kaolin, w h i c h is the active ingredient i n Kaopectate. T i m o t h y
amass large quantities o f these " n e u r a l " f a t t y acids is to eat animals
Johns, a b i o c h e m i c a l botanist at the University o f T o r o n t o and au-
that have already m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e m f o r y o u . Switching f r o m a leaf-
t h o r o f With Bitter Herbs They Shall Eat It, believes t h a t the benefits
only diet to one w i t h meat, therefore, m i g h t have given carnivores
o f d i r t are m o r e physical t h a n chemical. H e thinks clay particles i n
a larger stipply o f neural b u i l d i n g b l o c k s - t h e t i c k e t to advanced
the soil physically b i n d to the secondary compounds i n ingested
structures like keen eyes and a bigger brain.
plants, thus occupying t h e m so they cannot be incorporated i n t o the
Second, i n addition t o being a structural material, f o o d is also a
body. Johns bases his belief o n the observation t h a t Bolivian Indians
batch o f chemicals, w h i c h , b y t h e i r nature, are reactive. W h e n these
coat t h e i r w i l d potatoes ( w h i c h are f u l l o f t o x i n s ] w i t h a slurry b f
substances enter t h e body, they b u m p i n t o and interact w i t h the b a t h
soil before cooldng.
of hormones enzymes, genes, and neurotransmitters that govern and
M a r r i o t t departs f r o m b o t h the chemical b i n d i n g hypothesis and regulate cell l i f e . A b o v e a certain threshold concentration, f o o d
the physical b i n d i n g hypothesis. " I came away w i t h the theory,that chemicals m a y begin to influence w h i c h enzymes start to w o r k or
geophagy is m o r e a quest f o r something good t h a n a w a y t o r i d the w h e n genes w i l l t u r n on or t u r n o f f
b o d y o f something bad. I t h i n k t h e rhesus eat soil as a broad-based
^ This threshold mechanism gives f o o d the ability t o tweak p o w -
m i n e r a l supplement. W h i l e clay or kaolin m a y p r o v i d e a feeling o f
e r f u l c o n t r o l knobs w i t h i n the body. Imagine, f o r instance, t h ^ t an
w e l l - b e i n g — b y settling the stomach—that's perhaps a secondary
adaptation is l y i n g d o r m a n t i n the genes, j u s t w a i t i n g for a chemical
benefit acting t o reinforce the mineral-gathering behavior."
surge t o " t u r n i t o n . " There's no telling w h a t m i g h t emerge as a
T o v e r i f y w h a t she suspected, M a r r i o t t t o o k soil samples back result o f a good diet^Witness the spurt i n h u m a n height, f o r instance •
t o her lab and analyzed t h e m . Sure enough, soils f r o m the troop's w h e n n u t r i t i o u s foods became w i d e l y available i n the Western w o r l d '
t r a d i t i o n a l feeding places showed spikes i n certain minerals like iron fo this case the nutrients affect the phenotype (the growing b o d y )
t h a t the monkeys were missing i n t h e i r diets. M i g h t the monkeys bc b u t n o t the genotype (the set o f instructions encoded i n D N A t h a t
w a i t i n g i n line f o r t h e i r one-a-day m i n e r a l pills? M a r r i o t t smiles and IS passed f r o m generation t o generation). Take the diet away f r o m
shrugs. " A t least t h e y d o n ' t have t o pay sixteen dollars a b o t t l e . " the next generation o f phenotypes, and heights w f l l shrink t o p r i o r
averages. ^
Are You W h a t You Eat?
But w h a t i f diet can affect certain aspects o f our permanent
genotype over the long haul? C r a w f o r d and Marsh t h i n k that i t can
It's easy t o understand h o w safe eating w o u l d evolve, b u t h o w about
and t h e y o f f e r the following rationale. I f y o u can eat an animal tha^
smart eating? A r e those animals t h a t can locate a particularly rich
makes an i m p o r t a n t nutrient, such as v i t a m i n A , y o u no longer have
f o r m o f fat, p r o t e i n , or m i n e r a l being rewarded i n some evolutionary
to devote y o u r biosynthetic pathways to m a k i n g v i t a m i n A , This
way? M i c h a e l C r a w f o r d and D a v i d Marsh, authors o f The Driving
frees your energy for other chores, like b u i l d i n g a brain. I t m a y also
Force: Food, Evolution, and the Future, argue t h a t e v o l u t i o n is indeed
free u p genetic space, the authors speculate. Say y o u have only so
substrate-driven and t h a t the key substrate is f o o d . I f y o u w a n t a
m u c h r o o m on y o u r chromosomal " h a r d d r i v e , " and it's already
 156 / Biomimiay
f i l l e d w i t h genetic instructions. By eating v i t a m i n A m a n u f a c t u r e d
b y another animal, y o u r instructions f o r synthesizing v i t a m i n A be-
come superfluous. I f a m u t a t i o n suddenly r e w r o t e t h a t gene se-
quence w i t h another set o f instructions—a n e w adaptation—you
w o u l d n ' t miss t h e v i t a m i n A recipe, and y o u c o u l d therefore live to
take advantage of, and pass on, the n e w adaptation. E v o l u t i o n , stuck
o n its plateau, w o u l d suddenly spring to a n e w level.
I f this theory is even a l i t t l e b i t true, y o u can see h o w i m p o r t a n t
i t is f o r an animal (and f o r us) t o have the good sense t o gather w h a t
is needed i n terms o f f o o d . B u t where is the c o m m a n d center f o r
our fine gastronomic compasses? Is our good taste h a r d w i r e d i n t o
o u r bodies or is i t learned? T h e researchers I t a l k e d t o t h i n k i t m i g h t
be a l i t t l e o f b o t h .
H o w D i d Smart Eating Develop?
T h e first primates were exclusively insect eaters, Glander tells me.
By eating insects t h a t f e d on plants, the primates were ingesting plant
compounds b y p r o x y . By the t i m e the primates evolved i n t o plant
eaters themselves, t h e y had aheady developed the physiological ap-
paratus t o either metabolize certain nasty p l a n t chemicals or t o ex-
crete t h e m . Because p l a n t poisons vary f r o m plant t o plant, however,
these "safe plants" w o u l d be a smaU subset o f the w h o l e . I f a p r i m a t e
w a n t e d t o step o u t o f this h m i t e d range and t r y others, i t w o u l d
need some w a y t o determine w h a t was good and w h a t was vile.
L u c i d l y , a knack f o r smart eating develops i n t w o ways. It's partly
h a r d w i r e d i n t o our senses b y evolution, and p a r t l y acquired or
learned t h r o u g h l i f e .
Glander is one o f many researchers w h o suspect t h a t the m a i n
f o r m o f p r i m a t e leaf discrimination is t h r o u g h the senses o f taste and
smell. W h e n t h e lemurs tasted the t r i a l leaves, they s n i f f e d and some-
times t o o k a leaf i n t o their mouths and p u n c t u r e d i t , allowing the
volatile compounds t o w a f t over t h e f t Jacobson's organs—the inter-
connected passageway between the m o u t h and the nasal passages.
Presumably, ft is i n these smell/taste receptors that chemical analysis
occurs.
As mammals, w e can sense bitter, acrid, astringent, sour, and
p u n g e n t flavors—all o f w h i c h serve a f u n c t i o n i n f o o d selection, says
R i c h a r d W r a n g h a m o f H a r v a r d University. Consider sourness, f o r
instance. Sourness is a measure o f acidity, w h i c h acts as a natural
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 157
preservative against bad microbes (the ones t h a t cause rancidness)
Somewhere deep w i t h i n us, w e recognize sourness as a badge of
p u r i t y , assuring us of a food's safety. T h a t m a y be w h y w e prefer a
M e sour flavoring i n our sweet confections, rather t h a n straight
Certain lands o f f e r m e n t a t i o n - w h e n a fruit turns t o alcohol
f o r i n s t a n c e - m a y also signal safety to an animal. Fermentation i n
frmt IS assisted by bacteria t h a t deactivate unpleasant compounds
such as cyanide and strychnine. O n the other hand, there is also bad
f e r m e n t a t i o n - t h e action of d i f f e r e n t kinds o f microbes whose meta-
bolic waste IS toxic, even deadly, t o humans. T o avoid t h e m , w e are
h a r d w i r e d w i t h a strong aversion t o rancid flavors
crJZrsZ ^ 7 ° t absolute, however, and our aversion to or
craving f o r certain foods m a y sometimes become curiously strong I n
her b o o k P . o f . c . - n , Your Bahy-to-Be, evolutionary psychologist M a r -
gie Profet suggests that pregnant w o m e n ' s unusual taste swLgs m a y
onmenT T 1"''"'^:!° ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^'"^^^'^^ ^^^^^^ sensitive devel-
o p m e n t cycles, ft true, this c o u l d explain everything f r o m m o r n i n g
sicloress t o the pregnant woman's inexphcable L e a f f a f t w i t h " i Ï
les. Perhaps the real appeal of picldes is t h e f t sourness, says Profet
a badge of p u r i t y at a t i m e w h e n rancidness m u s t be avoided. L a t e ;
IritionX"'' rr'" " ^ T '^^^^^ ''^'^ ^ h a t she's missing
n u t r i t i o n a l l y - a specific hunger being h a r d w i r e d i n t o her neurons
right o n the spot. Thomas Scott of the University o f Delaware f o u n d
that w h e n a rat is deprived o f salt, neurons t h a t n o r m a l l y respond t o
recentt 1 T l ° ™ " ^ ^ " d e e r e d and reprogrammed t o become
re p t i v e t o saft. I n other words, saft becomes as pleasurable t o t h e ' '
bram as sugar n o r m a l l y is. Cravings m i g h t also be heightened
odors o f f o o d . (That's w h y head colds and s m o k i n g suppress appe-
t i t e — w e can't smell our f o o d as w e l l . ) '
t t r s h * ' ' ^ r ' ^ ^ ' h a r d w i r i n g can't f u l l y explain the fine discrimina-
ü o n s h o w n by animals however. Regardless o f h o w plant-smart t h e f t
wLVti^^r^ - hi
n b o r n sensors are, n o t h i n g c o u l d prepare an animal to automatically
W i t h primates (and m a n y other animals, such as elephants), the
learning begins w i t h M o m . Infants w i l l peer and poke i n t o t h e i r
 158 / Biomimicry
mother's m o u t h t o smell and taste w h a t she is eating, and after a
w h i l e , they b u i l d a chemical profile o f what's good. "It's like d o w n -
loading i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a c o m p u t e r , " says Glander.
Once they leave their mother, primates have t o keep o n making
decisions about w h e t h e r n e w foods they encounter are safe and
w o r t h collecting. Using themselves as guinea pigs is one o p t i o n , b u t
social primates have f o u n d a better way. K e n n e t h Glander calls i t
" s a m p l i n g . " W h e n h o w l e r monkeys move i n t o a n e w habitat, one
m e m b e r o f the t r o o p w i l l go t o a tree, eat a f e w leaves, t h e n w a i t a
day. I f the p l a n t harbors a particularly strong t o x i n , the sampler's
system w i l l t r y to break i t d o w n , usually m a k i n g the m o n k e y sick in
the process. " I ' v e seen this happen," says Glander. " T h e other m e m -
bers o f the t r o o p are w a t c h i n g w i t h great i n t e r e s t — i f the animal gets
sick, no other animal w i l l go i n t o t h a t tree. There's a cue being
given—a social cue." By the same token, i f the sampler feels fine, i t
w i l l reenter the tree i n d f e w days, eat a l i t t l e more, t h e n w a i t again,
b u i l d i n g u p t o a large dose slowly. Finally, i f the m o n k e y remains
healthy, the other members figure this is O K , and they adopt the
new food.
N o t all monkeys volunteer f o r sampling d u t y , however. Glander
has n o t i c e d t h a t monkeys i n vulnerable stages o f t h e i r lives—juve-
niles, subadults, and lactating or pregnant females—seem t o b o w o u t
o f sampling. I f the risks are too great f o r some monkeys, w h y w o u l d
any m o n k e y volunteer? " I t h i n k t h e benefits may be genetic," says
Glander. A d u l t m o n k e y fathers, f o r example, m a y be boosting the
health o f their o f f s p r i n g b y testing foods f o r their pregnant or lac-
tating mates. A d u l t s t h a t aren't yet parents m a y also volunteer,
p o i n t i n g o u t wholesome foods f o r t h e i r siblings and nieces and neph-
ews w h o share a p o r t i o n o f their genes. Despite these benefits, G l a n -
der says no m o n k e y w o u l d w a n t t o risk being a f u l l - t i m e sampler.
" T h e sampler role shifts f r o m m o n k e y t o monkey, so as t o spread
the risk and n o t u n d u l y jeopardize anyone. This risk-sharing is, i n
itself, a good reason f o r being social," speculates Glander. Sampling,
he believes, m a y have i n fact c o n t r i b u t e d t o the development o f
social behavior i n primates.
Besides t i p p i n g the scales t o w a r d sociability, t r i c k y f o o d choices
may also have challenged animals i n ways t h a t rewarded intelligence.
Researchers hypothesize t h a t sometime i n t h e M i d d l e Miocene (7 to
26 m i l l i o n years ago), monkeys developed the ability to tolerate
higher levels o f toxins t h a n apes could, giving monkeys a w i d e r
choice o f foods. Apes (our ancestors) were stuck w i t h a m o r e sen-
H o w Will We Heal Ourselves? / 159
sitive digestive system and were therefore f o r c e d t o r o a m i n search
of h i g h e r - q u a l i t y foods and n e w ways t o prepare t h a t f o o d . Richard
W r a n g h a m believes this m a y have c o n t r i b u t e d to our ape ancestors
finally leaving the jungle, w a l l d n g u p r i g h t onto the plains, and be-
ginning t o use tools and fire.
T h e d r o u g h t y climate o f the apes' n e w plains habitat m e a n t t h a t
foods were m o r e seasonal i n nature. T o find rehable n u t r i t i o n
t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, they had t o problem-solve, e m p l o y tools, and
perhaps cooperate m o r e w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w primates. As i t turns out,
although monkeys w o n the evolutionary race t o d e t o x i f y c o m -
pounds, apes w o u n d u p w i t h higher m e n t a l functions.
Female apes were faced w i t h even m o r e l i m i t a t i o n s and n u t r i -
tional demands. U n l i k e males, w h o c o u l d squeak b y o n l o w e r - q u a l i t y
foods or take excursions to f a r - f l u n g corners o f their habitat f o r
pockets o f early r i p e n i n g f r u i t , females were o f t e n eating f o r t w o or
lactating. T h e y needed safe, n u t r i e n t - r i c h , p r o t e i n - r i c h , calcium-rich
foods, b u t t h e y c o u l d n ' t travel f a r t o find t h e m . Faced w i t h this
dilemma, females may have been t h e first t o experiment w i t h n e w
types o f foods, such as flowers, y o u n g leaves, and tubers, and t o
experiment w i t h hand-held tools. M i c h e l l e L . Sauther, an anthro-
pologist at W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y i n St. Louis w h o has studied f o o d
choice i n primates, writes, " [ A p e ] females m a y have b r o k e n free
f r o m some o f t h e seasonal constraints o n f o o d availability b y using
tools t o gather w i l d plants, insects, and small mammals. For example,
females m a y have e m p l o y e d digging sticks f o r u n d e r g r o u n d tubers
and used techniques similar t o those observed i n w i l d chimpanzees,
such as using stone hammers t o crack open nuts and e m p l o y i n g terr
m i t e and ant wands [sticks t h r u s t i n t o hives and nests t o harvest
insects]."
D i d resourcefulness like this advance the w h o l e era o f t o o l us-
ing? Sauther concludes t h a t the responsibility o f being a m o t h e r may
not have been a b u r d e n b u t , rather, a "catalyst f o r developing more
efficient foraging techniques." A sensitive stomach, a n e w habftat,
and t h e hungers o f pregnancy were perhaps the literal mothers o f
i n v e n t i o n . Chances are also good t h a t those females w h o were very
good at finding year-round f o o d i n seasonal habitats w e n t b e y o n d
"just s u r v i v i n g " and began t o tap the p o w e r o f limits. Branching o u t
f r o m t h e i r standard fare, they m a y have actually garnered better n u -
trients and therefore p r o v i d e d t h e i r y o u n g w i t h the metabolic s t u f f
needed t o develop a bigger brain.
M a n y m f l l e n n i a later, w h a t have w e done w i t h all those smarts?
 160 / Biomimicry
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 161

W h a t Can Animals Teach Us A b o u t Smarter Diets? MEDICINAL EATING: ANIMAL PHARMACISTS

I t appears, as t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y idles i n the d r i v e - t h r o u g h lane o f

Burger W o r l d , t h a t w e ' v e lost our dietary way. Even the most
nutrition-savvy o f us can have a hard t i m e keeping Oreos i n the
house f o r more t h a n a f e w days. I n A m e r i c a , w h e r e 30 percent o f
the p o p u l a t i o n is obese and suffering f r o m diseases t h a t are aggra-
vated i f n o t caused b y poor diets, w e could use a crash course i n
choosing n u t r i t i o u s foods.
W h a t ' s strange is t h a t feeding behavior—specifically f o o d selec-
t i o n - i s one o f t h e last things t h a t has been examined i n b o t h h u m a n
and n o n h u m a n p r i m a t e studies. For all w e k n o w (and w e d o n ' t ) ,
humans m a y have originally learned t o gather f o o d b y w a t c h i n g w h a t
other primates ate. Today, there are still some overlaps i n the diets
o f h u m a n societies and animals i n the same habitat. Says Bernadette
M a r r i o t t , " M a n y o f t h e foods t h a t monkeys i n N e p a l gather are ones
t h a t people also gather, although those practices are going b y the
wayside as w e i n t r o d u c e people to c o m m e r c i a l foods. A f t e r doing
n u t r i t i o n a l profiles on these [native] foods and seeing h o w rich they Plop, Plop, Fizz, Fizz
are, w e are n o w t r y i n g t o encourage people n o t t o give u p o n their
w i s d o m , t o eat m o r e o f these w i d e l y available plants rather than
buying Western f o o d . "
I n m a n y places, w e are too late; people have already gotten away
f r o m eating w h a t the animals eat. T h e Green R e v o l u t i o n o f the
1960s " c o n v e r t e d " w h o l e nations f r o m a relatively h e a l t h f u l , native- feeding activity afl a r o u n d h j O v e ' the last '""T^.
derived crop diet t o one o f foreign-bred wheat, rice, corn, oats, and been dark and her stools i n f r e q u e m and i r e l w T
so on. Everywhere, farmers have abandoned local plants t h a t were
hardy, disease resistant, and well-suited t o t h e f t chmate, and are i n -
stead g r o w i n g plants i m p o r t e d f r o m other regions, plants dependent
o n chemical and p e t r o l e u m companies f o r t h e f t yields. in western Tanzania H u f f eastern shore o f Lake Tanganyika
N o w t h e cycle is c o m i n g back around—after dangerously ho-
mogenizing our crops, w e are reevaluating w i l d varieties. I t m i g h t
make m o r e sense, w e ' r e admitting, to g r o w yams f r o m local breeding
stock t h a n t o i m p o r t Idaho potatoes t h a t have h a f t the flavor and
t w i c e t h e water and pesticide requirements.
T o r o u n d o u t the crop choices f o r m o r e bioregional agricuhure,
w e m a y w a n t t o enhst the help o f animals t h a t have already forged
a clear p a t h t h r o u g h t h e chemical jungle. U n h a m p e r e d b y the b l i n d -
ers o f h u m a n custom, they m i g h t lead us t o crop hnes that, though
n e w t o us today, are o l d standbys o f the p r i m a t e clan.
 162 / Biomimicry
t h a t people i n m a n y parts o f A f r i c a use f o r traditional medicine.
W i t h painstaking care, she selected several y o u n g shoots and began
to strip o f f the leaves. Using her f r o n t incisors, she peeled back the
bark, exposing t h e l i q u i d y p i t h . G r i m a c i n g hke a coed d o w n i n g a
shot o f tequila f o r the first t i m e , she chewed the branches and sucked
out the juice.
H u f f m a n w a t c h e d C H carefully after her " t r e a t m e n t , " and, sure
enough, w i t h i n t w e n t y - f o u r hours she was defecating regularly, f o r -
aging f o r longer periods, and eating w i t h the rest o f the t r o o p . W h e n
chemists later tested the plant, they f o u n d t w o secondary c o m -
pounds i n the pith—sesquiterpene lactones (terpenes) and steroid
glucosides—both o f w h i c h were shown to have exceptional
antiparasitic activity, strong enough t o k i l l a w i d e variety o f gut par-
asites w i t h o u t k i l l i n g the patient. Sometime later, H u f f m a n was
l u c k y enough t o see a second c h i m p seek o u t the p i t h . This t i m e ,
he was able t o m o n i t o r the chimp's parasite levels (by checking f e -
ces), w a t c h i n g t h e m d r o p to harmless levels w i t h i n t w e n t y hours o f
treatment.
Once he k n e w w h a t t o l o o k f o r , H u f f m a n realized t h a t a l o t o f
chimps were using Vernonia p i t h , especially d u r i n g the w e t season
w h e n w o r m s are abundant. Despite the f a c t t h a t this particular spe-
cies o f Vernonia p l a n t is rather rare i n the Mahale Mountains, b o t h
the chimps and the native people have zeroed i n o n i t . Vernonia
amygdalina is called " b i t t e r l e a f " b y the T o n g w e natives, w h o use i t
w h e n t h e y are a f f l i c t e d w i t h similar malaise, loss o f appetite, and
constipation. T h e p i t h contains a perfect dose o f the juice, about the
same a m o u n t as i n a t y p i c a l dose used by humans. Further analysis
revealed w h y t h e chimps focus only o n the pith—elsewhere i n the
plant, i n t h e leaves and bark, f o r instance, the parasite-slaying toxins
are i n concentrations h i g h enough t o k i l l lab mice.
Encouraged b y t h e antiparasitic qualities o f this one plant, re-
searchers have begun t o investigate the entire Vernonia genus. C l i n -
ical tests o f a closely related p l a n t [V. anthelmintica) have yielded a
c o m p o u n d t h a t c o u l d be used t o treat p i n w o r m , h o o k w o r m , and
Giardia lamblia i n humans. "Standard w i s d o m is t h a t these [second-
ary c o m p o u n d s ] are t o x i c or dangerous t o animals," writes Richard
W r a n g h a m . " B u t over the last fifteen or t w e n t y years, a series o f
anecdotes has j e l l e d i n t o studies suggesting t h a t animals can use
those compounds t o t h e f t o w n benefit, o f t e n t u r n i n g the t o x i c effects
against t h e f t o w n internal enemies." So m u c h f o r standard w i s d o m .
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 163
Take T w o Leaves
A n o t h e r clue to the puzzle showed u p a f e w miles f r o m H u f f m a n ' s
post, i n the G o m b e Stream N a t i o n a l Park i n Tanzania. A t r o o p o f
chimps l i v i n g i n G o m b e are among the most scrutinized animals i n
animal behavior history. For m o r e t h a n three decades, primatologist
Jane G o o d a l l has trained m a n y an observer there, including H a r v a r d
anthropologist Richard W r a n g h a m . W r a n g h a m says he became a
believer i n animal self-medication w h e n ' he witnessed something
one early d a w n , before any o f the other researchers were on t h e i r
"beat."
" A c h i m p I was observing had w o k e n u p sick," he tells me,
"and instead o f rolling over f o r more sleep, she got up and began
walking, m a l d n g a beeline really. I had t o hustie t o keep u p w i t h
her. T w e n t y minutes later she stopped at an Aspilia plant [a cousin
of the sunflower t h a t grows as h i g h as six f e e t ] and began a m o s t
unusual r i t u a l . " T h e c h i m p began carefully inspecting certain leaves,
even h o l d i n g t h e m i n her m o u t h w h i l e they were stifl attached t o
the shrub, abandoning those t h a t d i d n ' t suit her. Finally, she p l u c k e d
a small leaf and t u c k e d i t under her tongue, the w a y w e m i g h t p o p
a nitroglycerin p i l l . She let i t linger there, rolling i t back and f o r t h a
litde, b u t n o t chewing. Richard w o n d e r e d i f she m i g h t be absorbing
something f r o m the leaf t h r o u g h the mucous membranes under her
tongue.
F r o m his h i d i n g place, he w a t c h e d i n amazement as she p u c k -
ered u p her face and swallowed the h a i r y leaf, w h i c h m u s t have been
like swallowing a patch o f f u z z y leather. H e w a t c h e d her swaUow a
dozen m o r e leaves at a slow rate (five leaves per m i n u t e swallowed
as opposed t o the n o r m a l thirty-seven leaves a m i n u t e f o r leaves t h a t
are chewed) before she m o v e d back t o the t r o o p .
I t was obvious f r o m her grimace t h a t this was n o t a taste treat,
but W r a n g h a m c o u l d n ' t automatically assume i t was medicinal ei-
ther. "Feeding studies are t r i c k y , " says W r a n g h a m . " f t ' s not enough
to check 'eating' or ftot eating.' Y o u have to catalog w h i c h c h i m p
is eating w h i c h leaf f r o m w h i c h plant, and t h e n c o u n t exactly h o w
many leaves i t eats." Even then, as K a r e n Strier, an anthropologist
at the University o f Wisconsin i n Madison, reminds me, y o u may
not have any u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n . " T h e digestive tract is a black b o x , "
she says. " Y o u d o n ' t really k n o w w h a t the animal 'makes' o f w h a t
i t eats—whether compounds are absorbed or destroyed i n their j o u r -
 164 / Biomimicry
ney t h r o u g h the body. Y o u r only clue is t o analyze what's l e f t o f the
f o o d — w h a t comes o u t the other end i n the feces." Indeed, w h a t
remained i n the feces after the strange leaf swallowing—a h a n d f u l
o f nearly intact green leaves—become a signature clue f o r Wrang¬
h a m . I f the leaves were n o t digested, t h e n w h a t purpose were they
serving?
T h o u g h chemical analysis o f the ingested leaves showed no con-
clusive p r o o f o f " m e d i c i n e , " W r a n g h a m began t o see more and m o r e
o f the strange leaf-swallowing behavior. One t r o o p o f chimpanzees
i n Kanyawara, a c o m m u n i t y o f Kibale Forest N a t i o n a l Park i n west-
ern Uganda, seemed t o be increasing their intake o f leaves d u r i n g
certain times o f year. Sure enough, w h e n he l o o k e d over a sequence
o f months, he saw t h a t the spike i n leaf-swallowing behavior coin-
cided w i t h the m o n t h s o f heaviest t a p e w o r m i n f e c t i o n . This was the
first t i m e t h a t leaf s w a l l o w i n g was correlated positively w i t h a spe-
cific parasite infestation. W r a n g h a m also noticed t h a t the dungs w i t h
w h o l e leaves i n t h e m also contained t a p e w o r m fragments. I t seemed
as i f the leaves, hairy and w h o l e , m i g h t have caused a m o t i l e frag-
m e n t o f t a p e w o r m t o be shed f r o m the gut and t h e n carried o f f w i t h
the feces.
M e a n w h i l e , i n the Mahale Mountains, F l u f f m a n was also finding
spikes i n leaf-swallowing behavior d u r i n g the rainy season, w h e n
loads o f parasitic nematode w o r m s tended t o be higher. C o u l d i t be
t h a t the chimps were d o w n i n g more leaves at t h a t t i m e f o r the same
reasons w e b u y m o r e cold medicine d u r i n g the cold and flu season?
T h e latest t h e o r y is t h a t the abdominal p a i n caused b y nema-
todes or tapeworms causes chimpanzees t o increase leaf swallowing,
j u s t as a t u m m y ache m i g h t cause y o u r dog or cat to go o u t and eat
grass. W h a t researchers d o n ' t yet l<now is w h e t h e r the w o r m - p u r g i n g
effect is chemical [ w o r m s repelled b y m e d i c i n a l compounds) or m e -
chanical [ w o r m s being combed out o f the gut b y the hairy leaves).
Nevertheless, something about Aspilia seems t o be affecting para-
sites, and t h e chimps k n o w that.
T o find o u t w h a t else they Icnow, researchers are n o w l o o k i n g
f o r other plants swallowed w h o l e b y primates. I n a chapter o f t h e
1989 b o o k Understanding Chimpanzees, Richard W r a n g h a m and co-
author Jane G o o d a l l r e p o r t t h a t Ugandan chimpanzees have been
seen s w a l l o w i n g the leaves o f the Rubia cordifolia. O f the 4 0 1 c h i m -
panzee fecal samples he collected i n Kibale, W r a n g h a m f o u n d Rubia
leaves i n 16. A l l were w h o l e and w i t h o u t t o o t h marks—signs o f the
same d o w n - t h e - h a t c h fate t h a t befalls Aspilia leaves. A n analysis o f
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 165
the leaves uncovered a triterpene called rubiatriol, some bioactive
anthraquinones, and most exciting o f all, a cyclic hexapeptide t h a t
is "an extremely p o t e n t c y t o t o x i c agent w h i c h is being investigated
by the N a t i o n a l Institutes o f H e a l t h as a therapeutic agent f o r cancer
patients."
Suddenly, w i t h the verified connection to possible cancer-
fighting ability, these compounds f o u n d i n a f a r - o f f jungle were no
longer molecular footnotes. A n d t h e grimacing feeding sessions were
no longer anomalies. I t was time t o p u t t h e self-medication anecdotes
to the laboratory test.
First on the list was Ficus exasperata, w h i c h is t h o u g h t t o k i f l
nematodes, an i m p o r t a n t intestinal parasite o f chimps. T h e chimps
concentrate on the y o u n g leaves, w h i c h have six times as m u c h o f
the active c o m p o u n d [5-methoxypsoralen) as the o l d leaves. A c -
cording t o Eloy Rodriguez, a p l a n t biochemist at C o r n e f l University,
the leaves and f r u i t s o f Ficus do a good j o b o f k i l l i n g the f o o d -
poisoning bacteria Bacillus cereus w i t h o u t h a r m i n g Escherichia coli,
the good bacteria t h a t live i n the gut. M a n y m o r e leaves are w a i t i n g
for chemical examination. A m o n g the fifteen plants s h o w n to be
swallowed, n o t chewed, are Aneilema aequinoctiale, Lippia plicata,
and Hibiscus aponeurus. Researchers are also collecting any plants
that are eaten only o n rare occasions or t h a t are r u b b e d o n the ani-
mal's f u r instead o f being swallowed.
Wrangham's n e x t b i g p r o j e c t is a study o f diet differences be-
t w e e n monkeys and apes such as chimps. As m e n t i o n e d earlier i n
this chapter, monkeys can tolerate secondary compounds better t h a n
chimps can. Therefore, says W r a n g h a m , " w a t c h i n g w h a t monkeys;
eat and w h a t chimps avoid m a y lead us t o some interesting secondary
compounds—possible drugs." Plants t h a t b o t h species avoid are
likely t o be loaded w i t h secondary compounds, substances t h a t even
local healers m a y n o t k n o w about. T h e only p r o b l e m w i t h this ap-
proach. W r a n g h a m tells me, is t h a t i t m a y have come t o o late f o r
niany species o f plants. "Every t i m e y o u take a leaf i n t o be ana-
l y z e d , " he says, " y o u w o n d e r i f y o u ' l l be able t o find the species i n
the w i l d again."
Awash in Evidence
W h y have w e w a i t e d u n t i l i t is almost too late t o start this quest?
T h e early 1980s was the first time scientists speculated [ i n p r i n t at
least) t h a t p r i m a t e leaf-swallowing behavior m i g h t be connected to
 166 / Biomimicry
self-medication. A n d yet we've k n o w n f o r a l o n g t i m e that rats
" t r e a t " themselves b y swallowing clay after ingesting poisonous
amounts o f l i t h i u m chloride. I n fact, experiments have s h o w n that
i f t h e rat even thinks i t was poisoned, i t w i l l eat clay, w h i c h is
t h o u g h t t o absorb the t o x i c load. I n the same way, as every pet
owner knows, w h e n a dog takes itself outside f o r an aperitif o f grass,
i t is l o o k i n g t o purge w h a t ails i t .
" W h y w e t h o u g h t t h a t hominids were the only ones w h o could
discover the curative properties o f plants, I d o n ' t l o i o w , " says Wrang¬
h a m . " W e ' r e n o t the only animals i n the j u n g l e . " W r a n g h a m also
figured he was n o t the only researcher w h o had n o t i c e d animals self-
medicating. W h e n he and Eloy Rodriguez decided t o h o l d a sym-
p o s i u m at the 1992 A m e r i c a n Association f o r the A d v a n c e m e n t o f
Science ( A A A S ) meeting, scientists came o u t o f the w o o d w o r k w i t h
t h e i r stories. T h e field o f zoopharmacognosy was b o r n .
A t t h a t meeting, Jane Phillips-Conroy o f W a s h i n g t o n University
i n St. Louis gave an account o f baboons near A w a s h Falls i n Ethiopia
t h a t live i n the ideal " c o n t r o l l e d " experiment, set u p b y geographical
differences i n t h e i r h o m e ranges. T w o populations o f the same spe-
cies o f baboon [Papio hamadryas) live near A w a s h Falls; one p o p u -
lation feeds exclusively above the falls, the other b e l o w . The
p o p u l a t i o n b e l o w the falls is vulnerable t o a snail-borne schistosome
{Schistosoma cercariaé], a fluke w o r m t h a t causes a debilitating dis-
ease i n primates, i n c l u d i n g humans. A b o v e t h e falls, the snails are
free o f the fluke w o r m s .
Also d i s t r i b u t e d above and below the falls is Balanites aegyp-
tiaca—a p l a n t whose berries and leaves contain a steroidal saponin
called diosgenin, a c o m p o u n d k n o w n t o be active against the fluke
w o r m . N a t i v e peoples have long used Balanites f o r c o n t r o l l i n g infec-
tions o f schistosomiasis, and so, i t w o u l d seem, do baboons. I n fact,
although b o t h populations o f baboons have access t o the healing
plant, the only baboons t h a t eat i t are the ones, t h a t live w i t h the
i n f e c t e d snafls. This l e d Phillips-Conroy t o speculate t h a t the plant
was being sought o u t f o r something other t h a n n u t r i t i o n a l purposes,
or else b o t h populations w o u l d partake o f i t .
A n o t h e r tale was t o l d at the meeting about t w o populations o f
m a n t l e d howlers, tree-dwelling monkeys t h a t are h a b i t u a l l y plagued
by parasites. Researchers i n Costa Rica were surprised b y the stark
contrast i n parasite loads between t w o populations l i v i n g i n d i f f e r e n t
parts o f the t i n y country. H o w l e r s i n Hacienda L a Pacifica were
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 167
heavily parasitized, w h i l e howlers f r o m Santa Rosa N a t i o n a l Park
carried surprisingly l i g h t loads. Searching f o r reasons, the researchers
noticed t h a t Santa Rosa, w i t h l i g h t parasite loads, had p l e n t y o f fig
trees [Ficus spp.), w h f l e L a Pacifica h a d none. K n o w i n g t h a t humans
use the latex i n fig trees as an a n t i w o r m medicine, researchers at the
conference t h e o r i z e d t h a t a c o m p o u n d i n fig leaves or f r u i t s m a y be
keeping w o r m loads under c o n t r o l i n the Santa Rosa howlers.
A n o t h e r unusual finding was the howlers' utter lack o f g u m dis-
ease or t o o t h decay. C o u l d howlers be brushing and flossing regu-
larly? M o r e likely, say researchers, i t has something t o do w i t h the
pedicels [stalks) f r o m the cashew [Anacardium occidentale) t h a t they
are k n o w n t o eat. A n analysis o f t h e pedicels showed high amounts
o f the phenolic compounds anacardic acid and cardol, b o t h o f w h i c h
k i l l gram-positive bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans—the critters
that cause t o o t h decay i n humans.
Also discussed at the meeting was the w h o l e realm o f medicines
applied i n non-oral fashion. Anecdotes abound about birds such as
eagles t h a t line their nests w i t h resin-soaked pine sprigs, perhaps t o
keep o u t nest parasites. T h e blue jays on y o u r f r o n t l a w n m a y also
be practicing a f o r m o f medicine. I n a ceremony called anting, jays
squeeze ants i n t h e i r beaks and t h e n r u b the f o r m i c acid onto their
feathers. T h e y seem t o have an almost beatific l o o k on t h e i r faces as
they do this, as i f t h e ant j u i c e is intoxicating. O t h e r investigators
have postulated t h a t anting is actually an antiparasitic gesture—a
delousing.
Bears are also k n o w n to e x h i b i t strange r u b b i n g behavior. A f t e r
spending seven years w i t h a N a v a j o f a m i l y and learning a b o u t tra- •
ditional t r i b a l medicines. H a r v a r d ethnobotanist Shawn Sigstedt be-
came i n t r i g u e d b y t h e fact t h a t there were so m a n y m e d i c i n a l plants
w i t h names t h a t i n c l u d e d "bear." T r a d i t i o n a l N a v a j o teachings said
t h a t medicines were given t o people b y the bears, a good indicator
that the N a v a j o m i g h t have w a t c h e d animals self-medicating and
then adopted t h e i r practices, Sigstedt p u t t h e bear connection t o the
test w i t h Ligusticum porten, a vanilla-celery-scented herb t h a t grows
in the Rocky M o u n t a i n and Southwest regions o f the U n i t e d States
and is used b y the N a v a j o t o treat w o r m s , stomachaches, and bac-
terial infections. H e gave samples o f the p l a n t t o polar bears and
grizzly bears i n the Colorado Springs Zoo, and watched i n amaze-
m e n t as t h e y r o l l e d and r u b b e d w i t h relish, perhaps getting relief
f r o m ticks or skin f u n g i .
 168 / Biomimiay Hoiv Will We Heal Ourselves? / 169

H o w D i d Animals Learn to Self-medicate? gent explanations f o r the occasional ingestion o f t a n n i n - r i c h p l a n t

