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Module -2

Micro grid Sources and Power


Electronic Interfaces
Micro-grid Sources and Power Electronic
Interfaces (08 hrs)
• Review of Micro grid sources: basics
characteristics and selection;
• Power Electronics (PE) interface and design
for micro grid DC and AC sources.
• Protection and co-ordination,
• Power Quality issues and Solutions;
• Micro grid and Energy Storage Systems (ESS),
Portable and Stationary ESS,
• Review of Flywheel, Battery and Ultra-
capacitor; PE Interface design for ESS.
Micro grid sources
• Solar PV
• Wind
• Fuel cell
• Hydro
• Micro turbine generators
• Energy storage devices(ex: battery)
• CHP(combined heat & power system
• Biomass
• Geothermal heat
Review of Micro grid sources: basics characteristics
and selection
•A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon
to an external load such as a light or battery, and
then back to the n-type silicon, forming a
complete circuit.
As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type
silicon they repel each other because they are of
like charge. The wire provides a path for the
electrons to move away from each other.

•This flow of electrons is an electric current that


can power a load, such as a calculator or other
device, as it travels through the circuit from the
n-type to the p-type.

•In addition to the semi-conducting materials,


solar cells consist of a top metallic grid or other
electrical contact to collect electrons from the
semi-conductor and transfer them to the
external load, and a back contact layer to
complete the electrical circuit.
•The conversion efficiency of a PV cell
is the proportion of sunlight energy
Solar efficiency
that the cell converts into electrical
energy.

•This is very important because


improving this efficiency is vital to
making PV energy competitive with
more traditional sources of energy,
such as fossil fuels.

•The first PV cells were converting


light to electricity at 1 to 2 percent
efficiency.

•Today’s PV devices convert up to 17


percent of the radiant energy that
strikes them into electric energy. (40%
NREL)
PV Array Components
• PV Cells
• Modules
• Arrays
One PV cell only produces 1 or 2 watts of electricity, which isn't enough power
for most applications.

To increase power, groups of solar cells are electrically connected and packaged
into weather-tight modules and arrays to provide useful output voltages and
currents for a specific power output. A PV System typically consists of 3 basic
components.
•PV cells - Electricity is generated by PV cells, the smallest unit of a PV system

•Modules - PV cells are wired together to form modules which are usually a
sealed, or encapsulated, unit of convenient size for handling.

•Arrays – Groups of panels make up an array.


PV System Components
Solar PV System

•Solar cells produce direct current (DC),
therefore they are only directly used for DC
equipment. If alternating current (AC) is
needed for AC equipment or backup energy is
needed, solar photovoltaic systems require
other components in addition to solar
modules. These components are specially
designed to integrate into solar PV systems.
The components of a solar photovoltaic
system are:

1.Solar Module -- the essential component of


any solar PV system that converts sunlight
directly into DC electricity.

2. Solar Charge Controller -- regulates voltage


and current from solar arrays, charges the
battery, prevents battery from overcharging
and also performs controlled over discharges
PV System Components
.

3.Battery -- stores current electricity


produced from solar arrays for use
when sunlight is not available.

4. Inverter -- a critical component of


any solar PV system that converts DC
power into AC power.

5. Lightning protection -- prevents


electrical equipment from damage
caused by lightning or induction of
high voltage surge.
- It is required for the large size and
critical solar PV systems, which include
grounding.
Solar PV Characteristics
Wind energy system Basic components
• Wind results from the movement of air due to
atmospheric pressure gradients. Wind flows
from regions of higher pressure to regions of
lower pressure.
• The larger the atmospheric pressure gradient,
the higher the wind speed and thus, the
greater the wind power that can be captured
from the wind by means of wind energy-
converting machinery.
Wind energy conversion systems (WECS)
• WECS convert wind energy into electrical energy.
• The principal component of WECS is the wind turbine. This is coupled to
the generator through a multiple-ratio gearbox. Usually induction
generators are used in WECS.
• The main parts of a wind turbine are the tower, the rotor and the nacelle.
• The nacelle accommodates the transmission mechanisms and the
generator.
• Rotor may have two or more blades.
• Wind turbine captures the kinetic energy of wind flow through rotor
blades and transfers the energy to the induction generator side through
the gearbox.
• The generator shaft is driven by the wind turbine to generate electric
power.
• The function of the gearbox is to transform the slower rotational speeds of
the wind turbine to higher rotational speeds on the induction generator
side.
• Output voltage and frequency is maintained within specified range, by
using supervisory metering, control and protection techniques.
• Wind turbines may have horizontal axis configuration or vertical
axis configuration.
 The average commercial turbine size of WECS was 300 kW until
the mid-1990s, but recently machines of larger capacity, up to 5
MW, have been developed and installed.
• The output power of a wind turbine is determined by several
factors such as wind velocity, size and shape of the turbine.
• The power developed is given by
• P=(1/2) Cp*ρ*V3*A
1. What is a wind plant? Tower & Blades

21
1. What is a wind plant?
Electric Generator Plant
Type 1 gene rator
Feeders

Conventional Induction
Generator (fixed speed) PF control
capacitor s

Type 2 Pla nt
Fee ders

Wound-rotor Induction gene rator

Generator w/variable rotor ac PF control


capacitor s
to
resistance Slip power
dc
as heat loss

Plant
Type 3 Feeders
gene rator
Doubly-Fed Induction
Generator (variable speed) ac
to
dc
to
dc ac

partia l power

Type 4 Plant
Feeders
Full-converter interface generator
ac
to
dc
to
dc ac

22
full power
1. What is a wind plant?
Type 3 Doubly Fed Induction Generator
• Most common technology today
• Provides variable speed via rotor freq control
• Converter rating only 1/3 of full power rating
• Eliminates wind gust-induced power spikes
• More efficient over wide wind speed
• Provides voltage control Plant
Feeders
gene rator

ac dc
to to
dc ac

23
partia l power
2. Power production
Wind power equation
10. Define wind stream v2 This ratio is fixed for a given
a
speed ratio, a: v1 turbine & control condition.

