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To increase power, groups of solar cells are electrically connected and packaged
into weather-tight modules and arrays to provide useful output voltages and
currents for a specific power output. A PV System typically consists of 3 basic
components.
•PV cells - Electricity is generated by PV cells, the smallest unit of a PV system
•Modules - PV cells are wired together to form modules which are usually a
sealed, or encapsulated, unit of convenient size for handling.
21
1. What is a wind plant?
Electric Generator Plant
Type 1 gene rator
Feeders
Conventional Induction
Generator (fixed speed) PF control
capacitor s
Type 2 Pla nt
Fee ders
Plant
Type 3 Feeders
gene rator
Doubly-Fed Induction
Generator (variable speed) ac
to
dc
to
dc ac
partia l power
Type 4 Plant
Feeders
Full-converter interface generator
ac
to
dc
to
dc ac
22
full power
1. What is a wind plant?
Type 3 Doubly Fed Induction Generator
• Most common technology today
• Provides variable speed via rotor freq control
• Converter rating only 1/3 of full power rating
• Eliminates wind gust-induced power spikes
• More efficient over wide wind speed
• Provides voltage control Plant
Feeders
gene rator
ac dc
to to
dc ac
23
partia l power
2. Power production
Wind power equation
10. Define wind stream v2 This ratio is fixed for a given
a
speed ratio, a: v1 turbine & control condition.
• At the peak point, the internal resistance of the cell is equal to the
electrical resistance of the external circuit.
•However, since efficiency
drops with increasing voltage,
there is a trade-off between
high power and high
efficiency.
•Fuel cell system designers
must select the desired
operating range according to
whether efficiency or power
is paramount for the given
application.
•It is never desirable to
operate in the range beyond
where the power curve drops
off.
PE interface for micro-grid
• DE technologies require specific power electronics capabilities to
convert the power generated into useful power that can be directly
interconnected with the utility grid and/or can be used for consumer
applications.
• The development of modular, low cost, highly reliable power
electronic interfaces will improve the overall cost and durability of
distributed and renewable energy systems
• Although power electronics are the integral part of most of the DE
technologies, in order to convert the power generated into useful
power that can be directly used on the grid, they can cost up to 40%
of the costs of a distributed energy system.
• Therefore, the improvement of the DE economics strongly requires
decreased costs for the power electronics.
• Another important aspect to the life-cycle cost of the DE systems is
reliability.
• Many of the power electronics used for DE applications have a low
reliability rate, typically operating less than five years before a failure
occurs.
• A generalized block diagram representation of power electronics interface
associated with DE systems is shown in Figure 1.
• The power electronics interface accepts power from the distributed energy
source and converts it to power at the required voltage and frequency.
• For the storage systems, bidirectional flow of power between the storages
and the utility is required.
• Figure 1 illustrates a design approach to organize the interface into
modules, each of which can be designed to accommodate a range of DE
systems and/or storages.
• The design of the input converter module depends on the specific energy
source or storage application.
• The DE systems that generate AC output, often with variable frequencies,
such as wind, microturbine, IC engine, or flywheel storage needs an AC-
DC converter.
• For DC output systems like PV, fuel cells, or batteries, a DC-DC converter
is typically needed to change the DC voltage level.
• The DC-AC inverter module is the most standard module used and
converts a DC source to grid-compatible AC power.
• The output interface module filters the AC output from the inverter and the
monitoring and control module operates the interface, containing protection
for the DE and utility point-of-common-coupling (PCC).
• The power electronic (PE) interface also contains some level of
monitoring and control functionality to ensure that the DE system
can operate as required.
• The monitoring and control module also contains
• protective functions for the DE system and
• the local electric power system that permit paralleling and
disconnection from the electric power system.
• These functions would typically meet the IEEE 1547-2003
interconnection requirements but should have the flexibility for
modifications of the settings depending on the application or a
utility‘s interconnection requirements
• Monitoring functions typically include real-power, reactive power,
and voltage monitoring at the point of the DE connection with the
utility at the PCC.
• These functions are necessary because, in order to synchronize
the DE system, its output must have the same voltage magnitude,
frequency, phase rotation, and phase angle as the utility.
Power Electronics Topologies for Renewable and Distributed
Energy(DC sources)
• A centralized converter-based PV system as shown in Fig.
11.13(a) is the most common type of PV installation for
the sizes typically over 50–100 kW.