material b y primates such as r e d colobus and howlers."
I n a w a y i t seems contradictory. H o w c o u l d the practice o f eating
I n a d d i t i o n t o physiological motivators, c o n d i t i o n i n g behaviors
toxins to self-medicate have evolved, w h e n there is so m u c h evolu- may also play a role i n self-medication. T h e u l t i m a t e enforcer o f
tionary pressure not t o eat toxins? As w i t h safe eating, says Richard bitter-leaf-eating behavior is to have a b i t t e r leaf soothe an ailment.
W r a n g h a m , there are probably physiological, behavioral, and c u l t u r a l It's the flip side o f the so-called Sauce B é a r n a i s e syndrome, w h i c h
aspects t o the p h e n o m e n o n o f curative eating. causes an animal t o associate negative b o d y sensations w i t h a partic-
First t h e physiological. D e p e n d i n g o n w h a t an animal needs i n ular f o o d . Just as the scientist w h o n a m e d the syndrome is u n l i k e l y
its diet, even h a r d w i r e d tastes can reverse themselves. W h e n an an- to order B é a r n a i s e again, good experiences w i t h a given f o o d c o u l d
i m a l wakes u p sick, f o r instance, i t m i g h t find its aversion t o second- have the opposite effect, acting t o encourage that particular eating
ary compounds t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a tolerance or even a craving f o r behavior.
b i t t e r leaves. Chinese herbalists have used this b o d y feedback f o r
C u l t u r a l learning m a y also help t o shape the h a b i t o f self-
thousands o f years w h e n treating h u m a n patients. A s M i c h a e l H u f f -
medication. Bennett G . Galef, Jr., and M a t t h e w Beck, psychologists
m a n reported at the A A A S conference, "Sick people supposedly t o l - at M c M a s t e r University i n O n t a r i o , observed that rats are m o r e likely
erate a level o f bitterness u t t e r l y repellent t o healthy individuals, to t r y a cure f o r t h e i r ailments i f they are surrounded b y other rats
a l l o w i n g the herbalists t d i d e n t i f y w h e n and h o w t o adjust their that already prefer the f o o d . Even i f they've been c o n d i t i o n e d t o be
doses." T h e sicker a p a t i e n t is, the m o r e bitterness h e ' l l tolerate. phobic about i t , t h e y m a y give i t a t r y i f everyone else is doing i t .
W h e n he starts c o m p l a i n i n g t h a t the medicine is t o o bitter, the herb- W e primates are especially good at m i m i c k i n g behavior, w h i c h turns
alist pronounces h i m cured. o u t t o be a survival skill. T h e f e l l o w w h o got sick on bad B é a r n a i s e
Jane G o o d a l l has experimental evidence that seems t o support m i g h t have been spared i f he h a d been able to w a t c h his tablemate
this theory. W h e n G o o d a l l needed t o treat some chimpanzees w i t h double over after eating the s t u f f Similarly, i f a c h i m p s t u m b l e d onto
tetracycline, a b i t t e r substance, she h i d i t i n bananas, and w a t c h e d a good t h i n g w i t h the Vernonia p i t h , others w o u l d q u i c l d y see the
w h o ate w h a t . W h Ü e the healthy chimps t u r n e d u p t h e i r noses at wisdom in it.
the laced treats, the sick chimps q u i c k l y ate the bananas, seemingly
A s w i t h smart eating, m o d e l i n g M o m ' s behavior is probably the
oblivious t o the bitterness. I n w i l d feeding, H u f f m a n f o u n d t h a t
first w a y primates learn about m e d i c i n a l plants. A f t e r they're g r o w n ,
chimpanzees w i t h the highest parasite loads t e n d t o eat the bitterest
they w a t c h and i m i t a t e h o w t h e f t troopmates handle illness. This
leaves. Glander observed a similar flip-flop i n howlers' tastes.
samphng o f good medicines m a y be another reinforcement f o r so- -
H e a l t h y howlers avoid leaves that are h i g h i n tannins and therefore
cialization. Says K e n n e t h Glander, " I t h i n k this is a social p h e n o m -
h a r d t o digest. O n days w h e n they are sick, however, the same an-
enon t o t h e extent t h a t the group can contain m u c h more Icnowledge
imals lose t h e i r caution and go after h i g h - t a n n i n leaves, perhaps be-
than a single i n d i v i d u a l can, particularly w h e n that knowledge is i n
cause the tannins b i n d t o and escort plant poisons o u t o f t h e i r
a three-dimensional space—different leaves w i t h i n the same tree
system. Red colobus monkeys (Procolobus hadius) are shown t o do
have d i f f e r e n t properties and the material has to be handled i n a
the same out-of-the-ordinary selecting w h e n nursing a stomachache.
d i f f e r e n t fashion w h e n y o u are m e d i c a t i n g . "
AAAat looks like a m o m e n t a r y flight f r o m good j u d g m e n t m a y
W h f l e it's easy t o conjecture h o w siclaiess m i g h t p r o m p t an an-
actually be a t r i p to the tropical medicine chest, say the zoophar-
i m a l to treat itself, h o w do y o u explain the fact that perfectly healthy
macognosists. O f course, as is true o f so m u c h o f animal behavior
animals sometimes leave t h e i r troops and travel f o r miles t o select
theory, no one can prove this—at this p o i n t it's a matter o f conjec-
certain plants at certain times o f year? I f the animals are n o t sick,
t u r e and c o m m o n sense. " M o s t other primatologists have been re-
w h a t are t h e y responding to? Sometimes the answer is easy. I n the
l u c t a n t t o accept this self-medication explanation," writes Glander
case o f moose, a springtime gorging on aquatic plants is a quest f o r
i n one o f his papers, " b u t they have been unable to o f f e r other co-
salt, w h i c h is largely absent f r o m its w i n t e r diet. B u t w h a t about
 170 / Biomimicry
animals t h a t are n o t starved f o r nutrients, and yet spend their energy
travehng t o a particular p l a n t at a particular t i m e o f year? C o u l d
they be preparing t h e i r b o d y f o r something? Curious, anthropologist
Karen Strier decided t o accompany the m u r i q u i monkeys o f Brazil
on one o f t h e i r seasonal " f o o d runs."
Plant Parenthood: It's N o t Just for Stomachaches A n y m o r e
T o keep u p w i t h these b e a u t i f u l monkeys, Karen Strier, author o f
Paces in the Forest, has t o r u n p e l l - m e l l t h r o u g h Brazil's A t l a n t i c For-
est. Overhead, her subjects are like trapeze artists, swinging f r o m
b r a n c h t o branch at brealoieck speed. T h e males and the females
grow t o an identical size, the cap set b y the need to be l i g h t w e i g h t
enough f o r branch-top travel. This equal stature helps make m u r i q u i
[Brachyteles arachnoides) one o f the most peaceful and egalitarian
species o f primates ever studied. T h e y are also, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , one
o f the w o r l d ' s rarest p r i m a t e species. H a b i t a t destruction has already
claimed 95 percent o f t h e i r h o m e i n the u n i q u e A t l a n t i c Forest, and
f e w e r t h a n one thousand o f the b e a u t i f u l m u r i q u i s are l e f t i n a hand-
f u l o f isolated populations.
Keeping track o f t h e m i n t h e remains o f t h e i r jungle can be
exhausting. T h a n k f u l l y f o r Strier and her students, the monkeys take
f r e q u e n t breaks f o r feasting, mostly on f r u i t . W h e n t h e i r m a t i n g sea-
son dawns, however, the m u r i q u i s suddenly s w i t c h horses. T h e y ig-
nore t h e f r u i t s and set t h e i r sights almost exclusively o n the leaves
o f t w o tree species i n the legume f a m i l y , Apuleia leiocarpa and Pla-
typodium elegans. U p o n analysis, Strier f o u n d t h a t the leaves o f b o t h
species are notably l o w i n tannins, a substance k n o w n t o interfere
w i t h p r o t e i n digestion. L i k e Popeye squeezing open a can o f spinach
j u s t before a fight, t h e monkeys m a y be l o o k i n g f o r a surge o f protein
before m a t i n g , and therefore go f o r the m o r e digestible, l o w - t a n n i n
leaves. T h e leaves m a y also contain compounds t h a t prevent bacte-
rial infections, w h i c h c o u l d help bolster the monkeys' health w h e n
they need i t most.
Strier also n o t i c e d t h a t besides eating d i f f e r e n t leaves, m u r i q u i s
t e n d t o take road trips d u r i n g this t i m e o f year. T h e y speed f r o m
t h e center o f the jungle t o the edge o f t h e i r ranges, where the forest
thins o u t i n t o clearings. Here, they eat t h e f r u i t o f a t h i r d species o f
legume, called Enterolobium contortisiliquum, or m o n k e y ear. T h e
f r u i t is f u l l o f stigmasterol, a phytoestrogen t h a t w e humans use to
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 171
synthesize progesterone. C o u l d i t be, asks Strier, that the m u r i q u i s
eat m o n k e y ear i n preparation f o r , or perhaps to influence the t i m -
ing of, m a t i n g season? Is there such a t h i n g as "reproductive eat-
ing"?
K e n n e t h Glander is asking the ssme question about m a n t l e d
h o w l e r monkeys. H e became suspicious w h e n he recorded a n u m b e r
of h i g h l y gender-skewed births i n howlers. Some females i n the
group were having broods consisting o f nine o u t o f t e n males or f o u r
out o f five females. This s w a m p i n g o f sexes cannot be understood
by statistical averages.
C o u l d i t be, t h o u g h t Glander, t h a t the h o w l e r monkeys are eat-
ing something t h a t m i g h t i m p r o v e the odds o f having either male or
female offspring? A r e they somehow changing the electrical envi-
r o n m e n t o f the vagina (by eating either acidic or alkaloid foods) and
thereby either b l o c k i n g or r o f l i n g o u t t h e r e d carpet f o r a particular
sperm type? T h e idea is n o t so outiandish w h e n y o u consider t h a t a
sperm carrying an X chromosome (female-producing) is electropos-
itive, w h i l e a sperm carrying a Y chromosome (male-producing) is
electronegative. Since like repels like, a negative environment i n the
vagina m i g h t b l o c k negatively charged sperm w h i l e assisting posi-
tively charged sperm. Glander tested his hypothesis b y measuring
the electric p o t e n t i a l at the entrance t o howlers' vaginas and at the
cervix. There was enough o f a difference i n the m i l l i v o l t readings
between the t w o locations t o convince h i m that, depending on w h a t
they ate, howlers m i g h t be able t o "produce an electrical charge and
change i t f r o m positive t o negative."
I f plants c o u l d be used to stack the gender deck, t h e plant-asr
medicine t h e m e expands t o include plant-as-population-shaper. B u t
w h y t h e manipulation? Glander explains: I f the p o p u l a t i o n is short
on males, a female t h a t produces males has a good chance o f p r o -
ducing one t h a t w i f l be a t r o o p leader. Producing a son w h o is a
leader confers status o n the m o t h e r (better access to f o o d and safety,
for instance). I f the p o p u l a t i o n is l o w on females, however, the
mother m a y w a n t t o have females w h o w f l l likely become first l a d y -
making the m o t h e r an i n - l a w o f royalty. " A l l o f us are f a m i l i a r w i t h
the phrase ' Y o u are w h a t y o u eat,' " Glander says. " B u t I suggest
that w e m a y be w h a t our m o t h e r eats."
Strier and Glander were n o t t h e first t o postulate this phenome-
non i n mammals. I n 1 9 8 1 , Patricia Berger f o u n d that p l a n t c o m -
pounds seem t o influence r e p r o d u c t i o n i n voles. I f primates and even
 172 / Biomimicry
voles can influence w h e n and i f they w i l l be f e r t i l e i n response t o en-
v i r o n m e n t a l conditions, c o u l d i t be that animals are i n finer harmony
w i t h t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t than w e have given t h e m credit for?
A t this p o i n t , w e k n o w o f ten thousand secondary compounds,
b u t chances are that animals, insects, birds, and lizards k n o w o f and
have been e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h lots more. T h e y may use t h e m to
prevent illness, to cure illness, maybe even to influence their f e r t i l i t y ,
abort their fetuses, or influence the gender o f t h e i r o f f s p r i n g — a l l i n
response t o environmental opportunities and l i m i t s o f the m o m e n t .
C o m p a r e d to these real natives, we've been snooping around the
jungle pharmacy f o r o n l y a b r i e f m o m e n t , long enough t o Icnow
there's m u c h , m u c h more.
NOT MUCH TIME O N THE CLOCK
There was a t i m e , n o t so very long ago, w h e n w e relied exclusively
on plants, microbes, and animals f o r n e w drugs, and that's where we
f o u n d 40 percent o f all our prescription medicines, f f e r e ' s a small
sampling o f w h a t plants alone have given us i n the field o f phar-
maceuticals:
• T a x o l , isolated f r o m the bark o f t h e Pacific y e w tree (Taxus
brevifolia) i n the Pacific N o r t h w e s t , is a p r o m i s i n g n e w drug
used t o treat ovarian and breast cancer patients.
• T h e steroid h o r m o n e diosgenin, isolated f r o m w i l d yams
(Dioscorea composita) i n M e x i c o , was an essential ingredient
i n the first contraceptive pills.
• V i n c r i s t i n e and vinblastine, isolated f r o m the Madagascar per-
i w i n l d e (Catharanthus roseus), are used t o treat Hodgkin's dis-
ease and certain lands o f c h f l d h o o d leukemia.
• A semi-synthetic derivative o f the M a y apple {Podophyllum
peltatum), a c o m m o n w o o d l a n d plant i n the eastern U n i t e d
States, is used t o treat testicular cancer and small-cell l u n g
cancer.
• Digitalis, f r o m t h e dried leaves o f the p u r p l e foxglove {Digi-
talis purpurea), is used t o treat congestive heart failure and
other cardiac disorders.
' Reserpine, isolated f r o m the roots o f tropical shrubs i n the
genus Rauwolfia, is used as a sedative and t o treat h i g h b l o o d
pressure,
How Will We Heal Ourselves! / 173
By the close o f the 1970s, however, plants f e l l o u t o f favor as can-
didates f o r pharmacological research. Soil bacteria and f u n g i k e p t
yielding n e w antibiotics, and synthetic chemistry and molecular b i -
ology—under the r u b r i c o f "rational d r u g design"—were seen t o be
the next great source o f drugs. W e decided w e d i d n ' t need plants to
create o u r cures.
Today, conditions have conspired t o b r i n g plant sampling back
i n vogue. A f t e r a f e w decades o f sifting t h r o u g h the soil i n t h e i r o w n
backyards, pharmaceutical companies are beginning t o t u r n u p the
same o l d microbes, b u t no new drugs. Scientists are also finding i t
harder t h a n they t h o u g h t to synthesize drugs f r o m scratch. Despite
the billions o f dollars spent i n development, t h e long-awaited malaria
drug, like m a n y others, is s t i l l b o r n i n t h e lab. T o c o m p o u n d matters,
the F D A is cracking d o w n o n " m e - t o o " drugs (existing f o r m u l a s
that, w i t h a slight t w i s t , can be sold under a d i f f e r e n t name). This
p r o h i b i t i o n makes i t harder f o r d r u g companies t o float financially
w h i l e they w a i t f o r the next streptomycin.
In the meantime, disease is having no t r o u b l e h o l d i n g u p its end
of the arms race. Epidemiologists say w e are l i v i n g i n "the emerging
age o f viruses," b a t t l i n g n e w diseases like A I D S , w h i l e resistant
strains o f diseases that w e t h o u g h t w e had under control, like t u -
berculosis and the b u b o n i c plague, are back w i t h a vengeance. Just
w h e n w e need a breakthrough, we've reached a p o i n t o f d i m i n i s h i n g
returns.
Once again, hopes are being p i n n e d o n nature's biochemical
registry, w h i c h is billions o f years i n the maldng. " G i v e n the h i g h
cost o f chemical synthesis," says Charles McChesney, a natural p r o d -
ucts chemist at the U n i v e r s i t y o f Mississippi, "companies are increas-
ingly i n c l i n e d t o l e t plants and other organisms do the synthetic w o r k
for t h e m . " I n a flurry o f exploration contracts, drug companies are
heading outdoors to find their n e x t b i g drug.
Between 1990 and 1993, five m a j o r d r u g companies j o i n e d the
medicinal gold rush, announcing large-scale plans to prospect i n
seven countries. M o s t recently, the N a t i o n a l Institutes o f H e a l t h and
several d r u g companies began a $2.5 m i l l i o n treasure h u n t i n the
Great Barrier Reef o f f Australia, i n Samoa, and i n the rain forests o f
South A m e r i c a and A f r i c a . I n this e f f o r t , marine biologists and bot-
anists w i l l spend five years collecting approximately fifteen thousand
marine organisms and t w e n t y thousand plants. M e a n w h i l e , a $2 m i l -
l i o n , three-year e f f o r t begun i n 1993 w i t h Pfizer, Inc., and the N e w
Y o r k Botanical Garden w i l l concentrate on plants here i n the U n i t e d
 174 / Biomimicry
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 175

States. Also i n the U n i t e d States, the proposed Joint Program on

medicinal value. T o take one c o u n t r y as an example, scientists esti-
D r u g Discovery, Biodiversity Conservation, and E c o n o m i c G r o w t h
mate t h a t nothing is k n o w n about the chemistry o f more t h a n 9 9
w o u l d provide grants ( f u n d e d b y A I D , N C I , and NSF) tq, develop
percent o f the p l a n t species g r o w i n g i n Brazil.
drugs f r o m the most p r o m i s i n g plants. M e a n w h i l e , a coalition o f
T o light a l a m p i n this darlcness, companies and governments
government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and businesses
are p o u r i n g i n t o the r e m a i n i n g pristine jungles and oceans, collecting
b o t h here and i n Asia are collaborating t o help local communities
examples o f w h a t is l e f t . Back home, lab workers a t t e m p t the ar-
b o t h use and preserve t h e i r forest and marine genetic resources. A l l
duous task o f analyzing t h e mountains o f diversity o n their ware-
t o l d , a 1992 O f f i c e o f Technology Assessment report listed some t w o
house floors.
h u n d r e d companies and nearly as m a n y research institutions w o r l d -
w i d e t h a t are n o w looldng f o r plants as sources o f pharmaceuticals
and pesticides.
CURE IN A HAYSTACK
W i l l this usher i n a n e w era o f resource plundering? Chemical
ecologist Thomas Eisner f r o m C o r n e l l University doesn't t h i n k so,
Analysis is a c o m p l e x process w h i c h attempts t o separate the p l a n t
H e believes t h a t chemical prospecting can be essentially noninvasive
sample i n t o smaller and smaller parts u n t i l the chemical o f interest
b o t h ecologically and culturally (as long as intellectual p r o p e r t y
is isolated. T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t plants make so m a n y compounds—
rights are assigned t o t h e local people—a system t h a t was agreed
u p t o five h u n d r e d or six h u n d r e d d i f f e r e n t compounds in the same
u p o n at the 1992 U n i t e d Nations Conference on E n v i r o n m e n t and
leaf, each w i t h fifty or sixty d i f f e r e n t biological activities. T h e real
D e v e l o p m e n t i n R i o ) . " O n c e biological activity is discovered," Eis-
t r i c k is to i d e n t i f y w h i c h one is p e r f o r m i n g the miracles.
ner writes, "the usual procedure is n o t to harvest t h e source organ-
First the sample is m i l l e d , distifled i n t o a tarry sludge, and t h e n
ism, b u t t o i d e n t i f y the responsible chemical so i t can be produced
treated w i t h chemicals t o separate o u t the essence o f the plant. This
synthetically." For example, the natural opiates m o r p h i n e and co-
essence is t h e n p i t t e d against m a n y k n o w n h u m a n diseases t o see
deine were the models f r o m w h i c h meperidine ( D e m e r o l ) , pentaz-
w h e t h e r i t w i l l take any action. T h e N a t i o n a l Cancer Institute, f o r
ocine ( T a l w i n ) , and p r o p o x y p h e n e ( D a r v o n ) were t h e n synthesized.
instance, is testing f o r t y - f i v e h u n d r e d samples a year, seeing i f they
Sampling f o r m o d e l design need n o t be extensive, says Eisner. I n the
have an effect o n H I V - i n f e c t e d cells and sixty d i f f e r e n t lands o f t u -
case o f "drugs f r o m bugs," chemists need only small quantities f o r
mor cell lines representing the various types o f cancers, such as b r a i n
screening—about h a l f a Idlo o f insects, or w h a t hits several w i n d -
tumors, leukemias, and melanomas. ( U l t i m a t e l y the institute hopes
shields o n a t r o p i c a l summer evening.
to test t w e n t y thousand substances a year against one h u n d r e d cefl
lines.) I f a certain extract looks promising, ft is f u r t h e r separated i n t o
T h e last t i m e m a n y d r u g companies scoured the natural w o r l d f o r its c o m p o n e n t chemicals, each o f w h i c h is tested again. The most
ideas was i n t h e fifties. T h e jungles and reefs they w i l l encounter i n active ones are m a p p e d o n a molecular scale t o see h o w their c h e m -
the nineties are very d i f f e r e n t — f r a g m e n t e d , fragile, and disappear- ical structure m a y be c o n t r i b u t i n g t o w h a t they do.
ing. M o s t f r i g h t e n i n g o f all are reports that one i n f o u r w i l d species
Once a p r o m i s i n g molecule is identified, scientists can t r y t o
(includes all t a x o n o m i e categories) w i l l be facing e x t i n c t i o n b y the
synthesize ft i n t h e lab, adding d i f f e r e n t twists i n hopes o f m a k i n g ft
year 2025. U n d e r l y i n g t h e n e w haste t o find cures is t h e understand-
more effective. I f a facsimile can't be made artificially, plant-tissue
ing t h a t i t m a y be n o w or never f o r chemical prospecting.
culture techniques m a y come t o the rescue. A plant-tissue c u l t u r e is
T h e j o b ahead is enormous. O u t o f the estimated 5 t o 3 0 m i l l i o n
a vat o f p l a n t cells all g r o w n f r o m a f e w starter cells. T h e cells p r o -
h v i n g species o n Earth (some estimates p u t i t closer t o 100 m i l l i o n )
duce copious amounts o f the p r o d u c t , w h i c h is t h e n separated o u t
o n l y about 1.4 m i l l i o n have been named. Less t h a n 5 percent o f the
o f solution. I f t h e p r o d u c t passes all t h e tests o f effectiveness, a c o m -
w o r l d ' s t o t a l roster o f p l a n t species have been identified, and o u t o f
pany or government m i g h t t r y t o invest the m o n e y needed to b r i n g
t h e estimated 265,000 flowering species, only about 5,000, or 2 per-
i t t o m a r k e t — a b o u t $230 m i l l i o n f o r the average drug.
cent, have been studied exhaustively f o r chemical c o m p o s i t i o n and
I n the past, this assaying f o r bioactivity was a slow procedure—
 176 / Biomimicry How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 177

y o u i n j e c t e d the extract i n t o a rabbit and w a i t e d t o see w h a t hap- Finally, ethnobotany has begun to lose the stigma o f a f r i n g e dis-
pened. Bioassaying i n t h e test tube has speeded u p the process, b u t cipline, and is n o w attracting b o t h f u n d i n g and professional personnel.
it's still a needle-in-a-haystack procedure. For every t w e l v e thousand A h a n d f u l o f organizations are t r y i n g t o contact t h e last remaining i n -
samples, only one becomes a drug, and its development (tweaking, digenous cultures t h a t have l i v e d close to the Earth. Dialogues w i t h
enhancing, and testing the substance) can take ten years or m o r e . I n t h e i r shamans have yielded several i m p o r t a n t compounds, i n c l u d i n g
short, we're spending precious t i m e i n the lab screening u n p r o m i s i n g an oral hypoglycemic f o r diabetics, a respiratory virus fighter, and a
possible antidote f o r herpes simplex. A l l three are reaching clinical t r i -
c o m p o u n d s — a n d w e d o n ' t have t h a t k i n d o f t i m e . Experts agree we
als thanks t o a fleet-footed firm called Shaman Pharmaceuticals i n
need t o develop some sort o f prescreening procedure t o n a r r o w our
south San Francisco t h a t employs ten ethnobotanists o n three c o n t i -
search and help us q u i c k l y key i n o n the p r o m i s i n g compounds be-
nents. A n o t h e r exciting prospect c o m i n g f r o m f o l k remedies is pros-
f o r e the species t h a t h o l d the recipes disappear.
tratin, s h o w n t o be active i n the test tube against H I V .
H o w w e have gone about narrowing t h a t search tells a l o t about
us as a culture. A t first, w e simply dragged our collecting nets across Fieldgoing ethnobotanists o f t e n speak o f being outclassed b y t h e
the w h o l e j u n g l e i n an indiscriminate approach. C o l l e c t i n g every- native people, w h o have uncanny p l a n t knowledge. T h e legendary
t h i n g was easy, b u t the h o l d u p was back at the lab—samples p i l e d Richard Evans Schultes, w h o has c o m b e d the A m a z o n f o r healing
strategies f o r over f o r t y years, writes t h a t natives i n the A m a z o n are
u p w a i t i n g f o r analysis, and i n the jungle, species were going e x t i n c t
able t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n chemivars—plants t h a t appear similar
before w e c o u l d even sample t h e m . T h e fear was t h a t b y the t i m e
i n f o r m and yet have q u i t e d i f f e r e n t chemical properties. A l t h o u g h
w e f o u n d the cure f o r cancer or A I D S , t h e n w e n t back o u t to find
W e s t e r n botanists can't find any m o r p h o l o g i c a l differences among
m o r e o f the sample t o study, i t w o u l d be gone, p l o w e d o u t b y a
chemivars, t h e Indians can i d e n t i f y t h e m b y sight, even f r o m m a n y
b u l l d o z e r t o make r o o m f o r cattle or housing. There had t o be a way
paces away. T h e y say they base t h e i r identification n o t only o n t h e
t o speed the search.
physical l o o k o f t h e p l a n t b u t also on its age, its size, and the k i n d
N e x t , w e t h o u g h t w e ' d be logical and t r y tracing the f a m i l y tree
o f soil i n w h i c h i t grows. This sort o f knowledge is dying, says Schul-
o f a sample t h a t w e f o u n d promising, h o p i n g t h a t related species
tes, especially i f healers do n o t have apprentices, or i f their people
w o u l d also contain p o w e r f u l compounds, (For example, lihes are r i c h
have adopted pills over plants.
i n alkaloids, so let's investigate the closely related o r c h i d f a m i l y .
C u l t u r a l Survival, a c u l t u r e advocacy group, estimates t h a t t h e
Bingo, they're r i c h i n alkaloids, t o o . ) This n a r r o w i n g approach is
w o r l d has lost 9 0 o f its 270 Indian cultures since 1900, about a t r i b e
called the phylogenetic strategy, b u t it's l i m i t e d as w e l l . N o t all plant
a year, and w i t h t h e m , afl t h e i r knowledge. As Schultes writes i n a
relatives arrive at t h e same chemical solutions t o sticky predator
M a r c h / A p r i l 1994 article i n The Sciences, ". . . t h e E a r t h is losing n o t '
problems.
only the biodiversity o f t h e forest; i t is also losing w h a t I call its
Finally (and r e l u c t a n t l y ) , w e i n the Western w o r l d decided to
crypto-diversity, the h i d d e n chemical w e a l t h o f the plants." H e calls
officially solicit the help o f shamans, indigenous f o l k healers f r o m
o n us t o use native cultures as rapid-assessment teams already on t h e
tribes t h a t have been using t h e j u n g l e pharmacy f o r centuries. W e
ground, b u t warns t h a t as " c i v i l i z a t i o n " encroaches, w e can lose, i n
h a d relied o n f o l k medicine heavily i n the past, although this fact
only one generation o f acculturation, botanical Imowledge acquired
was never advertised. As D e p u t y E d i t o r Philip H , A b l e s o n writes i n
over millennia.
an A p r i l 1994 Science editorial: " O f the 121 clinically u s e f u l pre-
Ethnobotanists, t h e n , like the b i o m i m i c s , are also i n a race. T o
scription drugs w o r l d w i d e t h a t are derived f r o m higher plants, 74%
narrow their search, t h e y concentrate ,on cultures t h a t are i n floris-
o f t h e m came t o the attention o f pharmaceutical houses because of
tically diverse areas, t h a t t r a n s m i t t h e i r healing knowledge t h r o u g h
t h e i r use i n t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e , " But w e rarely advertised our
the generations, and t h a t have resided i n one place f o r l o n g enough
sources, nor d i d w e f o r m a l l y seek their help. Today, schoolchildren
to explore and e x p e r i m e i i t w i t h local vegetation. Based on those
k n o w the names F l e m i n g and Pasteur and Salk, b u t the names of
criteria, is there any c u l t u r e t h a t w e ' r e forgetting? A n y source o f local
shamans i n t h e A m a z o n and i n A f r i c a are on the t i p o f no one's
expert knowledge t h a t w e m i g h t be overlooldng?
tongue.
 178 / Biomimicry
A f t e r spending t i m e w i t h W r a n g h a m , Strier, and Glander, I i m -
mediately t h i n k o f chimps and m u r i q u i s and howlers. A l l are local
experts, passing knowledge f r o m m o t h e r to offspring, and l i v i n g i n
floristically diverse areas. Instead o f thousands o f years, these animals
have been c o n d u c t i n g milhons o f years o f field trials. T h e i r self-
m e d i c a t i o n is m o r e ancestral than t h a t o f indigenous peoples, ancl
comes w i t h o u t t h e overlay o f religious taboos or t r i b a l customs. W h y
not let t h e i r "nose" f o r w h a t is curative help us zero i n o n bioactivi-
compounds, maldng the screening process m o r e efficient?
D a n i e l Janzen, a t r o p i c a l ecologist at the University o f Pennsyl-
vania, explains i t this way; " I t h i n k there are better ways t o spend
m o n e y [ t h a n r a n d o m sampling]—it's too b r o a d shot. H o w do y o u
k n o w w h a t t o collect? H o w do y o u k n o w w h i c h tree o f the same
species t o collect? T h e y d i f f e r i n chemical composition^—one tree
m a y be stressed and one n o t stressed. Primates and birds and lizards
know."
By getting t o k n o w t h e m , say the zoopharmacognosists, w e may
begin t o k n o w , too.
ECOLOGICAL SLEUTHING:
BIORATIONAL DRUG DISCOVERY
O n e o f the m o s t p r o m i s i n g ways t o explore the natural w o r l d , and
to f u r t h e r n a r r o w o u r search, is called b i o r a t i o n a l d r u g prospecting,
a strategy advocated b y D a n Janzen and T o m Eisner. T h e biorational
route goes b e y o n d s i m p l y f o l l o w i n g chimps and howlers around the
jungles. I t challenges us t o use i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the entire ecosystem
to find our target molecules. I t requires t h a t w e k n o w something
about the relationships around us—the coevolutionary tangos o f her-
bivore and herb, the c o m m u n i t y webs, t h e interlacing o f p o p u l a t i o n
w i t h bioregion. " I w o u l d use the w h o l e set o f animals o u t there,"
says Janzen. " H u m a n s are j u s t one a n i m a l . . . and they only p i c k the
s t u f f t h a t doesn't give t h e m a stomachache or make t h e m go b h n d . "
I t is a detective game t h a t dares us t o use all our senses as w e l l as
our sense o f ecology t o f e r r e t o u t the bio-clues.
T o m Eisner's father was a chemist w h o used t o make cosmetics
i n his basement, leaving t h e l o w e r floor "smelling i n the most inter-
esting ways." T h e younger Eisner developed an uncanny nose, allow-
ing h i m t o actually smell insects as he w a l k e d , i d e n t i f y i n g those f u l l
o f p o t e n t chemicals. " F l y i n g molecules," he calls t h e m .
How WiU We Heal Ourselves! / 179
As an o u t g r o w t h o f his w o r k w i t h insects, Eisner perfected the
art o f seeing w h a t isn't obvious, finding, as he cafls i t , the " u n f o r e -
seen f r o m the unexpected." W h e n prospecting f o r possible drugs,
for instance, Eisner w f l l l o o k f o r plants t h a t are notably free o f d a m -
age. Plants t h a t insects avoid eating m u s t have p o t e n t defenses, he
reasons, and should be screened f o r bioactive secondary compounds.
Similarly, a tree t h a t has no p l a n t g r o w t h around its stem or is con-
spicuously free o f disease should be checked f o r g r o w t h i n h i b i t o r s or
antibiotics t h a t can serve as models f o r new herbicides and a n t i m i -
crobials. I f ants reject a f a f l e n leaf, or predators avoid an insect's egg
w h e n i t is covered w i t h its mother's saliva, chemistry is at w o r k , and
ecology has handed us a clue.
Ecological sleuthing has already helped us zero i n on compounds
that naturally repel or M l insects. C o m m e r c i a l l y avaflable f o r m u l a -
tions o f natural plant-derived insecticides include nicotin, pyrethins,
and rotenoids. These natural products are a welcome a d d i t i o n t o a
field o f disturbingly less effective pesticides synthesized f r o m petro-
leum. M a y Berenbaum o f the U n i v e r s i t y o f Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign describes the rat race w e have entered w i t h synthetic
pesticides and t h e pests t h a t learn t o resist t h e m . " T h e use o f i n -
creasingly higher concentrations o f existing insecticides has l e d t o a
f o u r f o l d increase i n agricultural pests t h a t manifest resistance t o at
least one type o f insecticide. W h e r e are the new pesticides? N o t
many have been developed since 1960, and the standing prescription
is s i m p l y t o spray m o r e and more chemicals." A new crop o f insec-
ticides—those w i t h o u t a deadly residue t h a t collects i n animal tis-
sues—would p r o v i d e needed relief.
O t h e r ways t o find drugs f r o m bugs is t o w a t c h h o w v e n o m o u s '
animals handle b o t h t h e i r enemies and t h e i r prey. A n y substance t h a t
can have such a p r o f o u n d effect o n the v i c t i m — p a r a l y z i n g , poison-
ing, or even breaking d o w n its cellular matter w i t h a single dose—is
b o u n d t o have p o w e r f u l b i o c h e m i c a l or pharmaceutical properties.
N a t u r a l Product Sciences i n Salt Lake C i t y , w i t h f u n d i n g f r o m the
large pharmaceutical firm Pfizer, is looldng i n t o t h e toxins o f spiders,
snakes, and scorpions. These compounds, w h i c h attack specific neu-
rochemical targets, are already h e l p i n g researchers i d e n t i f y t i n y
openings i n t h e membranes o f h u m a n neurons that a d m i t charged
molecules called ions. Since i o n channel activity is i m p o r t a n t i n the
signahng o f nerve cells, the company hopes t o develop drugs f o r
reheving anxiety and depression, strokes, and degenerative neurolog-
ical diseases.
 180 / Biomimiay
Besides l o o k i n g at i n d i v i d u a l organisms, biorational prospectors
are also i d e n t i f y i n g settings t h a t they believe w i l l be particularly r i c h
i n toxins. Environments where animals m u s t always be on their
guard against h i g h levels o f disease or parasitism are like giant breed-
ing grounds o f chemical inventiveness. T h e defenses t h a t animals
evolve i n these settings m a y y i e l d magic shields f o r us as w e l l .
T h e ocean tops the list o f promising settings f o r biodiscovery,
says D . John Faulkner, professor o f marine chemistry at the Scripps
I n s t i t u t i o n o f Oceanography. Here, the sheer diversity o f plants and
animals far exceeds w h a t y o u can find on land. M a r i n e creatures are
literally awash i n the chemical byproducts o f other creatures, and
t h e i r watery w o r l d is teeming w i t h microbes. T o stave o f f poisons or
diseases, they have had t o defend themselves i n novel ways.
A doctor n a m e d M i c h a e l Zasloff began to appreciate this w h e n
he n o t i c e d an extraordinary defensive i m m u n i t y i n dogfish sharks
[Squalus acanthias); t h o u g h they were o f t e n scarred i n fights, they
d i d n ' t develop infections. L o o l d n g closer, Zasloff isolated a p o w e r f u l
n e w antibiotic called squalamine f r o m the shark. Zasloff also discov-
ered—^and was later able t o synthesize—two slightly d i f f e r e n t strains
o f a p o w e r f u l n e w antibiotic produced i n frog's skin. T h e discovery
grew o u t o f his observation that surgical wounds i n frogs healed
w i t h o u t i n f l a m m a t i o n and were rarely i n f e c t e d after the frogs were
t h r o w n i n t o a m u r k y aquarium. T h e antibiotics, w h i c h Zasloff calls
magainins [ f r o m the H e b r e w f o r "shield") are the first chemical de-
fense other t h a n the i m m u n e system to be f o u n d i n vertebrates. This
d o c t o r - t u r n e d - b i o m i m i c has since l e f t his post as chief o f h u m a n
genetics at the Children's H o s p i t a l o f Philadelphia to f o r m Magainin
Inc., a company f o u n d e d o n the idea o f biorational d r u g discovery,
Zasloff isn't t h e only h u n t e r at sea, C. M . Ireland o f the U n i -
versity o f U t a h reports t h a t d u r i n g the 1980s alone, seventeen h u n -
dred compounds w i t h bioactive properties were isolated f r o m marine
invertebrates. Despite this obvious wealth, it's only been i n the last
t w o decades t h a t scientists have started systematically scouring the
w o r l d ' s oceans f o r h e l p f u l chemicals.
A s a general rule i n b i o r a t i o n a l discovery, says Charles Arneson,
o f t h e C o r a l Reef Research Foundation, biologist-divers l o o k f o r crea-
tures t h a t should be vulnerable, b u t aren't. For example, Spanish
dancer [Hexabranchus sanguineus], a tasty-looldng six-inch sea slug,
is rarely bothered, despite the f a c t t h a t i t is n o t protected b y a shell
and moves at a slug's pace. Its secret shield t u r n e d o u t t o be a n o x -
ious chemical t h a t n o w f o r m s the basis f o r an a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y
How Will We Heal Ourselves? / 181
drug. Spanish dancer also puts o u t flowerlike egg masses t h a t b i o -
chemist Faulkner says " l o o k good enough t o eat" b u t have no takers.
U p o n investigation, Faulkner and his students f o u n d that the sea slug
sequesters p o w e r f u l compounds f r o m a sponge t h a t i t eats and con-
centrates t h e m i n its eggs. These compounds do more t h a n repel
predators; t h e y also have antifungal properties, and have s h o w n some
activity against h u m a n t u m o r s l
O t h e r examples o f drugs f r o m the deep t h a t are being e x p l o r e d
b y U,S, scientists:
• Discodermolide, f r o m the Bahamian sponge Discodermia dis-
soluta, is a p o w e r f u l immunosuppressive agent t h a t m a y have
a f u t u r e role i n suppressing organ rejection after transplant
surgery.
• Bryostatin, f r o m the West Coast bryozoan [moss animal) Bug-
ula neritina, and d i d e m n i n B, f r o m a Caribbean tunicate [sea
squirt) o f the genus Trididemnum, are b o t h i n chnical trials as
cancer treatments.
• Pseudopterosin E, f r o m the Caribbean gorgonian coral {Pseu-
dopterogorgia elisabethae), and scalaradial, f r o m dictyoceratid
sponges f o u n d i n the western Pacific, are b o t h being studied
as a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y agents.
O n land, b i o r a t i o n a l d r u g prospectors can find crowded, oceanlike
conditions wherever colonies o f organisms gather t o breed i n close
quarters. Seals breeding b y the thousands o n the same beacft, f o r
instance, w o u l d p r o v i d e a f e r t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r disease microbes
t o flourish, w h i c h w o u l d i n t u r n encourage the evolution o f m i c r o -
bial foes. Presumably, the individuals t h a t managed t o fight o f f i n -
fections i n such c r o w d e d settings w o u l d be c h o c k - f u f l o f ingenious
antibiotics, some o f w h i c h may benefit us.
Finally, w e ' d be smart to pay attention t o " e x t r e m o p h i l e s " —
creatures t h a t survive scorching temperatures, m o n t h s o f being f r o -
zen, or extreme salinity. These t o u g h cookies are the special forces
o f l i v i n g creatures, t h r i v i n g i n environments t h a t w o u l d w i l t lesser
species. B y deliberately looldng f o r creatures t h a t awe us, w e m a y
j u s t stumble u p o n a w h o l e n e w chemistry—the spoils o f survival.
 H o w Will We Heal Ourselves? / 183
182 / Biomimicry

stricken crops h a d failed. A s t r i b a l leaders t o l d D o n a l d Vermeer,

SWALLOWING OUR HUBRIS
" W e ate the plants t h e y ate, f o u n d w e were O K , and n o w w e eat
those plants." Even t h e U.S. N a v y understands that animals may
N o t surprisingly, there is a great hue and cry against this biorational
h o l d clues t o our survival. I n the U.S. N a v a l Institute's 1943 b o o k
approach t o d r u g prospecting. I t seems t h a t the idea o f animals being
How to Survive on Land and Sea, authors John and Frank Craighead
wise about t h e i r w o r l d is something t h a t is h a r d f o r some Sons and
w r i t e , " I n general i t is safe t o t r y foods t h a t y o u observe being eaten
Daughters o f Baconian Science t o stomach. Robert M . Sapolsky, as-
by birds and mammals. . . . Food eaten b y rodents or b y monkeys,
sociate professor o f biological science and neuroscience at Stanford
baboons, bears, raccoons, and various other omnivorous animals usu-
University and author o f Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers, came d o w n
ally w i l l be safe f o r y o u t o t r y . "
h a r d o n t h e zoopharmacognosists i n an o p i n i o n piece i n the j o u r n a l
W h y has i t taken so long f o r the rest o f us to come around t o
The Sciences i n early 1994. H e cautioned readers t h a t the medicinal
w h a t is so obvious—that animals l i v i n g i n this w o r l d f o r milhons o f
effects o f p i t h drinldng and leaf swallowing, w h i c h he called "eating
years m i g h t lead us to foods and drugs? Perhaps it's the o l d specter
episodes," were at the m o m e n t no m o r e t h a n anecdotal evidence.
o f t h e behef t h a t animals can't teach us anything. W h e n I ask K e n -
H e claimed t h a t zoopharmacognosists were treading i n t o the N e w
n e t h Glander, he f r o w n s beneath his handlebar mustache and says,
A g e realm b y a t t r i b u t i n g w i s d o m to animals w i t h o u t having the sci-
" I t p r o b a b l y has something to do w i t h the f a c t that w e t h i n k we're
entific evidence t o back i t u p . H o w do w e know the animal is actually
above animals. T o say t h a t w e ' v e learned something b y w a t c h i n g a
getting medical doses f r o r t i w h a t i t eats? asked Sapolsky. H o w can
lower or n o n h u m a n animal c o u l d be v i e w e d as b e l i t t l i n g t o humans."
w e t i e cause t o effect?
H e hears h i m s e l f and stops. "See? Even the t e r m i n o l o g y — ' l o w e r
W r a n g h a m , H u f f m a n , Strier, and Rodriguez defended their n e w
animals' and 'nonhuman'—has a bias b u i l t i n , and t h a t bias is re-
field i n a subsequent article i n The Sciences. T h e y a d m i t t e d t h a t an-
flected i n our reluctance to accept anything t h a t is n o t h u m a n — a n d
i m a l self-medication has n o t yet been proven, nor has i t been s h o w n
in some cases, even other humans" k n o w l e d g e . " He's right. W e ' v e
t h a t animals have innate knowledge o f m e d i c i n a l plants. T h e y I m o w
only recently expanded our Idnship circle t o include indigenous cul-
there is a l o t m o r e w o r k to do. B u t w h i l e Sapolsky says whoa, his tures, to accept the so-cafled p r i m i t i v e s ' knowledge. It's taken those
targets say, look, just because it's c o m p l e x doesn't mean w e should o f us i n the W e s t e r n culture t o o long t o do that, and i n t h e process
abandon the possibility t h a t there's some w i s d o m here t h a t w e c o u l d we've lost the o p p o r t u n i t y t o learn f r o m tribes n o w scattered. F i -
learn f r o m . A s t h e f o u r zoopharmacognosists w r o t e i n t h e i r rebuttal, nally, w e ' r e beginning t o include animals i n our circle o f considera-
" E v e n i f this endeavor doesn't show us n e w drugs, w e t h i n k i t w o r t h - t i o n — h o p i n g against hope t h a t w e are n o t too late.
w h i l e merely because there's a range of animal skills waiting to be
For 99 percent o f the t i m e t h a t humans have been o n Earth, WQ
discovered [emphasis m i n e ] . O f course it's t o u g h w h e n y o u depend
watched the ways o f animals t o ensure our o w n survival as hunters
n o t only o n i n t i m a t e knowledge o f a population's behavior, b u t also
and gatherers. N o w , i n a strange repeat o f history, w e are once again
o n rare events t h a t are d i f f i c u l t to manipulate experimentally. B u t
w a t c h i n g w h a t t h e y eat and w h a t they avoid, w h a t leaves they swal-
w e can take the anecdotes and b u i l d t h e m i n t o evidence."
l o w w h o l e or r u b i n t o t h e i r f u r , and w e are m a k i n g notes t o pass o n
T h e i r closing r e m a r k c o u l d w e l l become the rallying cry o f to our tribe, t h e scientific c o m m u n i t y .
b i o m i m i c s everywhere: " I n an era o f shrinking biological resources,
I n some o f the places w e w a t c h , the h u m a n connection t o the
w e d o n ' t t h i n k it's such a good idea t o rely only o n studies o f labo-
Earth has been severed. There are no cooking fires t o storytefl
ratory rats. Let's keep an open m i n d about ways t o explore the nat-
around, no ceremonial dances t o reenact the m o v e m e n t o f the herds.
ural w o r l d . " A m e n .
Yet even i n the most m o d e r n setting, there is indigenous knowledge
in the coUective w i s d o m o f w i l d c o m m u n i t i e s . A n i m a l s e m b o d y the
N a t i v e Americans h a d no t r o u b l e accepting b i o m i m i c r y . L o n g ago
same rootedness t h a t made local people local experts—they are a
they acknowledged t h a t they were l e d t o t h e i r medicines b y animals,
l i v i n g repository o f habitat knowledge. This habitat Imowledge gives
most notably the bear. Tribes i n A f r i c a also reportedly t u r n e d t o
animals t h e w h e r e w i t h a l t o balance t h e i r diet, to incorporate n e w
animals (their hvestock) to find o u t w h a t t o eat after t h e i r drought-
 184 / Biomimicry

foods w i t h o u t poisoning themselves, t o prevent a n d treat ailments,. C H A P T E R 6

and perhaps even t o influence t h e i r reproductive lives.