11. Substitute a into power At v13


P (1  a 2 )(1  a)
expression of (9): 4

12. Differentiate and find a


P At v13
a

4

 2a(a  1)  (1  a 2 )  0 
which maximizes function:  2a 2  2a  1  a 2  3a 2  2a  1  0
(3a  1)(a  1)  0  a  1 / 3, a  1
13. Find the maximum power by At v13 1 4 At v13 8 4 8At v13
substituting a=1/3 into (11): P (1  )( )  
4 9 3 4 93 27
2. Power production
Wind power equation
14. Define Cp, the power (or performance) coefficient, which gives the
ratio of the power extracted by the converter, P, to the power of the
air stream, Pin.
power extracted At v13
P (1  a 2 )(1  a)
by the converter 4
power of the
air stream
Pin 
KE 1 m 2
t

2 t
1
2
 1
2
 1
v1  0  Q1v12  At v1v12  At v13
2
At v13
(1  a 2 )(1  a) 1
Cp 
P
 4
1
1
 (1  a 2 )(1  a) P  C p Pin  CP At v13
Pin At v13 2 2
2
15. The maximum value of Cp occurs when its numerator is
maximum, i.e., when a=1/3:
The Betz Limit!
P 1 8 4 16
Cp   ( )( )   0.5926
Pin 2 9 3 27
2. Power production
Cp vs. a(wind stream speed ratio)
• The effective electrical
power output from a wind
turbine Peff is directly
proportional to the available
wind power Pw and the total
effective wind turbine effi
ciency ht .
• The power curve of a wind
turbine displays the power
output (either the real
electrical power output or
the percentage of the rated
power) of the turbine as a
function of the mean wind
speed.
•As shown in Fig. 10 , the wind turbine starts to produce usable power at a low wind
speed, defi ned as the cut-in speed.
•The power output increases continuously with the increase of the wind speed until
reaching a saturated point, to which the power output reaches its maximum value, defi
ned as the rated power output

•Correspondingly, the speed at this


point is defi ned as the rated speed.
• At the rated speed, more increase in
the wind speed will not increase the
power output due to the activation of
the power control.
• When the wind speed becomes too
large to potentially damage the wind
turbine, the wind turbine needs to
shut down immediately to avoid
damaging the wind turbine.
• This wind speed is defined as the
cut-out speed. Thus, the cut-in and
cut-out speeds have defined the
operating limits of the wind turbine.
Fuel Cell- an electrochemical energy conversion device
• To convert the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process
it produces electricity.
• Battery : the other electrochemical device that we are all familiar.
 A battery has all of its chemicals stored inside, and it converts those
chemicals into electricity too.
 This means that a battery eventually "goes dead" and you either throw it
away or recharge it.

For FUEL Cell


• Chemicals constantly flow into the cell so it never goes dead.
 As long as there is a flow of chemicals into the cell,
 the electricity flows out of the cell.
• Most fuel cells in use today use hydrogen and oxygen as the chemicals.
• Fuel Cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process
In which the energy stored in a fuel is converted directly into DC electricity.
Operating Principle of fuel cell
•In a fuel cell, the fuel and the oxidant
gases themselves comprise the anode and
cathode respectively. Thus, the physical
structure of a fuel cell is one where the
gases are directed through flow channels
to either side of the electrolyte.
•Electrolytes can be liquid or solid; some
operate at high temperature, and some at
low temperature. Low-temperature fuel
cells tend to require a noble metal catalyst,
typically platinum, to encourage the
electrode reactions whereas high-
temperature fuel cells do not
•In principle, a fuel cell can operate using a
variety of fuels and oxidants. Hydrogen has
long been recognized as the most effective
fuel for practical fuel cell use since it has
higher electrochemical reactivity than
other fuels, such as hydrocarbons or
alcohols.
Polarization Characteristics
• In an ideal world, the theoretical optimum fuel cell
voltage of 1.2 V would be realized at all operating
currents. In reality fuel cells achieve their highest
output voltage at open circuit (no load) conditions and
the voltage drops off with increasing current draw. This
is known as polarization and is represented by a
polarization curve as shown in Figure 4-23
• The polarization curve characterizes the cell voltage as
a function of current. The current, in turn, depends on
the size of the electrical load placed across the fuel
cell. In essence the polarization curve shows the
electrochemical efficiency of the fuel cell at any
operating current since the efficiency is the ratio of the
actual cell voltage divided by the theoretical maximum
of 1.2 V
Polarization is caused by chemical and physical factors associated with
various elements of the fuel cell.
These factors limit the reaction processes when current is flowing.
There are three basic regions affecting the overall polarization:
• activation polarization
• ohmic polarization (or resistance polarization)
• concentration polarization
The deviation of cell potential from ideal behavior is a direct result of the sum of
these factors over the entire load range.
Activation Polarization
Activation polarization is related to the energy barrier that must be overcome to
initiate a chemical reaction between reactants. At low current draw, the electron
transfer rate is slow and a portion of the electrode voltage is lost in order to
compensate for the lack of electro-catalytic activity.
Ohmic Polarization
Ohmic polarization (or “resistance polarization”) occurs due to resistive losses in
the cell. These resistive losses occur within the electrolyte (ionic), in the
electrodes (electronic and ionic), and in the terminal connections in the cell
(electronic). Since the stack plates and electrolyte obey Ohm’s law (V=IR), the
amount of voltage lost in order to force conduction varies linearly throughout this
region.
Concentration Polarization
Concentration polarization results when the electrode reactions are hindered(to
make it more difficult to do something) by mass transfer effects. In this region,
the reactants become consumed at greater rates than they can be supplied while
the product accumulates at a greater rate than it can be removed. Ultimately
these effects inhibit further reaction altogether and the cell voltage drops to zero.
Power Characteristics
• Electrical power is the product of its voltage and current (P=VI).

