Preliminary Design of Electric Vehicle- Part I

Figure 1 City Map Allahabad

Daily mobility trend

Considering the various conditions such driving behaviour, cultural influence witnessed on road,
traffic flow parameters, urban setting of the region, road and traffic infrastructure, literacy rate of the
region etcetera., driving cycle in India is very much different from the standard driving cycle such as
NEDC,EUDC and EPA. However for the simplified analysis, we are dealing with NEDC cycle to test
our vehicle.

Driving range distribution:

Daily Driving Range Distribution of Cars in Allahabad

>250 kms

150-200 kms

100-150 kms
Driving Range
50-100 kms

0-50 kms

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

Useful Stats:

 Percentage of family owing car: 35%

 Average number of members in a family: 4.3
 Average occupancy of cars on road: 45%

Vehicle Type:

Table 1 Comparison of different battery powered electric vehicle (BEVs)

Car
Advantages Disadvantages Remarks
type
Range not limited by battery

Tail pipe emissions

Higher efficiency than ICE
Relatively less maintenance compared
HEV
ICE counterparts
Basic advantage with at
least one very high impact
Specific energy density of battery
disadvantage
low

No additional infrastructure required Lot of moving parts

Range not limited by battery Cost and Life of battery

Relatively less maintenance compared

Cost of charging infrastructure
ICE counterparts
Moderate advantage with
PHEV Tail pipe emissions
moderate disadvantage
Load on power grid
Higher efficiency than ICE
Specific energy density of battery
low
No tailpipe emissions
Range anxiety

Less maintenance comparatively Cost of charging infrastructure

High advantage with
Cheap and relatively sustainable energy some high disadvantage
Cost and Life of battery But there are solutions to
FEV source
curb the disadvantage
Specific energy density of battery which will be discussed
Highest well to wheel efficiency later.
low

Quicker response Load on power grid

* Note: Colours represent the relative importance of the points made across the column.

Based on the crucial information analysed from the above table, we can find that HEVs have
relatively less advantage than PHEVs or FEVs. Also the biggest disadvantage is tailpipe emissions
which need to be minimized as much as possible keeping in mind the current scenario of the city as
discussed in previous report. It is a bit tough to decide between PHEVs and FEVs as the advantages of
FEVs over PHEVs may be offset by relative disadvantages but there are many solutions which will be
discussed later to minimize the impact of disadvantages. So, overall, FEVs are better due to strong
reason of no tail pipe emissions and very high efficiency.

With average occupants being 4.3, a 4 seater FEV is decided for the design purpose.
Drive Line:
Now the next question arises is the drive line of the car. There are many possibilities to drive the car,
single motor, dual motor and in wheel drive. For the urban driving cycle, the power and torque
requirements are much less compared to off road terrain, so a single motor configuration is substantial
to fulfil the driving conditions on Indian roads.

Table 2 Comparison of different drive train configuration

Advantages Disadvantages Type

-Relatively less weight of

the power train.
-Less complex power
electronics and controller.
-Cheaper than any other
configuration
Incapable of fulfilling extreme
off road conditions.
Relatively less stability.

-Four wheel drive

-Complex power electronics
torque transmission on
and controllers.
each wheel to drive on off
-Cost nearly double to that of
road
single wheel drive.
-Better stability

-Best stability. -Cost is much higher than any

-On Road/off road other configuration.
capability. -Packaging issues. Much
complex to assemble.

Image Source: TU Delft, MOOCs

Electric Machine Selection:

Real Efficiency map of the brushless DC motor used in automotive application

Source: Chalmers University, MOOCs

For any electric motor design, three main independent parameters that affect the design are defined:

1. Max torque of the electric machine,

2. Max speed of the electric machine,
3. Max power of the electric machine

These parameters are clearly visible on Fig 4. For the sake of simplicity, other parameters such
efficiency plot of the electric machine in the operating region is not defined but is assumed to be of a
standard electric machine drive for calculation purpose.
Maximum Torque:

The total torque T EM produced by an electric machine is proportional to the total tangential force
Fr produce on the outer surface of the rotor times the rotor radius r rotor . The linear current
density J and the magnetic flux density B create a shear stress σ rotor on the rotor surface.
This shear stress is proportional to magnetic flux density B and linear current density J . For
any machine the size of magnetic flux density and current density are maximized to the mechanical
capability of magnetic material and the cooling limit of the machine.

Figure 2 Source: Chalmers University, MOOCs

σ rotor ≈ B . J ≈ Constant

(For any electric machine- dependent on magnetic material and cooling system)

T EM =F r∗r rotor

Fr =σ rotor∗2∗π∗r rotor∗l

Cost ∝Volume

So to increase the torque, one needs to increase the volume of the rotor, which in turn increases the
size of rotor and there by cost.

Thus, this analysis is very crucial in defining the max torque required and we have to obtain every
possible measure to reduce the max torque needed without comprising with other requirements from
the electric machine.