W f l d p l a n t eaters have already filtered and screened, assayed and
apphed t h e kaleidoscope o f compounds t h a t make u p t h e i r w o r l d
and ours. I t is t h r o u g h t h e m t h a t w e can tap t h e enormous p o t e n t i a l
o f p l a n t chemicals. B y accepting t h e i r expertise, w e may be retriev-
ing t h e lost thread t o a w o r l d w e once k n e w w e l l . HOW W I L L W E STORE WHAT WE LEARN?
DANCES
WITH
MOLECULES:
COMPUTING
LIKE A CELL

Nerve cells are the mysterious butterflies of the soul, the beating of
whose wings may someday—who knows?—clarify the secret of mental
life.
— S A N T I A G O R A M O N y C A J A L , father of modern brain science

No one can possibly simulate you or me with a system that is less

complex than you or me. The products that we produce may he viewed
as a simulation, and while products can endure in ways that our bod-
ies cannot, they can never capture the richness, complexity, or depth of
purpose of their creator. Beethoven once remarked that the music he
had written was nothing compared with the music he had heard.
— H E I N Z PAGELS, author of The Dreams of Reason

I became curious about Jorge Luis Borges ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 8 6 ) , t h e avant-

garde A r g e n t i n e a n writer, after r u n n i n g across his quotes i n so m a n y
o f the m i n d / b r a i n and c o m p u t e r books I was reading. His stories h a d
made h i m a c u l t figure o f sorts. W h e n I read " T h e Library o f Babel,"
I began t o understand w h y . I n t h a t story, Borges asks us t o imagine
a huge library t h a t contains afl possible books, t h a t is, each and every
c o m b i n a t i o n o f letters, p u n c t u a t i o n marks, and spaces i n t h e Enghsh
language.
M o s t o f the books, o f course, w o u l d be gibberish. B u t scattered
t h r o u g h o u t this vast library o f possibilities w o u l d be books t h a t made
 186 / Biomimicry
sense—all the books w r i t t e n , and all the books yet t o be w r i t t e n . ( A t
times, I agreed w i t h K e v i n Kelly, author o f Out of Control, w h o w r o t e
t h a t i t w o u l d be nice t o visit Borges's library and s i m p l y find his next
b o o k w i t h o u t having t o w r i t e i t . ) Surrounding these readable books,
and f a n n i n g o u t i n all directions i n bookcases shaped like honeycombs,
w o u l d be thousands o f "almost books," books t h a t were almost the
same, except a w o r d was transposed, a c o m m a missing. T h e books
closest to the real b o o k w o u l d be only slightly changed, b u t as y o u got
farther away, the books w o u l d degenerate i n t o gibberish.
Y o u c o u l d w o r k y o u r w a y u p t o a readable b o o k i n the f o l l o w i n g
manner. Pick a b o o k and browse i t . Gibberish, gibberish, gibber—
n o w w a i t a m i n u t e , here's one t h a t has a w h o l e w o r d . Y o u ' d open
a f e w more books, and i f y o u f o u n d one t h a t had t w o words and
t h e n three, y o u ' d Icnow y o u were on t o something. T h e idea w o u l d
be t o w a l k i n the d i r e c t i o n q f increasing order. I f each b o o k made
more sense t h a n the last, y o u W o u l d be getting w a r m . As long as y o u
headed i n the same direction, y o u w o u l d eventually come t o the
center o f order^—the complete book. Perhaps the b o o k y o u are n o w
h o l d i n g i n y o u r hands.
C o m p u t e r scientists call this library o f all possible books a
"space." Y o u can t a l k about the space o f all possible anythings. A l l
possible comic books, all possible paintings, all possible conversa-
tions, all possible mathematical formulas. E v o l u t i o n is like a hike
t h r o u g h the "space" o f all carbon-based l i f e - f o r m s , an u p w a r d climb
past t h e c o n t o u r lines o f the "almost survived" t o t h e m o u n t a i n peak
o f survivors.
Engineering is also a f o r m o f bushwhacldng t h r o u g h the space
o f all possible solutions t o a p r o b l e m , c l i m b i n g t o w a r d better and
better solutions u n t i l y o u reach the o p t i m a l peak. W h e n w e w e n t
looldng f o r a machine t h a t w o u l d represent, store, and manipulate
i n f o r m a t i o n f o r us, w e began the long t r e k t o w a r d modern-day c o m -
puters.
W h a t ' s h u m o r o u s is t h a t w e f o r g o t t h a t w e were n o t t h e only
m o u n t a i n climbers i n the landscape o f c o m p u t i n g space. I n f o r m a t i o n
processing—computing—is the c r u x o f all p r o b l e m solving, w h e t h e r
it's done b y us or b y the banana slug on the log o n w h i c h w e are
about t o sit. L i k e us, the slug takes i n i n f o r m a t i o n , processes i t , and
passes i t along to initiate an action. As i t begins oozing o u t o f our
way, o u r eyes take i n the flicker o f m o v e m e n t and pass i t t o our
brain, saying, " W a i t , d o n ' t sit." B o t h are f o r m s o f c o m p u t i n g / p r o b -
l e m solving, and e v o l u t i o n has been at i t a l o t longer t h a n w e have.
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 187
I n fact, l i f e has been wandering t h r o u g h the landscape o f c o m -
p u t i n g possibilities f o r 3.8 b f l l i o n years. L i f e has a w o r l d o f problems
to solve—how t o eat, survive capricious climates, find mates, escape
f r o m enemies, and m o r e recently, choose the r i g h t stock i n a fluc-
tuating market. D e e p inside m u l t i c e l l u l a r organisms like ourselves,
p r o b l e m solving is occurring on a colossal scale. E m b r y o n i c cells are
deciding t o become liver cells, liver cells are deciding to release sugar,
nerve cells are t e l l i n g muscle cells t o fire or be stfll, the i m m u n e
system is deciding w h e t h e r to zap a n e w f o r e i g n invader, and neurons
are w e i g h i n g i n c o m i n g signals and c h u r n i n g o u t the message " B u y
l o w , sell h i g h . " W i t h m i n d - b o g g l i n g precision, each cell manufac-
tures nearly 200,000 d i f f e r e n t chemicals, hundreds at any one t i m e .
I n technical terms, a h i g h l y distributed, massively parallel c o m p u t e r
is hacking a l i v i n g f o r each o f us.
T h e p r o b l e m is, w e d o n ' t always recognize nature's c o m p u t i n g
styles because t h e y are so d i f f e r e n t f r o m our o w n . I n the vast space
o f all possible c o m p u t i n g styles, our engineers have c l i m b e d one par-
ticular m o u n t a i n — t h a t o f digital silicon c o m p u t i n g . W e use a sym-
bolic code o f zeros and ones, processing i n a linear sequence at great
speeds. W h i l e w e ' v e been p e r f e c t i n g this one ascent, nature has al-
ready scaled numerous peaks i n a w h o l e d i f f e r e n t range.
M i c h a e l C o n r a d is one o f the f e w people i n c o m p u t i n g w h o has
stood on o u r silicon digital peak and taken a l o o k around. Far o f f i n
the distance, he has spied nature's flags on other peaks and decided
to c l i m b t o w a r d t h e m . A b a n d o n i n g zeros and ones, C o n r a d is p u r -
suing a t o t a l l y n e w f o r m o f c o m p u t i n g inspired b y the lock-and-key
interactions o f proteins called enzymes. It's cafled jigsaw c o m p u t i n g ,
and i t uses shape and t o u c h t o literally " f e e l " its w a y to a solution.
I decided t o h i k e o u t t o find h i m .
WHAT?! NO COMPUTER?
A f t e r reading Conrad's papers, I honestly d i d n ' t k n o w w h e t h e r t o
l o o k f o r h i m i n t h e department o f mathematics, q u a n t u m physics,
molecular biology, or evolutionary biology. Ele has w o r k e d f o r a t i m e
i n all o f these disciplines ( I c o u l d n ' t stop myself, he says), b u t these
days, like a volunteer p l a n t flourishing i n a f o r e i g n ecosystem, C o n -
rad brings his organic sensibilities t o the most inorganic o f sciences—•
c o m p u t e r science.
1 was excited about going t o see h i m . A l t h o u g h I make m y h o m e
 188 / Biomimiay
o n t h e edge o f t h e largest wilderness i n t h e l o w e r f o r t y - e i g h t states
and adore all things biological, I a m a shameless t e c h n o p h i l e w h e n
i t comes t o computers. I w r o t e m y first b o o k o n a begged, b o r r o w e d ,
and all b u t stolen O s b o r n t h a t h a d a b l u r r y amber screen t h e size o f
an oscilloscope. I graduated f r o m t h a t t o a sewing-machine-style Ze-
n i t h luggable w i t h a slightly larger green screen and t h e original,
hieroglyphic W o r d S t a r p r o g r a m . I w r o t e t h e n e x t three books peer-
i n g i n t o t h e m o n o c h r o m e scuba mask o f a M a c i n t o s h SE/30 circa
1986 (a very good year i n A p p l e ' s history). Finally, at t h e beginning
o f this book, 1 graduated t o a Power M a c i n t o s h t o p p e d b y a t w e n t y -
i n c h peacock o f a m o n i t o r . 1 a m completely s m i t t e n . T o m e , m y
c o m p u t e r is a semi-animated being, a connector t o other i n q u i r i n g
m i n d s o n t h e I n t e r n e t and a f a i t h f u l recorder f o r every idea t h a t stubs
its toe o n m y receptors. I n short, it's a m i n d amplifier, l e t t i n g m e
leap t a l l buildings o f i m a g i n a t i o n .
So, naturally, o n m y w a y over t o M i c h a e l Conrad's office at
W a y n e State U n i v e r s i t y i n D e t r o i t , I began t o w o n d e r w h a t I ' d see.
Since he is head o f t h e cutting-edge B i o C o m p u t i n g G r o u p , I t h o u g h t
he m i g h t be a beta tester f o r A p p l e and I ' d get t o see t h e n e x t
P o w e r b o o k or t h e operating system code-named G e r s h w i n . M a y b e
he h a d a w h o l e w a l l f u U o f those flat-panel screens, c o n t r o l l e d via a
console/dashboard at his fingertips. O r maybe t h e desk itself w o u l d
be a c o m p u t e r , ergonomie and w r a p a r o u n d , w i t h a m o n i t o r b u i l t
i n t o eyeglasses a n d a keyboard t h a t y o u wear like a glove. This w o u l d
be something t o see, I t h o u g h t . L u c k i l y , I h a d a f e w minutes alone
i n Conrad's o f f i c e before he a r r i v e d — t i m e t o check o u t t h e gear.
It's strange. H e r e I am, i n t h e lair o f one o f t h e most e m i n e n t
m i n d s i n f u t u r i s t i c c o m p u t i n g , a n d there isn't a C P U [central proc-
essing unit—^the guts o f t h e c o m p u t e r ) i n sight. N o S I M M S , R A M ,
R O M o r L A N S , either. Instead, there are paintings. N o t computer-
generated laser prints, b u t heavy oils and watercolors w i t h Conrad's
signature o n t h e m . T h e largest, t h e size o f a blackboard, looks like a
fevered dream o f t h e tropics spied t h r o u g h a lens t h a t sees only
greens, yellows, a n d blacks. I t is disturbingly f e c u n d — a hallucino-
genic j u n g l e o f vines, heart-shaped leaves, and y e l l o w blossoms, spi-
raiing t o w a r d t h e viewer. A smaller p a i n t i n g o f a painter—a
Frenchman w i t h beret and palette o u t b y t h e docks somewhere—
greets y o u as y o u come inside Conrad's office, as i f t o say, t o visitors
and t o h i m s e l f returning, t h e mathematician is really a painter. There
are also paintings b y his daughter. O n e o n his desk has Picasso-esque
double faces and daisy-petal legs going r o u n d i n a w h e e l . I later find
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 189
o u t t h a t she is five, t h e age C o n r a d was w h e n he asked his parents
f o r o f l paints.
B e h i n d his desk sits an o l d O l y m p i a t y p e w r i t e r (manual) and
f r o m t h e looks o f fresh droppings o f correction fluid, i t still sees use.
Finally I p i c k o u t t h e c o m p u t e r , nearly s w a f l o w e d b y a w h i t e w h a l e
of papers, journals, and notebooks. I t ' s a y e l l o w i n g M a c Plus f r o m
t h e early eighties, n o w considered an antique. W h e n y o u t u r n i t o n ,
a l i t t i e b e f l rings Ta Dal, and a c o m p u t e r w i t h a happy face pops o n
the screen a n d says W E L C O M E T O M A C I N T O S H . I a m perplexed.
W h e n C o n r a d arrives, I recognize h i m f r o m t h e French artist
painting. H e is w i t h o u t t h e palette b u t he does wear a m a r o o n beret
over a graying p o n y t a f l and zigzagging part. H i s eyes are so v e r y alive
t h a t they almost tear u p w i t h e m o t i o n w h e n he loolcs at y o u . H e has
caught m e ogling his M a c Plus and he goes over t o i t . I expect h i m
to t h r o w an a r m around i t and t e f l m e h o w i m p o r t a n t this machine
was t o t h e c o m p u t e r r e v o l u t i o n . Instead he says, " T h i s is t h e deadest
t h i n g i n t h e universe."
PORT ME N O T :A C O M P U T E R
IS N O T A G I A N T BRAIN
I n t h e forties,, t h e t e r m computers referred t o people, specifically
mathematicians h i r e d b y t h e defense d e p a r t m e n t t o calculate trajec-
tories o f armament. I n t h e fifties, these bipedal computers w e r e re-
placed b y c o m p u t i n g machines l o i o w n colloquially as giant brains. I t
was a t e m p t i n g metaphor, b u t i t was far f r o m true. W e n o w k n o w
t h a t computers are n o t h i n g like o u r brains, or even like t h e brains
o f slugs or hamsters. For one t h i n g , o u r t h i n k i n g parts are made o f
carbon, a n d computers' are made o f sflicon.
"There's a clear line i n t h e sand between carbon and s f l i c o n , "
says Conrad, and w h e n he reahzes his p u n (sflicon is sand) he breaks
i n t o a fit o f laughter t h a t springs loose a f e w tears. ( I like this guy.)
H e wipes his eyes a n d begins t o p a i n t a p i c t u r e o f t h e differences
between t h e h u m a n b r a i n and a c o m p u t e r , t h e reasons he t h i n k s a
silk purse w i l l never be made f r o m this silicon ear.
L Brained beings can walk and chew gum and learn at the same
time; silicon digital computers can't.
I n t h e "space" o f afl possible problems, m o d e r n computers prove
w o r t h y steeds, d o i n g a w o n d e r f u l j o b o f n u m b e r crunching, data
 190 / Biomimicry
m a n i p u l a t i o n , even graphic m a n i p u l a t i o n tasks. T h e y can m i x ,
m a t c h , and sort bits and bytes w i t h aplomb. T h e y can even make
dinosaurs f r o m t h e Jurassic Era seem t o come alive on the screen.
B u t finally, our steeds stall w h e n w e ask t h e m to do things t h a t w e
take f o r granted, things w e do w i t h o u t thinldng. Remember negoti-
ating the c r o w d e d dance floor at y o u r twenty-year reunion? Scanning
a f e w feet ahead, y o u recognized faces f r o m the past, p u t names to
t h e m , spotted someone approaching you, and recalling "the inci-
dent," y o u h i d b e h i n d a tray o f h a m rofl-ups. A l l i n a split second.
A s k a c o m p u t e r t o do afl this and y o u ' d w a i t an ice age f o r a re-
sponse.
T h e f a c t is t h a t humans and m a n y so-called " l o w e r " animals do
a great j o b o f interacting w i t h a c o m p l e x environment; computers
d o n ' t . W e perceive situations, w e recognize patterns quickly, and w e
learn, i n real t i m e , via hundreds o f thousands o f processors (neurons)
w o r k i n g i n parallel; computers don't. They've got keyboards and
mice, w h i c h , as i n p u t devices go, can't h o l d a candle t o ears, eyes,
and taste buds.
Engineers k n o w this, and they w o u l d love t o b u i l d computers
t h a t are m o r e like us. Instead o f t y p i n g i n t o t h e m , w e w o u l d simply
show t h e m things, or they w o u l d notice f o r themselves. T h e y w o u l d
be able to answer n o t just yes or no, b u t maybe. Spotting someone
w h o looks familiar, they w o u l d venture a f u z z y guess as to the per-
son's name, and i f they were m o b f l e (robotic), they w o u l d tap the
person on the shoulder or w h e e l away, depending o n w h a t they had
learned i n the past. L i k e most o f us, as our computers got older,
t h e y ' d get wiser.
B u t at this p o i n t , afl these tasks—pattern recognition, paraflel
processing, and learning—are stuck o n the d r a w i n g boards. T h e y are,
i n the w o r d s o f c o m p u t e r theorists, "recalcitrant problems w i t h c o m -
binatorial explosions," meaning t h a t as the c o m p l e x i t y o f the p r o b -
l e m grows (scanning a r o o m f u l o f faces instead o f j u s t one), the
a m o u n t o f p o w e r and speed needed to crack the n u t "explodes."
T h e already b l i n d i n g speed o f m o d e r n processors can't t o u c h the
task. T h e question has become, h o w do w e speed t h e m up? O r more
precisely, h o w do w e speed t h e m u p i f we're still stuck on controlling
them?
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 191
2. Brains are unpredictable, but conventional computing is
obsessed with control.
Today's c o m p u t e r c h i p is essentially a s w i t c h i n g n e t w o r k — a railyard
of switches and wires^—with electrons (the basic particles o f elec-
t r i c i t y ) instead o f trains traveling to and f r o . E v e r y t h i n g is c o n t r o l l e d
via switches—tiny gates at intervals along the wires t h a t either b l o c k
the flow o f electrons or let t h e m pass t h r o u g h . B y applying a voltage
to these gates, w e can open or close t h e m to represent zeros or ones.
I n short, w e can c o n t r o l t h e m .
O n e w a y t o speed computers u p w o u l d be t o shorten electrons'
c o m m u t i n g t i m e b y shrinldng .switches and packing t h e m closer t o -
gether. K n o w i n g this, c o m p u t e r engineers have been " d o i n g an A l -
ice"—hanging o u t around the l o o k i n g glass and i t c h i n g t o go smaller.
Behind the m i r r o r is a q u a n t u m w o r l d w e ' c a n barely f a t h o m , m u c h
less p r e d i c t — a w o r l d o f parallel universes, superposition principles,
electron t u n n e l i n g , and w a y w a r d t h e r m a l effects. A s m u c h as t h e y ' d
like t o cross t h a t threshold, c o m p u t e r engineers aclcnowledge t h a t
there's a l i m i t t o h o w small electronic components can be. It's called
Point One. B e l o w .1 m i c r o n (the w i d t h o f a D N A cofl, or I / 5 0 0 t h
the w i d t h o f a h u m a n hair) electrons w i l l laugh at a closed s w i t c h
and t u n n e l r i g h t t h r o u g h . I n a system b u i l t around control, this
" j u m p i n g the tracks" w o u l d spell disaster.
A n o t h e r route t o speedier and m o r e p o w e r f u l computers w o u l d
be t o keep t h e components w e have n o w b u t j u s t add more o f t h e m ;
instead o f one processor, w e ' d have thousands w o r l d n g i n parallel t o
solve a p r o b l e m . A t first blush, parallelism sounds good. T h e draw-
back is t h a t w e can't be c o m p l e t e l y sure o f w h a t w i l l happen w h e n
m a n y programs are r u n concurrently. Programmers w o u l d n ' t be able'
to l o o k i n the user's m a n u a l t o p r e d i c t h o w programs w o u l d interact.
Once again, c o n t r o l — t h e great i d o l o f conventional c o m p u t i n g —
w o u l d do a faceplant.
W h e n y o u l o o k under the hood, y o u realize t h a t w e d i d n ' t b u f l d
the "giant b r a i n " i n our image—we b u i l t i t as a dependable, versatile
appliance t h a t w e c o u l d c o n t r o l . T h e t r i c k to predictable p e r f o r -
mance is c o n f o r m i t y (as the m i l i t a r y w e l l k n o w s ) . Standardized c o m -
ponents m u s t operate according t o Specs, so t h a t any programmer i n
t h e w o r l d can consult the m a n u a l and w r i t e software t h a t w i l l c o n t r o l
the computer's operations. This c o n f o r m i t y comes at a price, h o w -
ever, w h i c h is w h y our computers, u n l i k e our individualized brains,
can't learn t o learn.
 192 / Biomimiay
3. Brains are not structurally programmable the way
computers are.
I n the silicon railyard o f wires and switches, the modern-day s w i t c h -
m e n are programmers. T h e y w r i t e instructions i n the special lan-
guage o f p r o g r a m m i n g code, w h i c h w e call software. W h e n w e
double click o n a screen icon, our software w h i r s t o life, barldng
orders to the switches deep inside the computer, telling the gates
w h e n t o open or close, connecting the tracks i n new ways, and
thereby changing the structure o f the network, enabling i t t o p e r f o r m
a n e w f u n c t i o n . M a k i n g the c o m p u t e r "structurally p r o g r a m m a b l e "
was the dream c h i l d o f a m a n named John v o n N e u m a n n . H e w a n t e d
the c o m p u t e r t o be t h e player piano o f i n f o r m a t i o n — a universal
device t h a t c o u l d , w i t h software t o m o r p h the n e t w o r k , become a
w o r d processor, a spreadsheet, or a game o f Tetris.
O u r brains, o f course, are n o t structurally programmable. W h e n
w e w a n t t o learn something, w e d o n ' t read a b o o k t h a t tells us h o w
to change our b r a i n chemistry t o remember a blues r i f f or the date
o f Delaware's statehood. W e take o n i n f o r m a t i o n , and our neuronal
net is free t o structurally store the data on its own, using whatever
mechanical and q u a n t u m forces i t can muster. N e u r o n connections
are strengthened, axons g r o w dendrites, chemicals m o v e i n myste-
rious ways.
It's this physical processing, t h e n , t h a t makes our cells so dif-
f e r e n t f r o m our computers. W h i l e o u r PCs process i n f o r m a t i o n sym-
bolically, w i t h l o n g strings o f zeros and ones, our cells c o m p u t e
physically, w o r l d n g at the level o f the molecule. W e brain-owners
take our lessons o n an interpretive level—and the b o d y automatically
takes care o f the rest. M i c h a e l Conrad's vision f o r c o m p u t i n g is
perched o n this same peak.
4. Brains compute physically, not logically or symbolically.
Suddenly, C o n r a d holds his p e n c i l h i g h above his desk and lets go.
" T h i s , " he says t r i u m p h a n t l y as the pencil bounces, skitters, and rolls
to a stop among his papers, "is h o w nature computes." Instead o f
switches, contends Conrad, nature computes w i t h submicroscopic
molecules t h a t jigsaw together, literally falling t o a solution.
Molecules are groups o f atoms assembled according t o the laws
o f physics i n t o three-dimensional sculptures ( t h i n k o f the c o l o r f u l
ball-and-rod sculptures t h a t scientists on Nova are always display-
ing]. Large biomolecules can be made u p o f tens o f thousands o f
atoms, and yet the finished object is still ten thousand times smaller
How Mm We Store What We Leam? / 193
than the cells i n our bodies, a thousand times smaller than our silicon
transistors. A molecule can't c h i p or erode, and t h o u g h i t can be
bent or flattened, i t ' l l always spring back t o shape. T h e driving force
at this scale is n o t gravity, b u t the push and p u l l o f t h e r m o d y n a m i c
forces.
A molecule's goal i n l i f e is, like the pencil's, t o f a l l t o the m i n -
i m u m energy l e v e l — t o relax. W h e n t w o molecules free-floating i n a
l i q u i d b u m p i n t o one another so t h a t t h e i r shapes correspond like
jigsaw pieces and t h e i r electrical charges line u p i n register, there is
an i m m e d i a t e attraction—an adding together o f t h e i r weak forces—
t h a t is stronger t h a n the urge to stay separated. I n fact, i t w o u l d take
m o r e energy at this p o i n t t o keep t h e m apart t h a n t o let t h e m self-
assemble. L i k e people f a l l i n g asleep and finally r o l l i n g t o w a r d the sag
i n the bed, c o m p l e m e n t a r y molecules "snap" together as they relax.
It's called " m i n i m i z i n g t h e i r free energy."
Right n o w , m i x - a n d - m a t c h molecules are snapping together i n
every cell i n every l i f e - f o r m on the planet. C o n r a d believes t h e i r
fraternizing is a f o r m o f i n f o r m a t i o n processing, and t h a t each cell
i n our brain, each neuron, is a t i n y , bona fide computer. T h e b r a i n
manages t o w i r e together one hundred billion o f these computers i n
one massive n e t w o r k . ( T o get a feel f o r that number, come stand
under the velvet M o n t a n a sky and check o u t the M i l k y W a y . It's one
h u n d r e d b i f l i o n stars strong—one star f o r every person on Earth,
times seventeen.] B u t there's m o r e . Inside each n e u r o n are tens o f
thousands o f molecules engaged i n a fantastic game o f chemical tag
set i n m o t i o n each t i m e , f o r instance, the phone rings.
It's 2:00 A . M . , and y o u are i n a h o t e l r o o m fast asleep. T h e
phone rings, setting o f f an amazing feat o f c o m p u t a t i o n , b i o l o g y
style. T h e first set o f sound waves pounds like a hurricane against
the hairlike cilia i n y o u r ear canal. These movements are t u r n e d i n t o
electrical impulses t h a t wake y o u . Y o u r body's mission is t o integrate
i n c o m i n g signals, come t o a conclusion, and do something, n o w .
Adrenaline molecules, the Green Berets o f fear and anger, b a i l
out o f a gland and i n t o y o u r bloodstream, heading f o r nerve endings.
A t the shoreline o f the nerve endings, molecules called receptors
h o l d o u t t h e i r "arms" t o catch the adrenaline molecules. Once the
receptors are f u l l , they change shape and " s w i t c h o n " special en-
zymes inside the cell, w h i c h i n t u r n activate a w h o l e cascade o f
chemical reactions. T h e effects d i f f e r depending o n the cell.
I n y o u r liver, the cascade m a y signal cells t o start breaking d o w n
t h e i r stored sugar and s w a m p i n g y o u r bloodstream w i t h glucose f o r
 194 / Biomimiay
fast energy. Y o u r sldn is t o l d to tighten, your heart to speed, and
y o u r entire t h i r t y - f i v e feet o f intestine t o shut d o w n ( y o u have better
things t o do i n a crisis t h a n digest dinner). I n your brain, the chemical
cascade causes an electrical "action p o t e n t i a l " t o snake like a spark
along a l i p i d ( f a t ) fuse. A t the end o f its journey, it's n o t the spark
t h a t j u m p s f r o m one neuron t o another, b u t another boatload o f
chemicals. A n d it's this j o u r n e y that most interests M i c h a e l Conrad.
T h e chemicals t h a t are released f r o m one neuron to another are
called neurotransmitters (serotonin, the m o o d regulator affected by
Prozac, is one example). These burst t h r o u g h the cell membrane at
t h e end o f one n e u r o n and float b y the hundreds across the l i q u i d
strait—the synaptic gap—to the shore o f another neuron. Here they
dock i n the w a v i n g arms o f receptors, w h i c h , i n t u r n , change shape
and t r i p o f f a series o f t h e i r o w n chemical cascades deep inside the
n e w neuron.
These chemical cascades cause gating proteins i n the neuron's
membrane t o open, l e t t i n g i n a m f l l i n g c r o w d o f salt ions. T h i s i n f l u x
o f charged particles causes the electrical e n v i r o n m e n t o f the
membrane to reverse itself r i g h t at the p o i n t o f entry. T h e outside
membrane, w h i c h was once positively charged relative to the inside,
becomes negatively charged relative t o the inside i n t h a t spot. This
flip-flop travels like an electrical shiver d o w n the neuron, and at the
end, i t p r o m p t s the release o f yet another barrage o f neurotransmit-
ters t h a t float across t h e synapse to the n e x t neuron. T h e result o f
all this is y o u r e m e m b e r i n g w h o y o u are and where y o u are and
w h a t a p h o n e is, and p i c k i n g i t up just i n t i m e t o become simulta-
neously f u r i o u s (it's a prank) and relieved i t wasn't something worse.
I n crisis or i n sleep, y o u r body is busy at c o m p u t a t i o n a l chores
like this one. C a r b o n compounds i n a m f l l i o n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s are
j o i n i n g , separating, and rejoining to pass messages along. This process
doesn't happen just i n neurons, e i t h e r — i t occurs i n less flashy cells
as w e l l . Shape-based c o m p u t i n g is at the heart o f hormone-receptor
hookups, antigen-antibody matchups, genetic i n f o r m a t i o n transfer,
and cell d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , j u s t to name a f e w . L i f e uses the shape o f
chemicals t o i d e n t i f y , to categorize, t o deduce, and t o decide w h a t
t o do: h o w m a n y endorphins t o make f o r the blissful runner's high,
w h i c h muscles t o cause to contract, h o w m a n y bacteria to k i l l ,
w h e t h e r t o become a tongue cell or an eye cell. W i t h o u t shape-based
c o m p u t i n g , e m b r y o s — w h i c h begin l i f e at the size o f a p e r i o d on this
page and t h e n divide only fifty times t o become h u m a n babies—
w o u l d n ' t be able t o f o l l o w their recipe f o r development. W e literally
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 195
w o u l d n ' t be here w i t h o u t the chemical messenger system t h a t is
choreographed b y shape-based, lock-and-key interactions.
W h e n C o n r a d explains these "chemical cascades," he speaks as
i f he has floated across the straits o f a synapse himself, r i d d e n the
f o u n t a i n f r o m the chemical signal u p to the macroscopic electrical
signal and back d o w n t o t h e chemical signal. " T h e most i m p o r t a n t
conceptual j o u r n e y f o r m e was t o go inside the n e u r o n and slosh
a r o u n d at the chemical l e v e l , " he says. "There, three-dimensional
molecules are c o m p u t i n g b y t o u c h . Pattern recognition is a physi-
cal process, a scaiming process, n o t t h e logical process i t is w h e n
our computers recognize a pattern o f zeros and ones. L i f e doesn't
n u m b e r - c r u n c h ; l i f e computes b y feeling its w a y t o a s o l u t i o n . "
5. Brains are made o f carbon, n o t silicon.
I f y o u are going to rely on shape to feel y o u r w a y to a solution, y o u
have t o use molecules t h a t can assume m i l l i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t shapes.
L i f e Icnew w h a t i t was doing w h e n i t chose carbon as its substrate
f o r c o m p u t i n g . For one t h i n g , carbon is free to participate i n a great
variety o f strong bonds w i t h other atoms and is quite stable once
bonded, neither donating nor accepting electrons. Silicon, on the
other hand, tends t o be m o r e fickle i n its bonding, and is n o t able t o
f o r m as m a n y shapes as carbon can. As a result, C o n r a d believes l i f e
c o u l d n o t have evolved its shape-based c o m p u t i n g using silicon.
" A n d that's w h y , i f w e w a n t t o t r y physical c o m p u t i n g as opposed
t o logical or symbolic c o m p u t i n g , w e have t o eventually say good-
bye t o silicon and hello t o carbon."
T h e clamor f o r carbon is n o t exactly heard across the land, h o w -
ever. M a n y artificial intefligence researchers are still p u t t i n g all t h e i r
f a i t h i n silicon. T h e sci-fi idea b f " p o r t i n g " our brains, or at least our
t h o u g h t patterns, t o a c o m p u t e r host w o u l d supposedly allow us t o
live forever in silica. A c c o r d i n g t o Conrad, it's the u l t i m a t e m i n d -
b o d y split. " I t ' s absurd t o t h i n k y o u can remove the logic o f con-
scious t h o u g h t f r o m its material base and t h i n k y o u haven't lost
anything. Even i f y o u were able t o p u t your t h o u g h t patterns i n a
n u m e r i c a l code (the premise o f 'strong' artificial intefligence t h e o r y ) ,
i t w o u l d be only the map, n o t t h e territory. The territory, the seat
o f intefligence, is proteins and sugars and fats and nucleic acids—all
carbon-based molecules."
M a t t e r matters. A n d so, i t seems, does the connectedness o f this
matter.
 196 / Biomimicry
6. Brains compute in massive parallel; computers use
linear processing.
A l t h o u g h neuroscientists have t r i e d f o r decades to find t h e physical
headquarters o f consciousness, the grand central sage t h a t organizes
our thoughts, they have had t o conclude t h a t there is no central
c o m m a n d . Instead, says author K e v i n Kelly, the " w i s d o m o f the n e t "
presides. Thoughts arise f r o m a m e s h w o r k o f nodes (neurons) con-
nected i n democratic parallelism—thousands attached t o thousands
attached t o thousands o f neurons—all o f w h i c h can be harnessed t o
solve a p r o b l e m in parallel.
Computers, o n the other hand, are linear processors; c o m p u t i n g
tasks are b r o k e n d o w n i n t o easily executed pieces, w h i c h queue u p
i n an orderly fashion t o be processed one at a t i m e . A l l calculations
have t o f u n n e l t h r o u g h this so-called " v o n N e u m a n n bottleneck."
Seers i n the c o m p u t i n g field bemoan the inefficiency o f this setup;
n o m a t t e r h o w m a n y fancy coihponents y o u have under the hood,
m o s t o f t h e m are d o r m a n t at any given t i m e . A s C o n r a d says, "It's
like having y o u r toe be alive one m i n u t e , and t h e n your forehead,
and t h e n y o u r t h u m b . That's no w a y to r u n a b o d y or a c o m p u t e r . "
Linear processing also makes our computers vulnerable. I f some-
t h i n g blocks t h e bottleneck, t h a t dreaded smoking b o m b appears o n
the screen. T h e redundancy o f net-hood, o n the other hand, makes
t h e b r a i n unflappable^—a f e w b r a i n cells dying here and there w o n ' t
sink the w h o l e system (good news t o those w h o survived t h e sixties).
A net is also able t o accommodate n e w c o m e r s — w h e n a n e w neuron
or connection comes on line, its interaction w i t h other neurons
makes the w h o l e stronger. Thanks to this flexibility, a b r a i n can
learn.
I n an e f f o r t t o i m i t a t e this brain-net i n software f o r m , a p r o -
g r a m m i n g m o v e m e n t called " c o n n e c t i o n i s m " has blossomed. I n t h e
last decade, "neural n e t " programs have been showing u p on W a l l
Street, i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g plants, and i n political spin factories—wher-
ever predictions need to be made. N e u r a l nets are programs, like
y o u r word-processing program, t h a t r u n on t o p o f old-fashioned
linear hardware. Inside y o u r c o m p u t e r they create a v i r t u a l mesh-
w o r k composed o f i n p u t neurons, o u t p u t neurons, and a level o f
h i d d e n neurons i n between, all copiously connected the w a y a b r a i n
m i g h t be.
N e u r a l nets digest vast amounts o f historical data, t h e n seek
relationships b e t w e e n t h a t data and actual outcomes. A t a campaign
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 197
headquarters, f o r instance, a net m i g h t crunch all the p o l l i n g and
demographic data f o r 1992 and t h e n t r y t o find a relation b e t w e e n
t h a t and w h o w o n the N e w H a m p s h i r e p r i m a r y . Eventually, y o u
w a n t y o u r net t o concoct a rule about i t all, something like " I f X
and Y occur, t h e n chances are Z w i l l happen." Usually i t takes some
practice t o come u p w i t h this rule, i n the same w a y that a dog has
to catch a f e w Frisbees before i t makes u p a rule about w h e r e a
Frisbee w f l l land. T h e neural net isn't a great predictor r i g h t o u t o f
the box; y o u have t o t r a i n i t b y tossing i t statistics f r o m the past and
having i t guess the outcome.
Say a soda m a n u f a c t u r e r wants a neural net t o predict its sales
figures i n a particular t o w n . I t feeds t h e net reams o f historical i n -
f o r m a t i o n : m o n t h l y temperatures, demographics, and advertising
budget spent there i n previous years. G i v e n this constellation o f con-
ditions, the net connects its neurons i n a certain w a y and tries t o
guess sales i n previous years. A t first, i t ventures a w f l d guess. T h e
trainer t h e n feeds back the correct answer^—the actual sales figures—
and the net adjusts its connections and guesses again. I t keeps re-
adjusting its connections, revising its rule u n t i l i t can correctly p r e d i c t
where the data w i l l lead.
The reason nets learn so quicldy is t h a t connections b e t w e e n
inputs can be w e i g h t e d , as i n , this i n p u t is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n
t h a t i n p u t , so this connection should be strengthened. T o t h e stu-
dent o f b r a i n science, this t h e o r y o f learning seems m o r e t h a n
f a i n t l y f a m i l i a r . I n 1949, Canadian psychologist D o n a l d O . H e b b
postulated t h a t memories (associative learning) were processed
physically—the connections b e t w e e n neurons actually changed—
and they grew stronger or weaker depending o n w h e t h e r n e u r o i i A
h a d caused n e u r o n B t o fire. T h e idea was t h a t the n e x t t i m e neu-
ron A fired, n e u r o n B w o u l d be m o r e hkely t o fire because o f
some sort o f " g r o w t h process or metabolic change" t h a t strength-
ened the connection between the t w o . Hebb's guess was t h a t den-
dritic, or branching, "spines" w o u l d g r o w between nerve cells t o
establish stronger connections. " I t ' s the neurons-that-play-together-
stay-together idea," says Conrad.
W h i l e our in silico neurons can't exactly g r o w spines, the net-
w o r k is able t o adjust its connections again and again d u r i n g a t r a i n -
ing process, all the w h i l e nudging t o w a r d a correct answer and, i n
the process, embodying a predictive m o d e l (a rule) i n its n e t w o r k
architecture. Once the w i n n i n g n e t w o r k configuration is i n place.
 198 / Biomimiay
these v i r t u a l neurons, r u n i n v i r t u a l parallel, can q u i c k l y and uncan-
n i l y reach the right solutions. I n no t i m e , they're catching the Frisbee
on the r u n .
T h e n e x t step, o f course, is to b u i l d net-hood right i n t o the
hardware. Some c o m p u t e r designers are already etching neural nets
onto silicon chips, w h i l e T h i n k i n g Machines, Inc., is hooldng sixty-
f o u r thousand processors together i n t o one giant C o n n e c t i o n M a -
chine. A s s u m i n g I c o u l d a f f o r d the $35 m i l l i o n m o d e l , I ask Conrad,
w o u l d m y n e w C o n n e c t i o n Machine r u n n i n g a neural net be more
like a brain?
"Connectionist hardware and software b r i n g us closer," he says,
" b u t they still miss an essential t r u t h . Connections are i m p o r t a n t ,
b u t connecting simple switches or simple processors together is n o t
h o w the b r a i n got t o where i t is today." T h e b r a i n astounds because
every single neuron i n the net is a w i z a r d i n its o w n right. A n d
neurons are far f r o m simple.
7. N e u r o n s are sophisticated computers, n o t simple switches.
I n the late sixties and early seventies, C o n r a d t h o u g h t extensively
about neurons and t h e i r interplay. " I began t o realize t h a t the neuron
was a f u l l - f l e d g e d chemical computer, processing i n f o r m a t i o n at a
molecular l e v e l . " H i s first papers about "enzymatic neurons" ap-
peared i n 1972 t o somewhat skeptical reviews. "It's still controversial
to call a n e u r o n a chemical c o m p u t e r , " he says, " b u t today, more
and m o r e neurophysiologists seem sympathetic t o the idea. Finding
someone w h o believed as I d i d t w e n t y years ago—now that was a
red-letter day.
" I t was 1978 or '79, I t h i n k . A student came i n t o m y office and
showed m e an abstract o f a paper on molecular c o m p u t i n g by E. A .
L i b e r m a n , and I t h o u g h t , so there is someone else i n the w o r l d using
this t e r m . I i m m e d i a t e l y arranged to visit his l a b . " C o n r a d spent the
f o l l o w i n g year as a U.S. N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f Sciences Exchange
Scientist to w h a t was t h e n the Soviet U n i o n .
H e and L i b e r m a n spent a l o t o f t i m e talking about w h a t makes
neurons t i c k . U p t o this p o i n t , neurons had been studied only f o r
t h e i r response t o electrical probings, the theory being t h a t electrical
impulses alone were responsible f o r t h o u g h t . B u t as L i b e r m a n
showed Conrad, neurons c o u l d fire w i t h o u t electric help. A l l a neu-
ron needed was an i n j e c t i o n o f cyclic A M P , the chemical messenger
t h a t is i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the cascade o f signals leading t o a neuron's
firing. T h e shot o f c A M P n o t only caused the neuron to fire, b u t
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 199
" d i f f e r e n t concentrations o f c A M P had t h e neuron talking d i f f e r e n t l y
and f a i r l y rapidly to other neurons." I t was a stunning sight, r e m e m -
bers Conrad.
O t h e r labs were doing similar experiments. I t soon became clear
to other scientists t h a t n e u r o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n was an electrochem-
ical p h e n o m e n o n , a dance far m o r e c o m p l e x than the simple "yes
or n o " o f neuronal firing. W h e n a n e u r o n makes a decision, i t has t o
consider some one thousand opinions c o m i n g f r o m the axons at-
tached t o i t . Instead o f j u s t averaging votes, i t considers these o p i n -
ions i n detail. T h e receptors b o b b i n g i n the cell membrane are like
d o o r m e n t h a t receive messages f r o m at least fifty d i f f e r e n t brands o f
neurotransmitter. T h e d o o r m e n i n t u r n relay the message t o " h e l p -
ers" inside the cell w h o create secondary messages i n the f o r m o f
clouds o f chemicals such as c A M P . A b o v e a certain threshold con-
centration, c A M P turns o n an enzyme called p r o t e i n kinase, w h i c h
i n t u r n opens a gating p r o t e i n . T h e gating p r o t e i n causes a channel
i n the m e m b r a n e t o open or close, letting i n or keeping o u t charged
particles, thereby c o n t r o l l i n g the electrical shiver, and c o n t r o l l i n g
w h e t h e r and j u s t h o w r a p i d l y the neuron w i l l fire.
T o complicate matters, there is n o t j u s t one d o o r m a n receiving
the message, b u t several d i f f e r e n t doormen, all getting d i f f e r e n t mes-
sages, w h i c h t h e y m a y or m a y n o t pass on t o helpers. Inside, the
helpers have t h e i r o w n conundrums. T h e y m a y receive messages
f r o m m o r e t h a n one doorman, and m u s t t h e n decide w h i c h message
to respond to. I n certain cases, t h e y m a y decide t o combine the
messages and respond t o t h e net action o f the t w o .
It's no w o n d e r t h a t Gerald D . Fischbach, chairman o f t h e D e -