• Since a fuel cell‘s polarization curve indicates the relationship between


voltage and current at all operating conditions, it can be used to derive
a corresponding power curve.

• At any point along the curve the instantaneous power is represented


graphically as the rectangular area that just touches the curve. A
typical power curve is shown in Figure 4-24.

• Maximum power occurs at approximately 0.5 to 0.6 V, which


corresponds to relatively high current.

• At the peak point, the internal resistance of the cell is equal to the
electrical resistance of the external circuit.
•However, since efficiency
drops with increasing voltage,
there is a trade-off between
high power and high
efficiency.
•Fuel cell system designers
must select the desired
operating range according to
whether efficiency or power
is paramount for the given
application.
•It is never desirable to
operate in the range beyond
where the power curve drops
off.
PE interface for micro-grid
• DE technologies require specific power electronics capabilities to
convert the power generated into useful power that can be directly
interconnected with the utility grid and/or can be used for consumer
applications.
• The development of modular, low cost, highly reliable power
electronic interfaces will improve the overall cost and durability of
distributed and renewable energy systems
• Although power electronics are the integral part of most of the DE
technologies, in order to convert the power generated into useful
power that can be directly used on the grid, they can cost up to 40%
of the costs of a distributed energy system.
• Therefore, the improvement of the DE economics strongly requires
decreased costs for the power electronics.
• Another important aspect to the life-cycle cost of the DE systems is
reliability.
• Many of the power electronics used for DE applications have a low
reliability rate, typically operating less than five years before a failure
occurs.
• A generalized block diagram representation of power electronics interface
associated with DE systems is shown in Figure 1.
• The power electronics interface accepts power from the distributed energy
source and converts it to power at the required voltage and frequency.
• For the storage systems, bidirectional flow of power between the storages
and the utility is required.
• Figure 1 illustrates a design approach to organize the interface into
modules, each of which can be designed to accommodate a range of DE
systems and/or storages.
• The design of the input converter module depends on the specific energy
source or storage application.
• The DE systems that generate AC output, often with variable frequencies,
such as wind, microturbine, IC engine, or flywheel storage needs an AC-
DC converter.
• For DC output systems like PV, fuel cells, or batteries, a DC-DC converter
is typically needed to change the DC voltage level.
• The DC-AC inverter module is the most standard module used and
converts a DC source to grid-compatible AC power.
• The output interface module filters the AC output from the inverter and the
monitoring and control module operates the interface, containing protection
for the DE and utility point-of-common-coupling (PCC).
• The power electronic (PE) interface also contains some level of
monitoring and control functionality to ensure that the DE system
can operate as required.
• The monitoring and control module also contains
• protective functions for the DE system and
• the local electric power system that permit paralleling and
disconnection from the electric power system.
• These functions would typically meet the IEEE 1547-2003
interconnection requirements but should have the flexibility for
modifications of the settings depending on the application or a
utility‘s interconnection requirements
• Monitoring functions typically include real-power, reactive power,
and voltage monitoring at the point of the DE connection with the
utility at the PCC.
• These functions are necessary because, in order to synchronize
the DE system, its output must have the same voltage magnitude,
frequency, phase rotation, and phase angle as the utility.
Power Electronics Topologies for Renewable and Distributed
Energy(DC sources)
• A centralized converter-based PV system as shown in Fig.
11.13(a) is the most common type of PV installation for
the sizes typically over 50–100 kW.
• PV modules are connected in series and parallel to get the
required voltage and current and then the output of the
PV array is connected across a filter capacitor.
• The output of the capacitor connects to the input of a
voltage source three-phase inverter.
• A three-phase transformer is then used to connect the
inverter to the utility providing voltage boost and
galvanic isolation
• To avoid the bulky low-frequency transformers, which
are regarded as poor components mainly due to their
relatively large size and low efficiency, the multiple-stage
conversion systems are widely used in residential scale
PV applications.
• The most common topology consists of a DC–AC grid-connected voltage
source inverter along with a PV connected DC–DC converter.
• A simple design for a multiple-stage PV inverter is shown in Fig. 11.13b,
which utilizes a high frequency transformer included in the DC–DC converter.
• In general, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and voltage boost are
done by the DC– DC converter controller and the power flow control to the
utility as well as the sinusoidal unity power factor current injection to the
utility are obtained by the DC–AC inverter controller
• Power generated by the fuel cell is also DC, similar to a PV system, therefore
the power conditioning systems, including inverters are required in order to
supply normal customer load demand or send electricity into the grid.
• The simplest form of power electronics for the fuel cell can be single stage
DC–AC inverter or can be of multiple stages where the DC–DC converter
precedes the DC–AC inverter similar to the configurations shown in Fig. 11.13
• The DC–DC converter performs two functions, one is the DC isolation for the
inverter, and the second is to produce sufficient voltage for the inverter input,
so that the required magnitude of the AC voltage can be produced
PE interface of micro-grid with AC source
• The modern wind power systems can fundamentally be divided into three categories:
• the systems without power electronics,
• the systems with partially rated power electronics,
• the systems with full-scale power electronics for interfacing wind turbines
• For the partially rated power electronics based wind system, a wound rotor induction
generator, known as doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), is used as the electrical
generator.
• The power electronics required for the DFIG consists of AC–DC–AC converters also
known as back-to-back converters.
• The stator winding is connected directly to the 50/60 Hz grid while the rotor is fed at a
variable frequency through the AC–DC–AC converter as shown in Fig. 11.14a.