• PV modules are connected in series and parallel to get the
required voltage and current and then the output of the
PV array is connected across a filter capacitor.
• The output of the capacitor connects to the input of a
voltage source three-phase inverter.
• A three-phase transformer is then used to connect the
inverter to the utility providing voltage boost and
galvanic isolation
• To avoid the bulky low-frequency transformers, which
are regarded as poor components mainly due to their
relatively large size and low efficiency, the multiple-stage
conversion systems are widely used in residential scale
PV applications.
• The most common topology consists of a DC–AC grid-connected voltage
source inverter along with a PV connected DC–DC converter.
• A simple design for a multiple-stage PV inverter is shown in Fig. 11.13b,
which utilizes a high frequency transformer included in the DC–DC converter.
• In general, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and voltage boost are
done by the DC– DC converter controller and the power flow control to the
utility as well as the sinusoidal unity power factor current injection to the
utility are obtained by the DC–AC inverter controller
• Power generated by the fuel cell is also DC, similar to a PV system, therefore
the power conditioning systems, including inverters are required in order to
supply normal customer load demand or send electricity into the grid.
• The simplest form of power electronics for the fuel cell can be single stage
DC–AC inverter or can be of multiple stages where the DC–DC converter
precedes the DC–AC inverter similar to the configurations shown in Fig. 11.13
• The DC–DC converter performs two functions, one is the DC isolation for the
inverter, and the second is to produce sufficient voltage for the inverter input,
so that the required magnitude of the AC voltage can be produced
PE interface of micro-grid with AC source
• The modern wind power systems can fundamentally be divided into three categories:
• the systems without power electronics,
• the systems with partially rated power electronics,
• the systems with full-scale power electronics for interfacing wind turbines
• For the partially rated power electronics based wind system, a wound rotor induction
generator, known as doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), is used as the electrical
generator.
• The power electronics required for the DFIG consists of AC–DC–AC converters also
known as back-to-back converters.
• The stator winding is connected directly to the 50/60 Hz grid while the rotor is fed at a
variable frequency through the AC–DC–AC converter as shown in Fig. 11.14a.
• This design does allow the wind turbine to have some amount of variable speed
operation. If the generator is running super synchronously, the electrical power is
delivered through both the rotor and the stator.
• If the generator is running sub-synchronously the electrical power is delivered into the
rotor from the grid.
• This partially rated power electronics provides various advantages such as lowering
the safety margin of gear, having reactive power compensation/production and
capturing more energy from the wind.
• This arrangement allows the generator stator winding to be undersized by about 25 %
with the power electronics making up the power difference from the rotor power
• Full-scale power electronics based wind system uses
conventional or permanent magnet synchronous generator or
induction generator to convert the wind turbine power to a
variable voltage, variable frequency output that varies with wind
speed.
• The AC–DC–AC converter or back-to-back rectifier–inverter
system, as shown in Fig. 11.14b, are then used to convert the
full-rated output of the machine to 50/60 Hz AC.
• This output is then boosted using a transformer to voltage levels
required by the utility‘s AC system power.
• Unlike the partially rated power electronics based system; this
system requires power converters rated to handle the whole
wind generator output.
• The design allows the wind turbine to operate in a variable
speed mode which can allow more of the energy of the wind to
be captured.
• Though diode bridges are often used as the rectifiers, due to cost
considerations, self-commutated active rectifiers provide more
flexible control
Protection and co-ordination
• PCM responds to Micro-grid and main grid faults and loss of grid
(LOG) scenarios in a way so as to ensure correct protection co-
ordination of the Microgrid.
• It also adapts to the change in fault current levels during change
over from grid-connected to stand-alone mode.
• For achieving this, there is proper communication between the
PCM and the MCs and upstream main grid controllers.
• For main grid fault, PCM immediately switches over the
Microgrid to stand-alone mode for supplying power to the
priority loads at a significantly lower incremental cost.
• However, for some minor faults, the PCM allows the Microgrid
to ride through in the grid-connected mode for some time and it
continues if any temporary fault is removed.
• Besides, if the grid fault endangers the stability of the Micro grid,
then PCM may disconnect the Micro grid fully from all main grid
loads (e.g. feeder B), although in that case, effective utilization of
the Micro grid would be lost in exporting power.
• If a fault occurs within a portion of the Micro grid feeder (e.g.
feeder A or C), the smallest possible feeder zone is eliminated to
maintain supply to the healthy parts of the feeder.