p a r t m e n t o f N e u r o b i o l o g y at H a r v a r d M e d i c a l School, agrees t h a t
the n e u r o n is "a sophisticated c o m p u t e r . " I n a September 1992 ar-
ticle i n Scientific American he writes: " T o set the intensity (action
p o t e n t i a l f r e q u e n c y ) o f its o u t p u t , each neuron m u s t c o n t i n u a l l y i n -
tegrate u p t o 1,000 synaptic inputs, w h i c h do n o t add u p i n a simple
linear manner. . . . T h e enzymes make a decision about w h e t h e r the
cells are going t o fire and h o w t h e y w i l l fire. . . . [ B ] y fine-tuning
t h e i r activity, [enzymes] m a y have an active role i n learning. I t m a y
be their ability t o change t h a t gives us a malleable machine—the
neuron,"
T h i n k i n g is certainly n o t the yes-or-no, fire-or-not-fire proposi-
t i o n i t was once believed t o be. Each week, biological journals are
filled w i t h descriptions o f n e w l y discovered messenger molecules,
helpers, and d o o r m e n . There's a cast o f thousands i n there, w e i g h i n g
 200 / Biomimicry
and considering inputs, using q u a n t u m physics t o scan other mole-
cules, transducing signals and a m p l i f y i n g messages, and after all that
c o m p u t a t i o n , sending signals o f their o w n . I n silicon c o m p u t i n g , we
completely ignore this c o m p l e x i t y , replacing neurons w i t h simple
o n - o r - o f f switches.
" W h e n y o u w a n t t o f i n d the real c o m p u t e r b e h i n d the c u r t a i n , "
says Conrad, " y o u have to p u t y o u r cursor on the n e u r o n and double
click. That's where y o u ' l l find the c o m p u t e r o f the f u t u r e . W h a t I
w a n t t o do is replace a w h o l e n e t w o r k o f digital switches w i t h one
neuronlike processor t h a t w i l l do everything the n e t w o r k does and
m o r e . T h e n I ' d like t o connect lots o f these neuronlike processors
together and see w h a t happens." By this p o i n t , I k n e w better t h a n
to ask h i m w h a t t h a t m i g h t be. W h e n adaptable systems are i n -
volved, p r e d i c t i o n is f u t i l e .
8. Brains are equipped to evolve by using side effects. Computers
must freeze out all side effects.
" H o w is a b r a i n like a box-spring mattress?" riddles Conrad. Answer:
Y o u take one spring o u t o f a boxspring, and y o u ' r e n o t likely t o
notice i t because there are p l e n t y o f others. I n the same way, nature
builds i n redundancy so t h a t change, good or bad, can be accom-
modated. W h e n w e l o o k at the nerve circuitry i n a fish, f o r instance,
we are appalled—it seems to be loops circling back o n loops, as i f
nature's engineer was lazy, adding n e w c i r c u i t r y w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g
the o l d . Nevertheless, this seemingly messy system works b e a u t i f u l l y .
W h e n p a r t o f i t fails, other regions take u p the slack.
Nature's redundancy is b u i l t i n t o t h e shapely origamis called
proteins t o o . C o n r a d draws m e a schematic o f a typical p r o t e i n , a
string o f amino acids f o l d e d spontaneously i n t o a lyrical b u t f u n c -
tional shape. H e draws the amino acids as geometric shapes and
connects t h e m w i t h either springs (representing weak bonds) or solid
lines (representing stronger bonds). H a v i n g enough "springs" to ac-
cept change is t h e protein's secret to success. I f a m u t a t i o n adds an
amino acid, f o r instance ( C o n r a d draws i n an exaggerated beach b a l l
o f a n e w c o m e r ) , the springy connections give t o absorb the n e w
player. T h i s allows the active site^—where chemical reactions occur—
to r e m a i n u n d i s t u r b e d so i t can continue to do its lock-and-key ren-
dezvous. T h e f a c t t h a t proteins can graciously accept incremental,
m u t a t i o n a l change w i t h o u t falling apart is i m p o r t a n t . I t means they
can i m p r o v e over t i m e .
L i f e experiments like a c h i l d at play, says G e r m a n biophysicist
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 201
H e l m u t T r i b u t s c h . I t dabbles i n all the possible c o m p u t i n g domains
and learns t o solve its problems creatively, harnessing every single
force i n the library o f physical forces—electrical, t h e r m a l , chemical,
photochemical, and q u a n t u m — t o physically tune u p neurons and
their ways o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h one another. W h e n small changes
are p e r m i t t e d w i t h o u t a fuss, h e l p f u l effects gradually accumulate,
and e v o l u t i o n pounces t o a n e w level.
W h a t w o u l d be a nightmare t o c o m p u t e r engineers—quantumly
small c o m p u t i n g elements, connected catawampus i n d i z z y i n g par-
allelism, r a n d o m l y interacting and coloring outside the lines—is w h a t
gives l i f e its unswerving advantage. I f i t needs to recognize a pattern,
learn something new, or stretch t o assimilate n e w i n f o r m a t i o n , i t
molds its substrate t o t h e task, adding n e w elements, shaldng u p the
works u n t i l i t works. T h i s is the w o r l d t h a t biological organisms revel
in. T h e ability to ride t h a t r i o t o f foreseeable and unforeseeable
forces has a l l o w e d nature t o e x p l o i t m y r i a d effects, b e c o m i n g more
efficient and better e q u i p p e d all the t i m e . T h e p o w e r t o be u n p r e -
dictable and t o t r y n e w approaches is w h a t gives life the r i g h t stuff.
O u r computers, b y comparison, are i n shacldes.
C o m p u t e r s can't b r o o k too m u c h change. I f y o u add a r a n d o m
line o f code to a program, f o r instance, it's n o t called a n e w possi-
b i l i t y — i t ' s called a bug. U n l i k e biology, w h i c h b u i l t its empire on
faults t h a t t u r n e d to gold, computers can't tolerate so m u c h as a
c o m m a o u t o f place i n t h e i r codes. A d d a n e w piece o f hardware t o
the inside o f y o u r computer, and no springs w i l l adjust t o accom-
modate i t . T h e other components, w h i c h m u s t remain t r u e t o t h e i r
user-manual definitions, can't interact w i t h the newcomer or take
advantage o f the n e w interactions t o bootstrap themselves t d any-
t h i n g m o r e efficient. N o f r a t e r n i z i n g among the transistors; no con-
spiring or self-organizing allowed.
U n l i k e biology, w h i c h was able to t r a n s f o r m the s w i m bladder
i n p r i m i t i v e fish i n t o a lung, structurally programmable computers
can't t r a n s f o r m t h e i r f u n c t i o n , h i t c h u p additional horses, or get any
better at c o m p u t i n g . I n essence, they can't evolve or adapt. W h e n the
really large problems crop u p , they choke, and the b o m b appears o n
the screen.
I n the age o f Siliconus rex, says M i c h a e l Conrad, " W e feel p o w -
e r f u l , b u t w h a t we've really done is trade away our p o w e r f o r con-
t r o l . T o make sure only one t h i n g happens at a t i m e , w e ' v e f r o z e n
out all interactions and side effects, even those t h a t c o u l d be bene-
ficial or b r i l l i a n t . A s a result w e have a machine that is t h o r o u g h l y
 202 / Biomimicry
dead—inefficient, inflexible, and doomed b y the l i m i t s o f N e w t o n i a n
physics."
A n d I had t h o u g h t he was going t o t h r o w his arm around that
o l d M a c Plus and gush.
T h e nice t h i n g about articulating the differences between brains and
computers is that i t gives y o u a clear mandate: I f y o u w a n t better
computers, better stay t o the b r a i n side o f the chart. First, design
processors t h a t are p o w e r f u l i n their o w n right. Fashion t h e m i n
nature's image b y using a material that's amenable t o evolution, em-
bedded i n a system w i t h a l o t o f springs. T h e n , w h e n y o u challenge
y o u r c o m p u t e r w i t h a d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m , i t ' l l h i t c h all its horses t o
the p r o b l e m . Efficiency w i l l soar. A n d w h e n conditions change, and
i t needs to s w i t c h horses, i t can adapt.
So w h e n M i c h a e l Conrad, w a y back i n the seventies, w e n t look-
ing f o r a n e w c o m p u t i n g p l a t f o r m , he had one b i g i t e m on his w i s h
list. H e d i d n ' t care i f i t was fast, he d i d n ' t care i f i t could c o m p u t e
p i t o the i n f i n i t e decimal place. H e d i d n ' t even care i f i t c o u l d sing
and dance. " I j u s t w a n t e d i t t o be a good evolver,"
JIGSAW COMPUTING
Back i n those days, C o n r a d was t h i n k i n g quite a b i t about evolution
at the molecular level. " I was i n an origin o f l i f e lab and m y professor
w a n t e d m e t o m o d e l the conditions necessary f o r e v o l u t i o n to evolve.
I was to create a w o r l d i n silicon, using linear string processing t o
represent proto-organisms t h a t w o u l d have genotypes, phenotypes,
material cycles, and environments^—they w o u l d eat, compete, die,
mutate, and have offspring. I was t o find o u t w h a t conditions w o u l d
f o m e n t e v o l u t i o n and encourage the players t o bootstrap themselves
to higher states o f c o m p l e x i t y . "
C o n r a d eventually created a p r o g r a m called E V O L V E — t h e first
a t t e m p t at w h a t is n o w called artificial l i f e . " I f I had claimed i t was
artificial h f e , " he says, "those programs w o u l d be more famous t h a n
t h e y are today. B u t I d i d n ' t see i t as life; I saw i t as a m a p i n a c t i o n . "
Nevertheless, the exercise bore f r u i t and seeded his dream o f nature-
based c o m p u t i n g . H e says i t happened one n i g h t w h e n a dog was
barking and he c o u l d n ' t sleep.
' ' I lay awake i n active t h o u g h t f o r hours. I was resisting the idea o f
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 203
using string processing language because i t w o u l d n ' t allow m e t o cap-
ture the essence o f biological processes. Biological systems d o n ' t w o r k
w i t h strings, I realized; they work with three-dimensional shapes."
I n nature, shape is synonymous w i t h f u n c t i o n . Proteins start o u t
as strings o f amino acids or nucleotides, b u t they d o n ' t stay t h a t w a y
for long. T h e y f o l d u p i n very specific ways. T o p u t i t i n c o m p u t i n g
terms, i t w o u l d be like p u t t i n g Pascal p r o g r a m m i n g language on mag-
netized beads. T h e p r o g r a m w o u l d r u n b y f o l d i n g u p i n t o a f o r k or
spoon, thus d e t e r m i n i n g its f u n c t i o n — w h e t h e r i t could be used t o
stab a steak or slurp u p bisque.
Because molecules have a specific shape t h a t can feel f o r other
shapes, t h e y are the u l t i m a t e p a t t e r n recognizers. A n d p a t t e r n rec-
ognition is w h a t c o m p u t i n g is all about! Patterns are n o t j u s t physical
arrangements i n space, t h e y can also be symbols—the Morse code is
a pattern language, f o r instance, as is b i n a r y mathematics. C o m p u t -
ing w o r k s because each s w i t c h i n the t i n y railyard recognizes a pat-
t e r n o f zeros and ones.
C o n r a d began t o fantasize. W h a t i f w e b u i l t processors f u l l o f
molecules t h a t recognized patterns t h r o u g h shape-fitting—^lining u p
like corresponding pieces o f a puzzle and t h e n falling together, crys-
tallizing an answer? I n this way, he t h o u g h t , a lovely i r o n y c o u l d
occur. T h e p a t t e r n recognition t h a t t i n y molecules are so good at
c o u l d be h i t c h e d together b y the m i l l i o n s and used t o solve larger
problems o f p a t t e r n recognition—like recognizing a face i n real t i m e
i n a c o m p l e x environment. A c t i n g as the Seeing Eye dog f o r digital
computers w o u l d be a natural j o b f o r the efficient, parallel, and
adaptable shape processor. A n d t h a t w o u l d be only the beginning.
"As I lay there I realized t h a t t h e w o r l d ' s best pattern processor,
a p r o t e i n , is also amenable t o e v o l u t i o n . I f w e used p r o t e i n l i k e m o l -
ecules t o c o m p u t e , w e c o u l d vary t h e m , or rather, allow t h e m t o
mutate, twealdng t h e i r o w n amino acid structures u n t i l t h e y were fit
f o r a n e w task. H e r e was m y evolver! I n a rush, i n a vision, the
'tactilizing processor' came t o m e . "
Science w r i t e r D a v i d Freeman calls the tactilizing processor a
c o m p u t e r i n a jar, although there's no saying w h a t physical f o r m i t
m i g h t t a k e — i t c o u l d float i n a vial o f water, or be t r a p p e d inside a
h y d r o g e l - l i q u i d w a f e r as t h i n as a contact lens. W h a t e v e r f o r m i t
took, t h e surface w o u l d no d o u b t bristle w i t h receptor molecules—
sensors—that are sensitive t o light. Each receptor, w h e n excited b y
a d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c y o f light, w o u l d release a shape (a molecule)
i n t o a l i q u i d . O n e receptor m i g h t release a triangle, t h e other a
 204 / Biomimicry
square, t h e t h i r d a shape t h a t w o u l d j o i n a triangle and a square.
These released molecules w o u l d t h e n f r e e - f a l l t h r o u g h the solution
u n t i l they m e t t h e shapes t h a t c o m p l e m e n t e d t h e m . These three
shapes w o u l d dock together jigsaw style i n t o a larger piece—a " m o -
saic"—that w o u l d geometrically represent the i n c o m i n g frequencies,
the l i g h t signals. D i f f e r e n t mosaics w o u l d be a w a y o f categorizing
the l i g h t inputs, or n a m i n g t h e m .
Let's take an example. A n image o f a snowshoe hare is flashed
onto the membrane surface (actually the image w o u l d be projected
at a w h o l e array o f processors, b u t w e ' l l keep i t simple). T h e ex-
c i t e d receptors release t h e i r shapes, and each shape represents a p a r t
o f t h e image—long w h i t e ears, big feet, whiskers. T h e self-assembled
mosaic o f those shapes says "snowshoe hare." T h i s naming, or gen-
eralizing f r o m specific inputs i n t o a category, is w h a t our vision
system does all the t i m e . ;
Say y o u w a l k i n t o a strange r o o m and y o u see a chair you've
never seen. I t c o u l d be a Idtchen chair, or an office chair, or an art
sculpture o f a chair covered w i t h hair, yet y o u r b r a i n pegs i t as a
chair. I t sees a place t o sit d o w n , a back, and f o u r legs and shouts " I
k n o w , I l o i o w l It's a chair!" C o d i n g is also h o w the i m m u n e system
works. W h e n an i m m u n e cell recognizes a certain concentration o f
f o r e i g n objects on its membrane, i t integrates those signals i n t o a
c a t e g o r y — " W e have a particular disease p r o b l e m " — a n d i t begins
m a n u f a c t u r i n g t h e antibodies needed t o fight the disease.
For p r o o f o f his coding theory, C o n r a d points t o the relatively
small n u m b e r o f second messengers inside the cell compared to the
vast n u m b e r o f messages i m p i n g i n g o n the cell. " T h e fact t h a t t h e
cell employs so f e w second messengers to transduce [translate] this
deluge o f i n f o r m a t i o n is t e f l i n g , " says Conrad. " I t shows t h a t there
m u s t be some l a n d o f coding, or signal representation, going o n i n
the cefl."
I n the tactflizing processor, the mosaic w i f l play the role o f the
secondary messenger, transducing the signal and posting the answer
i n the f o r m o f a u n i q u e shape. Just as a c l o u d o f c A M P i n the n e u r o n
says "serotonin has arrived," the mosaic's shape w i l l say "snowshoe
hare." B u t since the snowshoe hare mosaic is molecular (too small
to be seen w i t h the naked eye), w e humans w i l l need a w a y t o
a m p l i f y and read o u t t h e result o f the c o m p u t a t i o n . I n t h e neuron,
an enzyme called p r o t e i n Idnase "reads" the concentration o f c A M F
and responds t o a threshold amount b y opening or closing channel
proteins. T h e enzyme i n Conrad's tactilizing processor w f l l read the
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 205
"snowshoe hare" mosaic by t o u c h , and instead o f opening a channel,
i t w i l l get busy c h u r n i n g o u t a p r o d u c t t h a t w e can measure.
T h e activated enzyme m a y grab t w o substrates i n the solution,
say chemical A and chemical B. Like a l i t t l e machine, i t w i l l j o i n
these i n t o p r o d u c t A B , t h e n grab some more. A f t e r a t i m e , the con-
centration o f A B increases to t h e p o i n t t h a t its characteristics can be
measured b y something like an ion-sensitive electrode or a dye t h a t
changes color w h e n the p H or voltage changes. I n this way, the
enzyme amplifies t h e invisible t o the visible.
A m p l i f i c a t i o n schemes like these are used i n biosensors afl the
t i m e . I n at-home pregnancy or cholesterol tests, f o r instance, recep-
tors are i m m o b i l i z e d o n the surface o f the tester, and w h e n their
open arms " c a t c h " telltale molecules i n y o u r b l o o d or urine, the
receptors change shape. This shape change cues an enzyme t o do its
t h i n g , usually a chemical reaction. Suddenly, as y o u stare at i t , the
stick turns blue.
I n the tactihzing processor, the inputs w o u l d be l i g h t signals,
and t h e " s t i c k " w o u l d actually be a w h o l e array o f light-receptive
processors. Each processor w o u l d recognize a b i t o f ear, a b i t o f tail,
and so on, and w h e n they were combined, the entire image w o u l d
be recognized. W i t h o u t a single electric w i r e or silicon circuit, a large
n u m b e r o f disparate signals w o u l d be sorted, coded, and translated,
simultaneously, i n t o a coherent answer.
G i v e n the t i m e i t takes f o r objects to float t h r o u g h h q u i d , h o w -
ever, is jigsaw c o m p u t i n g fast? " N o , actually. It's n o t , " says Conrad.
" C o m p a r e d t o a digital s w i t c h , t h e action o f a readout enzyme w o u l d
be u p t o five orders o f magnitude slower." This doesn't, seem t o
w o r r y h i m , however. "Remember t h a t w e are n o t t r y i n g t o do w h a t
silicon computers do w e l l — w e ' r e n o t h o p i n g t o beat t h e m at their
o w n game." D i g i t a l computers, w i t h t h e i r ability t o p e r f o r m repet-
itive operations at great speed, are perfect at recognizing bar codes
and t y p e w r i t t e n characters because the d o m a i n — a f l possible type-
w r i t t e n characters and stripes—can be w h i t t l e d d o w n t o something
finite t h a t y o u can place i n the computer's m e m o r y banks. B u t w h e n
you open up the d o m a i n t o anything and everything t h a t m i g h t hop
past t h e sensors, y o u need a l o t more t h a n speed.
T h e advantage o f scanning shape t o arrive at a conclusion is t h a t
you are able t o consider all the i n p u t s — t h e y afl contribute t o the
shape-matching process, so each is f u l l y represented i n the final con-
glomerate, the mosaic. By contrast, silicon terminals s i m p l y average
the inputs o f zeros and ones t o decide w h e t h e r t o l e t electrons
 206 / Biomimiay
t h r o u g h or not. T h i s averaging actually blurs the inputs. I f y o u were
t o force a conventional computer t o be m o r e precise—to i n fact
replicate the t h o r o u g h scanning that floating molecules do f o r free,
i t w o u l d take our most p o w e r f u l computers thousands o f years. C o n -
rad p o l i t e l y calls i t " c o m p u t a t i o n a l l y expensive" and doubts w h e t h e r
it's possible at all.
Besides, he says, tactflizing is n o t as slow as i t seems, thanks t o
q u a n t u m mechanics. Conrad's latest articles are afl about the
"speedup e f f e c t , " w h i c h m a y explain w h y molecules snap together
faster t h a n predicted at n o r m a l B r o w n i a n m i n g l i n g rates. H e thinks
t h a t electrons are constantly " t r y i n g o u t " all possible orbitals or en-
ergy states, searching f o r the m i n i m u m , the spot where they can
relax. Because o f a q u a n t u m p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n as q u a n t u m par-
allelism, t h e y can actually explore m o r e t h a n one spot at once i n the
energy landscape. This parallel scanning aflows t w o molecules to
q u i c k l y line themselves i n t o register and snap together f o r a secure
fit. O u r computers, w i t h t h e i r strictly c o n t r o l l e d regimes, c o u l d n ' t
possibly be i n t w o places at once. T h e y m i g h t be able t o digitally
find a m i n i m u m energy level, b u t they w o u l d have t o go t h r o u g h
each and every possible c o n f o r m a t i o n , one at a t i m e . A glacially slow
proposition.
A n o t h e r plus f o r the computer i n a jar is its i n b o r n talent f o r
f u z z y c o m p u t i n g . Patterns m a y dribble i n t o the receptors, distorted
i n space or t i m e , b u t the shapes floating i n the m e d i u m w i f l stfll find
one another and c o m p u t e the right answer. G i v e n the flexible nature
o f shapes, mosaics, and enzymes, a good guess is likely to crystallize
even i f the inputs are f a i n t or garbled.
T o everyone's amazement, c o m p u t i n g i n this most natural o f
ways, going w i t h the flow o f physics and away f r o m absolute control,
turns o u t t o be t h e most p o w e r f u l f o r m o f c o m p u t i n g . It's b o t h pre-
cise and f u z z y , depending o n w h a t is needed, and i t handles vast
oceans o f data w i t h ease.
T h e question remains: W h e n w i l l tactihzing processors be slosh-
ing inside i n m y Powerbook? Conrad, beret and all, is a pragmatist.
H e has a good feel f o r the b i o c o m p u t i n g field, having been the
elected president o f the International Society f o r Molecular Elec-
tronics and B i o c o m p u t i n g f o r a n u m b e r o f years and serving as an
editor and b o a r d m e m b e r o n several international c o m p u t i n g j o u r -
nals. " I n one o f our very first conferences," he remembers, " I was
t h r o w n i n t o a piranha tank o f news reporters w h o heard w e
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 207
were b u f l d i n g organic computers. T h e y w a n t e d to k n o w luhen. Being
very generous, I said fifty years, and t h e i r faces f e f l . "
W h a t C o n r a d means is t h a t w e ' d need at least fifty years ( I
w a n t e d t o say a thousand, he admits) t o have a c o m p u t e r b u i l t on
shape-based principles o n l y — w h i c h f o r h i m is the best o f afl possible
worlds. Between n o w and then, however, y o u are likely t o see more
and m o r e hybrids c r o p p i n g u p — c o n v e n t i o n a l computers w i t h or-
ganic prostheses attached. For example, his tactihzing processor m a y
be the eyes and ears—the i n p u t device t h a t predigests ambiguous
i n f o r m a t i o n and feeds i t to the digital computer. T a c t f l i z i n g proces-
sors m i g h t also show u p at the o u t p u t end o f things, as actuators—
the devices t h a t m o v e the arms and legs o f robots. W h i l e each tac-
t i l i z i n g processor w o u l d be a c o m p u t e r i n its o w n right, they w o u l d
be smafl enough t o be h o o k e d u p i n paraflel, perhaps connected i n
neural n e t w o r k designs. This t e a m o f c o m p l e x processors w o u l d be
more p o w e r f u l , and m o r e task-specialized, t h a n anything w e w o r k
w i t h today.
W e have miles to go before realizing even this h a l f w a y dream,
however. As Felix H o n g , a coworker o f M i c h a e l Conrad's, empha-
sizes, "There is no i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n molecular electronics as yet. Y o u
can't go t o a catalog and order parts t o make a c o m p u t e r like this.
Biosensors are the closest t h i n g w e have, and w e w o u l d no d o u b t
b u i l d o f f t h a t technology f o r receptor and readout parts o f the p r o -
cessor. B u t everything else—the macromolecules, the system design,
the s o f t w a r e — i t all has to be made f r o m scratch."
A n d that's where breeding comes i n .
Computer, Assemble Thyself
There m a y n o t be a catalog o f molecular computer parts, b u t i n
Conrad's head there exists a factory, w h i c h he describes i n papers as
the molecular c o m p u t e r factory. It's unlike any factory w e ' v e ever
seen, he assures m e . It's m o r e like a giant breeding facility, m i m i c k -
ing nature's tricks o f evolution. Each element, b o t h hardware and
software, w f l l be bred, t h r o u g h artificial selection, to do the best
possible j o b and t o interact w e f l w i t h other parts o f t h e system. I n
this coevolutionary way, t h e molecular c o m p u t e r factory w i f l resem-
ble an ecosystem made u p o f d i f f e r e n t "members'! challenging each
other t o w o r k seamlessly together and u p the ante o f performance.
C o n r a d describes i t this way: "Instead o f being c o n t r o l l e d f r o m
 208 / Biomimicry
t h e outside, b y us, each processor w i U m o l d itself t o the task at h a n d
w h i l e together, several processors w i l l sharpen their ability to w o r k
as a team. T h e y w i l l actually evolve t h r o u g h a process o f variation
and selection t o w a r d an o p t i m a l peak, the best possible system f o r
the conditions at hand.
" W e as engineers w i l l coach the process. W e ' l l be the invisible
hand o f natural selection, w i n n o w i n g o u t the losers and p u t t i n g the
winners t h r o u g h increasingly tougher trials. O u r biggest challenge
w o n ' t be to create solutions (those w i l l be generated randomly, the
way species' adaptations are], b u t rather t o describe the task w e want
done and t h e n set u p the evolutionary criteria—the environment
t h a t challenges the evolving f o r m s t o do t h e i r best. This is a w h o l e
n e w way f o r engineers t o t h i n k . "
I t m a y be n e w to c o m p u t e r engineers, b u t stepping i n t o nature's
shoes and " d e f i n i n g the evolutionary c r i t e r i a " is something w i t b
w h i c h w e humans are very familiar. T e n thousand years ago our
ancestors started to get choosy about the plants they ate and began
saving the seeds o f the tastiest, best-germinating, most u n i f o r m
plants, tossing t h e rest over the garden gate. W e were showing gene
favoritism way back then.
Today, w e have the awesome (and somewhat f r i g h t e n i n g ]
power t o isolate our favorite genes and make millions o f copies o f
t h e m . W e can insert a gene t h a t produces insulin, f o r instance, into
bacteria and essentially b o r r o w t h e i r p r o t e i n synthesis machinery to
make insulin f o r us. C o n r a d w o u l d use a similar scheme, b u t instead
of insulin, he w o u l d w a n t the E. coli to produce jigsawing macro-
molecules, light-sensitive receptors, and readout enzymes. T h e D N A
blueprints f o r these molecules w o u l d probably be synthesized f r o m
scratch on oligio machines ( w h i c h string together D N A bases i n t o
strands).
"Finding the best structure f o r these molecules w i l l be an evo-
lutionary process," says Conrad. " W e ' l l l e t the molecules, receptors,
and enzymes s t r u t t h e i r s t u f f i n tactilizing processors, seeing how
w e l l they can recognize a test image. Each t i m e they make an error,
w e ' l l break apart the mosaic and let t h e m t r y a n e w configuration.
Just as biological systems are adept at finding a steady state, so too
w i l l the c o m p u t e r i n a jar settle i n t o a workable scheme f o r c o m -
puting.
"Swarms o f variation trials w o u l d be r u n n i n g simultaneously
w i t h various teams o f processors being played o f f against each other
to see w h i c h one solves a p r o b l e m most effectively. Each trial w i l l
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 209
yield star performers, w h o , Uke prize pigs, w i l l be bred again f o r the
next trial. W e ' l l encourage a m u t a t i o n here and there, and t h e n let
t h e m compete against t h e i r peers. Eventually, after a surprisingly
small n u m b e r o f trials (thanks t o the c u m u l a t i v e i m p r o v e m e n t p o w e r
of variation and selection], w e ' l l have our custom-designed t e a m . "
T h o u g h i t sounds outrageous at first, this idea o f "directed ev-
o l u t i o n " has already p r o v e n w o r t h its salt i n the medical field. G e r a l d
Joyce o f the Scripps Research I n s t i t u t i o n i n L a JoUa, California, got
everyone's attention i n 1990 w h e n he announced t h a t he was l e t t i n g
drugs design themselves.
T h e technique is deceptively simple. D r u g manufacturers o f t e n
k n o w t h a t t h e y need a molecule w i t h a certain shape t h a t w i l l i n -
terfere w i t h a disease m e c h a n i s m — b y clogging a receptor, f o r i n -
stance. Instead o f designing i t b y hand, they m u t a t e a starting
molecule t o produce billions o f variants. T h e y test those molecules
by floating t h e m past bfllions o f receptors. T h e molecules t h a t dock
even partially are k e p t f o r the n e x t trial. These are copied, m u t a t e d
again, tested, and culled again. Since the fit keeps getting better and
better, Joyce f o u n d t h a t he was able t o manufacture his first p r o d u c t
(an R N A molecule called a r i b o z y m e t h a t cuts D N A i n a specific
place) i n only t e n generations. N o w directed evolution, the b i o m -
i m i c l d n g o f natural selection, is being pursued by dozens o f c o m -
panies.
Survival of the Fittest Code
O K , I t e l l Conrad, test-tube e v o l u t i o n is a long w a y f r o m t h e pea
gardens o f Gregor M e n d e l (the m o n k w h o first f a t h o m e d the rules
of heredity), b u t at least the molecules inside are biological. I can
imagine natural selection w o r k i n g its magic o n t h e m , because t h e y
are organic and three-dimensional. B u t h o w do y o u plan t o breed
system designs, neural-net architectures, and software programs, all
of w h i c h live exclusively in silico? Flow.does one go about breeding
strings o f i n f o r m a t i o n , or p r o g r a m m i n g code?
Computers, as i t turns out, are dandy breeding devices. Say y o u
are an artist, and y o u w a n t to evolve art o n the computer. Y o u w r i t e
a line o f p r o g r a m m i n g code t h a t w i l l i n s t r u c t t h e computer t o d r a w
a p y r a m i d and t h e n y o u t e l l t h e c o m p u t e r to slightly m u t a t e this
p r y a m i d . Y o u r u n t h e p r o g r a m t w e n t y times and get t w e n t y d i f f e r e n t
p y r a m i d variations. Y o u t h e n use y o u r aesthetic sense to p i c k an
attractive variant t h a t y o u w i l l a l l o w t o survive. Y o u have this sur-
 210 / Biomimicry
vivor's D N A (the p r o g r a m m i n g code) copy itself w i t h f u r t h e r m u -
tations and draw o u t t w e n t y new variations and p i c k another w i n n e r .
Choose again, and again, and again. Each choice is nudging the draw-
ing t o w a r d t h e artist's ideal form—as i f the artist is c l i m b i n g the
landscape o f all possible f o r m s t o find t h e final, f u l l y evolved f o r m .
This is already happening i n a w o r l d w i d e e x p e r i m e n t called evolv-
able art o n the W o r l d W i d e W e b . People vote f o r t h e i r favorites,
and the group's choice o f code is then used t o redraw the pictures,
w i t h slight mutations, every t h i r t y minutes.
I n 1985, Richard D a w k i n s , zoologist and author o f The Blind
Watchmaker, t o o k a similar j o u r n e y o f e x p l o r a t i o n inside a computer.
Instead o f art pieces, he was investigating biological f o r m s . H e was
l o o k i n g f o r t h e c o m m o n denominators among biological forms, and
so he w r o t e a p r o g r a m t h a t gave t h e c o m p u t e r instructions f o r draw-
ing a f o r m . T h e instructions were simple rules, such as " d r a w a I -
i n c h line, f o r k i t i n t o t w o l - i n c h lines, and repeat." H e t h e n gave
the p r o g r a m parameters such as " m a i n t a i n l e f t - r i g h t s y m m e t r y . "
I n all his years o f c r a w l i n g around jungles as a zoologist. D a w -
kins says he never experienced anything q u i t e like the r a p i d blossom-
ing o f f o r m s i n his computer. Starting f r o m complete randomness,
his p r o g r a m managed t o make something t h a t l o o k e d vaguely b i o -
logical w i t h i n a f e w generations. W h e n i t d i d , D a w k i n s chose the
most biological-looking forebear and h a d t h e p r o g r a m begin here,
m o d i f y i n g this f o r m . A t each stage, he chose f o r m s t h a t l o o k e d more
and m o r e biological, u n t i l he began to recognize f o r m s t h a t actually
exist i n nature. T h a t night, as the computer d r e w tulips and daisies
and irises, he c o u l d n ' t p u l l h i m s e l f away f r o m the machine t o eat or
sleep.
Early t h e n e x t m o r n i n g he decided to step back and start i n a
new d i r e c t i o n w i t h his selection. A m a z i n g l y , the p r o g r a m yielded
beetles and water spiders and fleas—he'd r u n i n t o t h e d o m a i n o f
insect f o r m s l Instantly, D a w l d n s saw parallels between t h e instruc-
tions i n his p r o g r a m code and genes. I t was as i f his programs were
genes that, once " r u n , " came o u t w i t h a phenotype—a drawing.
Changing the instructions i n the program was like changing genes t o
produce a slightly d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l . I t was variation, w h i c h , w h e n
c o m b i n e d w i t h selection o f a w i n n i n g offspring, was the f o r m u l a f o r
evolution.
W h a t a p o w e r f u l m e t h o d this artificial e v o l u t i o n is f o r finding
an o p t i m u m solution! W h a t i f instead o f an insect or a t u l i p drawing,
y o u used artificial e v o l u t i o n t o design a j e t aircraft? Y o u c o u l d give
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 211
the c o m p u t e r some criteria—weight, cost, materials, say—and l e t i t
begin t o spin o u t a p r o g r a m code f o r the design o f a j e t aircraft. T h a t
code c o u l d be copied f a i t h f u l l y and i t c o u l d be copied w i t h m u t a -
tions. As John H o l l a n d , the father o f genetic algorithms, f o u n d , y o u
can even have y o u r p r o g r a m codes undergo mating. T o " m a t e " t w o
programs, y o u j o i n h a l f o f one program's string o f code t o h a l f o f
another program's string. T h e o f f s p r i n g is a thereby a m i x o f the t w o
"parents." W i t h this digital sex, the generations o f programs literally
fly by, pausing only f o r testing against criteria t h a t y o u select. Design
programs t h a t meet these criteria are m a t e d t o produce even better
designs, w h i c h are once again tested. T h e selection process heads i n
one direction—successful designs survive and s u b o p t i m a l ones " d i e "
out o f the p o p u l a t i o n . This " h i f l c l i m b i n g " i n a landscape o f possi-
bilities t o w a r d an o p t i m a l design is w h a t engineers do, b u t computers
can generate r a n d o m ideas m u c h faster t h a n most engineers. A n d
computers, n o t yet able t o feel embarrassment or peer pressure, are
not a f r a i d t o t r y o f f - t h e - w a U ideas. Ideas are j u s t ideas; the m o r e the
merrier.
G i v i n g U p Control
As c o m p u t i n g tasks become m o r e c o m p l e x — r u n n i n g a telephone
system, flying a space shuttie, delivering electricity to m o r e homes—
our systems become harder t o centrally c o n t r o l and repair. I f w e are
to break o u t o f our control-hungry straitjacket and achieve t r u e
power, says Conrad, w e m a y have t o loosen u p the reins a b i t . W e
m a y have t o give computers their head, so t o speak, give t h e m the •
substrate (carbon) and the c o m p u t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t (artificial evolu-
t i o n ) t h e y need t o creatively problem-solve so they can avoid t r o u -
bles and perhaps even repair themselves. I n the u l t i m a t e molecular
c o m p u t e r f a c t o r y o f Conrad's imagination, self-improvement re-
gimes w f l l be b u i f t i n t o the computers, so t h a t w h e n they r u n i n t o
snags, t h e y ' l l be p r o m p t e d t o "create a n e w program using artificial
e v o l u t i o n " u n t i l operations are s m o o t h once again. Instead o f crash-
ing, t h e y ' l l adapt t o changing conditions w i t h o u t having t o go o f f -
line f o r repairs.
W h a t ' s h a r d f o r some t o accept is t h a t w e ' r e n o t the ones c o m -
ing u p w i t h the solutions, and w e m a y n o t w h o l l y understand why
they w o r k as w e l l as they do. M i c h a e l C o n r a d isn't a h f t bothered.
" I k n e w t h a t I w o u l d have t o give u p c o n t r o l i f I hoped t o get real
power, w h i c h is t h e p o w e r t o adapt. I may n o t Icnow w h e r e every
 212 / Biomimicry
single electron is, and I m a y n o t k n o w w h y m y molecular, shape-
based device is doing such a good j o b . I ' l l j u s t have t o evolve i t , test
i t , and m a r v e l at h o w w e l l i t works w i t h o u t k n o w i n g exactly w h y . "
This is t h e essence o f the " l e t t i n g go" t h a t C o n r a d talks about.
I t is c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e t o the engineer w h o was schooled i n the o l d
way—^being graded n o t only on the solution b u t also o n h o w he or
she derived t h e solution. This n e w paradigm asks us t o a d m i t that
some approaches m a y w o r k or even be superior t o our o w n , even i f
w e d o n ' t recognize t h e m as something t h a t w o u l d have sprung f r o m
o u r imaginations.
L i f e is like a r o d e o — y o u can fight the bull's every b u c k and be
w o r n t o a frazzle ( i f y o u aren't gored first), or y o u can m a t c h your
movements t o y o u r m o u n t and see where i t takes y o u . Deep inside
our cells, where all the c o m p u t i n g is going on, it's still the W i l d
West. Proteins t u m b l e i n a maelstrom o f B r o w n i a n m o t i o n , riding a
r i o t o f electrical attractions, q u a n t u m forces, and t h e r m o d y n a m i c
imperatives. T h e c o m p u t e r networks t h a t can m a t c h their move-
ments t o these forces, says Conrad, are going t o astonish and, soine-
times, h u m b l e us, as only carbon-based creations can.
SILICON COMPUTING I N A C A R B O N KEY
C o m p u t i n g is n o t liable t o convert to carbon overnight, however.
C o n r a d acknowledges t h a t w e have an enormous investment i n the
silicon-based computers sitting o n our desktops. M o s t o f our data is
n o w encoded i n zeros and ones. O n e way t o begin the transition t o
the b i o c o m p u t e r is t o practice a h y b r i d o f silicon and carbon c o m -
p u t i n g — k e e p i n g the o n - o f f switches f r o m the silicon past, b u t re-
placing the silicon w i t h molecules f r o m nature.
C o n r a d calls i t "silicon c o m p u t i n g i n a carbon key." I t doesn't
change the f u n d a m e n t a l approach to computing—^that remains dig-
i t a l and l i n e a r — b u t i t does b r i n g organic molecules i n t o play. C o n r a d
doesn't say as m u c h , b u t I get t h e feeling he thinks using b i o m o l e -
cules t o c r u n c h zeros and ones is like using a L a m b o r g h i n i t o deliver
newspapers. H e ' d rather p u t natural molecules t h r o u g h their real
paces b y u t i l i z i n g t h e i r shape-matching talents, b u t , he concedes, i t
w o u l d be k i n d o f f u n to capitalize o n their light-reacting capabilities
right now.
These days, one o f the most promising avenues f o r speeding u p
computers is t o t h i n k about abandoning electrons and using l i g h t
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 213
pulses t o represent zeros and ones. M a n y biological molecules are
h i g h l y reactive t o l i g h t . Some proteins actually move i n predictable
ways (they Idnk and u n k i n k ) w h e n h i t b y certain frequencies o f hght.
These proteins can be embedded i n a solid material at densities or-
ders o f magnitude higher t h a n conventional switches, and can be
t u r n e d o n and o f f via l i g h t waves—no t u n n e l i n g electrons t o w o r r y
about, and no b u i l d u p o f heat.
I t sounded like a peak i n the c o m p u t i n g landscape w o r t h visit-
ing. A t M i c h a e l Conrad's suggestion, I contacted one o f molecular
computing's gurus, a m a n w h o , according t o Conrad, knows every-
t h i n g y o u ' v e ever w a n t e d t o k n o w about k i n l d n g proteins b u t were
afraid t o ask.
W h e n Light Flips the Switch
Felix H o n g is an irrepressible host. A t 9:30 P.M., the lab is e m p t y ,
and he's u n w r a p p i n g a n e w set o f mugs. " G r e e n tea?" T i m e slides
by o n stockinged f e e t w h e n y o u are talking about someone's f a v o r i t e
molecule, and bacteriorhodopsin (or, as its friends say, BR) is Hong's
very f a v o r i t e . I n the w i l d , BR is f o u n d spanning the membrane o f a
t i n y , rod-shaped, flagellum-wielding b a c t e r i u m called Halobacterium
halobium. Halobacterium and its clan have survived f o r billions o f
years, i n no small measure because o f this strange p r o t e i n i n its cel-
lular " s k i n . " I n a poetic t u r n a b o u t , this most ancient o f proteins is
n o w one o f the hottest stars o f molecular electronics, poised t o fill a
new niche i n sixth-generation computers.
N e x t t i m e y o u fly i n t o San Francisco, H o n g tells me, l o o k f o r
the p u r p l i s h smudge at the southeastern end o f the Bay ( t o w a r d
Silicon V a l l e y ) . That's Halobacterium b y the billions, living, repro-
ducing, and fighting f o r survival i n some o f the harshest conditions
l i f e can handle. T h e daytime temperatures soar, the nights are cold,
and the w a t e r is ten times saltier than the Pacific—enough t o pickle
most creatures. "Salty is a relative t e r m , " he reminds me. "Halo-
bacterium's other f a v o r i t e haunt is the D e a d Sea."
These days, m a n y laboratories around t h e w o r l d are t r y i n g t o
make Halobacterium feel at h o m e . Engineers are g r o w i n g the super-
tolerant m i c r o b e i n b u l k , h o p i n g i t w f l l be a w f l l i n g aUy f o r enzyme
and bioplastics manufacture, desalination, enhanced oil recovery, and
even cancer-drug screening. Besides being t o u g h t o k i f l (even at 100
degrees Celsius), it's also f u l l o f strange engineering firsts, a b r i f l i a n c e
b o r n o f adversity.
 214 / Biomimicry
H o w Will We Store What We Learn? / 215