• This design does allow the wind turbine to have some amount of variable speed
operation. If the generator is running super synchronously, the electrical power is
delivered through both the rotor and the stator.
• If the generator is running sub-synchronously the electrical power is delivered into the
rotor from the grid.
• This partially rated power electronics provides various advantages such as lowering
the safety margin of gear, having reactive power compensation/production and
capturing more energy from the wind.
• This arrangement allows the generator stator winding to be undersized by about 25 %
with the power electronics making up the power difference from the rotor power
• Full-scale power electronics based wind system uses
conventional or permanent magnet synchronous generator or
induction generator to convert the wind turbine power to a
variable voltage, variable frequency output that varies with wind
speed.
• The AC–DC–AC converter or back-to-back rectifier–inverter
system, as shown in Fig. 11.14b, are then used to convert the
full-rated output of the machine to 50/60 Hz AC.
• This output is then boosted using a transformer to voltage levels
required by the utility‘s AC system power.
• Unlike the partially rated power electronics based system; this
system requires power converters rated to handle the whole
wind generator output.
• The design allows the wind turbine to operate in a variable
speed mode which can allow more of the energy of the wind to
be captured.
• Though diode bridges are often used as the rectifiers, due to cost
considerations, self-commutated active rectifiers provide more
flexible control
Protection and co-ordination
• PCM responds to Micro-grid and main grid faults and loss of grid
(LOG) scenarios in a way so as to ensure correct protection co-
ordination of the Microgrid.
• It also adapts to the change in fault current levels during change
over from grid-connected to stand-alone mode.
• For achieving this, there is proper communication between the
PCM and the MCs and upstream main grid controllers.
• For main grid fault, PCM immediately switches over the
Microgrid to stand-alone mode for supplying power to the
priority loads at a significantly lower incremental cost.
• However, for some minor faults, the PCM allows the Microgrid
to ride through in the grid-connected mode for some time and it
continues if any temporary fault is removed.
• Besides, if the grid fault endangers the stability of the Micro grid,
then PCM may disconnect the Micro grid fully from all main grid
loads (e.g. feeder B), although in that case, effective utilization of
the Micro grid would be lost in exporting power.
• If a fault occurs within a portion of the Micro grid feeder (e.g.
feeder A or C), the smallest possible feeder zone is eliminated to
maintain supply to the healthy parts of the feeder.
• Under-frequency and under voltage protection schemes with bus
voltage support are normally used for protecting the sensitive loads.
• PCM also helps to re-synchronize the Micro grid to the main grid
after the initiation of switchover to the grid connected mode of
operation through suitable reclosing schemes.
• PCM controls the overall protection for the Micro grid.
• Protection philosophy for Micro grid is different from conventional
distribution networks though both are radial systems. This is
because of the following differences:
Protection and co-ordination
(1) Micro grids contain both generators and loads resulting in bidirectional
power flow through the protective devices in a radial system.
(2) Passive distribution network turns into an active one due to the presence
of micro sources.
(3) Micro grids undergo a considerable change in its short-circuit capacity
when it changes from grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode. This has
profound(deep) effect on conventional overcurrent relays that operate on
short-circuit current sensing.
• A key feature of PCM is its ability to distinguish between the protection
requirements for the two operating modes and address the contingencies
accordingly.
• Basic protection requirements for the two modes are briefly discussed in
the next section with respect to some possible occurrences.
• Typical Microgrid configuration as shown in Figure 1.1 is considered.
However, additional protection features may be incorporated in PCM,
depending on the customer-specific requirements.
• Protection scheme for grid-connected mode
• In grid-connected mode, the PCM detects and acts for five possible
events. These are
(i) normal condition, (ii) Microgrid feeder fault, (iii) utility fault,
(iv) Microgrid bus fault and (v) re-synchronisation.
• PCM takes into account the response times of individual microsources,
as well as that of the PCC (point of common coupling) circuit breaker
CB4
• (i) Normal condition
• Under normal condition the Microgrid remains connected to the utility
through the PCC circuit breaker CB4. Breakers CB1, CB2 and CB3
connect feeders A, B and C respectively to the Microgrid bus. All the
breakers remain closed during normal grid-connected operation. The
loads are jointly fed by the microsources and the utility.
• (ii) Microgrid feeder fault
• In passive radial distribution networks, fault power flow occurs in one
direction only, from source to the fault point. So feeder faults are simply
cleared by opening the feeder breaker
• But as Microgrid feeders contain generators, bidirectional power flow occurs into
a feeder fault from all microsources on either side of the fault point.
• If such fault is not cleared in time, all the microsources may be disconnected from
that feeder by their own MCs leading to an extensive loss of generation.
• To avoid this, feeders A and C are sectionalised into zones by sectionalising
breakers.
• The breakers contain directional overcurrent relays to detect the faulty zone and
clear the fault.
• If the faulty zone contains any microsource, then it is disconnected from that zone
by its own MC but continues to supply its local loads connected to the
microsource bus
• (iii) Utility fault
• For any utility fault, the Microgrid disconnects itself from the utility grid by
opening CB4.
• The protection strategy for this case is quite simple.
• CB4 relay monitors the current magnitude and direction on each phase and sends
a trip signal to CB4 if current limits are exceeded within a preset time.
• Relay setting is provided by the PCM to ensure that the isolation is accomplished
without any significant interruption to priority loads.
(iV) Micro grid bus fault
• If fault occurs on the Micro grid bus, then the Micro grid is disconnected from
the utility by opening CB4.
• Also the Feeders A and C are disconnected from the bus by opening CB1 and
CB3 respectively.
• In case of any fault within the Micro grid, the PCM grades the CB4 relay to co-
ordinate with the ‗upstream‘ protection in the utility.
• CB4 relay is also graded with respect to the protective devices for the micro
sources to minimize loss of generation, supply interruption and false tripping