• Under-frequency and under voltage protection schemes with bus
voltage support are normally used for protecting the sensitive loads.
• PCM also helps to re-synchronize the Micro grid to the main grid
after the initiation of switchover to the grid connected mode of
operation through suitable reclosing schemes.
• PCM controls the overall protection for the Micro grid.
• Protection philosophy for Micro grid is different from conventional
distribution networks though both are radial systems. This is
because of the following differences:
Protection and co-ordination
(1) Micro grids contain both generators and loads resulting in bidirectional
power flow through the protective devices in a radial system.
(2) Passive distribution network turns into an active one due to the presence
of micro sources.
(3) Micro grids undergo a considerable change in its short-circuit capacity
when it changes from grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode. This has
profound(deep) effect on conventional overcurrent relays that operate on
short-circuit current sensing.
• A key feature of PCM is its ability to distinguish between the protection
requirements for the two operating modes and address the contingencies
accordingly.
• Basic protection requirements for the two modes are briefly discussed in
the next section with respect to some possible occurrences.
• Typical Microgrid configuration as shown in Figure 1.1 is considered.
However, additional protection features may be incorporated in PCM,
depending on the customer-specific requirements.
• Protection scheme for grid-connected mode
• In grid-connected mode, the PCM detects and acts for five possible
events. These are
(i) normal condition, (ii) Microgrid feeder fault, (iii) utility fault,
(iv) Microgrid bus fault and (v) re-synchronisation.
• PCM takes into account the response times of individual microsources,
as well as that of the PCC (point of common coupling) circuit breaker
CB4
• (i) Normal condition
• Under normal condition the Microgrid remains connected to the utility
through the PCC circuit breaker CB4. Breakers CB1, CB2 and CB3
connect feeders A, B and C respectively to the Microgrid bus. All the
breakers remain closed during normal grid-connected operation. The
loads are jointly fed by the microsources and the utility.
• (ii) Microgrid feeder fault
• In passive radial distribution networks, fault power flow occurs in one
direction only, from source to the fault point. So feeder faults are simply
cleared by opening the feeder breaker
• But as Microgrid feeders contain generators, bidirectional power flow occurs into
a feeder fault from all microsources on either side of the fault point.
• If such fault is not cleared in time, all the microsources may be disconnected from
that feeder by their own MCs leading to an extensive loss of generation.
• To avoid this, feeders A and C are sectionalised into zones by sectionalising
breakers.
• The breakers contain directional overcurrent relays to detect the faulty zone and
clear the fault.
• If the faulty zone contains any microsource, then it is disconnected from that zone
by its own MC but continues to supply its local loads connected to the
microsource bus
• (iii) Utility fault
• For any utility fault, the Microgrid disconnects itself from the utility grid by
opening CB4.
• The protection strategy for this case is quite simple.
• CB4 relay monitors the current magnitude and direction on each phase and sends
a trip signal to CB4 if current limits are exceeded within a preset time.
• Relay setting is provided by the PCM to ensure that the isolation is accomplished
without any significant interruption to priority loads.
(iV) Micro grid bus fault
• If fault occurs on the Micro grid bus, then the Micro grid is disconnected from
the utility by opening CB4.
• Also the Feeders A and C are disconnected from the bus by opening CB1 and
CB3 respectively.
• In case of any fault within the Micro grid, the PCM grades the CB4 relay to co-
ordinate with the ‗upstream‘ protection in the utility.
• CB4 relay is also graded with respect to the protective devices for the micro
sources to minimize loss of generation, supply interruption and false tripping
• (v) Re-synchronization
• When normal service is restored in the utility, then the PCM‘s responsibility is to
synchronize and reconnect the Micro grid to the utility through synchronism
check schemes.
• This is accomplished as soon as the grid stabilizes and goes back to the normal
operating state after picking up all previously disconnected loads
• The PCM includes a control scheme to bring all micro sources into
synchronization with the utility by measuring the phase voltage magnitudes and
phase angles, frequency and phase sequence on both sides of the breaker CB4
Power Quality Issues and Solutions
Power quality disturbances
• Power utilities normally generate power in the form of alternating current
(AC) and voltage with specified magnitude and frequency. Thus, most
electrical equipment used by the customers are also designed to operate within
a narrow band of voltage and frequency and any deviation from that band may
lead to deterioration in the performance of these equipment. Power quality
disturbances arise when certain deviations in magnitude and frequency of the
power waveform beyond the specified range take place, creating problems to
a customer. Analysis and assessment of power quality disturbances deal with
the nature and frequency of occurrence of these variations, the types of loads
mostly affected by them in terms of voltage and frequency sensitivity and the
measures that may be adopted by the customers to safeguard their sensitive
loads from these disturbances. The basic types of power quality disturbances
are as follows:
• (1) Transients (2) Voltage sags and swells
• (3) Over-voltages and under-voltages (4) Outage
• (5) Harmonic distortion (6) Voltage notching
• (7) Flicker (8) Electrical noise
Transients
• Transients are sub-cycle voltage disturbances in the form of very fast voltage
change.