For one t h i n g , Halobacterium. can toggle f r o m being a f o o d con-

generated p i c t u r e o f BR. Seven helical columns t h a t l o o k like baloney
sumer t o being a f o o d producer. W h e n conditions are good, explains
curls stand i n a r i n g around a hght-sensitive p i g m e n t called retinalde-
Ffong, i t gathers f o o d t h a t other creatures produce, and metabolizes
hyde, or retinal A . " R e t i n a l A is a close relative o f the c o m p o u n d i n
it, j u s t as w e do. B u t sometimes, w h e n oxygen levels i n their shallow
o u r eye t h a t helps us see i n d i m light. N a t u r e is f o n d o f reusing her
sea h o m e d i p and there is no w a y t o oxidize, or b u r n up, f o o d ,
w m m n g designs i n n e w ways,'' he says, as he pours m e m o r e green tea.
Halobacterium goes t o Plan B. I t assembles i n its membrane a p r o t e i n
I n BR, she uses an eye p i g m e n t t o p u l l d o w n the sun."
cahed BR t h a t ahows i t t o harness sunhght to make its o w n sugars.
Staring at the skeleton sketch o f BR, I imagine m y s e f t inside the
" L e t m e t e l l y o u h o w w e t h i n k this w o r k s , " H o n g says, launch-
L d h p u t i a n columns w h e n t h e sun breaks t h r o u g h the San Francisco
i n g i n t o a s u m m a r y t h a t is the distilled l i q u o r o f thousands o f studies
fog. A p h o t o n zigzagging t h r o u g h the salty bay dives i n t o the sen-
( t w o h u n d r e d papers a year have been published o n this one m o l e -
sitive retinal A , causing ft t o s h i f t shape, f r o m straight t o bent. As ft
cule since i t was first discovered i n the seventies). Basically, sunlight
kinks, the p r o t e i n columns attached t o retinal A are r a t t i e d as w e l l .
causes BR t o change its shape i n the membrane. As i t moves, i t hands
T h e amino-acid molecules studded t h r o u g h o u t the r a t t i e d columns
a p r o t o n — a positively charged hydrogen i o n — f r o m the inside o f the
b u m p against one another, like passengers colliding i n a l u r c h i n g bus
membrane t o the outside. Photon after p h o t o n p u m p s p r o t o n after
T h e n e w p r o x i m i t y starts a h a n d o f f o f a p r o t o n from amino a d d t o
p r o t o n , u n t i l eventually there's a b u i l d u p o f positive charges outside
a m m o acid. I n a nanoheartbeat, the positive charge moves from the
the m e m b r a n e relative t o inside—a membrane p o t e n t i a l t h a t is
inside o f the membrane t o the outside. A sunny m o r n i n g can keep
poised t o do w o r k .
t h e h a n d o f f o f protons w o r l d n g continuously.
T h e protons on the outside o f the membrane are like water i n
W h a t interests c o m p u t e r engineers is only the first part o f this
a h i g h lake t h a t wants t o get back t o the valley, t o restore the balance
scene—the p h o t o n o f l i g h t hits, and the molecule shifts. This flip-
of energies. T h e i r only way back i n t o the cell is t h r o u g h the " t u r -
flop, f r o m one state t o another and back again, is automatic, even i f
bines" o f A T P synthase, another molecular machine t h a t spans the
the p r o t e i n molecule is separated f r o m its live host. " W h a t most
membrane. As t h e protons move t h r o u g h this t i n y t u r b i n e and back people d o n ' t reahze is t h a t y o u can remove BR from Halobacterium
i n t o t h e cell, A T P synthase extracts a t o l l ; i t uses the energy t o attach and embed ft i n plastic and ft w i f l w o r k quite b e a u t i f u l l y , " says
a t h i r d phosphate t o adenosine diphosphate, maldng adenosine t r i - H o n g . " I n Russia, sdentists have made a film o f BR t h a t they can
phosphate, or A T P . A T P is t h e n a molecular cache o f energy—when stfll flip back and f o r t h after fifteen years. T h a t stability, w e t h o u g h t
the b a c t e r i u m needs a boost, i t can sever the high-energy phosphate w o u l d make ft a good m e d i u m f o r storing i n f o r m a t i o n i n c o m p u t -
b o n d , breaking A T P d o w n to A D P , and releasing the energy t h a t ers." . . r,
came originally f r o m the sun.
A n o t h e r o f BR's talents is its knee-jerk reaction t o certain fre-
"So y o u see," says H o n g , w i t h a d m i r a t i o n lighting his face, " B R
quencies o f h g h t — t h i s means y o u can use one color o f l i g h t t o Idnk
is b o t h a p h o t o n harvester and a p r o t o n p u m p . I t is also a smart
It (recording a one) and another color o f l i g h t to u n k i n k ft (recording
material—whereas most p u m p s w o u l d slow d o w n due t o the 'back-
a zero). Here's h o w ft works: I n its relaxed state, BR w f l l absorb only
pressure' o f protons o n the outside o f the membrane, i t adjusts t o
green hght. If y o u flood i t w i t h green fight, ft kinks t o a red-absorbing
keep p u m p i n g protons. W e admirers o f this intelligent molecule are
state. T h e n , i f ft's zapped b y red, ft unkinks, r e t u r n i n g t o the green-
like corporate spies t r y i n g t o reverse-engineer a machine t h a t is only
absorbing state. It's an endless toggle c o n t r o f l e d by light.
fifty angstroms b y fifty angstroms, or one five m i l l i o n t h o f an i n c h
This mechanism r e m i n d e d c o m p u t e r scientists o f the system al-
long."
ready i n use f o r storing digitized i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e w o r k i n g surface
A f t e r r u m m a g i n g t h r o u g h his desk. H o n g presents m e w i t h a of rnagnetic h a r d drives or floppy disks is covered w i t h t i n y i r o n -
postcard o f the Renaissance Center i n d o w n t o w n D e t r o i t — a oxide crystals, and they are able t o flip t h d r poles like l i t t l e magnets.
f u t u r i s t i c - l o o k i n g skyscraper w i t h seven glassy, cylindrical towers i n a As t h e r e a d / w r i t e sensors make t h d r passes over d i f f e r e n t parts o f
ring. " A souvenir to help y o u remember bacteriorhodopsin!" W h e n I t h e disk, t h e y t u r n electrical signals i n t o magnetic energy and vice
t e l l h i m I d o n ' t understand, he smiles and shows m e a c o m p u t e r - versa.
 216 / Biomimicry
I n the case o f optical p r o t e i n c o m p u t i n g , the w o r k i n g surface o f
the disk w o u l d be covered w i t h BR molecules {much smaUer t h a n
i r o n - o x i d e crystals) packed shoulder t o shoulder. T h e read/write
heads w o u l d be red and green laser beams, w h i c h , w h e n aimed at spe-
cific "addresses" o n the drive, w o u l d k i n k and u n l d n k molecules, stor-
ing ones and zeros and t h e n reading t h e m out. A n optical detector
w o u l d measure w h e t h e r or n o t l i g h t has been absorbed at each site. T o
keep f r o m erasing i n f o r m a t i o n during t h e reading process, a second
pulse o f h g h t w o u l d f o U o w the read fight t o reset the flipped BR.
T h e t h o u g h t o f using a p r o t e i n this smaU to store i n f o r m a t i o n
quickens t h e pulses o f c o m p u t e r engineers. Robert R. Birge, director
o f the W . M . K e c k Center f o r Molecular Electronics at Syracuse U n i -
versity, w e n t b e y o n d dreaming and teamed u p w i t h physicist Rick
Lawrence o f the Hughes A i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n i n Los Angeles t o
flight-test a BR storage device. T h e y laminated a thousand layers o f
BR, each a molecule thick, onto a thumbnafl-sized quartz plate. " I t
l o o k e d like a piece o f glass w i t h a clear, deep, rich red coating,"
Birge said.
A laser was used t o address not one molecule at a t i m e (laser
beams are stfll far too w i d e t o do this) b u t a patch o f about t e n
thousand molecules, flipping t h e m all at once. Even i n this config-
uration, says Bftge, the device has a p o t e n t i a l storage density o f
nearly t e n megabytes per square centimeter, comparable to the stor-
age density o f elite magnetic devices available only i n m u l t i m i l l i o n -
doflar supercomputers. B u t that's only a beginning. W h e n w e find a
w a y t o focus the beams to w r i t e t o each molecule, says Birge, a single
Si/t-inch floppy disk coated w i t h BR c o u l d theoretically h o l d 200
m i f l i o n megabytes (compared t o the 1.2 megabytes t h a t a disk t h a t
size holds n o w ) . Access times w o u l d be cut w a y d o w n , too. I t takes
BR only five trillionths o f a second to change absorption states. G i v e
i t a nanosecond, and i t ' f l Idnk and u n l d n k t w o thousand times, beat-
ing conventional magnetic devices b y a factor o f a thousand.
B u t i n the speed-addicted w o r i d o f c o m p u t i n g , even this is n o t
fast enough. Researchers at the Naval Research Center i n Dahlgren,
V i r g i n i a , are h o p i n g t o find or engineer a strain o f Halobacterium
w i t h an even faster BR flip-flop. A n n Tate, manager o f the M o l e c u l a r
C o m p u t i n g G r o u p , explains, " W h e n the BR molecule flexes from
its u n k i n k e d to its k i n k e d state, i t goes t h r o u g h a c o n t i n u u m o f
shapes, each one w i t h a d i f f e r e n t absorption spectrum. R i g h t n o w ,
w e concentrate o n the ground state and the k i n k e d state, and i t takes
five picoseconds t o get f r o m one to the other. W h a t i f w e c o u l d
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 217
speed u p the flexing? F i n d a BR t h a t Idnks at three picoseconds i n -
stead o f five?"
T h e scientists hope t o find t h a t speedier BR i n one o f t h e m f l -
lions o f Halobacterium o f f s p r i n g they are raising i n laboratory tanks.
Once t h e y locate the w i n n i n g microbe, t h e y ' l l w a n t to p u t its BR i n
a storage m e d i u m t h a t breaks all the records i n terms o f capacity.
T h a t means going b e y o n d t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l BR films. " W h a t w e are
starting t o do n o w is suspend BR i n a J e l l - O - l i k e plastic t h a t hardens
i n t o cubes. W h e n w e get BR m e m o r y i n 3 - D like this, storage ca-
pacity w i f l really b a l l o o n . "
I m p r i s o n i n g BR i n a cube presented an o p p o r t u n i t y b u t also a
logistical p r o b l e m — h o w t o read the molecules i n the center o f the
cube w i t h o u t the l i g h t beam triggering or destroying i n f o r m a t i o n on
the w a y i n . Once again, BR's special qualities allowed engineers t o
j o g around this p r o b l e m . Researcher Dave C u l l i n was explaining this
to m e ( w i t h copious drawings) i n the windowless belly o f a Quonset
h u t at naval headquarters i n D a h l g r e n . " B R actually uses t w o p h o -
tons w h e n i t photosynthesizes—it adds u p the energy i n t h e t w o .
This ability to absorb and combine t w o photons gave us an idea. W e
could penetrate the cube w i t h t w o rays, each entering from a d i f -
ferent face, each o f a frequency that, b y itself, d i d n ' t affect BR m o l -
ecules o n the w a y i n . A t the p o i n t where the rays converged,
however, t h e i r frequencies w o u l d combine, and this energy w o u l d
be enough t o w r i t e or read the data at t h a t particular address." Dave
paused after this p u n c h line, giving m e t i m e t o admire the simple
ingeniousness o f the t w o - p h o t o n scheme. For the thousandth t i m e I
noticed m y o w n tendency (a h u m a n tendency, I t h i n k ) t o be abso-;
lutely delighted by this sort o f elegance. T h e same elegance t h a t
nature, o f course, has been choosing f o r eons.
So n o w t h a t w e have trillions o f BR molecules i n a device the
size o f a sugar cube, w h a t can w e store? W e could use BR just to
store zeros and ones, o f course, b u t Robert Birge has a m o r e a m b i -
tious plan. H e and his company. Biological Components Corpora-
t i o n , w a n t to use the 3 - D m e m o r y device to store analogue
holographic images i n the BR, i m p r i n t i n g patterns o f l i g h t and dark
instead o f strings o f zeros and ones.
A h o l o g r a m is created b y superimposing t w o beams o f l i g h t onto
a piece o f film. O n e beam o f h g h t contains the image, and the other
is plain light, called a reference beam. W h e r e the hght waves inter-
fere o n the film, they create a u n i q u e signature. T h e deconstructive
interference (where there is no image) causes dark areas and the
 218 / Biomimicry
constructive interference (tlie image) is registered as areas o f light.
W h e n y o u w a n t t o recall the original image, y o u simply flood the
h o l o g r a m w i t h p l a i n h g h t — t h e reference beam—and i t regenerates
the original recorded pattern. I n Birge's device, the film w o u l d be
BR, and t h e l i g h t and dark patterns o f the l i g h t waves w o u l d be
recorded i n Idnked or u n l d n k e d molecules.
Holographic m e m o r y is- especially suited t o what's called cor-
relation, or m a t c h i n g o f images. Y o u can take a p i c t u r e o f an airplane
w i n g , f o r instance, and t h e n fly the plane and take another p i c t u r e .
C o m p a r i n g the t w o holograms w o u l d instantly show y o u where
stress or strain has occurred. T o make the holograms even more ver-
satile, y o u can pass t h e images t h r o u g h a Fourier lens as y o u record
them', w h i c h basically turns the image i n t o a " f r e q u e n c y p i c t u r e " so
t h a t the holographic correlator can recognize and m a t c h an object
even i f i t is t i l t e d at a d i f f e r e n t angle f r o m the w a y i t was w h e n
originally recorded. For instance, a pen w o u l d be recognizable
w h e t h e r i t is h e l d horizontally, veri;ically, or anywhere i n between.
( O u r eyes have even m o r e flexibility. W e can recognize someone i f
t h e y are close or far, or i f t h e i r image is t i l t e d side t o side, f o r w a r d
or back. " N a t u r e is ahead o f us here," Tate admits, " b u t i t gives us
something t o strive f o r . " )
Fourier transforms made w i t h conventional film can be layered
like transparencies and h e l d u p to the l i g h t — w h e n h g h t shines
t h r o u g h t w o o f the transforms i n the exact same spot, y o u have y o u r
m a t c h . W h a t holographic BR m e m o r y can do, w i t h m i r r o r s and
lenses, is place hundreds o f BR-embodied Fouriers on t o p o f one
another t o simultaneously find a m a t c h . This puts i t streets ahead o f
digital techniques.
Y o u c o u l d store pictures o f afl the customers i n your bank, f o r
instance, and w h e n someone w a l k e d u p to a tefler, a camera w o u l d
see the face and q u i c k l y m a t c h i t to the h o l o g r a m database, b r i n g -
ing u p the customer's file. Even i f the camera caught only an eye or
the corner o f a smfle, i t c o u l d recafl the w h o l e t h i n g , because a
h o l o g r a m stores the w h o l e i n each and every part. I f y o u w a n t e d
t o do the same t h i n g w i t h a conventional sflicon-matching device,
y o u w o u l d first have t o digitize the person's image i n t o zeros and
ones and t h e n c o m b p i x e l b y p i x e l f o r a string o f numbers i n y o u r
database t h a t m a t c h e d t h a t person's numbers. I n the holographic
correlator, numbers are eliminated. Y o u essentially p u t the entire
stack o f customer pictures o n t o p o f one another and l o o k f o r t h e
spot o f l i g h t t h a t shines t h r o u g h — s i g n i f y i n g a m a t c h . T h i s simulta-
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 219
neous search can be done so q u i c k l y t h a t y o u could use a T V camera
as an i n p u t device and i d e n t i f y people as they stroll t h r o u g h the
lobby.
I n f o r m a t i o n storage isn't a p r o b l e m , either. I f y o u figuratively
sliced the cube i n t o "sheets," y o u could store up to f o u r h u n d r e d
images per sheet, and t h e n " p u l l u p " a w h o l e sheet at a t i m e b y
slicing p l a i n l i g h t t h r o u g h the cube t o i l l u m i n a t e a cross-sectional
shce. Even m o r e images c o u l d be stored per page w i t h a technique
called angular m u l t i p l e x i n g . By changing the angle at w h i c h the ref-
erence beam hits the cube, y o u c o u l d b u r n hundreds o f holograms
on t h e exact same spot and read t h e m back w i t h a tiltable laser.
I f the system proves practical, Birge believes holographic m e m -
ory c o u l d play an i m p o r t a n t role i n r o b o t vision, artificial i n t e f l i -
gence, optical correlators, and other areas starved f o r c o m p l e x
pattern-processing capabilities. " T h i s is an area where w e c o u l d c o m -
pletely b l o w away semiconductors," he says. " W e ' r e going t o be able
to have the equivalent o f t w e n t y m i f l i o n characters o f associative
m e m o r y o n a single film. Y o u simply c o u l d n ' t b u i l d a semiconductor
associative m e m o r y w i t h t h a t m a n y connections." A n d yet, I t h i n k
to myself, an associative m e m o r y w i t h many, many m o r e connec-
tions has already been designed, and it's balanced on the stalk o f m y
neck at this very m i n u t e .
A f t e r Conrad's c o m p e l l i n g visions o f self-assembling shapes b o u n c i n g
i n a m a e l s t r o m o f m o t i o n , Birge's BR, as fantastic as i t is, feels a l i t t l e
too c o n f i n e d — t o o o n - a n d - o f f digital. T o get back i n t o m o r e open
spaces, I b o o k a flight t o t h e University o f Arizona, Tucson, where;
I ' m t o l d I ' l l m e e t another b i o m i m i c w h o ' s determined t o c l i m b his
o w n peak i n t h e range o f c o m p u t i n g possibilities. I n t h e i r ascents
t o w a r d natural c o m p u t i n g , Stuart H a m e r o f f and M i c h a e l C o n r a d
c o u l d easily r u n i n t o each other o n the trail.
A c c o r d i n g to H a m e r o f f , the u l t i m a t e computer is n o t chemicals
dancing i n neurons, or fight Idnking proteins i n a membrane, b u t
rather t h e net o f the spidery strands (cytoskeleton) assembling and
disassembling i n y o u r cefls as y o u read this. M y survey o f nature-
based biological c o m p u t i n g w o u l d n o t be complete w i t h o u t a visit
t o the m a n w h o sees the roots o f consciousness i n a m i c r o t u b u l e .
Buckle y o u r q u a n t u m belts f o r this one.
 220 / Biomimicry
THE S C A F F O L D S OF CONSCIOUSNESS?
Stuart H a m e r o f f and I are i n a stale canteen j u s t o f f the operating
r o o m , w a i t i n g f o r h i m to be summoned, as he puts i t , " t o pass gas."
A t this m o m e n t , he looks m o r e like the sax player on the cover o f
last m o n t h ' s Downbeat t h a n an anesthesiologist. He's t i l t e d chairback
against the w a l l , feet u p o n the table, his scrub-green shower cap
p u l l e d l o w over a bushy ridge o f salt-and-pepper eyebrows. A t the
back o f his cap a p o n y t a i l struggles t o break loose. He's staring at a
green w a l l and talking a blue streak.
As m y tape spools, his thoughts bank like swallows over a w i d e
landscape: q u a n t u m physics, philosophy, computer science, mathe-
matics, neurobiology (another person w h o needs a D e w e y decimal
system f o r his personal library). B u t he keeps circling back to the
same subject, one t h a t has tangled many a fine m i n d over centuries:
the b r a i n / m i n d debate. T h a t is, does the m i n d float above and sep-
arate f r o m the brain, or does i t sprout f r o m t h e gray goo itself? I f i t
sprouts, b y w h a t biological mechanism does i t emerge? A n d then,
m o s t mysteriously, h o w do these biological interactions inside the
b r a i n converge t o a f f o r d us a " u n i f i e d sense o f self"—a single iden-
tifiable I?
I n a f e w months, H a m e r o f f w i l l host an international t h i n k tank
at the U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a i n Tucson on consciousness, a confer-
ence t h a t already has several h u n d r e d registrants p a w i n g at the
chance t o reenact the o l d debate. H a m e r o f f has stepped i n t o t h e
consciousness f r a y i n a p u b l i c w a y lately, appearing i n glossy maga-
zine spreads w i t h Roger Penrose, a mathematical prodigy k n o w n f o r
his theories about wormholes, black holes, and geometric t i l i n g .
W i t h his latest book. Shadows of the Mind, Penrose appears t o have
headed d o w n a new w o r m h o l e , into the q u a n t u m w o r l d o f biology-
based consciousness. For a j o u r n e y like this, Penrose decided, it's
good to have a doctor along.
" I take away and revive people's consciousness every day," says
H a m e r o f f "So I've t h o u g h t about this i n a very practical, nonab-
stract way. A biological way. W e k n o w , f o r instance, t h a t certain
structures i n the b r a i n physically change i n the presence o f anesthe-
sia. T h a t is, they stop m o v i n g w h e n consciousness slips away.
W o u l d n ' t i t f o f l o w t h a t those same structures, and their movements,
are t i e d t o consciousness? Maybe they're the r o o t o f consciousness.
I say they are."
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 221
T h e physical structures t h a t H a m e r o f f refers to are p r o t e i n p o l y -
mer tubes called microtubules, and amazingly, t h o u g h t h e y are t h o r -
oughly u b i q u i t o u s structures, appearing i n every cefl o f our body,
they were incognito u n t i l 1970. I t seems w e had been inadvertently
dissolving t h e m w i t h a fixative ( o s m i u m tetroxide) used t o prepare
specimens f o r the electron microscope. ( D o n ' t y o u w o n d e r w h a t else
w e m a y be dissolving?) Once w e realized h o w t o prepare cells w i t h -
o u t destroying microtubules, w e began t o see t h e m everywhere w e
looked, and i t d a w n e d o n us h o w i m p o r t a n t t h e y are.
Cells are n o t the d r o o p y "bags o f watery enzymes" t h a t scien-
tists once imagined. T h e y are given t h e i r shape b y the cytoskeleton—
a T i n k e r t o y scaffolding o f p r o t e i n tubes and connectors t h a t organize
the interiors o f all l i v i n g cells. T h e p r o t e i n tubes i n this cytoskeleton
are called microtubules, cylindrical fibers t h a t can be anywhere f r o m
tens o f nanometers l o n g d u r i n g early assembly t o meters l o n g i n the
nerve axons o f large animals.
M i c r o t u b u l e s are one o f those examples o f nature's geometric
mantra repeated over and over. T h e b u i l d i n g blocks o f the m i c r o -
t u b u l e are proteins called t u b u l i n . T w o varieties o f t u b u l i n , alpha
and beta, self-assemble i n t o dimers, w h i c h self-assemble end t o end
i n t o l o n g p r o t e i n chains. These strands always group together i n b u n -
dles o f thirteen, f o r m i n g a h o l l o w cyflnder made o f p r o t e i n . T h e
cylinder's strands are t w i s t e d clockwise like t w i n e i n a rope, so t h a t
w h e n the m i c r o t u b u l e s are v i e w e d i n cross section, they l o o k like a
child's p i n w h e e l .
Each cylinder sports protrusions along its length cafled m i c r o -
t u b u l e associated proteins, or M A P S . Some M A P S are bridge? con-,:
necting t h e tubules t o one another, f o r m i n g the 3 - D lattice t h a t gives
the cell its shape. O t h e r M A P S , such as dynein and kinesin, are
sidearm proteins (contractile spurs) t h a t can extend and contract.
M o v i n g like the legs o f a centipede, they act i n a coordinated w a y
t o pass cytoplasm (cell fluid) along the t u b u l e i n bucket-brigade
style, or t o m o v e organelles f r o m one part o f the cefl to another. T h e
cell's workers—chromosomes, nuclei, m i t o c h o n d r i a , neurotransmit-
ter synaptic vesicles, liposomes, phagosomes, granules, ribosomes,
and the l i k e — a l l ride the m i c r o t u b u l e conveyor belt, meaning t h a t
m i c r o t u b u l e s are i n o n every j u s t about every i m p o r t a n t cellular
f u n c t i o n y o u can t h i n k o f
I n c l u d i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n . Remember those spindles f o r m i n g and
disappearing inside d i v i d i n g cells i n h i g h school biology filmstrips?
( I ' m dating m y s e l f ) Those were microtubules helping t o p u l l apart
 222 / Biomimicry
the doubhng sets o f chromosomes so t h a t one cell c o u l d become
t w o . M i c r o t u b u l e s are also at w o r k i n cilia, the u b i q u i t o u s hairlike
filaments t h a t bacteria used t o r o w themselves around y o u r m i c r o -
scope slide. Cilia also line our mucous passages, and w i t h the help
o f microtubules, they push materials u p and d o w n our body's small-
est corridors. It's n o t an exaggeration t o say t h a t w i t h o u t m i c r o t u -
bules, w e w o u l d n ' t be able t o sense t h e w o r l d , swallow, grow, or,
says H a m e r o f f , remember our names.
That's because b r a i n ceUs are also f u l l o f these m i c r o t u b u l a r
nets. H e r e they are n o t only conveyor b e h and scaffolding, b u t also
t h e builders and regulators o f synaptic connections called dendritic
spines. [ T h e same spines t h a t D o n a l d O . H e b b said are responsible
f o r opening a "dialogue" between t w o neurons so t h a t learning can
occur.) M i c r o t u b u l e assemblies are also present along the entire
length o f the spindly axon, and t h e i r branches are plugged directly
i n t o the neuron's a l l - i m p o r t a n t membrane and i n t o organelles such
as the soccer-ball-shaped clathrins at t h e end o f the axon. These
clathrins c o n t r o l t h e release o f neurotransmitter chemicals, w h i c h
s w i m across the synapse, delivering t h e neuron's signals. [ I n this last
f u n c t i o n , the m i c r o t u b u l e has its finger i n the very i m p o r t a n t pie o f
t h o u g h t and feehng.)
Talldng t o H a m e r o f f about the cytoskeleton makes y o u w a n t to
r u n i n t o the streets and h a n d o u t pamphlets about this marvelous
b i o - i n v e n t i o n . H e r e is a structure t h a t should be a household w o r d .
I t is a n e t w o r k nested w i t h i n each neuron, w h i c h is itself nested
w i t h i n a larger neuronal net. The f r a c t a l beauty o f this forest w i t h i n
a tree w i t h i n a forest wasn't lost o n H a m e r o f f , and he began t o w o n -
der i f there wasn't more t o i t . Perhaps the cytoskeletal net and the
neuronal net are partners i n the m i n d puzzle, w o r k i n g at d i f f e r e n t
scales. Perhaps the tinier cytoskeletal net is t h e "secret basement"
i n the cognitive hierarchy, the root cellar o f consciousness.
As H a m e r o f f was finishing H a h n e m a n n M e d i c a l School i n Phil-
adelphia and t r y i n g t o decide w h a t t o specialize i n , a professor t o l d
h i m t h a t one o f the effects o f anesthesia was t o cripple the m i c r o -
tubules i n neurons. H e n o w says, " T h a t made m e t h i n k . Is there a
mechanism i n microtubules t h a t controls self-awareness, i n t u i t i v e
t h o u g h t , emotion? D o microtubules help p o w e r consciousness?"
H a m e r o f f speciahzed i n anesthesiology and began to read everything
he c o u l d about the gas's chilling e f f e c t o n microtubules.
A n o t h e r revelation came years later w h e n colleague R i c h W a t t
b r o u g h t h i m an electron-microscope p o r t r a i t o f a t i n y n e t w o r k and
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 223
saicl, " W h a t does this l o o k hke?" " C y t o s k e l e t o n , " H a m e r o f f shot
back, w h i c h made W a t t smile. " L o o k again," he said. "It's a
microprocessor, a c o m p u t e r c h i p . "
T h e eerie resemblance h a d a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t on H a m e r o f f
' T h e s t i u c t u r e o f the cytoskeleton is n o t coincidental, I decided. A n d
the fact t h a t consciousness fades w h e n the m i c r o t u b u l e quiets is n o t
comcidental. T h e cytoskeleton n e t w o r k is as parallel and as inter-
connected as the neuronal net, b u t a thousand times smaller. I t con-
tains m i l l i o n s t o billions o f cytoskeletal subunits per nerve cell] T h e
cytoskeleton, I decided, is a l o t more t h a n mere cell scaffolding or a
p r o t o p l a s m t r a f f i c c o p - i t ' s a f u l l - f l e d g e d signaling n e t w o r k - a p r o -
cessor f o r coding, storing, and recalling our flickering thoughts. I n
short, it's biology's c o m p u t e r . "
Q u a n t u m Leaps
For ten years, w h e n he hasn't been escorting people i n and o u t o f
consciousness, H a m e r o f f has been m o d e l i n g t u b u l i n arrays on his
computer, searching f o r some sort o f code and signaling mechanism
D o y o u have a m i n u t e ? " H e crooks a finger and t h e n he's careening
d o w n the hallway, like a N e w Y o r k e r o n his l u n c h hour, t o the media
i n s t r u c t i o n lab w h e r e he's asked a biological illustrator t o create an
animated cartoon o f flexing m i c r o t u b u l e s f o r the u p c o m i n g con-
sciousness conference.
A s i t plays, H a m e r o f f narrates, excited t o see the w o r l d t h a t has
l i v e d f o r so l o n g i n his i m a g i n a t i o n p e r f o r m i n l i v i n g color, even i f i t
IS only a cartoon. "Each m i c r o t u b u l e is a h o l l o w cylindrical t u b e w i t h
an outside diameter o f about t w e n t y - f i v e nanometers and an inside
diameter o f f o u r t e e n nanometers. Each t u b u l i n dimer is about eight
nanometers b y f o u r nanometers b y f o u r nanometers, and consists o f
t w o parts a l p h a - t u b u h n and b e t a - t u b u l i n , each made u p o f about
f o u r h u n d r e d fifty amino acids."
I n the cartoon, a single d i m e r is p u l l e d o u t and m a g n i f i e d — f t
looks like a C character i n the f a t o u t i i n e f o n t . " A t the e l b o w o f the
C, the j u n c t i o n o f t h e a l p h a - t u b u l i n and the beta-tubulin, there is a
h y d r o p h o b i c [water-fearing] pocket. I n this pocket, an electron
moves u p and d o w n i n a m e t r o n o m e ticktock fashion called dipole
oscil ation. As ft oscillates, ft changes the shape o f the p r o t e i n , c r i m p -
ing t h e C and t h e n stretching i t . "
A s w e w a t c h , cartoon beads o f anesthesia gas start i n f i l t r a t i n g
f r o m screen l e f t . " C o u n t b a c k w a r d f r o m one h u n d r e d , " m u m b l e s
 224 / Biomimicry
H a m e r o f f . T h e m i n u t e the gas beads reach the dancing dimer bean,
the electron i n the pocket freezes, and the dancing stops. " G o o d -
bye consciousness," he announces.
Based o n his o w n observations, H a m e r o f f n o w believes that the
electron freeze is caused b y anesthetic molecules j a m m i n g i n t o the
h y d r o p h o b i c space at the e l b o w o f the C and b i n d i n g there. W h e n
the electron stops oscillating, w e lose consciousness.
B u t it's n o t j u s t the consciousness o f higher animals t h a t is af-
f e c t e d b y gas. Anesthesia can also stop the m o v e m e n t o f paramecia,
amoebae, and green slime molds, all o f w h i c h rely on cytoskeleton
f o r t h e i r o o z i n g - f o r w a r d movement, H a m e r o f f Icnew t h a t electrons
acdng alone inside each t u b u h n c o u l d n ' t possibly account f o r some-
t h i n g as coordinated as a p a r a m e c i u m m o v i n g t o catch its prey, let
alone a conscious t h o u g h t . Somehow, he theorized, the osciUating
electrons m u s t cooperate i n a» larger signahng and c o m m u n i c a t i o n net-
w o r k . T o find a plausible mechanism, H a m e r o f f l o o k e d to a theory
o f c o m p u t a t i o n k n o w n as cellular automaton theory.
A cellular a u t o m a t o n computer is a software p r o g r a m t h a t sets
u p a grid o f squares or "cells" (the spreadsheet k i n d , n o t the l i v i n g
k i n d ] . Each cell has a definite n u m b e r o f neighbors and has a f o r m u l a
of sorts embedded i n i t . T h e f o r m u l a is called a transition rule. A t
discrete time intervals, a k i n d o f musical chairs occurs. Every cell
must check o u t the status o f all o f its neighbors and t h e n change
states—either o n or o f f — a c c o r d i n g to its transition rule. A rule may
state; I f at least f o u r o f m y six neighbors are " o n , " I ' h be o n t o o .
O t h e r w i s e I ' l l stay o f f . A t each tick o f the computer's clock, the cells
check o u t t h e i r neighbors and change o n or o f f accordingly. I t helps
t o t h i n k o f the " o n " squares as w h i t e and the " o f f " squares as black.
A m a z i n g l y , simple rules and a clock regulating the action lead
to regular patterns o f w h i t e and black developing and m o v i n g across
the grid, i n t h e same w a y t h a t " T h e W a v e " can propagate t h r o u g h
a c r o w d e d s t a d i u m o f strangers. W i t h more c o m p l e x rules, a cellular
a u t o m a t o n i n three dimensions c o u l d simulate the f o r m a t i o n o f a
snowflake, m o l l u s k sheU, or galaxy. I n fact, John v o n N e u m a n n ,
k n o w n as t h e father o f m o d e r n c o m p u t i n g , suggested i n the 1950s
t h a t such a lattice c o u l d be p r o g r a m m e d t o solve any p r o b l e m .
Learning this, H a m e r o f f wondered, c o u l d microtubules be doing
something like T h e W a v e on t h e i r l a t t i c e w o r k o f t u b u l i n ? C o u l d they
somehow be computing?
T h e illustrator fast-forwards the c o m p u t e r a n i m a t i o n t o a f u n c -
tioning array o f microtubules. For this demonstration, he's slit t h e
How Will We Store What We Learn? / 225
soda straw o f a m i c r o t u b u l e lengthwise and u n f u r l e d i t flat i n t o a
rectangular array. Each C-shaped t u b u l i n is resting i n spoon f o r m a -
t i o n w i t h its neighbors, so t h a t the state o f each dimer ( w h e t h e r its
electron is u p or d o w n i n the pocket) c o u l d be affected b y the elec-
trostatic state o f its six neighbors. H e hits P L A Y , and an excited v i -
bration begins i n a patch o f the array at one corner and ripples across
the array like t h e energy o f a wave m o v i n g t h r o u g h water. B u t i t
doesn't stop there.
H a m e r o f f believes t h a t a m i c r o t u b u l e can " c a t c h " the oscifla-
t i o n o f its neighbors—that is, a set o f proteins vibrating i n one m i -
crotubule c o u l d start another set v i b r a t i n g i n exactly the same way,
hke a t u n i n g f o r k starting to vibrate i n response to another i n the
same r o o m . This " c a t c h i n g " oscillation, says H a m e r o f f , m a y be pos-
sible because o f a very unusual set o f qualities t h a t make m i c r o t u -
bules the perfect substrate f o r q u a n t u m coherence.
"Coherence" is a hyper-organizing t h a t imparts a strange and
o f t e n w o n d e r f u l q u a l i t y t o ordinary matter. W h e n the crystals i n a
laser r o d are p u m p e d w i t h enough energy, f o r instance, t h e y w f l l all
o f a sudden vibrate i n lockstep fashion, and give o f f coherent laser
hght. O r w h e n the l i n k e d electrons i n a m e t a l take on identical quan-
t u m characteristics, they become nearly frictionless conductors (a
p h e n o m e n o n called s u p e r c o n d u c t i v i t y ) . I n supermagnets, m i c r o d i -
poles align, and i n superfluids like h e l i u m , quantum-synchronized
atoms create a f r i c t i o n - f r e e fluid. B u t superconductors, supermag-
nets, and superfluids typically require temperatures near absolute
zero to d a m p e n t h e r m a l noise and b r i n g t h e i r particles i n t o align-
ment. T h e question is, can coherence happen i n biological materials,
at b o d y l i k e temperatures?
I n t h e 1970s, H e r b e r t F r ö h l i c h o f the University o f L i v e r p o o l
postulated t h a t electrons trapped i n the h y d r o p h o b i c pocket o f a
p r o t e i n like t u b u h n c o u l d oscillate, causing the p r o t e i n t o change
shape i n a predictable way. Further, he predicted that these electrons
w o u l d oscfllate coherently i f t h e y were i n a u n i f o r m electromagnetic
field (such as the walls o f a m i c r o t u b u l e ) and were p u m p e d w i t h
enough energy ( p r o v i d e d by t h e b o n d severing o f molecules like A T P
or G T P ) , A t some p o i n t , a set o f proteins c o u l d reach a critical level
o f excitation and all o f a sudden align i n lockstep.
A p p l i e d to the m i c r o t u b u l e , H a m e r o f f postulated t h a t the pat-
tern o f oscillation c o u l d either travel i n waves, r i p p l i n g across the
lattice, or j u m p t o nearby microtubules. These traveling shape-
changes c o u l d allow signals t o be carried t h r o u g h o u t the n e u r o n —
 226 / Biomimicty
How Will We Store What We.Learnl / 227

signals t h a t c o u l d direct, f o r instance, the m o v e m e n t o f cilia or even

wave f u n c t i o n is a w a y o f characterizing all the possible states t h a t
the regulation o f synaptic strengths. B u t h o w far c o u l d this coherence
the p h o t o n m a y be i n . A m a z i n g l y , w h e n a particle comes i n o con
reach? I f i t c o u l d spread m i c r o t u b u l e t o m i c r o t u b u l e , c o u l d i t also
tact w i t h m a t t e r - t h e molecules o n the screen i n the famous t w o
go outside the neuron's walls?
sht experiment f o r i n s t a n c e - t h e wave f u n c t i o n " c o l a p s e " to a"
Consciousness, a brain-wide phenomenon, cannot be isolated t o
single p o i n t , and the p h o t o n is f o r c e d to choose a singleTtate to be
a n e u r o n or t w o . I n order t o explain the " u n i f i e d sense o f self,"
m . W h e n w e observe something, w e d o n ' t see all its possible s t a t e s -
microtubules w o u l d need some way o f coordinating t h e i r actions w e see only one. W e force i t to be i n only one s t a t e ' t h r o u g r he act
across large distances i n the brain. T o explain u n i t y o f self, H a m e r o f f of seeing or measuring i t . ^
wandered even f a r t h e r i n t o the l a b y r i n t h o f q u a n t u m mechanics.
M i c h a e l C o n r a d has suggested t h a t biological molecules e x p l o i t
As part o f his exploration, he read a b o o k b y Roger Penrose
called The Emperor's New Mind, i n w h i c h Penrose f o u n d q u a n t u m
fo^silTe 7 t ^ ' " " ^ P ° - b i l i t i e s and explore

theory a t h o r o u g h l y plausible explanation f o r h o w thoughts can ap- inrin h s " ' "^^^^f' P ^ ° h l e m o f shape-based dock-
pear t o be magically distributed or " f l o a t i n g above" the brain, and doctoL T ' T ™ " around just before
yet still be anchored i n matter. A c c o r d i n g t o Penrose, i f w e c o u l d doclang, and an electron tries o u t m a n y d i f f e r e n t bonds searching
find the biological player i n this q u a n t u m dance, w e m i g h t be able f o r a m i n i m u m energy configuration. Penrose postulated t h a t Z
t o explain the u n i f i e d sense o f self.
Q u a n t u m mechanics apphes to the very small things i n our
t Z r o u T d txr*^ ' ' ' ' ^ ^p-^^"
t r y m g o u t dozens o f d i f f e r e n t options simultaneously u n t i l one
w o r l d , t h e substructure t h a t underhes t h e visible w o r l d . I n the early emerges as a conscious t h o u g h t - a decision about w h a t ' a t e "
decades o f the century, w h e n q u a n t u m mechanics was first taldng
T h e second q u a n t u m t h e o r y t h a t seems to relate, to " m i n d " is
shape as a theory, i t c o m p l e t e l y upended our ideas o f physical reality.
he dea o f q u a n t u m Icnowing. This states t h a t movements o f a t o m
N e w t o n i a n laws were n o t completely banished—they still apphed i n
electrons, or other q u a n t u m particles may, under certain i n s t a n c l
our visible w o r l d — b u t they were no longer the be all and end all.
be synchronized at great distances. As H a m e r o f f writes, "TÏC great
N e w t o n had no idea h o w w e i r d the w o r l d o f the t i n y c o u l d be.
est surprise to emerge f r o m q u a n t u m theory is q u a n t u m insen
T w o relevant legs o f the q u a n t u m t h e o r y are the "superposition
o f states" and " q u a n t u m Icnowing." T h e t h e o r y o f superposition says ^'^^^ ^^^^ objects\hat onS
interacted are i n some sense still connected] E r w i n S c h r ö d i n g e r one
t h a t atoms are i n m a n y possible states simultaneously. T h e y are
searching among the various alternative energy states (an e f f e c t M i - o f the inventors o f q u a n t u m mechanics, observed i n 1935 thft when
chael C o n r a d called " q u a n t u m scanning"), and they d o n ' t "choose"
a state u n t i l they collide w i t h matter or are observed. T h e famous
ZZlTc ^'^''"^ ' ^'^^^ ™ f - ^ ^ - - become ' p l ^ s ^

argument i n support o f this is p r o v i d e d by the double-slit experi-
ment, i n w h i c h a l o w - i n t e n s i t y beam o f photons is projected onto a
w a l l p u n c t u r e d w i t h t w o vertical slits. B e h i n d the w a l l is a screen.
Because the intensity is l o w and the p h o t o n stream is " d i l u t e , " each
p h o t o n should pass t h r o u g h one slit or t h e other. Instead, the pattern
o n the screen suggests t h a t each p h o t o n passes t h r o u g h b o t h slits at
once. T h e bizarre b u t oft-replicated experiment seems to suggest
t h a t a p h o t o n can be i n t w o places simultaneously.
laosed the t b ''"^"t^T' ^ h e n one system's wave f u n c t i o n is col¬
T a l k about a t r u l y interconnected w o r l d ] N a t u r a l l y quantum
the holographic m o d e l o f consciousness. Q u a n t u m k n o w i n g says tha?
once t w o particles have been entangled quantumly, been pYr o f the
same q u a n t u m wave f u n c t i o n , t h e y are always related i n some w y -
hey W ^ h a t their coherent relative is doing. I n a sense they a r .

Q u a n t u m theory says the p h o t o n is n o t j u s t i n those t w o places,
b u t i n m a n y others as w e l l . Scientists decided the best w a y t o talk
about a photon's location w o u l d be to imagine a three-dimensional
graph o f all possible states. This is called the state space, and the
S ern°s to os' T T ^ ' " ^ ' r ^ ' " ^ '^^^ - T e r e n c e that c a u l
patterns to oscdlate m synchrony inside the m i c r o t u b u l e m a y cause
croTT" n ° " T " T'"^"™ ' ^ l - r - r o s s the b r a i n " o
across brains]), w i t h o u t the need f o r neurons to be touching. Perhap
this same q u a n t u m k n o w i n g m a y account f o r such "supernatura
 228 / Biomimiay How Will We Store What We Learn? / 229

phenomena" as Jungian collective unconscious, Hegel's w o r l d spirit, As i f coherence and cellular automata are n o t enough, H a m e r o f f
and the strange ESP t h a t y o u feel w i t h a loved one w h o is miles has entertained some h a l f dozen other theories about h o w signals
may be bounced around t h e b r a i n o n the t r a m p o l i n e o f t u b u l i n .
away.
A n o t h e r theory imagines t h a t the h o l l o w tubes act as waveguides,
A t the time he w r o t e Emperor, Penrose had the q u a n t u m ar-
like l i t d e fiber-optic cables. T h e water w i t h i n the tubes structures i n
guments f o r consciousness w o r k e d out, b u t k n e w o f no biological
such a w a y as t o e m i t a p h o t o n , w h i c h bounces along t h e wave-
mechanism i n the b r a i n t h a t w o u l d be capable o f such q u a n t u m
guides, creating a tiny optical c o m p u t e r w i t h i n our cells. Cytoske-
effects H e speculated t h a t q u a n t u m effects i n the b r a i n w o u l d re-
letons m a y also be using soliton waves, sliding motions, c o u p l i n g o f
quire a structure t h a t was 1) small enough t o be driven b y q u a r i t u m
calcium concentrations t o cytoplasmic sol-gel states, or constant p o l -
effects and 2) separated f r o m the t h e r m a l h u b b u b o f the rest of the
y m e r i z i n g and d e p o l y m e r i z i n g t o process signals.
brain. W h e n H a m e r o f f read these words, he f o u n d h i m s e l f tallang
Regardless o f h o w m i c r o t u b u l e s are c o m p u t i n g and c o m m u n i -
back t o the pages. T u b u l i n proteins were small enough to host the
cating, H a m e r o f f is convinced t h a t they are, and he thinks i f w e l e t
q u a n t u m effects Penrose so b e a u t i f u l l y described, and the h y d r o -
microtubules assemble themselves i n a laboratory, w e could get t h e m
p h o b i c cages inside the fibrils w o u l d indeed be a safe haven f r o m the
t o c o m p u t e f o r us. " T h e neat t h i n g about m i c r o t u b u l e s , " he tells
rest o f the brainl H e was ecstatic. "Penrose had handed m e the quan-
me, "is t h a t they can f u n c t i o n outside o f t h e i r cellular h o m e [like
t u m argument t h a t I h a d b^en searching f o r , and I beheved I was
BR can]. P u t t u b u l i n subunits i n the right solution and they do w h a t
h o l d i n g the missing biological piece that he needed."
comes n a t u r a l l y — t h e y self-assemble i n t o b e a u t i f u l cylinders cross-
H a m e r o f f w r o t e t o Penrose and asked t o come and see h i m . A t
l i n k e d w i t h M A P S . T h a t means w e c o u l d conceivably grow arrays o f
a famous t w o - h o u r m i n d m e l d at Penrose's O x f o r d office, the t w o
t h e m i n vats and use t h e m as signahng media. W e could use t h e m
exchanged the missing pieces o f the conceptual locket each h a d been
as a storage device or even as an intelligent processor."
carrying around. A f e w weelcs later, Penrose stood u p at a meeting
and postulated t h a t the m i c r o t u b u l e may be the physical seat of M i c h a e l C o n r a d is also interested i n this cellular trellis t h a t so
recently showed its face under our microscopes. "Chances are t h a t
consciousness. i i-
microtubules w i l l be a part o f the tactilizing processor someday,"
I n his latest book, Shadows of the Mind, Penrose lays o u t his
says Conrad. " U s i n g t h e i r tiny centipedelike arms, they c o u l d push
arguments i n a f o r m a l way. H e believes t h a t " m i n d " is a "macro-
or p u l l t h e shapes, speeding t h e m t o w a r d one another f o r self-
scopically coherent q u a n t u m wave f u n c t i o n " i n the b r a i n t h a t is p r o -
assembly i n t o a mosaic. Cytoskeletons could even be part o f the
tected f r o m entanglement w i t h the t h e r m a l environment. T h e wave
readout mechanism. Instead o f f o r m i n g a mosaic, the floating shapes,
f u n c t i o n is composed o f quantum-connected electrons sitting i n su-
c o u l d somehow influence the self-assembly o f cytoskeleton. T h e final
perposition—at b o t h the upper and l o w e r position o f the h y d r o p h o -
shape o f the cytoskeleton w o u l d reflect the pattern o f inputs t o the
bic pocket o f each p r o t e i n dimer. Because the pulse o f vibrational
neuron [ i t w o u l d say "snowshoe h a r e " ] , and the readout enzymes
energy i n a m i c r o t u b u l e is separated f r o m the h u b b u b o f the bram,
w o u l d i n t e r p r e t the cytoskeleton instead o f the mosaic. Finally, y o u
i t isn't f o r c e d t o choose a single state, and is free t o investigate all
could h o o k m i c r o t u b u l e s i n t o long strands t h a t act as physical trans-
possible patterns.
mission lines—wires—to connect t a c t i h z i n g processors t o one an-
Penrose and H a m e r o f f beheve the microtubules' almost crystal-
other i n c o m p l e x parallel n e t w o r k s . "
line structure may allow t h e m t o support a superposition o f coherent
q u a n t u m states f o r as long as i t takes to do " q u a n t u m c o m p u t i n g . ' For Conrad, the cytoskeleton is hke having a n e w m u l t i t a l e n t e d
W h e n the q u a n t u m superposition finally collapses, i t triggers a spon- personality j o i n the team. " T h i n k o f all the processes t h a t cyto-
taneous release o f neurotransmitters (microtubules also direct this skeletons m a y e m p l o y — c o n f o r m a t i o n a l change, dipole oscillations,
process). W i t h this release, a thought, image, or feeling occurs to us^ shding motions, soliton waves, v i b r a t o r y motions, sound waves, p o -
l y m e r i z a t i o n and depolymerization! This gives the system a l o t o f
A t this p o i n t they are t r y i n g t o figure o u t h o w many neurons i t w o u l d
dynamics t o w o r k w i t h , a l o t t o choose f r o m w h e n evolving a more
take f o r a conscious event—a collapse—to occur. T h e y t h m k the
efficient w a y t o c o m p u t e . O u r idea is t o f e e d evolution all the flex-
n u m b e r m a y be t e n thousand cooperating neurons.
 230 / Biomimicry How Will We Store What We Learn? / 231

i b i l i t y w e can, and t h e n stand out o f its w a y and let i t seek its o w n

m a t t e i Ï t ' " ' V f "^''^ ° ^ P ^ " ' ' " recognition? I t was o n l y a
m a t t e r o f t i m e before someone c l i m b e d the peak to the D N A c o m -
° ^ ^ ° s 1 u a r ! H a m e r o f f has w r i t t e n a b o o k - l e n g t h ode t o microtubules
caUed Ultimate Computing. H e is b o l d i n p r i n t , and his monograph
is a fascinating r o m p . I t plunges i n t o d i f f i c u l t mathematics and t h e n
suddenly breaches i n t o the stratosphere, maldng predictions t h t
TRAVELING SALESMAN,
raise eyebrows i n some scientific circles. A cytoske etal array w o u l d CONSULT YOUR DNA
be a fine m e d i u m f o r artificial intelligence, H a m e r o f f contends. H o w
quickly c o u l d i t compute? W e l l , i n the three-and-a-half-pound u n i - D N A is a code, a Idnd o f language, and y o u can translate w h a t y o u
verse w e can a brain, there are 1 0 - t u b u l i n dimers, each opera ing
at a speed o f about 10^ operations per second, f o r a t o t a l ot l U Z Z T r t Z ' ° 1 1 / " ' ' " ^ ' " '^P^'^^' o f nucleotide bases: A (ad-
enine), T ( t h y m m e ) , G (guanine), and C (cytosine). B y t u r n i n g your
operations per second. I f y o u w a n t more dimers t h a n that, make a
m f o r m a t i o n i n t o a chain o f molecules, you've managed to t u r n i
bigger vati W e c o u l d even, he says w i t h a bravado that has earn.-., i n t o something t h a t can be touched, something that's c o n t r o l l e d b y
h i m some b r o w bends f r o m more cautious colleagues, send vats o the physics o f shape-fitting and sequence matehing
this s t u f f i n t o o r b i t aroUnd the Earth, w h e r e i t can evo ve ar ificial Y o u ' v e also t u r n e d i t i n t o something that can be duplicated, i n
consciousness. O r , he says, because microtubules are b i o l o g i c a f m o l -
p a r t because o f a neat rule about complementary D N A . Here's h o w
ecules t h e y w o u l d be welcome i n our bodies. W e c o u l d capitahze
c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y works: W h e n t w o strands o f D N A get together
on their m o t o r l i k e M A P S , he says, and send t h e m as p r o g r a m m e d
their bases line u p very specifically. A n A sticks to T , a C to g'
nanorobots t o do specific tasks inside the cell.
and so on. Since c o m b i n i n g is the energetically favorable t h i n g fo^
H a m e r o f f ends his b o o k w i t h a dare: " M i c r o t u b u l e s and du-
cytoskeleton created their place i n evolutionary history b y being Z w r t Y f ' " . t ' ° Z '^""^ ^^^^y^ t ° g - t h e r i n t o the
p r o b l e m solvers, organelle movers, cellular organizers, and i n t e l l i - to solit t h " i ""T^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ " ^ f^-"^- heat t h e m
to split t h e m apart, b u t l e t the solution cool back to b o d y temper-
gence circuits. W h e r e do they go f r o m here?" I n a Computer maga- ature and t h e y ' l l r e j o i n w i t h o u t skipping a beat. K e v i n U l Z o f
zine article i n 1992, H a m e r o f f and f o u r other authors wager a guess.
" I f c o m p u t a t i o n occurs i n microtubules and can be decoded an. t ^ ; r i - ? ? r ' ' ° t " / ° ' ^ ^ ' " ^ ' ^^'"^^^^^'^ ^^^^^ ° f ^^Q^ L t d . ) , says
t h a t s hke t a k i n g a Chevy apart, sticking the parts i n a large rate
assessed, cytoskeletal arrays may provide 'devices w i t h substanual
c o m p u t i n g power. Perhaps such systems w i l l someday reach cogni- s t e DNA^'. " T " ' ' ^ ^ ^'^^^ ' drive away!
Since D N A processors" are a l i t t i e smaller than Chevys, however
tive capabilities comparable to and even superior to h u m a n ^^y '"
ties " A n d t h e n the authors seem to read our minds: W h i l e tii.-
ideas o f dynamic coding and technological i n t e r v e n t i o n i n the cyto-
skeleton may seem farfetched, are they any m o r e radical than were
t h e ideas o f static genetic coding and i n t e r v e n t i o n m D N A and R N A
at the U n i v e r s i t y o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a School o f Engineering an
some years ago?" i n ^ i'ouuo t t r t ^ ^ o f synthesized DNI s t r a T d t h ^
I t h o u g h t o f H a m e r o f f ' s claim w h e n I read an article cahed O n
the Path t o C o m p u t i n g w i t h D N A " b y D a v i d G i f f o r d i n the N o - ?he t r t °t i ' ^ " t " ^^'"P"*^"^ P - b l e m s k n o w n ,
vember 1 1 , 1994, issue o f the j o u r n a l Science. Someone had to tinnk t h r o u g h a n e t w o r k o f points) is a benchmark f o r c o m p u t e r prowess
of i t sometime. I f simple enzymes can c o m p u t e t h r o u g h sh.ipe-
foi n T T t t t " * ™ f ' " ^ ^ " ^ ^° ' solution) has yet to be
fitting, as C o n r a d contends, and i f H a m e r o f f ' s microtubules can as-
f o u n d . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t o f the traveling salesman w h o m u s t fly
semble and disassemble t o f o r m c o m p u t i n g arrays, t h e n w h a t abou to m a n y cities, b u t w h o wants an itinerary that w i f l take h i m t h r o u g h
the m o s t w o n d r o u s coding mechanism o f all: the code o f l i f e U.al each city o n l y once. W h e n there are m a n y cities, the possible i t i n -
twines together like t w o circular staircases, pairing u p base by luse eraries become astronomical. A triflion-operations-per-second c o m -
 232 / Biomimicty How Will We Store What We Leam? / 233

p u t e r t r y i n g t o find a H a m i l t o n i a n p a t h t h r o u g h one h u n d r e d cities,
f o r instance, w o u l d need 10"= seconds—vastly longer t h a n the age
o f the universel
A d l e m a n used only seven cities, looldng f o r a p a t h t h a t w o u l d
begin i n Atlanta, end i n D e t r o i t , and pass t h r o u g h each intervening
city only once. H e gave each city a D N A name, using the letters o f
t h e D N A alphabet. A , T , G , and C, and t h e n set o u t t o create strands
o f D N A t h a t w o u l d c o m p l e m e n t these names. T o create these
strands, A d l e m a n used an increasingly c o m m o n piece o f lab equip-
m e n t called an oligio machine that strings bases together a u t o m a t i -
cally. A s y o u ' l l see i n the t h i r d c o l u m n b e l o w , he replaced each A
w i t h a T , each T w i t h an A , each C w i t h a G , and each G w i t h a
C, according t o t h e rules o f complementarity.
DNA SYNTHESIZED
CITY
NAME COMPLEMENTARY
DNA NAME
Using the oligio he m a n u f a c t u r e d the D N A flight names i n actual
bases t h e n made 30 t r i l l i o n copies o f each. T h e idea was t h a t i f
stirred i n t o the same test tube, these flight names w o u l d stick to the
ending o f one city name and the beginning o f another, thus splinting
the t w o names together. T o test this, A d l e m a n p o u r e d the flight
names i n t o the test tube o f c o m p l e m e n t a r y D N A city names (So
tar, lab technicians assure me, it's as easy as H a m b u r g e r H e l p e r )
Sure enough, the flight strands acted as splints; cgagct floated over
to A t l a n t a and Chicago, f o r instance, and stuck to t h e m like so-
ATLANTA-CHICAGO
CHICAGO-BALTIMORE
DNA FLIGHT NAME
DNA FLIGHT NAME
/
cgagcttagcga
cgaatc

Atlanta atgcga tacgct

Baltimore cgatcc gctagg

C H I C A G O C O M P L E M E N T A R Y D N A N A M E acting as a splint
Chicago gcttag cgaatc