• (v) Re-synchronization
• When normal service is restored in the utility, then the PCM‘s responsibility is to
synchronize and reconnect the Micro grid to the utility through synchronism
check schemes.
• This is accomplished as soon as the grid stabilizes and goes back to the normal
operating state after picking up all previously disconnected loads
• The PCM includes a control scheme to bring all micro sources into
synchronization with the utility by measuring the phase voltage magnitudes and
phase angles, frequency and phase sequence on both sides of the breaker CB4
Power Quality Issues and Solutions
Power quality disturbances
• Power utilities normally generate power in the form of alternating current
(AC) and voltage with specified magnitude and frequency. Thus, most
electrical equipment used by the customers are also designed to operate within
a narrow band of voltage and frequency and any deviation from that band may
lead to deterioration in the performance of these equipment. Power quality
disturbances arise when certain deviations in magnitude and frequency of the
power waveform beyond the specified range take place, creating problems to
a customer. Analysis and assessment of power quality disturbances deal with
the nature and frequency of occurrence of these variations, the types of loads
mostly affected by them in terms of voltage and frequency sensitivity and the
measures that may be adopted by the customers to safeguard their sensitive
loads from these disturbances. The basic types of power quality disturbances
are as follows:
• (1) Transients (2) Voltage sags and swells
• (3) Over-voltages and under-voltages (4) Outage
• (5) Harmonic distortion (6) Voltage notching
• (7) Flicker (8) Electrical noise
Transients
• Transients are sub-cycle voltage disturbances in the form of very fast voltage
change.
• They are characterized by frequencies ranging from tens to hundreds of
kilohertz or even megahertz, while the voltage excursions may range from
hundreds to thousands of volts.
• Transients are caused by the injection of energy due to lightning, electrostatic
discharge, load switching, line switching, energizing of a capacitor bank or
interruption of an inductive load.
• The disturbances may be either impulsive or oscillatory (damped or
undamped)
• Transients arising from switching of power factor correction capacitors
• Moreover, capacitor banks in combination with load and line inductances may
even create resonant circuits, leading to magnification of voltages due to
harmonic sources

• Solution:- Transients may be eliminated by installing lightning arrestor


systems with separate grounds or transient voltage surge suppressors
(TVSS) at the service entrance or cheaper dedicated systems for
individual equipment.
Voltage sags and swells
• Voltage sags and swells are defined by variations in the root mean
square(RMS) voltage magnitude from around a half cycle to several
seconds.
• Sags refer to drops in the voltage
• while swells refer to voltage rises.

• A voltage swell is usually caused by single line-to-ground faults on


the system resulting in a temporary voltage rise on the healthy phases,
removal of bulk loads, switching on a large capacitor bank, etc.

• Equipment that are affected mostly due to voltage sags and swells are
industrial process controllers, programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
adjustable speed drives and robotic systems.
• Sags may corrupt data in microprocessor-based digital control devices
while swells may damage device power supplies or may cause them
to reset.
Over-voltages and under-voltages
• Voltage sags and swells lasting more than 2 minutes are classified as under- and
over-voltage conditions, respectively.
• Under-voltage conditions may be caused by sudden loss of lines or transformers,
loss of adequate generation or loading a line beyond its capacity leading to low
voltage at the consumers‘ terminals.
• Under-voltage conditions may cause overheating in constant speed motors due to
the increase in current density as well as may hamper the functioning of
electronic equipment.
• Longer-term under-voltages can usually be corrected by changing the tap
settings on a load tap changing transformer
• Over-voltage problems are usually eliminated by installing voltage regulator
devices at distribution sites within the customers‘ premises such as the service
entrance, or by installing UPS systems both to regulate the voltage to sensitive
loads when utility power supply is available and to provide backup power in
case of utility supply failure.
• Power utilities are designed to maintain voltage ranging from +10% to -10%,
and are also provided with adequate over- and under-voltage and frequency
protection systems to safeguard their equipment from abnormal voltage and
frequency deviations beyond the specified range.
Outage
• Outage or voltage interruption refers to the complete loss of voltage over a certain
period of time. Outages may be short term (less than 2 minutes) or long term.
• Reason for outage
• Caused by the opening of an isolating device (circuit breaker or line recloser) or
by physical break in the line.
• In case of any fault in a transmission or distribution feeder, the circuit breaker or
re-closer will immediately open in an attempt to clear the fault and the customers
connected to the faulted feeder will experience one or more interruptions,
depending on the type of fault and reclosing practices of the power utility.
• Temporary faults are usually cleared after one or two reclosing attempts and the
normal supply is restored, for permanent faults the circuit breaker locks out after
a set number of reclosing attempts, resulting in a longer-term outage on that line.
• Outages to a system can be improved by installing UPS systems with battery
storage and power-conditioning equipment
• Protection from momentary interruptions however requires a static source
transfer switch (SSTS).
• Protection from continuous outages (beyond the energy storage capacity of UPS
or battery systems) can be provided by on-site generation from diesel generator
sets or low emission distributed generators based on non-conventional/renewable
technologies.
Harmonic distortion
• Harmonic distortion arises when the shape of voltage or current waveform
deviates from the standard sinusoid.
• Harmonic distortion implies that apart from standard power frequency
component, higher-frequency components are also present in the power flow.
• These components can degrade equipment performance and may even cause
damage to it.
• Problems caused by harmonics are
– overheating of distribution transformers,
– disrupting normal operation of electronic equipment
– system resonance with power factor correction banks.
• Potential sources of harmonics may be
– computers,
– lighting ballasts
– variable frequency drives. Etc