• They are characterized by frequencies ranging from tens to hundreds of
kilohertz or even megahertz, while the voltage excursions may range from
hundreds to thousands of volts.
• Transients are caused by the injection of energy due to lightning, electrostatic
discharge, load switching, line switching, energizing of a capacitor bank or
interruption of an inductive load.
• The disturbances may be either impulsive or oscillatory (damped or
undamped)
• Transients arising from switching of power factor correction capacitors
• Moreover, capacitor banks in combination with load and line inductances may
even create resonant circuits, leading to magnification of voltages due to
harmonic sources
• Equipment that are affected mostly due to voltage sags and swells are
industrial process controllers, programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
adjustable speed drives and robotic systems.
• Sags may corrupt data in microprocessor-based digital control devices
while swells may damage device power supplies or may cause them
to reset.
Over-voltages and under-voltages
• Voltage sags and swells lasting more than 2 minutes are classified as under- and
over-voltage conditions, respectively.
• Under-voltage conditions may be caused by sudden loss of lines or transformers,
loss of adequate generation or loading a line beyond its capacity leading to low
voltage at the consumers‘ terminals.
• Under-voltage conditions may cause overheating in constant speed motors due to
the increase in current density as well as may hamper the functioning of
electronic equipment.
• Longer-term under-voltages can usually be corrected by changing the tap
settings on a load tap changing transformer
• Over-voltage problems are usually eliminated by installing voltage regulator
devices at distribution sites within the customers‘ premises such as the service
entrance, or by installing UPS systems both to regulate the voltage to sensitive
loads when utility power supply is available and to provide backup power in
case of utility supply failure.
• Power utilities are designed to maintain voltage ranging from +10% to -10%,
and are also provided with adequate over- and under-voltage and frequency
protection systems to safeguard their equipment from abnormal voltage and
frequency deviations beyond the specified range.
Outage
• Outage or voltage interruption refers to the complete loss of voltage over a certain
period of time. Outages may be short term (less than 2 minutes) or long term.
• Reason for outage
• Caused by the opening of an isolating device (circuit breaker or line recloser) or
by physical break in the line.
• In case of any fault in a transmission or distribution feeder, the circuit breaker or
re-closer will immediately open in an attempt to clear the fault and the customers
connected to the faulted feeder will experience one or more interruptions,
depending on the type of fault and reclosing practices of the power utility.
• Temporary faults are usually cleared after one or two reclosing attempts and the
normal supply is restored, for permanent faults the circuit breaker locks out after
a set number of reclosing attempts, resulting in a longer-term outage on that line.
• Outages to a system can be improved by installing UPS systems with battery
storage and power-conditioning equipment
• Protection from momentary interruptions however requires a static source
transfer switch (SSTS).
• Protection from continuous outages (beyond the energy storage capacity of UPS
or battery systems) can be provided by on-site generation from diesel generator
sets or low emission distributed generators based on non-conventional/renewable
technologies.
Harmonic distortion
• Harmonic distortion arises when the shape of voltage or current waveform
deviates from the standard sinusoid.
• Harmonic distortion implies that apart from standard power frequency
component, higher-frequency components are also present in the power flow.
• These components can degrade equipment performance and may even cause
damage to it.
• Problems caused by harmonics are
– overheating of distribution transformers,
– disrupting normal operation of electronic equipment
– system resonance with power factor correction banks.
• Potential sources of harmonics may be
– computers,
– lighting ballasts
– variable frequency drives. Etc
Electrical noise
• Electrical noise is defined as a form of electromagnetic interference (EMI)
caused by high-frequency, low-voltage signals superimposed on the standard
signal in a line, EMI adversely affects telecommunication processes and
hence is called noise.