Detroit gtccgg caggcc

f T ^ Ï r f t ' l ' " * ' " ^"""^ ' " f ^ " ' " ^""'^ ^"b^s ^ ^ r e f u l l o f long strands
of D N A f l i g h t names splinted together. T h r o u g h a series o f r e c o m -
( A d l e m a n actually used seven names w i t h t w e n t y letters each, binings and screenings, A d l e m a n was eventually able to filter o u t afl
b u t w e ' l l keep i t simple.) the strings t h a t started or ended w i t h the w r o n g city, or were too
long or short H e was l e f t w i t h only strings o f D N A molecules t h a t
Using c o m m o n r e c o m b i n a n t D N A technology, A d l e m a n made 30 represented the w i n n i n g itinerary.
t r i l h o n copies o f these complementary D N A strands and set t h e m T h e p r o b l e m was solved t h r o u g h self-assembly, the k i n d t h a t
aside. occurs m Conrad's shape-based c o m p u t i n g . A s D a v i d G i f f o r d c o m -
A d l e m a n t h e n gave each segment o f the r o u t e a flight n a m e - m e n t e d i n Science: " T h e 'oracle' i n Adleman's m e t h o d is the i m -
taking the last three letters o f the departure city and attaching i t to mense c o m p u t a t i o n a l capacity o f a ligation reaction t h a t produces
the first three letters o f the arrival city. I f he were using Enghsh, the bilhons o f products and b y b r u t e force tries all possible solutions "
A t l a n t a t o Chicago flight name w o u l d be the six capital letters i n the I n A d l e m a n ' s first e x p e r i m e n t (detailed i n the Science article)
f o f l o w i n g example: a t l a N T A C H I c a g o . B u t since A d l e m a n was using only seven cities were chosen, b u t i t seems clear that almost any
D N A code, t h e flight names l o o k e d like this: H a m i l t o n i a n p a t h p r o b l e m c o u l d be solved this way. B u t it's n o t just
travelers' queries t h a t stand to be answered. C o m p l e x problems such
PLIGHT DNA NAMES DNA FLIGHT as telephone n e t w o r k switching, a u t o m a t i n g factory tasks, and arti-
NAMES ficia intelligence require w h a t is called simukaneous processing
Atlanta-Chicago atgcga-gcttag cgagct W h i l e conventional computers can explore only one or t w o solutions
Chicago-Detroit gcttag-gtccgg taggtc at a t i m e , trillions o f D N A molecules, each acting as a processor, can
Chicago-Bahimore gcttag-cgatcc tagcga generate biflions o f possible solutions simultaneously.
Baltimore-Detroit cgatcc-gtccgg tccgtc I n his press release, A d l e m a n cheers cautiously: " k is p r e m a t u r e
 234 / Biomimicry
t o judge t h e l o n g - t e r m implications o f this approach t o c o m p u t a t i o n ;
however, molecular c o m p u t a t i o n has certain i n t r i g u i n g properties
t h a t w a r r a n t f u r t h e r investigation. For example, w h i l e current su-
percomputers can execute about a t r i l l i o n operations per second,
molecular computers conceivably c o u l d execute more t h a n a t h o u -
sand t r i l l i o n operations per second." I n fact, i t has been estimated
t h a t a D N A c o m p u t e r c o u l d p e r f o r m m o r e operations i n a f e w days
t h a n all the calculations ever made b y aU t h e computers ever b u i l t .
H e goes o n t o w r i t e : "Further, molecular computers m i g h t be
as m u c h as a b i l l i o n times more energy efficient t h a n current elec-
t r o n i c computers. Also, storing i n f o r m a t i o n i n D N A requires about
1 t r i U i o n t h the space required by existing storage media such as video
tape, . . . For certain intrinsically c o m p l e x problems . . . where exist-
ing electronic computers are very i n e f f i c i e n t and where massively
parallel searches can be organized t o take advantage o f the operations
t h a t molecular biology currently provides, i t is conceivable t h a t m o -
lecular c o m p u t a t i o n m i g h t compete w i t h electronic c o m p u t a t i o n m
t h e near t e r m . " , , A 11
A f e w m o n t h s after t h e paper was pubhshed i n Science, A d l e m a n
h e l d an i m p r o m p t u conference on D N A - b a s e d c o m p u t i n g i n Prince-
t o n . T o his amazement, t w o h u n d r e d scientists packed i n t o a stand-
ing-room-only hall. M a n y talks were given and plans hatched, and
t h o u g h A d l e m a n contends the field is still i n "an embryonic stage
others at the conference beheved w e m i g h t see some practical D N A
computers i n as l i t t l e as five years.
Chances are, silicon computers w o n ' t be abandoned com-
p l e t e l y - l i k e Conrad's tactihzing processors, D N A enthusiasts sec-
vats o f D N A as souped-up peripherals f o r sihcon computers. T h e y d
make a tremendous storage m e d i u m , f o r instance. O n e speaker said
t h a t a l i q u i d D N A c o m p u t e r one cubic meter i n size c o u l d memorize
m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n all the existing computers i n the w o r l d . Get-
ting d o w n t o specifics, Eric B a u m o f the N E C Research Institute al
Princeton estimated t h a t one thousand liters o f D N A solution could
contain i n coded f o r m 10^° (that is 1 f o l l o w e d b y 20 zeros) words
o f i n f o r m a t i o n . A n o t h e r speaker estimated t h a t a m i l l i o n times more
i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be stored at t h e b o t t o m o f a test tube of D N A
t h a n i n the entire h u m a n brain.
M e m b e r s o f the press gasped audibly at these forecasts, given
t h e f a c t t h a t A d l e m a n ' s e x p e r i m e n t actually w o r k e d . I t p r o m p t e d
Steven Levy o f Newsweek t o w r i t e , "Such an event is t h e equivalent
o f peering o u t the w i n d o w o f a b u l l e t t r a i n and w a t c h i n g i n aston-
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 235
ishment as an u n f a m i l i a r vehicle zips b y y o u w i t h a fearsome
whoosh. As i f y o u were standing.still " wearsome
B u t f o r M i c h a e l C o n r a d or Stuart H a m e r o f f or A n n Tate A d l e -
m a n s announcement was an inevitable event, the shape o f t h ngs to
come. A s A d l e m a n has since remarked, his experiments have made
h i m reahze t h a t "being a c o m p u t e r is something t h a t w e externallv
impose o n an o b j e c t . " H e suggests there m a y be a l o t o f other -"om
puters," like D N A , t h a t w e have yet t o discover
Indeed, w e are j u s t beginning to investigate all the ways nature
has already f o u n d to c o m p u t e and transfer i n f o r m a t i o n . W h a t m a y
be most surpris ng is t h a t i t has taken us this long to l o o k ov r na-
ture s shoulder f o r c o m p u t i n g ideas. Perhaps it's because our "search
image has been w r o n g ; w e haven't "seen" nature's c o m p u t i n g de
vices because t h e y d o n ' t l o o k like ours. ^
N o t yet, anyway.
TO UNFLATTEN BIOLOGY-
THE REAL Q U E S T
i^'re t ' ^ ° P - - P " ^ - l o o k hke
m the era o f m o ecular c o m p u t i n g , he hedges. For h i m the real
carrot is n o t the device. " T h e last t h i n g the w o r l d needs s anothe
n l / v T ;
technolo " " T
"^^ '"*^^*^^ ' - d e r s t a n d tech
technologies, I d o n ' t really see
technology as a h u m a n need. O u r perceived need f o r technology is
m o s t l y generated b y the c o m p e t i t i o n o f countries f o r export, I t S
m n T n T "'^^'^ d ^ ^ ^ ' ^ - - - d e r to grow, " T h t
man, the head o f a m a j o r c o m p u t e r center, doesn't drive a car nor
does he need to. H e walks to w o r k f r o m the V i c t o r i a n apartment he
and his w i f e D e b b y , have l i v e d i n f o r fifteen years. I f he mSes a
phone call w h i l e he's walking, he doesn't k n o w aLut i t ; he's blepL!
f u t u r ? a t' T f " ' """^ r * ' P " ' " ' vision f o r the
f u t u r e , astoundingly enough, is to o f f e r people a n e w paradigm b y
w h i c h t o understand b i o l o g y - a biological rather than a mechanical
paradigm." R i g h t n o w this M a c Plus is the u l t i m a t e m a X e - ^ S
w h a t w e k n o w . T h a t doesn't mean w e should use i t to e x p l ^ n the
and b " ' - ' "t ' ' ° f ' " ^ ^ ' ^ g ^l^^^ories about organisms
and basing t h e m o n the machine o f the hour. W e used to say t h ^ t
 236 / Biomimicry
How Will We Store What We Leam? / 237

the h u m a n b o d y w o r k e d hke a clock, b u t t h a t was w h e n the clock

was the u l t i m a t e machine. There was also a time w h e n w e said i t
w o r k e d just like levers and pulleys and hydrauhcs. T h e n w e said i t
was like a steam engine, w i t h a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f energies. A f t e r the
Second W o d d W a r , w h e n w e began t o devise feedback controls f o r observers do „„,k,,„„4'";2;3«*^^^ ,h., „ ,3
our factories, w e said our body w o r k e d like a self-regulating governor With her, by „ s l „ g b i o I o g ^ S d 1 T . e t I f""""^ » " » » c e s
or servomechanism. N o w , predictably, we're convinced t h a t the w o r t its „ . g , c ( „ e „ „ , , L . ^ 0 ^ / W , «.™'"'»»
b o d y works like a computer. W e ' r e using theories f r o m c o m p u t e r to come out ahead of where we WOT.MT ?l '' ''<'"»<l
science—theories t h a t come f r o m the machine w o r l d — t o explain
digital, rigidly c o n t r o U e d t ^ c ° " ™°
h o w the b r a i n works, and that disturbs Conrad.
" W e are teaching biology students t h a t our enzymes and neu-
rons are simple switches, t u r n i n g o n or o f f . I n reality, we're n o t h i n g
by ^^::t^ss:^fjt'^<'-'
crotubule array, a cube OTm „ ' ^ u ' T f
- °«
^ * " » i -
like a computer, nor are w e like a clock, a lever, a servomechanism, Conrad l a u g h / " R e T e X r ' ^ V " ' " ' " ï " * ' ^ A ? Michael
or a steam engine. W e ' r e m u c h more subtle and c o m p l e x t h a n that. origin of I i f e \ t a „ d T w w ? f r . . : M ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ' T "
" T h i s v i e w of; the organism as a digital c o m p u t e r has flattened our i „ t challenge ia ,0 describe her in t r . e m s T b T Ï
biology, and I ' d like to u n f l a t t e n i t . W h e n I b u i l d the tactilizing p r o -
cessor, I hope i t WiU make people stop and consider t h a t there is
m o r e t h a n one way t o compute. Nature's computers d o n ' t w o r k the
w a y ours do. T o t h i n k t h a t they do is very bad f o r society—it makes
us use digital computers f o r tasks w e ought t o be asldng our brains
t o do—tasks t o w h i c h digital computers are n o t suited."

I t h o u g h t a l o t about w h a t C o n r a d is t r y i n g t o accomplish, and 1

t h i n k it's m u c h more i m p o r t a n t than beating other countries to the
sixth-generation computer. Conrad's insistence on u n f l a t t e n i n g b i -
ology reflects b i o m i m i c r y ' s u l t i m a t e goal—to learn more respect f o r
nature and to recapture our sense o f wonder. A t its best, b i o m i m i c r y
should take us aback, make us more h u m b l e , and p u t us i n the
learner's chair, seeking t o discover and emulate instead o f invent.
I n t h e i r respective books The Death of Nature and The Reen
chantment of the World, Carolyn M e r c h a n t and M o r r i s Bergman agree
t h a t only b y changing our perception o f nature w f l l w e change ho\v
w e behave t o w a r d her. There's a history t h a t proves t h e m right. In
the 1700s w e ignored c u l t u r a l taboos about violating nature and gave
scientists permission to break the natural w o r l d i n t o pieces t o stud\-
i t . W i t h the animus and mystery gone, nature was suddenly on our
leash, t o do w i t h her as we pleased.
T w o centuries later, having taken reduetionism about as far a.-,
w e can go, there are signs t h a t a r e b o u n d is beginning. M a n y scien-
tists, especially those i n the ecological sciences, have become stu-
dents o f the w h o l e once again. A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d nature have also
 How Will We Conduct Business? / 239

CHAPTER 7
ments, he reahzed l o n g ago that the best tools are those t h a t nature

age i^at tne 1992 EcoTech Conference i n M o n t e r e v Califorr,i;,-l 1,

w a n t e d t o be p a r t o f i t . H e stepped u p after Tihh7s\altlZ'f A

HOW WILL WE CONDUCT BUSINESS?

CLOSING
THE LOOPS IN
COMMERCE:
RUNNING A
BUSINESS LIKE A
R E D W O O D FOREST

z i w r T e rr - p ' « when I : •

rr I d K ' " " ' r ? ? ' '-"iMri"! ecology fellow

When we objectively view the recent past—and two hundred years
is recent even in terms of human evolution and certainly in terms of
biological evolution—one fact becomes clear: The Industrial Revolution
as we now know it is not sustainable. We cannot keep using materials
1 he mamstreaming o f a very radical idea is i n the works and i f
and resources the way we do now. But how are we to land softly? '
— B R A D E N R. A L L E N B Y , research vice president,
Technology and Environment, A T & T

Nature has evolved systems over billions of years that work in har-
mony with each other, that build from hare, rocky, thin soil to lush, FROOT LOOPS A N D iFlE FUTURE OF
green forests. Without human intervention the processes of nature have THE H U M A N RACE
evolved self-regulating forces of beauty, grace, and efficiency. Our chal-
lenge is to learn how to honor them and he inspired by their truth to
create new cultural values and systems.
— J A M E S A, S W A N and R O B E R T A SWAN, authors of
Bound to the Earth

Stewart Brand, editor o f the first Whole Earth Catalog, calls himself
a " l i f e l o n g purveyor o f t h e biological m e t a p h o r . " As a collector o f
tools and tips f o r t h e back-to-the-land-cum-sustainable-living move-
.n conference a.dre eagerly passed them to on, a n o . h e r l r e i ;

240 / Biomimiay
dasses d o w n t h e i r noses t o read the ingredients. T h e y conferred i n
s S u s tones and j o t t e d notes i n leather portfolios: Re: Froot L o o p s -
ThT^rSse referred t o was a new w a y to clean electronic
c i r c u i t b o a r d s - t h o s e p l a t f o r m s o f t i n y transistors and other c o m -
ponents t h a t c o n t r o l electronic devices. R i g h t n o w hazardous t o x i c
S v e n are used t o clean the boards between m a n u f a c t u r m g steps.
T h e I m T researcher w h o devised the n e w cleaner was inspired b y
A e basic tenet o f i n d u s t r i a l ecology, w h i c h says t h a t w e should t r y
wherever possible, t o w o r k only w i t h substances t h a t nature w o M
Tecognize and be able t o assimilate. Taldng this idea q u i t e l i t e r a l ^ ,
the researcher had parked h i m s e l f i n f r o n t o f a database o f F D A -
f p p r o t d ubstances'and i d e n t i f i e d a slurry o f ingredients so benign
Z t kids c o u l d slurp t h e m f r o m the b o t t o m o f t h - ^ - ; - .^owls^
Y e t w h e n p o u r e d o n a freshly m a n u f a c t u r e d circuit b o a r d they
washld away t h e l e f t o v e r solder and other gunk like a lucky charm.
TheTulstion is, w h y haven't w e always workec^ w i t h something
nature-compatible? W o u l d n ' t t h a t have avoided a l o t o f problems?
r m a z i n T i t t o o k a drastic realignment o f our t h i n l d n g t o corne
^ r t n d ? o ' a d o p t i n g this simple tenet. O n e h u n d r e d y^^^s . . ^ th.
Industrial R e v o l u t i o n , w e are only n o w opemng our eyes and real-
z f t g t ï t our artificially constructed w o r l d is n o t isolated f r o m the
eal one I t is enmeshed i n a larger natural w o d d t h a t cradles and
n o t X s us, m a k i n g all o f our activities possible. Fouhng t b s n^^^^^^^
a lesson other organisms learned long ago, can be a deadly business,
PURSUING FOLLY TO THE LIMIT
A t first i t was h a r d to see t h a t w e were f o u l i n g our " w n n e s t - - w e
k e p t expanding i n t o f r e s h n e w t e r r i t o r y and leaving our t i r e d land
S w S r s b e h i n d . I t was as i f w e were a smaU seedhng growing
ootlet b y r o o t l e t i n t o a fragrant p o t o f soil. A l l was fine as long
the r o o t b a h o f our economy, o u r w o r l d w i t h i n a w o r l d , was small m
relation t o t h e larger natural setting.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e d i d n ' t stay small, and the natural w o r l d o
course, d i d n ' t get any bigger. I t doesn't take a M a k h u s i a n t o to 1 us
t h a t w e have g r o w n t o fill our container. Each m o n t h 8 m d h o n
X Z i L p o p u l a t i o n o f N e w Y o r k C i t y ) j o i n an E a r t h t h a t is al
ready groaning. I n the U n i t e d States alone, w e generate 12 b d l i o n
ons o f solid waste a y e a r - t h a t ' s t w e n t y times the t o t a l a m o u n t of
How Will We Conduct Business? / 241
ash released b y the 1980 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t St. Helens! O v e r 200
m i l l i o n tons o f airborne wastes are added to the atmosphere each
year, j o i n i n g the 9 0 , 0 0 0 tons o f k n o w n nuclear waste, most o f w h i c h
w i l l be poisonous f o r another 100,000 years.
O u r i n d u s t r i a l resource cycles n o w rival or even exceed the
Earth's biogeochemical cycles. A s Tibbs reports, " T h e i n d u s t r i a l
flows o f nitrogen and s u l f u r are equivalent t o or greater t h a n the
natural flows, and f o r metals such as lead, c a d m i u m , zinc, arsenic,
mercury, nickel, and vanadium, the i n d u s t r i a l flows are as m u c h as
t w i c e the natural flows—and i n t h e case o f lead, eighteen times
greater."
It's n o t j u s t the magnitude o f the numbers that frightens—it's
the rate at w h i c h they are accelerating. Consider t h a t i t t o o k f r o m
the beginning o f h u m a n history to the year 1900 t o b u i l d a w o r l d
economy t h a t p r o d u c e d $ 6 0 0 b i l l i o n i n o u t p u t . Today, the w o r l d
economy grows b y this a m o u n t every t w o years.
So, i f w e were once a tiny seedling i n a fragrant p o t o f soil, w e
are n o w h o r r i b l y r o o t b o u n d , pushing dangerously close to the edges
o f nature's tolerance. H o w is i t t h a t w e d i d n o t see this coming?
Braden A l l e n b y has w o n d e r e d this himself, and i n the i n t r o d u c -
tion o f his E n v i r o n m e n t a l Sciences doctoral thesis, he describes q u i t e
b e a u t i f u l l y h o w w e c r a f t e d and m o u n t e d our o w n blinders. H e
spends the rest o f the thesis showing us h o w to take t h e m o f f , and
h o w t o change course w i t h an approach t h a t has roots i n ecology, I
w e n t to visit A l l e n b y at his Bell Labs office, where, as research vice
president o f technology and environment, he is paid to spin ideas
like globes i n his hands, looldng at t h e m every w h i c h way,
A l l e n b y is dark-haired, bright, and intense; he speaks i n a s w i f t
current, d r a w i n g patterns i n the air, and sweeping y o u along like a
storyteUer. For millions o f years, he tells me, there were s i m p l y n o t
m a n y o f us, and our i m p a c t was h m i t e d . There were taboos against
t r u l y invasive practices. (As C a r o l y n M e r c h a n t notes i n her b o o k The
Death of Nature, nature was seen as a h v i n g entity, a mother, and i t
s
was deemed u n t h i n k a b l e t o cut mother's hair [deforestation] or pen-
etrate mother's bowels [ m i n i n g ] . ) I n t h e seventeenth century, says
A l l e n b y , mores began t o change. T h e Scientific Revolution made
reverence f o r t h e E a r t h obsolete, w h i l e the C h u r c h condemned ft as
druidic superstition. Once nature was d e m o t e d t o a dead and soufless
assenrbly o f atoms, i t became socially acceptable t o exert our " G o d -
given" d o m i n i o n over her. T h e p a t h was cleared f o r w o r l d w i d e ex-
ploitation.
 242 / Biomimicry
Still, insists A l l e n b y , w h e n biceps and back muscles ran the
shovels, o u r rate o f destruction more closely m a t c h e d nature's rate
o f renewal. I t wasn't u n t i l t h e Industrial R e v o l u t i o n p u t us o n t h e
w i n n i n g side o f a very large lever t h a t w e began vaulting past nature.
Gears, hydrauhcs, fossil fuels, and the internal combustion engine
a l l o w e d us t o tap deeper, faster, and farther i n t o the Earth. W e began
t o extract resources as q u i c k l y as w e could, t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m i n t o
products, waste, and, o f course, more people. T h e farther r e m o v e d
w e became f r o m nature i n our attitudes, lifestyles, and spirituality,
t h e m o r e dependent w e became o n the products o f this transfor-
m a t i o n . W e became addicted t o the spoils o f our " r a t i o n a l mastery."
Still, physical l i m i t s seemed far away. W e were i n a colonizing
m o o d , confident t h a t vaster territory and richer riches lay just over
t h e h i l l . W i t h v i r g i n materials nearly free f o r the taking, there was
n o p o i n t t o recychng or reusing w h a t w e h a d extracted, nor was there
any reward. I n fact, t h e fledgling science o f economics measured the
w e l l - b e i n g o f a n a t i o n b y its " t h r o u g h p u t " : h o w many resources i t
c o u l d t r a n s f o r m each year, and h o w fast. I n the nation-against-nation
scrimmage, i t was he w h o digs up the most toys wins.
A t t h e other end, the waste end, w e also beheved t h e E a r t h to
be limitiess, always ready t o digest and d i l u t e our waste. W e could
toss as m u c h garbage as w e w a n t e d i n t o the surf, and i t w o u l d never
float back t o shore.
"Economies are like ecosystems," says A f l e n b y . " B o t h systems
take i n energy and materials and t r a n s f o r m t h e m i n t o products. T h e
p r o b l e m is t h a t our economy p e r f o r m s a linear transformation,
whereas nature's is cychc," W e ' r e like the juggler w h o takes a set o f
b o w l i n g pins, tosses t h e m i n the a^r once, t h e n t h r o w s t h e m o u t
reaching f o r a n e w set. L i f e , on t h e other hand, juggles one set of
pins and cycles t h e m continually. A leaf falls t o the forest floor only
t o be recycled i n the bodies o f microbes and r e t u r n e d t o the sofl
water, where i t is reabsorbed b y the tree t o make n e w leaves. N o t h -
ing is wasted, and the w h o l e show runs o n ambient solar energy.
Industrial ecology asks the simple question, w h a t i f this closed-
loop, sun-driven biology w e r e to become our modus operandi? W h a t
i f our economy were t o deliberately l o o k and function like the natural
w o r l d i n w h i c h i t is embedded? W o u l d n ' t w e be more likely t o be
accepted and sustained b y the natural w o d d over time? This, i n a
nutshefl, is t h e dream o f industrial ecology.
T h e idea itself is n o t new; simflar thoughts have been percolat-
ing i n t h e environmental literature since the sixties. W h a t is n e w is
How Will We Conduct Business? / 243
t h a t some o f the staunchest proponents o f this p h i l o s o p h y are swiv-
ehng m executive chairs at the w o r l d ' s largest companies. Bob L a u -
dise explains h o w industry managers began to green around the edges
d u r i n g the 1990s, and h o w conscious e m u l a t i o n o f natural systems
became the hottest business shibboleth since T o t a l Q u a l i t y M a n -
agement. ^ ^
THE GREENING OF INDUSTRY
W . Edwards D e m i n g (the father o f T o t a l Q u a l i t y Management)
taught us to l o o k f o r and fix the r o o t causes o f problems. I n the long
run, he said, q u i c k fixes leak and need shoring up. T Q M adherents
hke Braden A l l e n b y reahzed t h a t p o l l u t i o n was n o t the r o o t cause
of our e n v i r o n m e n t a l crisis; fantasy was. W e had begun tefling our-
selves a dangerous fairy tale t h a t w e n t something like this: T h e E a r t h
p u t here f o r our use, is a hmitiess provider o f resources and w i l l
clean u p our messes f o r free. W e treated raw materials as i f they
were essentially f r e e - y o u p a i d f o r access to t h e m and y o u p a i d to
remove t h e m , b u t y o u p a i d n o t h i n g f o r the leaching slag heaps or
the fact t h a t y o u were depleting another generation's resource stocks
Waste was released t o oceans, rivers, land, and air, w i t h no r e c o m -
pense f o r the Earth's free services.
A p r i c i n g scheme t h a t ignored environmental costs was a silent
perpetuator o f this ruse. Because the economy p u t no price tag on
resource drawdowns or on p o l l u t i o n , i t gave no incentive to extract
sustainably, process cleanly, or o p t i m i z e use. As a result, -Laudise
says. W e made d u m b materials choices, d u m b process choices, and
w h e n It came t o waste, w e b l i t h e l y elected t o e m i t i t and forget i t "
For a l o n g tinie, like adolescents w h o t h i n k they are i m m o r t a l , w e
acted as i f w e had some sort o f magic shield against the consequences
ot our p l u n d e r i n g and p o l l u t i n g .
As f o r activities that caused p o l l u t i o n , they were all b u t lionized
i n the name o f "progress." I have a 1930s rubber stamp t h a t has a
d o w n r i g h t heroic-looking set o f smokestacks belching f o r all they are
w o r t h . T h e idea was to place this at the t o p o f your letterhead to
symbolize y o u r o w n prosperity. W h e n I t o l d Laudise about the
stamp, he showed m e some equally g l o w i n g "factory cards" t h a t
were collected and exchanged like baseball cards. Evidently there
was no greater source o f pride t h a n to have the " W o r l d ' s Largest
Fertihzer Factory" i n your t o w n . Enabled b y the economy and b l i n d
 244 / Biomimicry
t o the dangers, w e c h m b e d t o a great height o f delusion, and became
m o r e d e t e r m i n e d t h a n ever t o keep those smokestacks waving.
I n t h e 1960s and 1970s, hangl T h e first w a r n i n g shots were fired
about the health effects o f environmental pollutants, w i t h some of
t h e most ringing salvos c o m i n g f r o m the pen o f Rachel Carson. T h e
environmental m o v e m e n t w o k e w i t h a start and surged f o r w a r d to
w i n m a n y legislative victories. I t was the beginning o f the " c o m m a n d
and c o n t r o l " laws, w h i c h directed industry t o m u z z l e its smokestacks
and cauterize the hemorrhaging at the ends o f its pipes. L i k e all rules
exerted f r o m above, however, command-and-control laws were just
begging t o be circumvented. Companies quickly h i r e d squadrons o f
lawyers t o perfect t h e art o f m i n i m a l compliance. By the indulgent
eighties, denial was back i n style, and corporations r o u t i n e l y l o b b i e d
t o reverse environmental regulations or, failing that, f o u n d ways t o
wriggle under t h e m . I t gave stockholders and consumers one last,
short-lived h u r r a h .
Instead o f fading f r o m fashion, however, federal regulations kept
g r o w i n g i n n u m b e r and severity, d o u b l i n g between 1970 and 1990.
T o w a r d the end o f the eighties, the original laws m o v e d i n t o t h e i r
m o r e stringent phases, loopholes closed, and states and local govern-
ments stepped u p t o the plate w i t h t h e i r o w n a n t i p o l l u t i o n laws. As
Laudise showed i n one o f his viewgraphs, corporations faced a re-
lentlessly c l i m b i n g slope o f regulatory r e d tape.
W i t h each step t o w a r d compliance, costs ratcheted u p as w e l l .
A c c o r d i n g t o the N a t i o n a l Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. i n -
dustry is spending $70 b i l h o n per year treating and disposing o f its
wastes. Even these economic penalties failed to sober all the partiers,
however. W h a t really sent corporate A m e r i c a back t o the drawing
b o a r d i n the nineties was t h e greening o f its customers.
Ecologist Paul E h r l i c h says t h a t w e are n o t h a r d w i r e d genetically to
respond t o l o n g - t e r m dangers—it takes a saber-toothed tiger roaring
at the cave m o u t h f o r us t o j u m p o u t o f our skins. These days, the
environmental sabertooth licks its chops o n our televisions, i n our
newspapers, i n our wells, and on our beaches, and our skin is finally
beginning to crawl.
O n e particularly memorable cat i n the cave m o u t h came i n 1987
w h e n a barge laden w i t h 3,186 tons o f c o m m e r c i a l garbage l e f t Islip,
L o n g Island, and spent t h e next six m o n t h s l o o k i n g f o r a place to
d u m p its load. N o one w a n t e d it, and the bloated barge k e p t rising up
over the h o r i z o n , p r o v i n g once and f o r all t h a t the w o r l d is n o t flat—it
How Will We Conduct Business? / 245
has no convenient edge over w h i c h w e can shove all o u r disposables.
T h e next year, lest w e t h i n k t h a t was an isolated occurrence, the cargo
ship Khian Sea l e f t Philadelphia w i t h 15,000 tons o f t o x i c incinerator
ash and roamed f o r t w o years before ft finally d u m p e d its waste i n an
"undisclosed" location. T h e w o r l d had never looked so small or over-
burdened. W e f o l l o w e d t h e barges' journeys w i t h nauseated fascina-
t i o n , the way w e had w a t c h e d the senseless violence o f television wars
and on-camera assassinations. N o w i t was the Earth's t u r n .
T h e images k e p t o n coming. T h e cows o f C h e r n o b y l sickening,
rivers i n the Ukraine catching on fire, the smothering o i l fires o f t h é
Persian G u l f , a ship leaking death i n t o Prince W i l l i a m Sound, syrin-
ges surging around the ankles o f N e w Jersey swimmers. T h e sound-
track t o afl this was the Cassandra choruses o f scientists w a r n i n g o f
an ozone hole t w i c e the size o f Europe, a smoggy A r c t i c Haze
thousands o f miles f r o m the nearest city, rafts o f amphibians b l i n k i n g
o u t like w a r n i n g lights, and strange reproductive deformities a f f l i c t -
ing dozens o f w i l d l i f e species.
A l l the w h i l e , our p o p u l a t i o n mushroomed, sending industrial
f a l l o u t t o each corner o f the Earth. Europe's trees began t o weaken,
the deserts marched, the rain forests shrank, and the wetiands d r i e d
out, exhaling t h e i r p e t r i f i e d cache o f carbon i n "greenhouse gas"
f o r m . Even the weather seemed t o have gone mad, as i f Gaia were
sneezing us o u t o f her system. By n o w , people had h a d e n o u g h -
enough L o v e Canals, enough Bhopals, enough Cancer Alleys,
enough Summers o f 1988.
These days, citizens w e l c o m e d i r t y industries i n t o their back-
yards about as readily as t h e y ' d w e l c o m e the Khian Sea, to their
b a t h t u b . Thanks t o C o m m u n i t y - R i g h t - t o - K n o w legislation, news-
papers carry the records o f emissions o f neighboring businesses,
opening t h e m to c o m m u n i t y shame. I n editorials across the nation,
smokestacks are referred t o as snioldng guns, firing the equivalent o f
shrapnel i n t o our lungs. People are m a k i n g a c o m m i t m e n t to per-
sonally "do something about the e n v i r o n m e n t , " m a k i n g surprise
best-sellers o u t o f books such as 50 Ways to Save the Earth.
Consumers are also v o t i n g at the cash register, weighing i n against
dolphin-abusive t u n a - n e t t i n g practices and f o r organic agriculture.
Overnight, i t seems, people w h o litter or refuse to recycle have be-
gun t o seem, t o say the least, unsavory.
A n d it's n o t j u s t happening i n y u p p i e A m e r i c a . H e r e and
abroad, surveys have s h o w n t h a t an astounding percentage o f people
are concerned about the e n v i r o n m e n t and are wiUing to change t h e i r
 246 / Biomimicry
lifestyles. A 1992 George G a l l u p H e a l t h o f t h e Planet Survey
showed t h a t b e t w e e n 4 0 and 80 percent o f the respondents f r o m
t w e n t y - t w o countries are already "avoiding t h e use o f products t h a t
h a r m the e n v i r o n m e n t . "
T h e t i d e has definitely t u r n e d , Soil loss, water poisoning, and
air contamination, l i t t i e m o r e t h a n background static u p u n t i l n o w ,
have suddenly become information. T h e economy, a beast whose
senses are t u n e d t o customers' changing moods, is beginning t o
t w i t c h . A n d a w o r r i e d industry, concerned about covering its b o t t o m
line, is headed i n droves t o seminars like Laudise's.
Laudise speaks l o u d l y and w i t h p u n c h , hke a coach talldng strategy
to his t e a m before going o u t f o r the second h a l f " O K . W h a t we've
reahzed is t h a t despite all the happy consequences o f industrializa-
tion—medical miracles and the c o m m o n m a n being able t o tune i n
the P h i l h a r m o n i c and all t h a t — w e can't go on like this. T h e w a y
w e ' v e been operating is illogical f r o m a sustainability p o i n t o f v i e w . "
Heresy, right? B u t as 1 l o o k e d around the r o o m , every head was
nodding. A s he w e n t on, I h a d t o keep r e m i n d i n g myself t h a t this
wasn't a Sierra C l u b meeting. I t was a corporate strategy session, and
Laudise was talldng t o u g h love. "There are three reasons f o r greening
u p y o u r act: It's the right t h i n g to do, it's the competitive t h i n g to
do, and y o u ' l l go t o j a i l i f y o u d o n ' t . "
One w a y or another, corporate A m e r i c a and consuming A m e r -
ica are starting t o get the picture. W e are realizing t h a t there is
nowhere t o r u n , no edge o f t o w n where w e can pile our wastes o u t
of sight and o u t o f m i n d . T h e w o d d is a roundabout, and w e are not
i m m u n e t o its laws, its boundary conditions.
A t this p o i n t i n history, our p r o b l e m is n o t a shortage o f raw
materials ( t h o u g h t h a t w i l l come), it's that we've r u n smack against
the h m i t s o f the Earth's resilience. As Tibbs says, " T h e natural en-
v i r o n m e n t is a b r i l h a n t l y ingenious and adaptive system, b u t there
are u n d o u b t e d l y l i m i t s t o its ability t o absorb vastly increased flows
o f even naturally abundant chemicals and r e m a i n t h e f r i e n d l y plac.-
w e cafl h o m e . " O u r m a n u f a c t u r i n g o u t p u t is n o w t w i c e as high as
i t was i n 1970, and m a n y products t h a t d i d n o t even exist t w e n t y -
five years ago are being m a n u f a c t u r e d i n mass quantities. That's a
l o t o f barge trips to nowhere.
W e can go one o f t w o ways, Laudise t o l d the c r o w d . W e can
either crash t o a subsistence p o p u l a t i o n level, w i t h afl the horrors o I
a second D a r k Ages, or w e can find a w a y t o provide a quality file
How Will We Conduct Business? / 247
f o r a stable p o p u l a t i o n (assuming w e can achieve t h a t ) w i t h o u t over-
stressing nature's filters. I n short, i f w e play our cards right, w e c o u l d
p u n o t f a soft l a n d i n g . " M o r e nods. C o u n t industry i n .
Suddenly, the green p a t h has become the most intelligent and maybe
even t h e most p r o f i t a b l e w a y o u t o f the mess f o r the corporation
t u n e d t o survival. A l Gore dangles the bait i n his b o o k Earth in the
Balance: 'The global m a r k e t f o r environmental goods and services is
approximately $ 3 0 0 b i f l i o n and is expected t o grow to $ 4 0 0 t o 500
b i l l i o n b y the beginning o f the n e x t century. I f one includes recent
estimates f o r investments i n energy infrastructure i n developing
countries, this figure grows to m o r e than $1 t r i l l i o n b y the end o f
the decade." Sure it's self-interest—companies w a n t t o get ahead o f
the green wave so they can surf i t , n o t be crushed b y i t . A n d they
sure as heck w a n t t o get t o shore before t h e i r competitors do T h e
feehng seems t o be, i f the e n v i r o n m e n t gets cleaned u p along the
way, that's great too.
T o nie i t doesn't really m a t t e r w h y industry wants to change its
colors. T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t , t h o u g h it's n o t always p u b l i c k n o w l -
edge, IS t h a t m a n y companies do w a n t t o change. Even as they are
pressuring Congress t o relax e n v i r o n m e n t a l regulations, they are
m e e t i n g to find o u t h o w t o make E a r t h - f r i e n d l y products i n Earth-
f r i e n d l y ways.
T h i s means an enormous segment o f the public—stockholders
workers, managers, consumers—are o u t shopping f o r ideas t h a t w i l l
w o r k : a n e w w a y t o t h i n k , a n e w paradigm that w i l l guide our h a n d
as w e dismantie the economy w e have so feverishly erected and re-
place It w i t h something t h a t w i f l sustain. A s Einstein said, " T h e sig-
nificant problems w e face cannot be solved b y the same level o f
t h i n k i n g t h a t created t h e m . " People hke Laudise and Tibbs pack the
house because t h e y have a simple, c o m p e l l i n g idea t h a t hails f r o m a
group of people t h a t industry traditionally hasn't consulted.
Y o u w o n ' t find their books i n the a i r p o r t business bookstalls
I h e y d o n ' t come f r o m H a r v a r d Business School or C a l i f o r n i a t h i n k
tanks or Japanese p r o d u c t i v i t y institutes. T h e consultants o f the nine-
ties come b l i n k i n g i n t o the artificial lights o f corporate conference
rooms fresh f r o m b u t t e r f l y counts, gorilla watches, and b i r d bandings.
As they p u t o n their first carousel o f s f i d e s - c o r a l reefs, r e d w o o d f o r -
ests, prairies, and steppes—even E. F. H u t t o n is listening. This is
w h a t s so amazing to me. I n the most u n l i k e l y and p r o m i s i n g cross-
f e r t i l i z a t i o n o f our times, the Birkenstocks are teaching the suits
 248 / Biomimiay
S U R V I V I N G IN PLACE:
EMULATING NATURE'S ECONOMICS
W i l l i a m Cooper wonders w h a t an o l d fish squeezer like h i m is doing
on the Journal of Urban Ecology's masthead, or the N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y
o f Science's panel t o investigate the b u i l d i n g o f six h u n d r e d super-
sonic transport planes. A fish biologist b y training, Cooper has c u l -
t i v a t e d a m u l t i - o c t a v e range o f specialties, t h r i v i n g i n the tidal p o o l
b e t w e e n disciplines t h a t is h o m e to good b i o m i m i c s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o teaching zoology at M i c h i g a n State University,
Cooper is an a d j u n c t professor i n marine sciences i n V i r g i n i a , and
civil, environmental, and m i n e r a l engineering i n M i c h i g a n and M i n -
nesota. He's chaired a department and seven advisory boards and is
n o w o n the editorial board o f f o u r journals. I n fact, f r o m the looks
o f his vita, y o u ' d be hard-pressed to find a global change, waste m a n -
agement, or environmental risk board t h a t Cooper has not served on.
I n his spare t i m e , he works f o r the Brooldngs I n s t i t u t i o n , giving about
t h i r t y - f i v e seminars a year t o policy makers w h o are about t o sail or
sink i m p o r t a n t legislation.
Despite this heavyweight influence. Cooper is a surprisingly s e l f
effacing, p l a i n talker w i t h a grounded sense o f the absurd. I laughed
a l o t w h e n I talked w i t h h i m , and I imagine his students enjoy the
boomerang rides he cafls lectures.
A decade before i t was fashionable. Cooper tefls me, he w a n -
dered o u t o f the Zoology D e p a r t m e n t at the University o f M i c h i g a n
and began to teach a class i n ecological systems t o engineers. W h e n
Braden A f l e n b y heard about that, he i n v i t e d Cooper to a 1992
W o o d s H o l e meeting t o t a l k about a n e w l y b i r t h e d concept cafled
industrial ecology. " I was the only biologist i n the r o o m , " Cooper
recalls.
W h a t he t o l d A l l e n b y and the other business thinkers was good
news. T h e natural w o r l d is f u f l o f models f o r a m o r e sustainable
economic system—prairies, coral reefs, oak-hickory forests, o l d -
g r o w t h r e d w o o d and Douglas-fir forests, and more. These mature
ecosystems do everything w e w a n t t o do. T h e y self-organize i n t o a
diverse and integrated c o m m u n i t y o f organisms w i t h a c o m m o n pur-
pose—to m a i n t a i n t h e i r presence i n one place, make the most o f
w h a t is available, and endure over t h e long h a u l .
B u t he also t o l d t h e m some bad news. W e are n o t h i n g like the
e q u i l i b r i u m organisms w e w a n t to emulate. R i g h t n o w , w e are oc-
c u p y i n g a niche t h a t is also f o u n d i n the natural w o d d — t h a t o f op-
H o w Will We Conduct Business? / 249
portunists, concentrating on g r o w t h and t h r o u g h p u t ( h o w fast raw
materials can be t u r n e d i n t o products) w i t h o u t giving m u c h t h o u g h t
to efficiency. W e ' r e acting as i f we're o n l y passing t h r o u g h , taldng
advantage o f the p l e n t y and t h e n m o v i n g on.
O p p o r t u n i s t s are t h e weeds i n a farmer's n e w l y t u r n e d field, the
bacteria i n a T u p p e r w a r e o f leftovers, or the mice i n a catiess barn.
These c o m m u n i t i e s , called T y p e I systems, spring u p t o take advan-
tage o f abundant resources. T h e y typically use resources as q u i c k l y
as they can, t u r n i n g t h e m i n t o a d u h bodies and then i n t o numerous,
small offspring—thousands o f insect eggs, f o r instance. T h e idea be-
h i n d this r a p i d g r o w t h strategy is to g r o w y o u r p o p u l a t i o n , m a x i m i z e
t h r o u g h p u t o f materials, and t h e n head f o r the next h o r n o f plenty,
w i t h no t i m e f o r recycling or efficiency. Sound famihar?
" T h e Industrial R e v o l u t i o n was the equivalent o f t h r o w i n g a
h a n d f u l o f flour beeties i n t o a fresh b i n o f clean, sifted flour," A l -
lenby t o l d me. W e suddenly had u n l i m i t e d resources, and like any
opportunistic system, w e w e n t h o g w i l d , w i t h one i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r -
ence. U n l i k e flour beeties, w h o can eat and be m e r r y and t h e n m o v e
on t o another b i n o f flour, w e are i n a finite container called Earth.
T o get a g r i m foreshadowing o f our predicament, p u t a screen atop
the flour b i n so the beetles can't get o u t to find their n e x t c o r n u -
copia.
T h e screened-in beeties w i l l eat and reproduce, fifling the b i n
w i t h beetle bodies. Because t h e i r system is so simple, there is no
decay segment o f society, no j a n i t o r i a l species to clean u p t h e corpses
and convert t h e m back i n t o f o o d . T h a t means t h a t once the flour
gets t u r n e d i n t o flour-beetie bodies, those nutrients are l o c k e d away
from the increasingly h u n g r y p o p u l a t i o n . It's like our economy t u r n -
ing the last o f our r a w materials i n t o products, w i t h no mechanism
f o r recycling those products.
L i v i n g space q u i c k l y becomes scarce as w e l l . As the p o p u l a t i o n
reaches the peak o f its classic sigmoid curve, the madding c r o w d
begins t o get i n one another's way. Antennas are locking, beeties are
m u n c h i n g o n t h e o f f s p r i n g o f other beetles, and copulating beeties
are being i n t e r r u p t e d b y a t h i r d and a f o u r t h before they can mate.
W i t h i n days, survival rates teeter, births stall, and the p o p u l a t i o n
comes crashing t o a " h a r d l a n d i n g . "
" f t ' s n o t t h a t these linear. T y p e I systems are categorically b a d , " says
Bifl Cooper. "That's a h u m a n j u d g m e n t . " I f i t weren't f o r T y p e I
systems, the Earth's scars w o u l d n ' t heal. Annuals come i n w h e n
 250 / Biomimicry
soils have been disturbed—after fire, w i n d f a l l , p l o w i n g , or plague.
T h e y carpet the ground, gobbhng n e w l y exposed nutrients and fer-
t i h z i n g t h e soil w i t h t h e i r wastes, setting the stage f o r the grand
conga dance called succession; Flower field turns t o shrub field turns
t o forest. T h o u g h t h e f t m o m e n t i n the sun is short. T y p e I pioneers
can always find a n e w patch o f disturbance somewhere, even i n l i t t l e
gaps t h a t are created after a tree falls. This shghtly o f f b e a t pulsing
of decay and repair i n many patches is w h a t helps the c o m m u n i t y
retain its stability.
B u t the strategy o f ragweed, fireweed, and crabgrass doesn't
w o r k everywhere, ft's only appropriate at t h e start-up stage o f suc-
cession, w h e n p l e n t y o f sunlight and soil nutrients are still availa-
ble. Once the scene begins t o crowd, and the pie o f sun and water
and nutrients is d i v i d e d among more takers, the T y p e I I strategy
w i n s out. ; have to leant to be self-renewing right where we are. W h a t w e ' r e talldng
T h e T y p e I I system consists o f perennial b e r r y bushes and
w o o d y seedlings t h a t move i n t o the field. T h e y are there f o r the
longer haul. U n l i k e T y p e I species, they w o n ' t spend t h e i r energy on
m a k i n g m i l l i o n s o f seeds. Instead, t h e y ' l l make a f e w seeds and f u n -
nel the rest o f t h e energy i n t o hardy roots and sturdy stems t h a t w i l l
see t h e m t h r o u g h w i n t e r . I n the springtime, t h e f t prudence w i l l pay
o f f - t h e y ' 1 1 r e b o u n d f r o m t h e f t roots and reach quicldy f o r the sun,
outpacing and eclipsing the T y p e I annuals.
A t t h e very end o f the conga line are those species t h a t take this
patience strategy t o t h e extreme, showing even m o r e loyalty t o place.
T y p e I I I species (the ones t h a t w i U i n h e r f t the site and r e m a i n d o m -
inant u n t i l the n e x t b i g disturbance) do m o r e w i t h less. T h e y are
designed t o stay o n the l a n d i n a state o f relative e q u i l i b r i u m , taking
out no m o r e t h a n they p u t i n .
Masters o f efficiency. T y p e I I I species d o n ' t have t o go looking
f o r sunhght. T h e i r seedlings can tolerate t h e f t parents' shade, so wave
after wave o f t h e same species can g r o w u p here. Biologists call these
species K-selected. T h e y have larger and f e w e r offspring, w h i c h have
longer and m o r e c o m p l e x lives. T h e y live i n elaborate synergy w i t h
t h e species around t h e m , and p u t t h e i r energy i n t o o p t i m i z i n g these
relationships. Together, the mesh o f l i f e juggles materials endlessly.
V f t t u a l l y no wastes leach away, and t h e only energy i m p o r t e d is t h a t
o f t h e sun. By the time a m a t u r e forest like this closes ranks, pioneer
species are long gone, o f f t o t h e h n e x t sunny f o r t u n e — a fire scar i n
a forest, a gap f r o m a w i n d - t o r n tree, the crack i n y o u r driveway.
T y p e I species are the rolling stones o f the w o r i d , colonizing
How Will We Conduct Business? / 251
ather t h a n learmng t o close the loops. T h e reason t h e footloose
s rategy works f o r t h e m , says Cooper, is t h a t n e w opportunities are
always opemng u p . Back before our w o r i d was f u l l , w h e n w e still
had somewhere else to go, the T y p e I strategy looked hke a good
way t o stay one step ahead o f reality. These days, w h e n we've gone
everywhere there is t o go, w e have to find a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f p l e n t y
not b y j u m p m g o f f to another planet b u t b y closing the loops here
B E C O M I N G M O R E LIKE A R E D W O O D
THAN A RAGWEED
N o w t h a t our r o o t b a l l has g r o w n t o fill the w o r i d , w e reahze- We
about is changing our very niche, our profession i n the ecosystem
Cooper says i t w o n ' t do t o j u s t t w e a k the current system and hope
t h a t w e II evolve, j u s t as a c o m m o n ragweed or fireweed c o u l d n o t
be expected t o evolve i n t o a r e d w o o d . Instead, w e must replace por-
Z ^ rh ^^'^ ° f ' T y p e I I I economy
u n t i l t h e w h o l e t h i n g m i r r o r s the natural w o r i d
. A'^AI^'T ° ^ n i c h e - s h i f t w i l l be people w h o have
^ u d i e d the places w e w a n t to go. Systems ecologists like H o w a r d T
O d u m have studied the f o o d chains i n a prairie or estuary or b o t -
tomland and t h e n d r a w n diagrams o f energy flows and fluxes, ftyou
d i d n t Icnow better, y o u w o u l d t h i n k t h e y were flow diagrams o f a
m a n u f a c t u r i n g process, complete w i t h kilocalories per u n f t o f " p r o d -
uct produced^ O f all biologists, these folks come closest to spealdng
tbe language o f process engineers.
with^^r ^ " " ^ ' t ' ° ^ ' developing T y p e I system is compared
w i t h t h a t o f a m a t u r e T y p e I I I system, some stark differences reveal
themselves^ This comparison table, first reproduced i n a paper b y
A l l e n b y and Cooper, represents decades o f w o r k b y systems ecolo-
gists hke O d u m . M a n y o f these concepts w i l l appear i n the u p c o m i n g
 252 / Biomimicry
How Will We Conduct Business? / 253