• Harmonic disturbances may be avoided or controlled by using equipment like


12-pulse input transformer configuration,
– impedance reactors or passive and active filters.
• Voltage notching
• When silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are used in electrical control systems,
line voltage distortion in the form of ‗notches‘ may occur in the waveform.
• Line notches typically occur in the waveform either during SCR commutation
or when a single-phase SCR is turned off and the next one is turned on.
• During this small period of time, a momentary short circuit exists between the
two phases, resulting in the current rising and the voltage dropping. This
appears as a notch in the voltage waveform.
• The most severe and damaging form of notch is the one that touches the
voltage zero axis
• Sensitive equipment connected to the same voltage source as the equipment
producing the notching can be protected by installing a 3% impedance reactor
which eliminates multiple zero crossing and mitigates interference with
neighbouring equipment
Flicker
• Flicker is defined as a modulation of the voltage waveform at frequencies
below 25 Hz, detected by the human eye as variation in light output from
standard bulbs.
• Voltage flicker is normally caused by arcing on the power system from
welding machines or electric arc furnaces.
• Flicker problems can be eliminated by installing filters, static VAR systems or
distribution static compensators.

Electrical noise
• Electrical noise is defined as a form of electromagnetic interference (EMI)
caused by high-frequency, low-voltage signals superimposed on the standard
signal in a line, EMI adversely affects telecommunication processes and
hence is called noise.
• It arises from a variety of natural and artificial sources like lightning, static
electricity and solar radiation, presence of power frequency transmission lines
in the vicinity, automobile ignition, high-frequency switching in power
electronics devices and fluorescent lamps.
• The impact of noise may be reduced by installing radio frequency line filters,
capacitors or inductors at the equipment level
Power conditioning technologies
• Transient voltage surge suppressors – TVSS are used to provide protection
against lightning strokes and other voltage surges.
• VAR compensators – Unstable grid conditions like voltage sags and swells may
be caused due to uncompensated reactive power in the system leading to damages
by high currents and overheating of customers‘ equipment
• Reactive power compensation technologies are employed to restore and
maintain voltage stability:
(i) Synchronous condenser
(ii) Fixed capacitors banks placed near large inductive loads
(iii) Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)
(iv) Thyristor-switched reactors (TCR)
(v) Static VAR compensator (SVC)
(vi) Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
(vii) Active VAR compensator
Power conditioning technologies
Dynamic voltage restorer – DVR provides the system with
adequate protection to ride through temporary disturbances such
as voltage transients like dips, sags and swells

Isolation transformer – Statistically shielded isolation


transformers are used to shield sensitive loads from EMI.
• The isolation transformers protect these loads against indirect
contacts without interrupting the circuit upon an initial ground
fault
• It not only rejects common-mode noise, but also prevents any
line-to-line noise from entering the output.

Motor–alternator sets – Motor–alternator technology is used as


a very efficient ‗line conditioner‘ providing both voltage
stabilization and noise rejection.
Typical ESS configuration
Microgrid and Energy Storage Systems(ESS)
• THE INCREASING number of renewable energy sources and distributed
generators requires new strategies for the operation and management of the
electricity grid in order to maintain or even to improve the power-supply
reliability and quality.
• In addition, liberalization of the grids leads to new management structures, in
which trading of energy and power is becoming increasingly important.
• The power-electronic technology plays an important role in distributed
generation and in integration of renewable energy sources into the electrical
grid, and it is widely used and rapidly expanding as these applications become
more integrated with the grid-based systems.
• Energy storage in an electricity generation and supply system enables the
decoupling of electricity generation from demand.
• In other words, the electricity that can be produced at times of either low-
demand low-generation cost or from intermittent renewable energy sources is
shifted in time for release at times of high-demand high-generation cost or
when no other generation is available.
• Appropriate integration of renewable energy sources with storage systems
allows for a greater market penetration and results in primary energy and
emission savings.
• In order to improve the quality of the generated power, as well as to support
critical loads during mains power interruption, several energy-storage
technologies have been investigated, developed, and implemented in
renewable energy systems.
• “Energy storages” is defined as the devices that store energy, deliver
energy outside(discharge), and accept energy from outside (charge).
• These energy storages, so far, mainly include chemical batteries, ultra-
capacitors or super-capacitors, and ultrahigh-speed flywheels.

• Fast Response Energy Storage describes several technologies characterized


by the ability to provide or to absorb a high amount of electrical energy in a
short period of time without diminishing the life time of the storage device.