Maximum Speed:

High speed of the motor is desirable as efficiency plot of the machine is better than that of similar low
speed machines. So the speed of electric machine shall be optimized considering the centrifugal stress
limit on the rotor and corresponding cost of other transmission components such that cost is
minimized of the overall drive train. Typical max speed of electric machines in automotive
applications is 10000-12000 rpm.

Maximum Power
Maximum power of the electric machine determines the size of the inverter. The size of the inverter
has a considerable cost on the drive train. Thus we have to limit the operating range of the electric
machine by the size of the inverter used such that drive requirements are not compromised.

So to sum up, following table describes the design of electric machine for our purpose.

Criteria Influence Objective

Maximum Torque Machine size and Cost Reduce Torque requirement
Maximum Speed No significant influence Increase speed as much as possible
Maximum Power Base speed, Inverter size and Cost Reduce max. power requirement
Motor Type:

There are three types of motors which are in use in electric vehicles today viz.,

 Induction motor

 Permanent magnet motor

 Synchronous reluctance motor

Comparison chart

Table 3 Comparison of different Electric motors for FEV

Motor Type Advantages Disadvantages Remarks

Induction Motor[1] Induced currents in the
Simple and rugged
rotor causes losses and heat
No brushes

No permanent magnet Basic advantage with

some high impact
No position sensor disadvantages
Not the lightest and most
Easy speed control
compact motor
No starting
mechanism
Permanent Magnet Motor[2]
Permanent magnets issues
Light and small (Cost+environment+ can
demagnetised) High impact
advantage with some
Position sensor moderate impact
Silent disadvantages
Starter mechanism

Efficient Electronic controller

[3]
Synchronous reluctance motor
Torque comparable to
Lower efficiencies at low
permanent magnet
speed
motor
Moderate impact
Efficient at high advantages with high
speeds impact
disadvantages

Cheap and clean to Higher inherent noise and

produce torque ripple.

[1] Image source: By BurnsBurnsBurns [CC BY 3.0], from Wikimedia Commons

[2] Image source: InstaSPIN™-BLDC Motor Control Solution - Courtesy of Texas Instruments.

[3] Image source: Synchronous Reluctance Motor – Technelec

Comparison

12

10

8
Brushed DC motor
6 Induction Motor
Permananent magnet motor
Switched reluctance motor
4

0
Ease of Control Efficiency Power Density Relaiablity Cost

Figure 3 Comparison of different Electric Motors

The above comparison suggests that permanent magnet motor suits best for the EVs in the region as
the main factor cost is much less compared to other types and is highly reliable and efficient.
Battery Type:

Following table present comparison of the various battery technology used in EVs.

Table 4 Comparison of Battery for selection

1-poor 2-fair 3-good

Attribute Lead- Ni-MH ZEBRA Metal- Li-ion

(Color represent relative importance for selection purpose) acid air
Specific energy (kWhkg−1) 1 2 3 3 3
Specific power (kWkg−1) 1 3 1 1 3
Capacity (kWh) 1 2 3 3 3
Discharge power (kW) 3 2 2 1 3
Charge power (kW) 1 2 2 1 3
Cold temperature performance (kW and kWh) 3 2 3 2 1
Shallow cycle life 2 3 1 1 3
Deep cycle life 1 3 1 1 2
Cost (€kW−1 or €kWh−1) 3 1 1 1 1
Abuse tolerance 3 3 2 2 2
Maturity technology 3 3 2 2 2
Maturity manufacturing 3 1 2 2 1
Recyclability [70] 1 1 3 2 2

From Table 4, it is found that lithium ion batteries performs best for most of the important attributes
required for selection except cost but with increasing battery technology , the cost will be comparable
to other types, so Li-ion battery is selected for our design purpose.

Table 5 Initial Vehicle Parameters

Parameter Symbol Value Unit

Total vehicle mass+passenger mveh {1200+250-180+50+300}=1620[1] kg
Front cross section area Af 2.2 m2
Aerodynamic drag coefficient Cd 0.29 -
Rolling resistance coefficient Cr 0.015 -
Wheel radius r wheel 0.25 m
Gravitational constant g 9.81 m/s2
Air density ρair 1.25 kg/m3
[1] mveh=mICV+mpasg.-mICED+mbp+mb
mICV=mass of similar ICE vehicle, mpasg=passenger mass, mICED= mass of ICE powertrain(fuel tank
included), mbp= equivalent mass of electric power train, m b=mass of battery
Drive operating point

With the initial vehicle parameters, Traction force required at various speed for different driving mode
is plotted.