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecosystem Attributes Developing Stages Mature Stages
Ecosystem Attributes Developing Stages Mature Stages (Type I ) (Type I I I )
(Type I) (Type I I I )
stability (resistance to Poor Good
external perturbationi
Food cliain Linear Weblike
Entropy (energy lost") Ifigh ^ ~ ^ Low
Species diversity Low High
Information (feedback Low
Small Large Üïgh
Body size loops)
Life cycles Short, simple Long, complex

G r o w t h strategy [how to Emphasis on rapid Emphasis on

multiply] growth (r-selection) feedback control
(K-selection)

Production (body mass Quantity Quality

Y o u can read this chart as a list o f challenges or l e s s o n s - c o l u m n
and offspring)
t w o IS where w e are n o w , the ragweed stage, and c o l u m n three is
Internal symbiosis Undeveloped Developed
he r e d w o o d stage, the b l u e p r i n t f o r our f u t u r e survival. T h o u g h the
[cooperative t w o appear to be worlds apart, industrial ecologists are q u i c k t o note
relationships) that the ragweed economy and the r e d w o o d ecosystem are b o t h
Nutrient conservation Poor Good complex systems, and as such, t h e y have m u c h i n c o m m o n
[closed-loop cycling] terf t ™ " " « y ^ t e n ^ « 7 « u c h as a w i l d f i r e , a s t o r m pattern, or a w a -
Pattern diversity (vertical Simple Complex t r o t t b ? r Z P""^"^^^' '^"^ - s t e a d con-
canopy layers and
svs em F"^ 1 '"'^'"^'^"'^ interactions t h a t occur inside the
horizontal patchiness)
^ s t e m ^ Every day, f o r mstance, customers i n hundreds o f countries
Biochemical diversity Low High
[such as plant-herbivore
T£a thef l b ' " ' " r * b ° - decisions i n t u r n
t e t ions m 1 r ^^"^^ ^ ^ y ' - " n t l e s s i n -
"arms races")
w a f e t o t t ' ^ f 7 I s y s t e n , _ e a t i n g or being eaten, f o r i n s t a n c e -
N i c h e specializations Broad Narrow
weave together t o define the c o m m u n i t y . Just as the invisible hand
(jobs in the ecosystem] o f the marketplace determines w h e t h e r a company lives or dies so '
Mineral cycles Open Closed natural selection w o r k s f r o m w i t h i n t o shape the nature o f l i f e
Nutrient exchange rate Fast Slow O v e r bilhons o f years, natural selection has come u p w i t h w i n -
between organisms and n i n g strategies adopted b y ah complex, m a t u r e ecosystems
The
environment mvsterr T ^ " ° " t «ed-and-true approaches
to the
Role of detritus (dead Unimportant Important ZS th"T"'r
of t ' ^ ! ; ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ o f t h e m as the ten c o m m a n d -
organic matter] in ments o f t h e r e d w o o d clan. Organisms i n a m a t u r e ecosystem:
nutrient regeneration
1. Use waste as a resource
Inorganic nutrients Extrabiotic Intrabiotic
2. D i v e r s i f y and cooperate t o f u l l y use the habitat
[minerals such as iron)
3. Gather and use energy efficiently
T o t a l organic matter Small Large
4. O p t i m i z e rather t h a n m a x i m i z e
[nutrients tied up in
5. Use materials sparingly
biomass)
6. D o n ' t f o u l t h e i r nests
7. D o n ' t draw d o w n resources
 254 / Biomimicry
8. Remain i n balance w i t h the biosphere
9. R u n o n i n f o r m a t i o n
10. Shop locally
I f w e agree there's m e r i t t o t r y i n g t o emulate these approaches, it's
easy t o see t h a t our economy, since i t is also a c o m p l e x system, has
more t h a n a snowball's chance o f actually being able t o operate and
survive this way. T h i s hope is w h a t motivates industrial ecologists to
get u p every m o r n i n g and w o r k t o shift our niche.
Living the Lessons
T h o u g h they k n o w ft w o n ' t happen all at once, t h e Allenbys and
Tibbses o f t h e w o r l d w a n t t o m o v e us t o w a r d a f u t u r e i n w h i c h
industry runs o n sunlight (or a similar renewable nonpoUuting
source), doesn't " o v e r d r a w " liatural resources or f o u l its o w n nest,
sees n o t h i n g as waste, is cooperative and diversified, and does m o r e
w i t h less t h r o u g h ingenious, high-quality, i n f o r m a t i o n - r i c h design o f
products and processes. I n short, they envision an industry t h a t is
m o r e like a closed-loop r e d w o o d forest t h a n m y f r o n t l a w n .
As y o u w i l l see i n the comparisons t h a t f o l l o w , our culture is
taking some first tentative steps d o w n this " p a t h o f no regrets."
R i g h t - t h i n k i n g companies, shaped b y their o w n f o r m o f natural se-
lection, are already e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h the approaches y o u w i l l find
here, t r y i n g t o m i m i c the successes o f r e d w o o d communities. I f any
company or national economy is successful i n applying all t e n les-
sons, ft c o u l d master a t r i c k that's as o l d as the first bacteria: l i f e
creating conditions conducive t o l i f e .
1. U s e Waste as a Resource.
O n e o f the key lessons f r o m systems ecology is t h a t as a system puts
on m o r e biomass ( t o t a l l i v i n g w e i g h t ) , ft needs more recycling loops
to keep ft f r o m collapsing. A forest is m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n a weed
field—shrubs and trees and vines and mosses and hchen and squirrels
and porcupines and b a r k beetles extend u p w a r d and o u t w a r d , filling
every n o o k and cranny w i t h l i f e . I f all t h a t biomass k e p t w i t h d r a w i n g
nutrients f r o m the e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h no w a y o f recouping f r o m
w i t h i n , i t w o u l d quicldy suck its surroundings dry.
Instead, the m a t u r e c o m m u n i t y becomes m o r e and more self-
contained. Rather t h a n exchanging nutrients and minerals w i t h the
outside e n v i r o n m e n t at a h i g h rate, ft cftculates w h a t ft needs w i t h i n
How Will We Conduct Business? / 255
he cv I "^T ^ ' " l ^ ; '""^ °^Sanic matter. T h e reason
the cycle works so s m o o t h l y is t h a t there are no holes i n t h e organi-
zational c h a r t - a diverse assembly o f producers, consumers, and de-
composers have evolved t o play their parts i n closing the loops so
resources w o n ' t be lost. A l l waste is f o o d , and everybody w i n d s u p
• Z Z '""'^^ ^ ° T t ^ y t h i n g the c o m m u n i t y
i m p o r t s m any appreciable a m o u n t is energy i n the f o r m o f sunlight
and the o n l y t h i n g i t exports is the b y p r o d u c t o f its energy use, heat!
Using Waste as a Resource: The Lessons Learned
li anybody's g r o w i n g biomass, it's us. T o keep our system f r o m col-
lapsing o n Itself, industrial ecologists are a t t e m p t i n g t o b u i l d a " n o -
waste e c o n o m y . " Instead o f a linear p r o d u c t i o n system, w h i c h binges
on virgin r a w materials and spews o u t unusable waste, t h e y envision
a web o f closed loops i n w h i c h a m i n i m u m o f r a w materials comes
m the door, and very l i t t i e waste escapes. T h e first examples o f this
no-waste economy are collections o f companies clustered i n an eco-
park and connected i n a f o o d chain, w i t h each firm's o f f a l going n e x t
door t o become the otiier firm's r a w material or f u e l
I n D e n m a r k , the t o w n o f K a l u n d b o r g has the w o r l d ' s m o s t elab-
orate p r o t o t y p e o f an ecopark. Four companies are collocated, and
all o f t h e m are hnked, dependent o n one another f o r resources or
energy T h e Asnaesverket Power C o m p a n y pipes some o f its waste
f n d T v o T ' X l r T " " ' companies: the Statoil Refinery
and N o v o N o r d i s k (a pharmaceutical p l a n t ) . A n o t h e r pipeline deliv-
ers the r e m a i n i n g waste steam t o heat t h i r t y - f i v e h u n d r e d homes i n
wo r%firt^T'''
the t o w n e l i m i n a t i n g the need f o r o i l furnaces. T h e p o w e r plant.also
*° fifty-^^^n ponds'
w o r t h o f fish. T h e fish revel i n the w a r m water, and the fish f a r m
produces 2 5 0 tons o f sea t r o u t and t u r b o t each year.
.
ste steam f r o m the p o w e r company is used b y N o v o N o r d i s k
to heat t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n tanks t h a t produce insulin and enzymes
This process m t u r n creates 700,000 tons o f nitrogen-rich slurry a
year, w h i c h used t o be d u m p e d i n t o the Qord. N o w , N o v o bequeaths
It ftee t o nearby f a r m e r s - a p i p e l i n e delivers the fertilizer to the
g r o w m g plants, w h i c h are i n t u r n harvested t o feed the bacteria i n
the f e r m e n t a t i o n tanks.
M e a n w h i l e , back at t h e Statoil Refinery, waste gas t h a t used to
go u p a smokestack is n o w p u r i f i e d . Some is used internally as f u e l
some IS p i p e d t o t h e p o w e r company, and the rest goes t o Gyproc,'
the w a l l b o a r d maker n e x t door. T h e s u l f u r squeezed f r o m the ga
 256 / Biomimicry
d u r i n g p u r i f i c a t i o n is loaded o n t o trucks and sent t o Kemira, a c o m -
pany d i a t produces sulfuric acid. T h e p o w e r company also squeezes
sulfur f r o m its emissions, b u t i t converts most o f i t t o c a l c i u m sulfate
(industrial gypsum), w h i c h i t sells t o G y p r o c f o r w a l l b o a r d .
A l t h o u g h K a l u n d b o r g is a cozy collocation, industiies need n o t
be geographically close to operate i n a f o o d w e b as long as they are
connected b y i n f o r m a t i o n and a m u t u a l desire t o use waste. A h e a d y ,
some companies are designing t h e i r processes so t h a t any waste t h a t
fahs o n the p r o d u c t i o n - r o o m floor is valuable and can be used b y
someone else. I n this game o f "designed o f f a l , " a process w i t h lots
of waste, as long as it's " w a n t e d waste," may be better t h a n one w i t h
a small a m o u n t o f waste t h a t m u s t be l a n d f i f l e d or b u r n e d . A s author
D a n i e l Chiras says, m o r e companies are recognizing t h a t " t e c h n o l -
ogies t h a t produce byproducts society cannot absorb are essentially
f a i l e d technologies." \ , r c
So far, we've talked about recycling w i t h i n the conhnes ot one
m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t or w i t h i n a circle o f companies. B u t w h a t hap-
pens w h e n a p r o d u c t leaves the manufacturer's gates and passes to
the consumer and finally t o the trash can? Right n o w , a p r o d u c t visits
one o f t w o fates at the end o f its u s e f u l l i f e . I t can be dissipated to
the e n v i r o n m e n t ( b u r i e d i n a l a n d f i f l or incinerated), or i t can be
recaptured t h r o u g h recycling or reuse. T h e closed-loop dream o f i n -
dustrial ecology w o n ' t be complete u n t i l afl products t h a t are sent
out i n t o t h e w o r l d are f o l d e d back into t h e system.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , manufacturers haven't had t o w o r r y about w h a t
happens t o a p r o d u c t after i t leaves their gates. B u t t h a t is starting
to change, thanlcs t o laws n o w i n the wings i n Europe (and headed
f o r the U n i t e d States) t h a t w i f l require companies t o take back their
durable goods such as refrigerators, washers, and cars at the end o f
t h e i r u s e f u l lives. I n Germany, the take-back laws start w i t h t h e i n -
i t i a l sale. Companies must take back afl t h e i r packaging or hire m i d -
d l e m e n to do the packaging recycling f o r t h e m . Take-back laws mean
t h a t manufacturers w h o have been saying, " T h i s p r o d u c t can be re-
cycled," m u s t n o w say, "We recycle our products and packaging. ^
W h e n t h e onus shifts i n this way, it's suddenly i n the company's
best interest t o design a p r o d u c t t h a t w i f l either last a good long t i m e
or come apart easily f o r recycling or reuse. Refrigerators and cars w f l l
be assembled using easy-open snaps instead o f glued-together joints
and f o r recyclability, each part w i f l be made o f one material mstead
o f t w e n t y . Even simple things, like the snack bags f o r potato chips,
w i f l be streamlined. Today's bags, w h i c h have nine t h i n layers made
How Will We Conduct Business? / 257
of seven d i f f e r e n t materials, w i l l no d o u b t be replaced b y one ma-
terial t h a t can preserve freshness and can easily be remade i n t o a
n e w bag. A n d t h a t bag w i l l most certainly be marked w i t h a universal
material code, m a l d n g i t easier f o r the companies charged w i t h take-
back t o recycle and r e f u r b i s h t h e m .
As A l l e n b y explained, take-back laws are a change i n the m a r k e t
environment, and the companies t h a t w a n t to survive i n t h a t habitat
are already evolving. B M W ' s n e w sports car, f o r instance, can be
broken d o w n i n t w e n t y minutes on an "unassembly" line. ( " I
w o u l d n ' t w a n t to leave one o f these on the streets o f N e w Y o r k , "
kids Laudise as he shows m e before-and-after pictures.)
R e f u r b i s h m e n t is another key t o giving products a longer l i f e i n
the marketplace. Instead o f b u y i n g a n e w computer case each time
you w a n t t o upgrade, y o u ' f l most l i k e l y b u y the snappy n e w m o d u l e
and p l u g i t i n t o y o u r original case. W h e n y o u do hand over y o u r o l d
b e h e m o t h , i t m a y be " m i n e d " f o r parts w h i c h w i l l be r e f u r b i s h e d
and show u p again i n n e w machines. "Asset recovery" is w h a t X e r o x
calls i t T h e parts s t r i p p i n g and r e f u r b i s h i n g program f o r its copiers
saves t h e company $200 m i l l i o n annually.
T h e Canadian a r m o f Black & Decker has started a recycling
system f o r its rechargeable apphances, h o p i n g to reduce c o n t a m i -
nation and waste f r o m n i c k e l - c a d m i u m rechargeable batteries Cus-
tomers have the choice o f either having the rechargeable batteries
replaced or leaving the products w i t h a local distributor f o r recycling
As an incentive t o b r i n g the i t e m in, customers w h o do so are eligible
f o r a five-dollar rebate t o w a r d t h e i r n e x t Black & Decker p r o d u c t
So far, 127 f e w e r tons o f waste ( i n c l u d i n g 21 f e w e r tons o f n i c k e l - •
c a d m i u m batteries) were l a n d f i f l e d i n O n t a r i o , where the p r o g r a m
has been p i l o t e d . Black & Decker also benefits f r o m f u t u r e sales t h a t
the rebate system encourages.
Canon, i n response t o w o r l d w i d e demand f o r recycling is also
i n v i t i n g customers t o m a i l i n t h e i r o l d i n k cartridges f r o m printers
and copiers. T h e postage is p a i d b y the company, and f o r each one
w , J, r ' ' ' ' '"""ds a five-dollar donation to either the N a t i o n a l
W i l d l i f e Federation or T h e N a t u r e Conservancy.
Businesses t h a t have been i n the game f o r a w h i l e r e p o r t t h a t
being green is good f o r profits. A n i t a Roddick's Body Shop has made
a f o r t u n e on the concept o f r e f i f l i n g customers' containers o f cos-
metics anc^ toiletries to c u t d o w n o n packaging waste. D é j a Shoe
(my candidate f o r best green name) makes o l d tires i n t o shoes, c l a i m -
ing It s better to wear t h e m t h a n b u r n t h e m . Patagonia does the same
 258 / Biomimiay
f o r p o p bottles, polishing its aheady verdant image b y o f f e r i n g the
first guilt-free polar-fleece jackets. W i t h waste-recovery successes like
these, suggests A l l e n b y , w e m i g h t as w e l l stop calling i t waste.
2. Diversify and Cooperate to Fully U s e the Habitat.
T h e m o r e w e learn about nature's resource a f l o t m e n t strategies, the
m o r e i t looks like Tennyson h a d i t only h a l f r i g h t w h e n he said nature
was " r e d i n t o o t h and c l a w . " I n m a t u r e ecosystems, cooperation
seems t o be j u s t as i m p o r t a n t as c o m p e t i t i o n . Using cooperative
strategies, organisms spread o u t into n o n c o m p e t i n g niches and basi-
cally clean u p every c r u m b before i t even falls o f f the table. This
diversity o f niches creates a dynamic stability; i f one organism drops
out o f the n e t w o r k , there's usually a backup, aflowing the w e b t o
stay w h o l e .
Even w h e n individuals w i t h i n a species share a niche, there are
"agreements" about resodrce allotment. A n i m a l s w i f l claim t e r r i t o -
ries, f o r instance, or f e e d at d i f f e r e n t times o f day t o avoid over-
lapping w i t h t h e i r counterparts. As a result, the spofls o f t h e i r habitat
are d i v v i e d u p so t h a t w h o l e gaggles, herds, troops, and coveys can
be supported b y the same piece o f l a n d w i t h o u t constant energy-
draining fights. This "peaceful coexistence," writes ecologist Paul
C o l i n v a u x , is i n h e r e n t l y cooperative, t h o u g h i t may n o t be a con-
scious pact as i t is w i t h humans.
M o r e overt f o r m s o f cooperation can be seen i n the partnerships
t h a t some animals f o r m f o r m u t u a l benefit. T h e classic example is
t h e goby fish t h a t picks parasites f r o m the t e e t h and gills o f the
Nassau grouper fish. I n r e t u r n f o r this cleaning service, the grouper
resists eating the tiny goby and actually protects i t f r o m other pred-
ators. N o i s y oxbirds also p e r f o r m a service, alerting hippos to inter-
lopers i n r e t u r n f o r being a l l o w e d to dine o n ticks embedded i n the
h i p p o ' s sldn. L i c h e n represent a more permanent arrangement be-
t w e e n t w o species; Algae and f u n g i m o v e i n together, one harvesting
solar energy, t h e other p r o v i d i n g a safe support structure. W h a t
emerges w h e n y o u c o m b i n e talents like these is synergy—a sustain-
able system far greater t h a n t h e sum o f the parts.
L y n n Margulis, co-author o f the Gaia hypothesis (the idea t h a t
the E a r t h is self-regulating, like a hving organism), believes t h a t sym-
biosis is n o t c o n f i n e d t o a f e w oddbafl species, b u t is i n f a c t essential
to afl e v o l u t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o the endosymbiotic hypothesis, w h i c h
she has w r i t t e n about extensively, a large leapfrogging o f progress
occurred bflhons o f years ago w h e n t w o species j o i n e d forces. A bac-
How Will We Conduct Business? / 259
tena t h a t cou d n ' t m a n u f a c t u r e its o w n f o o d engulfed another bac-
teria t h a t c o u l d photosynthesize. Instead o f being k i l l e d , the green
boarc^er stayed on, and has stayed on t o this day. I n fact, says
Marguhs, the successors to these symbionts are the chloroplasts t h a t
exist m all green plants. A n o t h e r symbiotic story can be seen i n the
oxygen-breathing, energy-producing organelles i n our cells called m i -
tochondria Proponents o f this hypothesis, w h i c h is w i d e l y accepted
postulate t h a t these m i t o c h o n d r i a were free-ranging bacteria at o n é
t i m e , w h i c h explains w h y t h e y still have t h e i r o w n set o f D N A
I f the endosymbiotic hypothesis is true, t h e n every cell i n our
b o d y is a symbiotic creature. W h e n these symbionts gather i n great
herds they f o r m organs and organisms. I n fact, w r i t large, t h e theory
goes hke this; O u r b o d y is actually an aggregate o f single-cefl crea-
tures t h a t have f o r m e d a giant m u l t i c e l l u l a r assembly. I n short w e
are a c o l o n y - a single organism composed o f m a n y — a n d a l i v i n g
p r o o f of the p o w e r o f cooperation.
Diversifying and Cooperating: The Lessons Learned
A n y o n e w h o has collected green botties f o r several m o n t h s only t o
hear Sorry, w e can't recycle green g l a s s - n o markets" Icnows the
f r u s t r a t i o n o f the w e b t h a t has holes. T h e m o r e pathways w e have
f o r feeding o f f each other i n the industrial ecosystem, the m o r e loops
w i l l be closed and the less waste w i l l be lost f r o m the system
Right n o w , w i t h i n the linear extract-and-dump m o d e l , the
m c h e s - t h e jobs w i t h i n the w e b - a r e n o t all i n place. A s the Japa-
nese industrial ecologist M i c h i y u l d Uenohara says, w e have p l e n t y
of arteries - w a y s f o r products to flow f r o m the heart o f manufac-
turers i n t o the b o d y o f the e c o n o m y - b u t w e need "veins" as w e l l
ways t o r e t u r n the products so t h a t t h e i r materials can be p u r i f i e d
and reused. A s p a r t o f Japan's Ecofactory Initiative, restoration fac-
treX'ttfr" " ^^'"^'^^^ - ^-^^'^ P - ^ - ^ -
T h e Japanese are also b u i l d i n g a f o r m o f cooperation i n t o the
design phase o f their p r o d u c t development. I n this strategy, the c o m -
petitive whistie doesn't b l o w u n t i l m a r k e t i n g begins. Prior to mar-
ketmg, companies participate i n c o m m o n goals like Design f o r
Disassembly. This n o t i o n o f p r e c o m p e t i t i v e cooperation is also show-
ing u p i n the U n i t e d States, the most notable example being the
Vehicle Recycling Partnership o f Chrysler, Ford, and General M o -
tors. P u t t i n g aside their n o r m a l l y fierce c o m p e t i t i o n , companies like
these are w o r l d n g t h r o u g h trade associations, special alliances, and
 260 / Biomimicry
How Will We Conduct Business? / 261
" v i r t u a l firms" t o come u p w i t h c o m m o n labeling and materials stan-
dards w h i c h w i l l allow t h e m t o reuse each other's parts. This k i n d
o f alliance-building is t o be expected i n an emerging T y p e I I I econ-
m v a „ „ . y s , -big fierce antall / ' T ^ " ' " « ' « I ' i u l Col-
omy. T h e m o r e veins and arteries y o u add to a system, the m o r e
c o m p l e x i t becomes, and the m o r e cooperation y o u need f o r proper
ecosy,,ems.Tke„yraJd°n°f!.f'°''' " ' - S "eight) i „ terreatri.1
functioning.
O n e day, say industrial ecologists, the t o w n t h a t has no takers f o r chart. r d c & : ! * ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
green glass w i l l be seen as a t o w n w i t h a niche u n f i l l e d , an o p p o r t u n i t y
t h a t w o n ' t stay open f o r long. I n an economy where veins and arteries •he ZTIZ: y ï c r r , ' . ° i " v r ^ •
are equally profitable, entrepreneurs w i l l consciously w o r k t o sew u p enerev T h . t ' c l l • i ^ *°
capricious in y o u r use of
the loose ends o f resource use and reuse. T h e result: a w e b w i t h o u t tbeytee?:tTL~ ' '^''''^^^ distance [ o
g e t X
holes that looks and behaves m o r e like a mature c o m m u n i t y , m i n i m i z e energj^ cost^Mant^^^^^^ '° ^ ' ' T ' ' ^ ' ' ^
^ ^ ^ s and
t h e m and d o n t t r t o . t t t i t ^ t . ' t t ° 1 " ^ "^^
3. Gather and U s e Energy Efficiently. are w r o n g f o r t h e i n R o t h ! r j t " ' " ' o i l or water levels
N o t everything needed b y industry can be recycled, however. Even they secure T l e L t W ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ P™*-* ^^^^
water (even its urine Ts r ' 11 T f ^ ' ' ' ^ ^"'^^s its h a r d - w o n
in a natural system, only nutrients and minerals can be circulated
t h r o u g h the diverse connections o f an ecosystem; energy cannot. I n N o r t h drops iÏleaTe e a ' o f f w I' t ' ^ ^ ' ^"^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ °'
a salute t o the Second L a w o f Thermodynamics, energy is converted energy-savL devict are l l o l l l t ^ ^ V ^ " ^ ^ ' ^^^^
to heat i n t h e process o f d o i n g w o r k , and is therefore unavailable t o
do m o r e w o r k . As a result, the energy that runs the juggler's art m u s t
be continually i m p o r t e d i n t o the system.
ufactu elf r
squander energy are eventually e d i t e l T c i f t
:: t t t
evolved ways o w o r f s i r
d"^h rT^^y-~ e m a n -
i t h
e^o^^^^^^

a v e
I n nearly every c o m m u n i t y (except sulfur-based " v e n t " com- catalyzing or speeZg u t h e m , V 1 ' ^^"^ '^'^^'^
munities o n the ocean floor), the purchasing agents f o r energy are
photosynthesizers'—green plants, blue-green algae, and certain good enzyme can cLweTct^ ' t " ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
bacteria. T h e y siphon their radiant energy f r o m a nuclear f u s i o n oc- w i t h 10 zeros after it) ^ h o u t c ' f T
curring 93 m i l l i o n miles away (the sun) and t r a n s f o r m i t into the takes five seconds, such a? e a r . t h f ^ P^^^^^^s t h a t
chemical bonds o f sugars and carbohydrates. T h o u g h they use only h u n d r e d years. B i d o g i c a l c a t a t s a t 7 ' """^'^ ^^^^^
about 2 percent o f the sunlight that reaches the Earth, they make benignly; instead of S t h t h he ! I T T T ' ° '"^""ferture. ,
the most o f i t , achieving an astounding 95 percent q u a n t u m effi- or break bonds nature m a n f r ^'"'^ ^o create
ciency. ( T h a t means t h a t f o r every 100 photons o f l i g h t captured by
water. T h e p h t c s of felWVrT ^ ^ " ^ P ^ ^ * " - and i n
the leaf's reaction center, 95 are f u n n e l e d i n t o b o n d maldng.)
drive toward^e^remtet;htw3^"^ ^^^^
N e x t t i m e y o u are i n a leafy mature forest, take t i m e t o marvel
at nature's efficient solar-collector array. Leaves are positioned rela-
tive t o one another t o m a x i m i z e exposure, and like miniblinds, some
actually t i l t and swivel as the sun traces the sky. T h i s efficient process e x t e r n t t t t b e t t t t e t t t T ^^^^^ ^ »
lar, w i n d , t i d a l and b t d , e t f ^ ' P r ^ ' ' " ^ s u n l i g h t (so-
collects energy f o r all l i v i n g beings, and sets the ceiling f o r w h a t an
sunhght) A s t is we t ° ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^^^^ ° n ™
ecosystem can aspire t o be.
here t t l l \ : i : L " 7 - " t ' * *-PP^d
T h e carrying capacity o f the land has everything t o do w i t h h o w
m u c h energy there is t o go around. A f t e r plants use t h e i r energy booty
for g r o w i n g and reproducing, only 10 percent is available t o the next
- s a s Oil, coal, L a : t ï ^ a ! : - : ^ - - ^ ^ ^ ^
 262 / Biomimicty Hoiv Will We Conduct Business? / 263

at once exhaling the stored carbon i n t o the atmosphere m large what's w o r t h doing w i t h all t h a t energy." N a t u r a l systems use t h e i r
doses, violating t h e " n o large fluxes" ecosystem lesson. U n f o r t u - energy t o m a x i m i z e diversity so t h e y can be more e f f i c i e n t i n terms
nately, as long as these ancient sources are stfll cheap, our energy- o f m i n e r a l and n u t r i e n t recycling. Perhaps w e should reevaluate w h a t
we are m a x i m i z i n g ( t h r o u g h p u t ) and take a look at o p t i m i z i n g i n -
addicted society appears determined t o b u r n t h e m afl.
stead.
Renewable energy expert A m o r y Lovins believes t h a t u n t i l w e
can make the s h i f t t o gathering current sunhght directly, the best
strategy is t o coax every last k i l o w a t t o u t o f the fuels w e are usmg^ 4. O p t i m i z e Rather T h a n M a x i m i z e .
Already, many industries have discovered the monetary benehts of A field o f annual plants is, like w e are, pushing t h r o u g h p u t . It's t u r n -
tightening energy leaks w i t h devices such as compact fluorescent ing nutrients i n t o biomass, and j u s t as quickly, it's t u r n i n g biomass
lights, w e a t h e r - t i g h t b u f l d i n g panels, and energy-sipping appliances. over, releasing plants back t o the system w h e n t h e y die at the end
o f t h e year. N e x t year, the plants start from scratch again, accumu-
D u Pont has reduced energy use per p o u n d o f p r o d u c t i o n 37 percent
lating the nutrients t h e y need t o j u m p t h r o u g h the h o o p o f r a p i d
since 1973. It's expecting t o shave another 15 percent during the
growth.
1990s I n the last t w e n t y years, w h f l e Japan's economic activity has
increased, its energy c o n s u m p t i o n has actually decreased. I t attributes I n contrast, the mature system keeps the b u l k o f its materials
this r e d u c t i o n t o the sul^stitution o f i n f o r m a t i o n — g o o d ideas—m and nutrients " o n the s t u m p " ; instead o f passing nutrients t h r o u g h
place o f m o r e energy. to decay each year, most o f the biomass stays p u t . I n t h e early years,
U t i l i t y companies i n this country are beginning to help consum- members o f the p l a n t c o m m u n i t y g r o w q u i c k l y (that's w h y tree rings
ers p l u g t h e leaks at t h e company's expense. I n western M o n t a n a , are w i d e s t at the center o f t h e tree). I n later years, as m o r e trees and
vegetation come t o share the space, the growing slows d o w n , and
f o r instance, m y r u r a l electric cooperative, w h i c h buys f r o m B o n -
the p r o d u c t i v i t y per u n i t o f biomass—the transformation rate o f ma-
nevflle Power, p a i d t w o thirds o f the cost t o insulate m y attic. I t
terials being made i n t o products—slows d o w n .
believes t h a t b y w e a t h e r p r o o f i n g its customers' homes, i t can help
keep p o w e r demand b e l o w the level t h a t w o u l d force i t t o b u i l d a T h i s j o u r n e y t o a m a t u r e system always follows the same pat-
new p o w e r station. T h o u g h i t seems incongruous, Bonnevflle sells tern. T h e emphasis o n m a x i m i z i n g t h r o u g h p u t and o f f s p r i n g shifts
less electricity this w a y b u t makes just as m u c h money, because i t to an emphasis on o p t i m i z i n g — c l o s i n g n u t r i e n t and m i n e r a l flows,
and m a k i n g sure one or t w o o f f s p r i n g survive. I n a m a t u r e mode,
has e l i m i n a t e d construction costs o f n e w plants f r o m its budgets.
organisms are rewarded f o r being efficient and learning t o do m o r é
Everybody wins, i n c l u d i n g the environment.
w i t h less. Those t h a t survive are those t h a t live w i t h i n their means.
B u t w h a t about t h e huge drain c o m i n g f r o m energy-intensive
S l o w i n g d o w n flow rates also leads t o overafl system stabflity. A s
manufacturing? U n l i k e the slow b u r n o f organic engines (cefls),
C o o p e r says, " O n e o f the reasons ecosystems are so resflient is t h a t
w e are always beating, heating, and tieating our materials t o f o r m
t h e y aren't doing a n y t h i n g i n a h u r r y . T h e slower the flow rates, the
t h e m t h e w a y w e want, w i e l d i n g h i g h fluxes o f energy t h a t w o u l d
m o r e y o u can m o d u l a t e the controls w i t h o u t w f l d fluctuations.'' Be-
never be tolerated i n natural systems. I f t h e dreams o f b i o m i m e t i c
ing able t o c o n t r o l the system is i m p o r t a n t ; i t means t h e w h o l e c o m -
materials scientists are realized, h i g h energies w i f l no longer be
m u n i t y is able to change and adapt as the environment demands.
synonymous w i t h m a n u f a c t u r i n g . Instead, our processes w f l l m i m i c
those o f spiders, abalones, b l u e mussels, and other orgamsms o n an
Optimizing, Not Maximizing: The Lessons Learned
energy budget. , , , j •j i ^. +
O u r industrial ecosystems are c u r r e n t l y i n arrested adolescence; they
Lessons f r o m natural systems can also help us decide what t o
are still based o n h i g h rates o f p r o d u c t i v i t y and g r o w t h — a steady
use our energy f o r . A s A m o r y Lovins says, " I f 1 were to come back
stream o f materials m o v i n g as q u i c k l y as possible o u t o f the E a r t h
i n fifty years and find t h a t w e had extremely efficient factories mak-
and i n t o shiny n e w things. Eighty-five percent o f m a n u f a c t u r e d items
ing n a p a l m and t h r o w a w a y beer cans, I ' d be very disappointed be-
q u i c k l y become waste. I n fact, w h e n y o u add m u n i c i p a l and indus-
cause ft w o u l d mean t h a t w e hadn't addressed a paraflel agenda of
 264 / Biomimicry
How Will We Conduct Business? / 265
t r i a l waste together, every m a n , w o m a n , and c h i l d i n t h e U n i t e d
5. Use Materials Sparingly
States produces t w i c e his or her o w n w e i g h t i n waste every day.
Together, i t ' s enough t o fill t w o Louisiana Superdomes daily.
T h e lesson is t o slow d o w n the t h r o u g h p u t o f materials, e m -
phasizing t h e q u a l i t y rather than q u a n t i t y o f n e w things. Cooper
says, " A s t h e natural system matures, i t redefines its concept o f suc-
cess. That's w h a t fitness is a l l about. I n today's economy, o u r defi- i m u m amount o f walling m a t e r ^ Z ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ "'^^^'^^ "^^^
n i t i o n o f success is r a p i d g r o w t h — i f y o u grow faster t h a n y o u r eybees sculpt every six-sided rn . , ^^^one, h o n -
c o m p e t i t o r , y o u w i n . I n t o m o r r o w ' s w o r l d , w i n n i n g w i l l mean being thus a c h i e v f t g stren t t w i h o u t s l a ^ f " ' °^
m o r e c o m p e t i t i v e , doing m o r e w i t h less, and being more efficient
t h a n your c o m p e t i t o r . Companies w o n ' t need t o be as b i g — i n fact,
example o f f o r m fitting C Z n T
arranged i n a design t h a t re
compressed. T h e bones o f b ï d s en t
t brtu
t '

^^^^^^^ed or
-
i t m i g h t be m o r e profitable t o be small and produce high-quality
products a n d services." a f t i l y h o l l o w skulls are w h t t C r c ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
This t r e n d t o w a r d o p t i m i z i n g rather t h a n m a x i m i z i n g w i l l re- Organisms have also evolved to ZZ7u ^^r""" ^" ^ o n e . "
verse a well-established tide. T h e Industrial R e v o l u t i o n really got decision, b y having one s t r u c t u r e V ^^^^y design
cooldng w h e n Fordist assembly-line m a n u f a c t u r i n g was invented. functions. This c o n t n TT j"^*
Items t h a t h a d once been hand-crafted c o u l d n o w be mass-produced. means t h a t f e t r d" ^ TT'^' °^ ^^^^^^^
W h i l e this l e d t o affordability, i t also l e d t o cheapness i n products, at this game gives organisms a l e d ' : he d r t " " t ' ' ^ ^ " ^
and u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e disposable, ticky-tacky sameness t h a t w e arc - m g y o u r genes, or t a . n g a o^:i^::tZ^2^;;^
d r o w n i n g i n today.
I n t h e 1960s, Japan launched a so-called Q u a l i t y R e v o l u t i o n ^^T-S'''"''''^^ ^!^f'^^^ons Learned
[based largely o n efficiency expert Edwards D e m i n g ' s ideas, w h i c h do m ^ f ^ ^ ^ ^ l ^ f ^ ^ r n organisms, also love t o
were i n i t i a l l y ignored i n this c o u n t r y ) . T h e y p r o v e d i t was possibh- allows companies t o use irttetfto t "dTaterialization"
t o boost quality, p r o d u c t i v i t y , and p r o f i t a b i l i t y at t h e same t i m e . In sleeker p r o d u c t t h a t p e r f o r m s r a n v f ' ° ^ ^ ^ u c e a lighter, smaller,
the last decade or so, designers have spotted t h e q u a l i t y t r e n d i n y o u r p a l m and all-in-one ftX2^.t w ^ ^ ^ P ^ ^ e r s t h a t fit i n
other countries as w e l l — d u r a b l e items, made w i t h care and i m b u e d
p o i n t . Even heavy-duty p r o d u t s T / T ' ^ ^ ^ ^""^ ^^ses i n
w i t h personality, are being increasingly favored over cheap, u b i q u i -
tous i m i t a t i o n s . W e can at least hope t h a t this is a sign o f a transition and stronger. Car bodies have sh dTb t " t T ^"^"^"^
to a m a t u r e marketplace. 1975, a n d testosterone is n o l o n t ne Ï T ^ " " t ^ ^^^^^s since
your bare hands. Creat n g a Z Z u f '° '
A n o t h e r sign o f m a t u r i t y is t h e slow b u t increasing acceptance
o f " f a c t o r y r e f u r b i s h e d " products [e.g., r e b u i l t engines, factory- als-a composite-is a S h e r t a v f " ^'^^
serviced stereos a n d computers). Rather t h a n trash a m o d e l because bulk. Glass fibers w o v e n t h r o u I n) / ' ^ ^ Z?^'^ ^ ^ * ° " t adding
a n e w one has appeared, i t w o u l d be m u c h better f o r t h e environ- ies, w h i l e carbon ^^^rs^^i^lt^^^^^
m e n t i f w e c o u l d see h o w l o n g w e c o u l d keep t h e existing m o d e l in , T h e u l t i m a t e i n demateriafization ^^ge.
the marketplace. T h i s w o u l d s h i f t t h e emphasis f r o m manufacturing described as "leasing as If f ' P' * a t m a y be
a n e w moclel every year t o m a n u f a c t u r i n g longer-lived designs and f u n c t i o n a l economy claim 74 rfthtl .r°"'"*^
creating subsidiary companies devoted t o r e m a n u f a c t u r i n g and up- o w n a heater, a r e f r i g e r a t l o a t ^ ' l ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^on't want to
grading. A s A l l e n b y says, " O u r economic system is geared t o the sale
o f m a n y widgets. I f w e change t h a t t o t h e maintenance o f many wid-
gets, w e change w h a t w e care about."
 266 / Biomimicry
How Will We Conduct Business? / 267

f o r sentimental or aesthetic reasons. E v e r y t h i n g else around y o u r

lescence? W h a t about the sales clerks i n the software stored A l l e n b
house w o u l d be leased as a service. Various providers w o u l d be re-
sponsible f o r installing, maintaining, upgrading, and eventually re-
placing y o u r appliances, y o u r f u r n i t u r e , even y o u r cookware."
Since the company w o u l d be responsible f o r u n i n t e r r u p t e d ser-
vice, the products i t made w o u l d be reliable, heavy d u t y , and easy t o
repair and upgrade. " I t w o u l d be like those o l d A T & T phones w h i c h
were designed t o last f o r t y years," says Bob Laudise. "Back then,
designers w o u l d trade o f f f a i l u r e rates and service rates—they were
responding t o a d i f f e r e n t set o f incentives. N o w companies hope
t h e i r p r o d u c t burns o u t so t h e y can sell the consumer a new one." 6. D o n ' t F o u l T h e i r Nests,
I n "leasing as a w a y o f l i f e , " planned obsolescence w o u l d be,
w e l l . . . obsolete. A l l e n b y tells m e w h a t an evening m i g h t be like i n
the f u n c t i o n a l economy: Y o u drive h o m e i n y o u r leased car, w h i c h
was t u n e d u p f o r y o u w h i l e y o u were at w o r k . T h e mechanic came
to y o u r c o m p a n y parking l o t , part o f the service o p t i o n t h a t con-
vinced y o u t o renew y o u r contract w i t h this company. A t home, y o u
find t h a t y o u r w e l l - b u i l t , energy-efficient refrigerator is keeping y o u r
foods even crisper t h a n before. T h e service provider upgraded the
coils last w e e k so they c o u l d claim to have the most energy-efficient pbysics t o p u t together adaptive materials. M o d e r a t i o n i n enerev and
refrigeration o n the market—something every company is struggling
t o p r o v i d e these days.
Y o u head t o y o u r leased s t e r e o / T V / c o m p u t e r console and select
some tunes f r o m the digital collection o f music y o u o w n rights to.
W h e n y o u b o u g h t the rights, y o u dialed i n t o a digital server (a huge
c o m p u t e r t h a t holds all music archives) and d o w n l o a d e d the music
onto y o u r computer/player. There were no retail outlets, no C D
j e w e l boxes, no packaging, no cash registers, no cardboard pacldng
boxes p i l e d i n a D u m p s t e r outside a neon-striped b u i l d i n g .
Not Fouling Our Nest: The Lessons Learned
W h i l e y o u ' r e listening, y o u t e l l the c o m p u t e r t o d o w n l o a d the
newspaper o f y o u r choice onto a t h i n portable reading tablet—or
even better, y o u have y o u r c o m p u t e r read i t t o y o u as y o u cook I t s easy t o say, " D o n ' t e m i t pollutants at rates greater than the
dinner o n y o u r leased range. A f t e r dinner, y o u h o p o n the Internet
and request i n f o r m a t i o n about the latest generation o f modems. Y o u
decide t o upgrade y o u r transmission speed and call i n your order.
W i t h i n seconds, the software upgrade arrives digitally t h r o u g h the
wires, and y o u r machine signals t h a t the n e w m o d e m speed is i n -
stalled. N o software store t o go to, no packages t o dispose of, no
b u l k y manuals t o clog y o u r bookcase. I c o u l d get used to that.
T h e obvious question is, w h a t happens t o the companies that
used t o m a n u f a c t u r e the C D s and other objects designed f o r obso-
 268 / Biomimicry
How Will We Conduct Business? / 269

projects i n categories such as p r o d u c t r e f o r m u l a t i o n , process m o d i -