• Major technologies are:


 Electric Double Layer Capacitors (Ultra capacitors) (EDLC)- that store
energy in the electrical field of a capacitor;
 Flywheels -that do it as kinetic energy (KESS) and
 Superconducting Magnets (SME) -where energy is kept in the magnetic
field of a lossless inductor
• In the first case, the energy is stored in the electrical field of a capacitor,
• In the second as kinetic energy in a rotating flywheel and
• in the third one, in the magnetic field of a lossless inductor
(superconducting).
• All forms of storage are dual and can be expressed as half the product of a
parameter given by the geometry of the device, times the square of a state
variable
Plot for several ESD Em – Mass Energy density Pm - Mass Power density
Battery Storage
• The use of batteries as a system to interchange energy with the
grid is well known.
• There are several types of batteries used in renewable energy
systems: lead acid, lithium, and nickel.
• Batteries provide a rapid response for either charge or
discharge, although the discharge rate is limited by the chemical
reactions and the type of battery.
• They act as a constant voltage source in the power systems.
• New trends in the use of batteries for renewable energy systems
focused on the integration with several energy sources (wind
energy, PV systems, etc.) and also on the integration with other
energy-storage systems complementing them.
• Also, there are attempts to optimize battery cells in order to
reduce maintenance and to increment its lifetime.
Battery Storage
• Stand-alone systems obviously need some method to store energy
gathered during good times to be able to use it during the bad.
• While various exotic technologies are possible—including flywheels,
compressed air, or even hydrogen production— it is the lowly (simple)
battery that makes the most sense today.
• And, among the many possible battery technologies, it is the familiar
lead-acid battery that continues to be the workhorse of PV systems.
• In addition to energy storage, batteries provide several other important
energy services for PV systems, including the ability to provide surges
of current that are much higher than the instantaneous current available
from the array, as well as the inherent and automatic property of
controlling the output voltage of the array so that loads receive voltages
that are within their own range of acceptability.
• Competitors to conventional lead-acid batteries include nickel–
cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, lithium–ion, lithium–polymer, and
nickel–zinc technologies.
• Of these, only nickel–cadmium ―Nicads‖ are even barely competitive
with lead-acid batteries, but this may change in the near future due to
development in new battery technologies for electric and hybrid
vehicles.
A battery energy storage system
(BESS) can be used
independently or can be
integrated into a hybrid system
(e.g., with ECs) to provide both
energy and power responses in a
given application as
diagrammatically depicted in
Fig. 9.1.

Fig. 9.1 Schematic


representation of the use of
BESS in integrating renewable
energy at various
locations on the utility grid
Table 9.14 summarizes typical values of some of the important characteristics of these
battery technologies.
Lead-acid batteries are listed in three categories:
• conventional automobile batteries for engine starting, vehicle lighting, and engine
ignition (SLI);
• low-cost, deep-cycle batteries typically used in golf carts
• longer-life time, deep-cycle batteries.
• Nicads are much more expensive, but they last longer.
• Nicads also perform better in harsh climates; and since they can be discharged nearly
100% without damage.
PE interface for battery
• The battery energy storage systems (BESS) produce DC power
that must be converted to AC power to connect to the utility.
• The individual battery cells are generally connected in different
configurations in series and parallel to achieve the required voltage
and current outputs.
• The most unique aspect to power electronics for BESS is that
they must be bidirectional, that is both taking power (during
charging) and providing power (during discharge) from/to the
grid.
• Unlike PV and fuel cell inverters; however, BESS inverters are
not expected to consider the peak power operations.
• They only provide the power level demanded by the system that
can be sustained by the battery.
• The simplest form of battery system configuration, as shown in
Fig. 11.16a, consists of a BESS followed by DC–AC converter.
• The DC output of the battery system is connected across a
filter capacitor to limit the harmonic currents in the battery.
• The output of the capacitor connects to a voltage-source
inverter. Such converter is inherently bidirectional so the
power can flow in/out of the battery.
• If the isolation or a high-voltage conversion ratio is
required, a line-frequency transformer is usually integrated
into the system
• The most common two-stage topology for the BESS
consists of a DC–AC inverter with a bidirectional DC–DC
converter.
• A simple design for a two-stage power electronics topology
is shown in Fig. 11.16b.
• In that figure, a full-bridge DC–Dc converter is used that
can operate with any voltage and current polarity
• The most common two-stage topology for the BESS
consists of a DC–AC inverter with a bidirectional DC–DC
converter.
• A simple design for a two-stage power electronics topology
is shown in Fig. 11.16b. In that figure, a full-bridge DC–Dc
converter is used that can operate with any voltage and
current polarity
• For utility connection, therefore, a line-frequency
transformer is used for galvanic isolation.
• To avoid the bulky line-frequency transformers, several
bidirectional isolated DC–DC converter topologies have
been developed.
• One such DC–DC topology is given in Fig. 11.17 that can
galvanically isolate the output terminals from the input
terminals, and can step up and down its output voltage by
using a high-frequency transformer
Multi-Stage Bi-Directional Topologies
• Figure 9.12 shows two-stage power conversion systems
having a bi-directional switch-mode DC/DC converter
connected between the battery and inverter.
• In Fig. 9.12a, the DC/DC converter performs as a boost
(step-up) converter when the battery is discharging
(iDC >0) and a buck (step-down) converter when the
battery is charging (iDC< 0).
• If the top switch of the DC–DC converter is assigned a
duty cycle d, and the bottom switch is assigned a duty
cycle (1-d), then the current through the inductor iL
increases when vbatt > vDC and decreases when vbatt < vDC.
• Thus, d may be controlled to manage the flow of power in
the bidirectional DC–DC converter
• In Fig. 9.12b, the DC/DC conversion takes place through
a high-frequency isolation transformer using inversion
and then rectification and filtering.
• For discharging the battery using the bidirectional DC–
DC converter, the primary-side H-bridge configuration
(on the left) drives the primary of the high-frequency
transformer with an alternating voltage;
• the secondary-side H-bridge configuration (on the right)
rectifies the voltage generated on the secondary and
produces a DC voltage/current for the DC/AC converter.
• When charging the battery using the bidirectional
converter, the power flow is reversed;
• the primary-side H-bridge configuration rectifies and
drives a DC current into the battery.
Flywheels
• Flywheels are very commonly used due to the simplicity of storing
kinetic energy in a spinning mass.
• For approximately 20 years, it has been a primary technology used
to limit power interruptions in motor/generator sets where steel
wheels increase the rotating inertia providing short power
interruptions protection and smoothing of delivered power.
• One of the first commercial uses of flywheels in conjunction with
active filtering to improve frequency distortion on a high-voltage
power-system line.
• The concept of ultrahigh-speed flywheels appears to be a feasible
means for fulfilling the severe energy storage requirements for EV
and HEV applications, namely high specific energy, high specific
power, long cycle life, high-energy efficiency, quick recharge,
maintenance free characteristics, cost effectiveness, and
environmental friendliness.
Flywheel Mechanics
• A kinetic Energy storage system is simply a flywheel
driven by an electrical machine, able to work as a
motor or a generator.
• When the machine (acting as a motor) exerts a positive
torque T to a flywheel with moment of inertia J, it
increases its speed at a rate T/J, until it reaches
maximum velocity, storing a given kinetic energy.
• At this stage the energy can be maintained constant by
just supplying the idle losses with the motor.
• For releasing the energy, the electrical machine (acting
as a generator) applies a negative torque—T to the
flywheel, braking at a rate—(T/J) and pumping the
energy back to the source to where it is connected
• In order to achieve an efficient charging/ discharging processes, flywheel
losses should be kept to a minimum.
• Basically, there are two sources of losses: aerodynamic friction between
the wheel and the gas surrounding it and mechanical friction in the
bearings that support and guide the wheel.
• The round trip efficiency of flywheel modules is in the 80–85 % range,
depending on bearing and winding losses and cycle time.
• During the power exchange the efficiency is relatively high, and it depends
on the type of electric machine used.
• However, the time on standby (no power exchange) affects very much this
value depending on the aerodynamic friction.
• The way of reducing them is by decreasing the pressure and using advance
bearing systems with low losses.