• It arises from a variety of natural and artificial sources like lightning, static
electricity and solar radiation, presence of power frequency transmission lines
in the vicinity, automobile ignition, high-frequency switching in power
electronics devices and fluorescent lamps.
• The impact of noise may be reduced by installing radio frequency line filters,
capacitors or inductors at the equipment level
Power conditioning technologies
• Transient voltage surge suppressors – TVSS are used to provide protection
against lightning strokes and other voltage surges.
• VAR compensators – Unstable grid conditions like voltage sags and swells may
be caused due to uncompensated reactive power in the system leading to damages
by high currents and overheating of customers‘ equipment
• Reactive power compensation technologies are employed to restore and
maintain voltage stability:
(i) Synchronous condenser
(ii) Fixed capacitors banks placed near large inductive loads
(iii) Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)
(iv) Thyristor-switched reactors (TCR)
(v) Static VAR compensator (SVC)
(vi) Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
(vii) Active VAR compensator
Power conditioning technologies
Dynamic voltage restorer – DVR provides the system with
adequate protection to ride through temporary disturbances such
as voltage transients like dips, sags and swells
Ecap = ½ C V2,
where C is the capacitance
in Faraday and
V is the usable voltage in
volt.
• This equation indicates that the
higher rated voltage V is desirable
for larger energy density
capacitors.
• Up to now, capacitors‘ rated
voltage with an aqueous
electrolyte has been about 0.9 V
per cell, and 2.3 to 3.3 V for each
cell with a non aqueous
electrolyte.
PE interface for ultracapcitor
• The most common power converter interface used for EDLC is the
dc–dc buck boost converter [14–18].
• Two different scenarios can be considered.
• The first one, when voltage level in the connection point (Vout) is
higher than the maximum voltage achieved by the EDLC (VSC)
device.
• The second case, when the minimum voltage allowed to the EDLC
stack is higher than the voltage level in the connection point.
• This converter can be used in both situations as it is shown in Fig.
10.4.
• In both cases the EDLC module (SC) is connected to the output
capacitor Cout.
• It should be noticed that in Fig. 10.4 only a single dc–dc stage has
been considered.
• However it is possible to use several stages if they are needed to
achieve the desired voltage level.
• EDLCs are devices that store energy in an electric field. To put in or to get
out energy is necessary.
• A power converter that adapts the actual dc voltage output of the EDLC to
the connection point of the energy storage system.
• Different options can be chosen as the power converter topology.
• It mainly depends on the specific application and the voltage level in the
connection point.
• In any case, the power converter should provide bi-directional energy flow
capability.
• The control of the current supplied by the EDLC (Isc)
can be done using conventional techniques.
• Figure 10.5 shows the control scheme when the
converter in Fig 10.4a is used.
• The controller is performed by a simple PI over the
error between the measured current ISC and its
reference ISC.
• The final control signal (δsc)is calculated adding the
voltage of the EDLC to the output of the PI block.
• Finally, the firing pulses for the power switches are
calculated comparing control signal δSC with a PWM
carrier
• In some cases there are technical restrictions over the current
ripple that can be provided by the EDLC device.
• In these circumstances the interleaved dc–dc buck boost
power converter topology is a good option [19, 20].
• This converter is composed by several two power switches leg
connected in parallel to the storage device as it is shown in
Fig. 10.6.
• Each leg supplies part of the total current drawn from the
EDLC stack.
• If the PWM carriers used to generate the switching pulses of
each leg are suitable shifted then the ripple of each leg
current are canceled in the total current provided by the
module.
• To control this current the same algorithm as for the
conventional dc–dc buck-boost converter can be used.
• Other power converter topologies have been considered regarding
the application characteristic or the voltage level in the connection
point
• For instance, if the voltage steps between the EDLC device and the
output is too large then an option is to use dc–dc converters with
transformer as presented in Fig. 10.7].
• This topology allows higher operating range than conventional
buck-boost converter.
• Besides, if high frequency transformers are used then it permits to
build converters with reduced weight and volume.
• Also, it is possible to use zero voltage switching (ZVS) or zero
current switching (ZCS) modulation strategies that increase the
efficiency of the system.
• On the other hand, for grid connection it can be
adopted a conventional two level three-phase
converter (Fig. 10.8).
• This choice usually requires a large number of
series and parallel connection of EDLC cells.
• This structure is not normally optimal.
• For this reason, the use of multilevel converters,
like neutral point clamped (NPC) or cascaded H-
bridge converter (CHB), is also a good option for
grid connected applications