fication, e q u i p m e n t redesign, recycling, and the recovery o f waste
materials f o r resale. A n o t h e r m o v e m e n t t h a t is reducing waste is "iust in tim.''
I n each case, says 3 M representative Jo A n n B r o o m , eliminating
toxins f r o m processing p r o v e d cheaper t h a n cleaning u p the toxins
afterward. T h e first f e w years saw tremendous reductions i n p o l l u -
t i o n , as companies changed procedures t h a t were easy t o change,
referred t o i n the industry as "low-hanging f r u f t . " Reaching b e y o n d
this p o i n t , like retrieving the t o p m o s t apples f r o m a tree, may involve
m o r e o f an e f f o r t . Nevertheless, 3 M announced i n 1988 t h a t ft
intends t o " c u t ah hazardous and non-hazardous releases t o the air,
water, and land b y 90 percent and reduce the generation o f waste 50
percent b y the year 2000 (base year 1990). T h e u l t i m a t e goal is to
reduce emissions to as close t o zero as possible." Some other c o m -
panies are f o l l o w i n g 3 M ' s self-pohcing suit. Monsanto says i t w i U re-
duce emissions o f t o x i c chemicals b y 90 percent b y 1992 and
reduce aU waste b y 70 percent b y 1995. By 1993, D u Pont had al-
ready m e t its goal o f reducing t o x i c aft emissions b y 60 percent
from the base year o f 1987 and was three quarters o f the w a y t o -
w a r d the goal o f reducing airborne carcinogens b y 90 percent b y the
year 2000.
I n the meantime, u n t i l w e can completely eliminate or find a
substitute f o r toxins, industrial ecologists are r e c o m m e n d i n g w e f o l -
l o w the "snake-venom l a w " : manufacture chemicals i n small doses 7. D o n ' t D r a w D o w n Resources
w h e r e and w h e n y o u need t h e m , so y o u w o n ' t have t o w o r r y about
storage or leakage, ft's called "chemicals-on-demand," and industry's
" v e n o m glands" are small chemical generators b u i f t r i g h t i n t o the
assembly line. A T & T , f o r example, uses an on-site electrolysis m a -
chine t h a t produces arsine (a dangerous gas) from its less h a r m f u l
cousin, arsenic. Since the gas is produced r i g h t where ft's needed, i t
saves A T & T the cost o f transporting arsine ( w h i c h is subject t o dan-
gerous, time-consuming, legally strict handling procedures) and
averts the risk o f spillage. O t h e r extremely hazardous chemicals t h a t g r o w i n g stock is n o t a good idea. ^ ^ ^^""'^
w o u l d be good candidates f o r on-demand generators are v i n y l chlo- Once again, the idea o f organisms as m o r t a l enemies locked in
ride, methylisocyanate, phosgene, hydrazine, and ethylene chloro-
hydrin.
A n o t h e r f o r m o f spillage is the " h a l o " o f waste t h a t occurs
whenever chemicals such as paints or coatings are sprayed onto ob-
jects. Bob Laudise t o l d m e about a n e w application technique called
molecular b e a m epftaxy t h a t lays d o w n extremely t h i n coats and
 270 / Biomimiay
As far as nonrenewable resources like metals or minerals go,
organisms d o n ' t use a w h o l e l o t o f those t o begin w i t h , w h i c h may
be a very b i g h i n t . T h e t i n y h e l p i n g o f minerals taken u p b y organ-
isms is replenished either t h r o u g h biological processes or t h r o u g h
geological processes, such as u p l i f t i n g , w h i c h brings b u r i e d minerals
to the surface.
Not Drawing Down Resources: The Lessons Learned
T w o corollaries t o t h e lesson " D o n ' t e m i t pollutants faster t h a n the
Earth can handle t h e m " w o u l d have to be:
1. D o n ' t use nonrenewable resources faster t h a n y o u can de-
velop substitutes.
2. D o n ' t use renewable resources faster t h a n they regenerate
themselves. \
A t one time, our economy was p r i m a r i l y based o n renewable ma-
terials—wood, natural fibers, plant-derived chemicals, and so on.
O n e o f our greatest missteps was t o replace this economy w i t h one
based o n nonrenewables such as o i l , gas, coal, metals, and minerals.
T h e l a w o f sustainability says y o u should use nonrenewables at the
same rate at w h i c h y o u are developing substitutes. B u t w e are ob-
viously using metals and minerals and fossil fuels faster t h a n w e are
developing substitutes. I f w e are t o leave any resources f o r our grand-
children, w e s h o u l d be recycling nonrenewables n o w , even i f i t
means finding a w a y t o " m i n e " landfills, where metals and minerals
are o f t e n f o u n d i n higher concentrations t h a n they are i n ore de-
posits!
T h e leak t h a t w i l l be toughest t o seal is t h a t o f dissipative losses,
those t i n y bits o f nonrenewables t h a t are lost t o t h e land, air, or water
w i t h each use. (For instance, y o u r brake pads shower t h e road surface
w i t h material each time y o u stop.) Chemicals are especially prone
to be dissipative; i f they are n o t embodied i n plastics, synthetic
rubber, or synthetic fiber, they are likely t o be i n the use-and-lose
category t h a t includes coatings, pigments, pesticides, herbicides, ger-
micides, preservatives, flocculants, antifreezes, explosives, p r o p e l -
lants, fire retardants, reagents, detergents, fertihzers, fuels, and
lubricants. Sealing u p these slow leaks, and concentrating on recov-
ery, m a y save v i r g i n sources f o r generations t o come.
Perhaps t h e best remedy o f all is t o find renewable substitutes
f o r these nonrenewables. Recent talk about biopolymers, plastics
How Will We Conduct Business? / 271
f r o m plants, and f u e l f r o m corn is evidence o f a s h i f t f r o m rare and
precious resources t o ones t h a t can conceivably be g r o w n w i t h the
sun's help.
N o t t h a t a r e t u r n t o a renewable economy w o u l d be a t o t a l
panacea. A s D a n i e l Chiras warns, i m p r o p e r l y managed timber cut-
t i n g f a r m i n g , fishing, and ranching can resuft i n severe erosion and
m a r k e d decreases i n the p r o d u c t i v e capacity o f l a n d and sea T h e
smart alternative is t o take from the land only w h a t w i l l allow more
to g r o w back. I n forestry this is k n o w n as sustained yield, and the
idea IS t o harvest only w h a t has g r o w n t h a t year, so y o u are basically
h v m g o n interest, n o t depleting t h e capftal, o f growing stock T h e
capacity f o r g r o w i n g m o r e is w h a t m u s t be protected. U n f o r t u n a t e l y
the c u r r e n t rules o f our marketplace give l u m b e r companies incen-
tives t o l i q u i d a t e t h e i r assets (cut d o w n all t h e i r trees) w h e n w o o d
prices stagnate. C u t t i n g i n t o the g r o w i n g stock o f the forest is like
damaging the goose w i t h t h e golden eggs, diminishing the capacity
of the system t o p r o v i d e year after year.
A sustainable society, therefore, depends n o t j u s t o n s h i f t i n g t o
renewable resources b u t o n c a r e f u l l y managing all o f the Earth's re-
generative gifts. This w i l l require n o t only a taboo against e x p l o i t i n g
ecological capital b u t also a reining i n o f the forces t h a t drive this
exploitation: r u n a w a y p o p u l a t i o n and consumption. I n short, i t w i l l
require a simpler and m o r e graceful l i f e .
8. R e m a i n i n Balance w i t h the Biosphere.
W h e n w e talk about a prairie or a r e d w o o d forest, we're talking
about subcycles c h u r n i n g w i t h i n a m u c h larger cycle. T h e grandpar-
ent of all cycling occurs at the level o f biosphere.
T h e biosphere (the layer o f air, land, and water t h a t supports
lite) IS a closed system, meaning t h a t no materials (except f o r rogue
nreteorites) are i m p o r t e d or exported. T h e stocks o f the m a j o r bio¬
chemical b u i l d i n g blocks such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phos-
phorus stay p r e t t y m u c h the same, even t h o u g h they are actively
traded among organisms. W h a t e v e r is r e m o v e d from the resource
reservoirs, t h r o u g h the process o f photosynthesizing, respiring g r o w -
ing, mmerahzing, and decaying, is replaced i n equal amounts.
I hrotigh the revolving door o f organisms, t h e stocks circulate b u t
they d o n ' t r u n d o w n .
Gases i n t h e atmosphere are also h e l d i n a delicate b u t dynamic
balance. I n photosynthesis, plants inhale carbon dioxide and exhale
oxygen. Respiring animals take this same oxygen and r e t u r n carbon
 272 / Biomimiay
dioxide t o the atmosphere. N e i t h e r o f these gases is r e m o v e d or
r e t u r n e d i n excess; f o r example, oxygen remains at a crucial 21 per-
cent level i n the atmosphere ( w h i c h is a c o m f o r t to us every t i m e
we strike a m a t c h ) . A similar stabilizing effect is seen i n the nitrogen,
sulfur, and water cycles.
T h r o u g h this give-and-take, l i f e maintains the conditions needed
for l i f e . I f these biological processes were t o cease, writes e n v i r o n m e n -
tal economist Robert U . Ayres, " T h e grand n u t r i e n t cycles w o u l d
w i n d d o w n , as the m a n y chemical reactions proceeded t o w a r d c h e m -
ical e q u i l i b r i u m . " I n short, the great juggling act o f l i f e w o u l d end.
Remaining in Balance with the Biosphere: The Lessons Learned
As l i v i n g beings, w e c o n t r i b u t e our share o f exhaled gases and or-
ganic m a t t e r t o the Earth. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , our byproducts go far be-
y o n d these b o d i l y offerings. A s Ayres reports, " I n the m i d d l e o f the
last century about 280 o f every m i l l i o n molecules i n the atmosphere
were carbon d i o x i d e [ C O z ] molecules ( 2 8 0 parts per m i U i o n b y v o l -
ume). T o d a y t h a t value has risen by 25 percent, t o about 355 parts
per m i U i o n b y v o l u m e . T h e current rate o f increase is about 0.4
percent per year."
W h e r e does i t all go? T h e 7,100 m i U i o n m e t r i c tons o f carbon
per year t h a t w e i n j e c t i n t o the air b y fossU f u e l b u r n i n g and defor-
estation is only about 12 percent o f the net p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i v i t y —
the 60,000 m i U i o n m e t r i c tons o f carbon t h a t l a n d plants produce
i n t h e i r bodies each year. B u t w h i l e the carbon t h a t plants produce
is eventually reused b y l i v i n g things, our i n j e c t i o n o f C O 2 is n o t
balanced b y natural processes. Because i t is over and above w h a t
w o u l d be naturally recycled, the C O 2 concentration i n the atmo-
sphere just keeps growing. T h e u l t i m a t e question t h a t industrial ecol-
ogists m u s t ask is: H o w o n E a r t h w i l l our biosphere respond t o this
p e r t u r b a t i o n i n the grand n u t r i e n t cycle, this buUdup w i t h o u t bal-
ance?
Industrial ecologists say the only answer is an industrial ecosys-
t e m t h a t can dovetail w i t h the biosphere w i t h o u t h a r m . A f e w minds
are talking about this large-scale integration, b u t at this p o i n t , the
talk is still talk. Ayers writes t h a t unlike the Earth's system, w h i c h
is characterized b y closed cycles, the industrial system as a w h o l e is
an open one i n w h i c h " n u t r i e n t s " are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o "wastes" b u t
are n o t yet significantly recycled. Like any linear system (such as the
flour beeties i n a b i n ) , this one is inherently unstable and unsustain-
How Will We Conduct Business? / 273
able. W i t h o u t b h n k i n g , he writes, " I t m u s t either stabihze or coflapse
to a t h e r m a e q u f l i b r i u m state i n w h i c h all flows, t h a t is, afl physical
or biological processes, cease." r- >
Ayres cheers u p somewhat w h e n he reminds us t h a t the E a r t h
was n o t always a closed system. I t t o o k billions o f years t o evolve all
the w e b h k e mechanisms (organisms) t h a t sew up the cycles. Before
t h e y were i n place, the w o r l d faced lots o f loose ends: organic m o l -
ecule shortages (as protocells f o r m i n g i n the ocean used u p afl t h e i r
b u i l d m g blocks), carbon d i o x i d e b u i l d u p s (before blue-green algae
were around t o breathe C O , ) , and near oxygen poisoning (before
aerobic bacteria were around t o breathe O J . So h f e has stood at the
b r m k before, Ayres tells us. W h a t w i l l evolve to p u l l us back this
^•ffi tl^f save the day, he says, w o u l d be very
d i f f i c u l t f o r us to predict. For t h a t matter, so w o u l d "the last straw ''
T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t the biosphere and our industrial w o r l d w i d e eco-
systern are b o t h c o m p l e x systems, meaning that small changes can
a m p h f y t o become very large changes. T h e most p o p u l a r example
of this sensitivity t o i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s " is the c o m p l e x i t y o f weather;
theoretically, a b u t t e r f l y flapping its wings i n Central Park c o u l d t r i g -
ger a series o f disturbances leading to a t y p h o o n i n T a i w a n . This
non inearity makes i t t o u g h t o gauge the seriousness o f our current
insults or t o p r e d i c t the outcomes o f our i n t e r v e n t i o n
A l l w e can do is w a t c h f o r w a r n i n g signs. T o t h a t end, w e are
n o w m o n i t o r i n g t h e Earth m o r e closely t h a n ever before, h o p i n g t o
discern patterns i n h o w w e affect the biosphere and h o w i t re-
r '"''-Ft
sponds^ O n e o f the largest n e w efforts is N A S A ' s Mission t o Planet
SaTv R i d ' " ^'^^^^S^^^d b y astronaut
planets b u t very l i t t l e t o track changes here at home.) I n the mis-
sion s first phase, a n u m b e r o f n e w remote-sensing sateflites are
tracking, f o r example, circulation patterns o f the w o r l d ' s oceans
weather disturbances caused b y E l N i f i o , fluctuating sea levels
s h i f t i n g boundaries between temperate and boreal forest types, and
^th t ? 7 ^ ? u V ^ ' P^^^^ " begins i n 1998,
w i t h the l a u n c h o f t h e first E a r t h Observing Spacecraft, w h i c h , t o -
gether w i t h the satellites, w i f l beam back m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n e;ery
h o u r t h a n c u r r e n t l y exists i n all the E a r t h sciences combined, ft w e
use this i n f o r m a t i o n correctly, i t could j u s t be the self-regulator
we ve been searching f o r .
 274 / Biomimicry
9. R u n o n I n f o r m a t i o n .
M a t u r e c o m m u n i t i e s , like innovative and p r o d u c t i v e companies,
have r i c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n channels that carry feedback t o all m e m -
bers, influencing t h e i r m a r c h t o w a r d sustainability. Excess and waste
are h e l d i n check b y mechanisms t h a t r e w a r d efficient behavior and
p u n i s h f o o h s h genes. A n y organism t h a t is surrounded b y and de-
pendent o n so m a n y other links must develop unambiguous ways t o
signal its intentions and interact w i t h its neighbors. Wolves, f o r ex-
ample, m u s t p e r f e c t rituahzed gestures t h a t clearly state things like
"Let's m a t e " or " Y o u w i n , I ' m m o v i n g away peacefully," As b i o l -
ogists say, successful b o d y designs and behaviors m u s t be h i g h i n
i n f o r m a t i o n content.
W h a t makes a mature c o m m u n i t y r u n is n o t one universal mes-
sage being broadcast f r o m above, b u t numerous, even redundant,
messages c o m i n g f r o m the , grass roots, dispersed t h r o u g h o u t the
c o m m u n i t y structure. A r i c l i feedback system aflows changes i n one
c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t o reverberate t h r o u g h the w h o l e , al-
l o w i n g f o r adaptation w h e n the e n v i r o n m e n t changes. T h e raison
d'etre o f mature communities, remember, is t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r i d e n -
t i t y t h r o u g h o u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l storms and travafls, so t h e y can re-
main, and evolve, i n place. T h i s is w h a t sustainability seekers are also
beginning t o w a n t f o r our communities.
Running on Information: The Lessons Learned
System b r e a k d o w n occurs w h e n w e as a species ignore t h e negative
feedback c o m i n g f r o m the natural w o r i d — t h e reproductive abnor-
malities, t h e drastic weather changes, the extinctions—and ratchet
u p our g r o w t h gears anyway. W e take more t h a n t h e w o r l d can
replace and release m o r e t h a n i t can handle. T h i s damn-the-evidence
k i n d o f excess is cafled "overshoot."
T o avoid overshooting, afl the firms i n an economy have t o be
keyed i n t o each other and aware o f t h e i r interactions w i t h the en-
v i r o n m e n t , t h e w a y organisms are. W h a t w e need t o establish are
feedback links among and w i t h i n businesses, as w e f l as feedback f r o m
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t o business.
T h e recent p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f materials exchange brokerages such
as t h e N o r t h East Industrial Waste Exchange i n Syracuse, N e w Y o r k ,
and B A R T E R (Business A f l i e d t o Recycle T h r o u g h Exchange and
Reuse] i n Minnesota is a good sign. These companies p u b l i s h u p - t o -
t h e - m i n u t e catalogs o f w h o needs w h a t and w h o has w h a t , m a t c h i n g
How Will We Conduct Business? / 275
companies looking t o get rid o f wastes w i t h those w h o c o u l d use
those wastes. This recycling yenta service signals the beginning o f
i n f o r m a t i o n postings w i t h i n and between industries t h a t w i l l f a c i l i -
tate the t h o r o u g h use o f materials. Such a feedback system c o u l d
keep materials cycling t h r o u g h the economy instead o f landing i n a
d u m p or incinerator.
ren ^ ^ ' ^ ^ f ^J^bin a firm can also help i m p r o v e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
r e p o r t cards. Back m the fifties, breakthroughs i n cybernetic feedback
rnade a u t o m a t i o n possible. T h e heater i n your h o m e is a chip o f f
t h a t b l o c k - I t s i n f o r m a t i o n relay is a thermostat t h a t senses the t e m -
perature i n y o u r house and turns the heater on or o f f so y o u d o n ' t
have t o . Industrial ecologists w o u l d like to see the same sorts o f self-
p o h c m g mechanisms b u i h i n t o machines t o help industry avoid en-
v i r o n m e n t a l transgressions. These mechanisms m i g h t constantiy
m o m t o r emissions, f o r instance, cahbrating the machines t o be as
clean as possible.
P IZit""^ mechanisms need n o t be only mechanical, however
Profits falling or rising i n response t o a company's environmental
record can a^o be a champing or d r i v i n g mechanism. Governments
can help push profits t h e right w a y b y taxing firms f o r environmental
transgressions and r e w a r d i n g t h e m f o r advances.
A n o t h e r feedback mechanism t h a t w o u l d concentrate industry's
m m d IS consumer demand f o r greener products. The countries i n the
European U n i o n , the U n i t e d States, Canada, and Australia are cur-
rently negotiating an enforceable and credible green labeling scheme
Once a green seal o f approval on a p r o d u c t becomes t r u l y coveted'
compames w f l l go all o u t t o make t h e i r products "greener t h a n t h i n e ''
Finally say the industrial ecologists, w e need a response system
that w f l l a l l o w firms to get w a r n i n g signals f r o m the e n v i r o n m e n t
and i m m e d i a t e l y clean u p t h e i r practices w i t h o u t w a i t i n g f o r laws or
p r o f i t t o do the j o b . T h e government-industry covenants i n T h e
nat t Th r . T T Z ° f " ^ g ° t i a t i o n s that are adaptive i n
nature. T h e D u t c h decided t h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o reach t h e i r clean
e n v i r o n m e n t goal w i t h i n a generation. T h e y f e l t that the practice o f
legislating change i n v o l v e d too m u c h guesswork and o f t e n d i d n ' t go
far enough. W i t h covenants, the firm tries o u t an environmentally
f r i e n d l y policy, and scientific m o n i t o r i n g shows w h e t h e r it's w o r k i n g
I f the e n v i r o n m e n t is still suffering, there's no need to w a i t f o r n e w
legislation t o toughen p o l i c y - g o v e r n m e n t and industry s i m p l y ne-
gotiate a speedy change i n t h e covenant.
 276 / Biomimiay
10. Shop Locally.
Because animals can't i m p o r t products f r o m H o n g Kong, they shop
locally and become local experts i n t h e i r o w n backyards. M o u n t a i n
lions coevolve w i t h m o u n t a i n goats, f o r instance, developing a
"search image" f o r t h e i r prey and the perfect c o m p l e m e n t o f p h y -
sique and teeth needed t o harvest and digest t h e m . T h e goats, f o r
t h e i r part, are equally adept o n h o m e t u r f , w h e r e they have evolved
clever defenses t o an enemy they k n o w . Staying close t o h o m e is a
coup t h e n — i t conserves energy and makes f o r the best use o f an
organism's abilities.
For t h a t reason, say A l l e n b y and Cooper, "Biological c o m m u -
nities are, b y and large, localized or relatively closely connected i n
t i m e and space. Thus, f o r example, the nutrients i n a r o t t i n g l o g are
carried i n t o the soil b y rainwater, using energy f r o m sunhght cap-
t u r e d as t h e water i n i t i a l l y evaporated. T h e energy f l u x is l o w , t h e
distances p r o x i m a t e . " I n other words, w i t h the exception o f some
h i g h - f l y i n g m i g r a n t species, nature doesn't c o m m u t e t o w o r k .
Shopping Locally: The Lessons Learned
Shopping locally is one lesson that w e seem t o be ignoring c o m -
pletely. T h e drive is n o w o n f o r a global, borderless economy w h e r e
a single p r o d u c t is assembled i n a dozen d i f f e r e n t countries, and
foods, even those t h a t c o u l d be grown n e x t door, are t r u c k e d , flown,
and shipped f r o m f o r e i g n soils (the average piece o f f o o d on y o u r
table was transported f o u r t e e n h u n d r e d miles). There are at least
three problems w i t h this approach. First, this w a y o f l i f e assumes
t h a t a transportation system, w i t h its inherent energy greed, w i f l al-
ways be avaflable t o us. I t m a y not be. Second, having the w h o l e
globe i n y o u r backyard encourages regional populations t o g r o w be-
y o n d w h a t the l a n d w o u l d allow i f there were n o i m p o r t s . A n d t h i r d ,
w h e n y o u separate producers f r o m consumers, the consumers lose a
visceral sense o f where their resources come f r o m , and w h a t i t costs
environmentally to p r o v i d e t h e m . D e f o r e s t a t i o n i n T h i r d W o r l d
countries is o u t o f sight and m i n d , present only i n books about the
rain forest displayed on teak coffee tables.
I f w e were t o take a page f r o m nature's book, w e w o u l d t r y t o
adapt our appetites to w h e r e w e live, getting our resources f r o m as
close b y as possible. Shopping locally requires a local knowledge t h a t
indigenous people possess b u t t h a t m a n y o f us have lost. ( A t y p i c a l
bioregional q u i z asks: D o y o u k n o w w h a t watershed y o u are l i v i n g
i n or w h a t l a n d o f vegetation your backyard used t o support? D o
How Will We Conduct Business? / 277
y o u k n o w w h a t y o u w o u l d be eating i f y o u were dependent on local
larders?)
T h e good news is t h a t local self-reliance movements are p o p p i n g
u p like mushrooms. People are educating themselves about t h e i r nat-
u r a l addresses and t r y i n g t o become, as environmental author K i r k -
p a t r i c k Sales says, "dweflers i n the l a n d . " M a r k e t i n g co-ops are
encouraging shoppers t o b u y locally p r o d u c e d foods, w o o d products,
artwork, and literature as a w a y t o sustain local economies. I f this
bioregionalism m o v e m e n t achieves its f u l l promise, economic bor-
ders w f l l be r e d r a w n i n real terms, being more closely related t o
watersheds, soil types, and climate regimes t h a n t o the p o l i t i c a l
boundaries w e c u r r e n t l y honor.
T h e idea o f an economy t h a t suits the land and takes advantage
o f its local attributes w o u l d b r i n g us closer to m i r r o r i n g organisms
t h a t have evolved t o be local experts. Instead o f " b e c o m i n g one
p a t c h , " says W i l l i a m Cooper, w e w o u l d assume the m o r e stable pat-
t e r n i n g o f an ecosystem—a mosaic o f u n i q u e patches, each pulsing
to its o w n r h y t h m , i n sync w i t h its o w n place.
Despite the commonsense rightness o f the ideas i n o u r list, leaping
f r o m T y p e I t o T y p e I I I systems is at this p o i n t stfll a sport f o r "early
adopters" or companies t h a t can a f f o r d to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h n e w
paths. H o w do w e w i n over the critical mass o f companies t h a t w i l l
be needed f o r a f u l l - w e b industrial ecosystem?
O n e w a y is t o simply w a i t t o h i t the wall. A s Cooper says,
" O n c e w e start t o reach the Earth's real carrying capacity, today's
m a r k e t - d r i v e n ideas o f m a x i m i z i n g flow-through w f l l become i n s t i -
t u t i o n a l fossfls real quick. W e ' l l have t o d u m p t h e m f o r another w a y
o f d o i n g business." M o v i n g f r o m a T y p e I t o a T y p e I I I strategy, he
says, w i l l require wholesale substitutions, n o t slow developmental
change. W h a t w i f l the changeover l o o k like?
"It's called anarchy," Cooper says, half wisecracking, h a l f
serious.
Brad A l l e n b y has a l i t t i e m o r e f a i t h . I f w e can absorb the lessons
f o u n d i n nature, he thinks w e can actually self-correct before w e find
ourselves, along w i t h m a n y other species, dangling over the b r i n k .
W h e n I ask h i m w h a t mechanism w e can use to nudge our gigantic
m a n y - a r m e d octopus o f an economy t o w a r d sustainability, he smiles.
L i k e m a n y phenomena and patterns i n nature, A l l e n b y ' s approach is
self-referential.
"We use the economy i t s e l f "
 278 / Biomimicry
GETTING THERE:
SOME NICHE-SHIFTING TOOLS
Boundary Conditions
T h e industrial ecologists I talked to a d m i t t h a t w e w i l l always need
some command-and-control laws hke the k i n d t h a t banned lead i n
gasoline or phased o u t CFCs. B u t that's n o t t h e w h o l e answer. I
w o n d e r e d b r i e f l y i f A f l e n b y t h o u g h t corporate A m e r i c a w o u l d sim-
p l y volunteer t o go f r o m b r o w n to green.
" W e needn't ask i n d u s t r y f o r a l t r u i s m , " he replied, " a n d that's
good, because it's n o t i n t h e i r nature." I f w e structure things p r o p -
erly, A f l e n b y beheves, p r o f i t can be used b o t h as cattle p r o d and
carrot f o r the c u l t u r a l and technological e v o l u t i o n w e are seeking.
" A company t h a t is p r o f i t - o r i e n t e d has afl Icinds o f handles and
b u t t o n s — y o u I m o w h o w to p u s h and p u l l i t — h o w t o induce the
k i n d o f behavior y o u w a n t . " Market-based carrots and sticks w i e l d e d
b y governments, f o r instance, are one w a y t o h e r d or nudge the
system t o w a r d sustainabflity. A n o t h e r is take-back laws and c o m -
m u n i t y right-to-lcnow legislation. These regulations act as "boundary
conditions." T h e y place industry i n a n e w operating environment, a
n e w habitat, where environmental care is suddenly the most natural
and c o m p e t i t i v e w a y t o behave.
Cooper explains boundary conditions i n biological terms. " I f
y o u p u t a species i n an Ülinois cornfield, it's going t o act d i f f e r e n t l y
t h a n i f y o u p u t i t i n a beech-maple forest habitat. T h e conditions
are d i f f e r e n t , t h e biological checks and balances are d i f f e r e n t , and
natural selection w f l l r e w a r d d i f f e r e n t behaviors i n the survivors."
I n t h e same way, i f w e were t o p l u n k our economy i n t o a set
of conditions (incentives, disincentives, laws) t h a t m o r e accurately
reflected real consequences and limits, i t too w o u l d react and adapt.
R i g h t n o w , w e ' v e been smoothing the playing field artificially. W e
haven't been i n c l u d i n g costs t o the E a r t h or t o f u t u r e generations i n
our accounting. Even worse, we've been subsidized negative activi-
ties. Fossil fuels have been subsidized w o r l d w i d e t o the tune o f $220
b i l h o n annually. A r t i f i c i a l l y l o w prices give us a false n o t i o n o f abun-
dance and b l i n d us t o the t r u e danger o f depending o n nonrenewa-
bles. W h a t i f w e were t o remove the rose-colored glasses and let the
economy actually see t h e w o d d i n black and white? W h a t i f w e were
to resume play on a field t h a t had afl the anlde-twisting potholes o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l limits?
How Will We Conduct Business? / 279
A l l e n b y thinks realistic boundary conditions w o u l d b r i n g o u t
sustamable behaviors i n the economy, j u s t as boundary conditions
associated w i t h a m a t u r e forest—a finite amount o f water sunlight
and n u t r i e n t s - b r i n g o u t stability-inducing characteristics i n its
members. I n effect, i t w o u l d give A d a m Smith's invisible hand o f
capitalism a green t h u m b .
A l l e n b y believes i n the p o w e r o f boundary conditions because
he k n o w s h o w f u t f l e i t is t o micromanage specific elements o f the
system. " W e learned i n the command-and-control era o f the sev-
enties t h a t t h e system is j u s t too c o m p l e x f o r us t o k n o w w h e r e t o
intervene e f f e c t i v e l y . " Instead, he thinks government should d r a w
t h e hnes—the m i n i m u m s and m a x i m u m s that society w i l l a l l o w —
and i n v i t e industry to color w i t h i n the lines i n whatever w a y i t
sees fit.
I n A l l e n b y ' s m o d e l , laws t h a t mandate a certain k i n d o f c o m -
phance technology w o u l d be struck f r o m the books, giving compa-
nies t h e f r e e d o m to explore and come u p w i t h even better solutions
A n t i q u a t e d subsidies t h a t r e w a r d excessive deforestation and m i n i n g
w o u l d also have to be removed. I n t h e i r place, A l l e n b y suggests
very broad, nonprescriptive p o l i c y tools t h a t push the industrial
system i n the desired direction, w i t h o u t t r y i n g to define the end-
p o i n t , either organizationally or technologically." Instead o f a de-
t a f l e d map, he says, " w e s h o u l d draw an arrow and dare companies
to get there before t h e i r c o m p e t i t o r s . " N o w , that's i n t h e i r nature
Boundary conditions are a great start, b u t i f the system oscillat-
ing inside those boundaries is t o l a n d softly anytime soon, i t has to
have all its i n t e r n a l signals b l i n k i n g clear and true. I n our e c o n o m y
t h a t means having products' prices t r u l y reflect costs t o the Earth
and t o f u t u r e generations.
Cïreen accounting w o u l d have strong and i m m e d i a t e effects.
I h i n k w h a t w o u l d happen to agriculture i f the price o f water
floated u p t o w a r d its real social and environmental cost," says A l -
lenby. " Y o u ' d pay a king's ransom t o g r o w a thirsty p l a n t like cot-
ton m the San Joaquin Valley! Instead, farmers w o u l d most l i k e l y
switeh to crops t h a t were better suited to the region." A n d w h a t i f
industries were f o r c e d to cover the f u f l environmental costs o f
t h e i r activities u p f r o n t instead o f leaving the b i l l f o r the p u b l i c to
pay? I t w o u l d no longer be a question o f w h e t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l
transgressions were really s e r i o u s - t h e y w o u l d be expensive, and
therefore enough o f a t h o r n t o warrant p u f l i n g . O n the otiier hand
e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y benign technologies w o u l d be coveted, because i n
 280 / Biomimicry
this n e w schema o f pricing, green m a n u f a c t u r i n g w o u l d actually be
"'^^'^Government, i n its role as tax coUector, m i g h t play a natural
role i n r e w i r i n g our economic steering w h e e l to its drive t r a m . Paul
H a w k e n t h i n k s we've had i t backward. Instead o f taxing good thmgs
like income, H a w k e n w o u l d like t o see government tax bad thmgs
like p o l l u t i o n or excessive use o f energy or v i r g i n materials. T a x i n g
fuels based o n t h e i r carbon content, f o r instance (more carbon is
m o r e damaging), w o u l d encourage use o f l o w - p o l l u t i n g fuels like
natural gas i n every stage o f a product's l i f e cycle. T h e price o n
nonrenewable raw materials w o u l d be raised t o m o r e reahstic levels,
discouraging waste and giving incentives f o r recycling. T h e positive
f l i p side w o u l d be t o give tax credits to companies t h a t are p r o d u c i n g
renewable resources i n a sustainable manner.
G o v e r n m e n t can also r e w a r d early adopters t h r o u g h its o w n
purchasing practices. T h e C U n t o n administration swung a huge green
club w h e n i t required t h e federal government t o give preference t o
green, recycled, energy-efficient products i n its procurements. W h e n
a customer t h e size o f U n c l e Sam goes green, the makers o f c o m -
puters, office supplies, vehicles, and more suddenly rush t o come o u t
w i t h a q u a l i f y i n g p r o d u c t hne. r i . u •
A n o t h e r governmental p r o g r a m t h a t has s h o w n f a i t h m the i n -
visible h a n d is the scheme, i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e 1990 Clean A i r A c t ,
t o create markets i n tradable " r i g h t t o p o l l u t e " credits. H e r e s h o w
i t works- T h e government issues a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f p o l l u t i o n cred-
its t o c o m p a n i e s - s a y i n g , that's as m u c h as y o u can e m i t Companies
t h a t figure o u t h o w t o c u t emissions no longer need t h e i r credits,
and can sell t h e m at a Chicago Board o f Trade auction (the first one
was h e l d i n 1993), collecting p a y m e n t f r o m companies t h a t haven t
been as innovative. Suddenly, b a d e n v i r o n m e n t a l practices are no
longer just costly; n o w they force y o u t o (ouch) line t h e pockets o l
your competitor.
Once a critical mass o f companies begins t o clean u p t h e i r en-
v i r o n m e n t a l messes, w e c o u l d see change beget change as m a pos-
itive feedback or snowbaUing effect. T h e companies t h a t cut t h e i r
emissions, f o r instance m a y suddenly become " r e f o r m e d smokers,
advocating stronger laws t h a t w o u l d force other companies t o scram-
ble t o keep u p . Responding t o pressure f r o m above, w i t h i n , and be-
l o w the swirhng mass o f our economy m a y begin t o realign m t o a
T y p e I I I c o m m u n i t y b e n t o n o p t i m i z i n g rather t h a n m a x i m i z m g .
O n e o f the ways w e c o u l d speed this transition is t o make sure
How Will We Conduct Business? / 281
all o u r signals are b l i n l d n g unambiguously t h a t "being green is good
f o r busmess Job one is to change t h e w a y w e measure our eco-
n o m i c well-being. R i g h t n o w , w e genuflect t o the G N P w h i c h is
n o t a measure o f health so m u c h as i t is a measure o f exchange I t
tracks flow-through o f materials, and i t rings positive w h e n w e are
using u p resources as fast as w e can. Even negatives, like p o l l u t i o n
cancer, and other ills, are seen as positives so long as w e keep crank-
ing o u t products t o deal w i t h the cleanup or the cure. I n this system,
the Exxon Valdez goes aground, and the G N P j u m p s (true story).
There is, t h a n k goodness, a m o v e m e n t t o find a n e w w a y o f
m o n i t o r i n g economic welfare, and it's called Green (hke everything
else i n this m o v e m e n t ) G N P . As a first step, the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t
of Commerce's Bureau o f Economic Statistics is i n v e n t i n g a w a y to
p u t a dollar value on environmental assets, a new c o l u m n on its
o u t p u t and investment ledgers. O t h e r countries are also experi-
m e n t i n g w i t h r e p o r t cards t h a t m i g h t take i n t o account a w i d e range
of social, economic, environmental, and health-related factors, such
as l i f e expectancy, i n f a n t m o r t a f i t y , the general health o f the p o p u -
lation, literacy, crime, accumulated w e a l t h , income d i s t r i b u t i o n air
quaiity, water quality, and recreational opportunities
M e a n w h i l e , at the level o f i n d i v i d u a l firms, A l l e n b y thinks en-
v i r o n m e n t a l costs t h a t were once b u r i e d i n overhead m u s t become
a part of every department's debit and asset sheet. People at the
d r a w i n g board, f o r instance, w i l l have t o Icnow w h a t t h e i r design
choices w i l l cost i n terms o f the environment. A n engineer w h o or-
ders a cadmium-coated fastener w f l l have t o consider m o r e than j u s t
price and f u n c t i o n ; after f a c t o r i n g i n the environmental headaches
of w o r l a n g w i t h a hazardous c o m p o u n d , he or she may decide t h a t
a noncoated fastener, even i f it's m o r e expensive, may be w o r t h the
cost.
I f o n l y w e had k n o w n m o r e about environmental costs sixty
years ago w h e n chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented. E n v i r o n -
.
m e n t a l advocate H a z e l Henderson estimates t h a t the t r u e societal
cost of one C F C aerosol c a n - f a c t o r i n g i n its c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the
b ?STnnn*it ^^^^ ^° o n - w o u l d be
about $12,000. T h a t m i g h t have given its designers pause.
M a k i n g Envy Green
W h e n y o u t h i n k about i t , designing may be the most p o w e r f u l f u l -
c r u m f r o m w h i c h w e can m o v e the economy and the c u l t u r e t o w a r d
 282 / Biomimicry
How Will We Conduct Business? / 283

a m o r e sustainable place. Designers are the people w h o give a p r o d -

uct n o t only its f u n c t i o n a l i t y b u t also its personality. F r o m art-deco Tre and f t ' T ' ' ' environmental concern
lamps t o the t a i l fins o n Cadillacs to Euro-style Bang and O l u f s e n h hrZt' lt'''^''"''^y' ^b^'-e the greatest green strides can be made
stereos, designers have been t r a i n e d t o capture the dreams and as- I t bnngs the i m p a c t o n the e nvironm e nt i n t o the equation g i v i n ,
pirations o f society—what w e are or hope t o be. engineers a green set of sieves t h r o u g h w h i c h to filter t h e i r i d e T '
Also e m b o d i e d i n t h e i r designs is the record o f our relationship fLCA^Xvill ' a version o f L i f e Cycle Analysis
w i t h t h e Earth. For the most part, the disposable and energy-hungry usin^. t I I '° P ^ ° ^ " ^ ^ ^ against each other
products t h a t l i t t e r our homes l o u d l y t r u m p e t our disregard f o r other c T c l n HL"I ' ^ ' T ^ ^ ' r ' - a l « showing relative levels o f
l i v i n g things. W h a t i f designers c o u l d help us alleviate some o f this concern. H i s L C A w o u l d calculate, fdr instance, the k i l o w a t t s of
psychic guilt? energy used at each and every stage of a product's development
Christopher Ryan, professor o f design and environmental studies from scooping the o i l from the g r o u n d t o the cost of reincarnating
at t h e Royal M e l b o u r n e Institute o f Technology i n Austraha, thinks wo ^ r o d T ' cradle-to-cradle accounting is great f o r c o m p a l f
t h a t designs t h a t are deeply green—in m a n u f a c t u r i n g , use, and "af- ZsZfT' 7 r "^^V'Pr * ^ P ° ^ ^ b l e ones (it's still a
t e r l i f e " — w i l l give people the o p t i o n o f enjoying l i f e w i t h o u t destroy- n a c o i l l o/d^ T Z""''"^'^'' be done
ing i t , getting the service they w a n t w i t h o u t t h e b l o o d b a t h o f most ? r I ^'y^'^'^^l t b a n a couple o f years, w h i c h is h o w long
rnost L C A s n o w take. T h e only p r o b l e m w i t h the new t o o l m a y be
consequences. Once a f e w choice designs show people this guilt-free the stampede o f industries t h a t w a n t t o t r y i t .
alternative, says Ryan, passivity is no longer acceptable. Just as safety
considerations are n o w an expected part o f any design, people w i l l
w a n t t o k n o w w h y greenness can't be incorporated i n t o all products.
B U S I N E S S C A N BE A J U N G L E -
Designers, together w i t h marketing experts, can help make
THE PROMISE OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
green de rigueur b y first m a k i n g i t l o o k m o r e f u n . Ryan feels design-
ers lost t h e i r chance i n the seventies, w h e n environmental f r i e n d l i -
L C A - i n v e n t o r T o m Graedel is a soft-spoken m a n whose eyes are l i t
ness was packaged t o be about as exciting as wearing a hairshirt o n
w i t h a keen intelligence t e m p e r e d t o a patient, steady flame He
a summer's day. Today Ryan thinks w e have a n e w chance t o make
envy green—to make environmentally f r i e n d l y products so fashion- makes an u n h k e l y maverick. " I ' m actually a l i t t l e a f r a i d ' " a d m i t t e d
able t h a t everyone w i l l w a n t a green product. I n this way, the design Graedel w h e n I asked h i m about the tsunami o f interest t h a t h a d
o f sustainable products may actually precede the sustainability rev-
o l u t i o n and help b r i n g i t i n t o being.
o^rtr W .^^''t ^"^^^^^^ that our t e x t b o o k ' s
f
n T ^ b ^ b e c k i n g back w i t h h i m a f e w years later, I find he is

Design for the Environment b o u fhow

noratl m r I
It ''''''g r -^^'^"^^"^^ fi^^d - - ^ ^ ^° k n o w m o r e
n n e s s at the beginning t o avoid cor-
Successful design also has t o pass another test b e y o n d consumer ap- WhÏ^i A T & T " C r r - ' ^ ' f'^'' f environmentahsm.
peal. I t has t o enhance the company's b o t t o m line o n the manufac- W i t h i n A T & T , Graedel is m a k i n g the rounds, visiting one depart-
m e n t after another w i t h his shortcut L C A t o o l
t u r i n g side as w e l l . That's w h y A l l e n b y and Graedel are w o r k i n g on
Design f o r t h e E n v i r o n m e n t tools t o help engineers and operating floor o f ' ^ Ï ' iZ'^^'^r'^'' Graedel is happy to be on the g r o u n d
managers b u i l d environmental friendhness i n t o every step o f t h e pro- floor of industrial ecology. H i s background is i n atmospheric science
d u c t i o n process, as w e l l as i n t o the p r o d u c t i t s e l f T h e first is a ma- specifically atmospheric chemistry and climate change. W i d e y " c !
trix-based approach t h a t allows a manager t o assign a green score to ognized as an expert, Graedel was consulting scientist i n the p r o j e c t
a p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t or process. T h e c o m p l e t e d m a t r i x is a spread- to recondition the Statue o f L i b e r t y after years o f corrosion i n N e w
sheet f u l l o f ovals, some filled i n and some empty, like the ovals o f Y o r k C i t y s air. H e t o l d m e t h a t w h e n he stood at the feet o f the
a Consumer Reports score card. T h e darkest ovals t e l l process and e n T J Z t ceremony, he t h o u g h t t h a t he was experi-
encing t h e absolute peak o f his career. N o w he thinks d i f f e r e n t l y .
 284 / Biomimicry

" W h e n I l o o k back, I t h i n k h e l p i n g industrial ecology get o f f the C H A P T E R S

g r o u n d w i l l be b y far the most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g I've ever done. I n -
dustrial ecology has the p o t e n t i a l t o remake industry and, i n our
tonier thoughts, t o remake society as w e l l . "
As I listen, I ' m r e m i n d e d o f Laudise's c o m m e n t to his peers t h a t
"industrial ecology has t h e capacity to change n o t only the w a y w e
make things b u t the w a y the w o r l d w o r k s . " A n d later, t o m e alone, W H E R E W I L L W E GO F R O M H E R E ?
" I n d u s t r i a l ecology has a great deal t o offer and I w o u l d love t o see
people appreciate and understand i t at a poetic level i f n o t h i n g else." MAY WONDERS
N e i t h e r o f these m e n strikes m e as a dewy-eyed idealist. W h a t they NEVER CEASE:
see I a m beginning t o see also—that our economy is fertile ground TOWARD
f o r m a k i n g t h e inside-out changes that need t o occur i f w e are going
A BIOMIMETIC
t o mesh gears w i t h t h e E a r t h and manage a soft landing.
FUTURE
T h o u g h i t seems w o r l d s away f r o m ecology, industry m i g h t just
be the p e r f e c t place t o start p u l l i n g our r i p cord. A s Christopher
Ryan writes i n an Internet post t i t l e d Green Goods, " A s w e m a n i p -
ulate t h e materials w e extract f r o m our environment, t h r o u g h our Humanity needs a vision of an expanding and unending future.
industrious efforts, w e engage i n our most f u n d a m e n t a l relationship This spiritual craving cannot he satisfied hy the colonization of space.
w i t h nature, t h a t o f its reconstruction. Every material t h i n g w e cre- . ..The true frontier for humanity is life on Earth, its exploration and
ate, everything w e produce, reflects our relationship t o the physical the transport of knowledge ahout it into science, art and practical af
and biological w o r l d . " R i g h t n o w t h a t relationship is estranged and fairs.
characterized b y abuse. Remaking i t i n t o something t h a t w i l l sustain — E . O . W I L S O N , author of Biophilia and the Conservation Ethic
b o t h t h e h u m a n race and the Earth's integrity is the great hope and
t h e t r u e mission o f industrial ecology. To sit with the eagles and their flutelike songs, listening to the longer
O u r desire is greening. W h a t w e choose n e x t can either satisfy flute of wind sweep through the lush grasslands, is to hegin to know
our urge t o do right b y t h e E a r t h or plunge us deeper i n t o denial. the natural laws that exist apart from our own written ones.
T h e b i o m i m i c s , b y h o l d i n g u p living, breathing examples o f sustain- — L I N D A H O G A N , author of Dwellings
ability and daring us t o emulate t h e m , have become beacon-bearers
at a crucial j u n c t u r e , h g h t i n g the r u n w a y h o m e .
A s I p u t t h e finishing touches o n this book, t w o households o f geese
fuss i n t h e p o n d r i g h t outside m y w i n d o w . T h e y are restless lately
w i t h w h a t biologists call Zugunruhe, w h i c h means "travel urge,"
Eleven goslings were raised this year, w h i c h is eleven m o r e
t h a n last year or t h e year before. W h e n I b o u g h t the property,
everyone t o l d m e t h a t t h e p o n d was a legendary nursery f o r water-
f o w l — c i n n a m o n teal, b l u e - w i n g e d teal, mergansers, coots, and Can-
ada geese. T w o years ago, as y o u ' l l r e m e m b e r f r o m Chapter 3, t h e
once sparkling water was eclipsed b y a solid sheet o f duckweed, a
t i n y floating p l a n t t h a t f o r m s colonies and manages t o shade o u t
everything b e l o w i t .
I t seems t h a t d u c k w e e d i n p r o f u s i o n is t o o m u c h o f a good t h i n g .