=Net Traction Force required

Table 6 Driving operating points

S.No. Mode Gradient Ftrac (N) Power (kW)

1 Cruising at 140 km/hr 0% 842 32.75
2 Cruising at 60 km/hr 10% 1935 32.25
3 Accelerating 1.5 m/s2 at 100 km/hr 0% 2984 82.88
4 Acceleration 2.5 m/s2 at 60 km/hr 0% 4328 72.13
5 Deceleration 4.5m/s2 at 80 km/hr 0% -6064 -134.755
From the above Table 6, we note the traction force required at various drive operating conditions.
We see that Mode 5 generates 134kW of Power but to design an electric machine to generate such
high power but for only short period of time is not a feasible solution. Thus we need to apply
mechanical brakes to reduce the speed. That is the reason why electric drive only recuperates a
fraction of energy from braking. Also, other main reason is the battery capability to charge at such
high power greatly affects its life.

From the driving mode we find that the maximum traction force required is 4328 N which will define
the size of the machine. The maximum power required is 82.88 kW which will define the size of the
inverter.

Basic Transmission model

We assume the maximum speed of the electric machine is 12500 rpm as provided by manufacturer.

We assume the transmission model is single gear and have 97% efficiency throughout the operating
range.

PEM =P trac /0.97

ω EM
v veh= ∗r wheel
i GearTot

F trac∗v veh
T EM∗ω EM =
0.97

F trac∗r wheel
⇒ T EM =
0.97∗i GearTot

To minimize the size of the electric machine we have to take the highest possible gear transmission
ratio i GearTot . If we take the maximum speed of the vehicle corresponds to the maximum speed of
the motor, we will get the maximum gear transmission ratio possible. Since increasing the speed of
the electric machine has no significant cost compared to increasing the torque which affects machine
size and hence cost. Thus increasing gear transmission ratio is justified and cost effective.

ω EM∗r wheel
i GearTot =
v veh
 12500∗2∗π∗0.25∗3.6
⇒ i GearTot= =8.414
140∗60

4328∗0.25
⇒ T EM = =132.5 Nm
0.97∗i GearTot

Now the maximum power of the electric machine is 82.88 kW which is assumed to be constant after
base speed for this model. This implies that the base speed of the motor is:

P max 82.88 rad

ω base= ⇒ ωbase= =625.5 =5973 rpm
T EM 132.5 s

Thus the electric machine is defined as below for our case:

Maximum Power kW Maximum speed rpm Maximum Torque Nm Base speed rpm
82.88 12500 132.5 5973
Battery sizing:
To size the battery we need the combination of power and energy it should be able to handle to
meet the drive train performance requirement. Drive train torque and speed characteristic defines
the maximum charge (fast charging also influences) and discharge power of the battery.

To find the maximum discharge power, we need to find the feed power to the electric drive
considering the efficiency map of the electric drive. Mapping the drive train requirement on the
electric drive efficiency map, we get the maximum power required from the battery. Since the
battery itself has internal resistance, thus the considering the losses, the power delivered by the
battery is little higher than received by the electric drive. The working detail of sizing the battery is
explained in fig 1.

Figure 4 Flow diagram to calculate battery parameters

The Energy required by the battery depends on the range and the driving cycle. For our case, we are
assuming mid-range FEV with range of 300 kms. Also, as described earlier we will simulate the
vehicle on NEDC cycle and approximate the result by 5% increase to compensate for the rough
driving condition on Indian roads.

For normal passenger cars, more than 50% of time, Depth of Discharge (DoD) is less than 40% since
driving full range a day is rare for a typical urban driving. So estimating the battery life based on life
cycle is not much helpful since more than 5000 cycle is enough for a passenger car.

Energy optimized batteries are aimed for applications which require much energy, but not so high
power. A battery electric vehicle typically requires much energy, so we assume the energy optimized
cells to be used in this analysis.

Battery selection:

Figure 5 Ragone Plot to determine battery size

For the simulation, we have assumed quasi steady state model of the car. We have assumed a
standard electric machine for the efficiency mapping.

After feeding the required input as deduced earlier, following result is obtained.

Figure 6 QSS model of vehicle on Simulink

Table 7 Driving performance for different driving cycles

Driving Distance Battery consumption Traction efficiency Recuperation

Cycle covered (m) kWhr/100km % efficiency %
NEDC 4379 15.88 73.11 80.12
City_I 1454 20.34 75.5 86.3
City 1005 13.51 73.09 80.12

From the above table it is clear that the battery consumption is highly dependent on drive cycle. We
are assuming the battery consumption to be 15.88 kWhr/100km. Thus for 300km driving range,
energy storage will be 47.64 kWhr. Now for safe and reliable operation, we are using only 95%-15%
state of charge. Thus 47.64 kWhr corresponds to 80% of the charge. This implies the battery size is 60
kWhr.

 Corresponding weight of the battery =60kWhr/160Whr/kg=375 kg!

 Corresponding Power of the battery=270*375=101.25 kW

The battery weight turns out to be 75 kg more than the initial input of battery weight. However the
vehicle was tested with full occupancy which is not the case most of the time. So the performance of
the car is not much affected.

In the subsequent report, power electronics, charging methods, design of chargers, smart charging
and future technologies will be discussed.