• Ideally the flywheel should work in vacuum, but sometimes a residual


pressure is left to help evacuating any heat which is generated inside.
• Concerning the bearings, most of the flywheels use either magnetic or even
superconducting bearings and in many cases magnetic levitation is
required.
Operation Principles of Flywheels
To achieve high energy densities, a high value of zeta is required.
• Ring-shaped flywheels should be avoided.
• Optimum shaped ones provide a high value for zeta but are difficult to fabricate.
• Cylindrical flywheels are usually the preferable option.
Flywheel Electro-magnetics
• Two electromagnetic systems are the basis for operating flywheels:
• Electrical machines and in some cases electromagnetic bearings.
• There are many types of machines with very good performances in
terms of efficiency, robustness, or reliability, among others.
• Nevertheless, not all the electrical machines are good for driving a
flywheel.
• Those of them with wound rotors should be avoided.
• This includes dc machines, conventional synchronous machines and
induction motors (although some successful applications for
flywheels have been done with asynchronous machines or with
modified synchronous ones).
• The reason is that when spinning at such speeds, brushes, or slip
rings should be avoided and even for the case of squirrel-cage
induction machines where none of those elements are present, the
heat generation in the rotor windings is unacceptable, since heat is
difficult to extract.
• Presently, there are three families of electrical machines that fulfill the
previous conditions for driving flywheels:
• Homopolar, Reluctance, and Permanent Magnet machines
Superconducting Magnetic Bearing(SMB)
The superconducting magnetic bearing was constructed with Nd-Fe-B magnets and
(YBCO) superconducting blocks. The permanent magnet rotors are assembled with
magnetic flux shapers, in order to increase the levitation force and the stiffness.
Permanent Magnetic Bearing(PMB)
The PMB plays two roles in the FESS: radial positioning and reduction of the load over
the SMB.
. PMB by itself cannot provide stability for a bearing system,
• There are two broad classes of flywheel-energy-storage technologies. One
is a technology based on low-speed flywheels (up to 6000 r/min) with steel
rotors and conventional bearings.
• The other one involves modern high-speed flywheel systems (up to 60,000
r/min) that are just becoming commercial and make use of advanced
composite wheels that have much higher energy and power density than
steel wheels. This technology requires ultralow friction bearing assemblies,
such as magnetic bearings.

• Most applications of flywheels in the area of renewable energy delivery are


based on a typical configuration where an electrical machine (i.e., high-
speed synchronous machine or induction machine) drives a flywheel, and
its electrical part is connected to the grid via a back-to-back converter. Such
configuration requires an adequate control strategy to improve power
smoothing.

• The basic operation could be summarized as follows. When there is excess


in the generated power with respect to the demanded power, the difference
is stored in the flywheel that is driven by the electrical machine operating
as a motor. On the other hand, when a perturbation or a fluctuation in
delivered power is detected in the loads, the electrical machine is driven by
the flywheel and operates as a generator supplying needed extra energy.
• The most important electric machines used for flywheels are: the
synchronous homopolar machine (SHM), the permanent magnet
synchronous machine (PMSM), the synchronous reluctance
machine (SYNRM), and the switched reluctance machine
(SRM).
• The energy depends on the square of rotational speed. So high
speed is mainly considered (range from 5,000 to 50,000 rpm) and
therefore a low number of poles are always preferred.
• The rotational frequency of the machine will be in the range of
2–20 kHz.
• Moreover, the power converter has to commutate at least to this
frequency, considering the switching pattern selected.
• The efficiency, which is mainly dependent on the mechanical
losses, is also affected by the power converters in terms of
switching and conduction losses.
• The main challenge is to reduce the power converter losses in
order to simplify the cooling system and to reduce the total cost.
• On the other hand the switching frequency affects
the quality of the power supplying the machine.
• Harmonic distortion in the machine currents and
torque oscillations depend on the switching
pattern and the switching frequency selected.
• Those variables in this type of load do not result
as a critical issue since the torque is just applied
to accelerate or decelerate an inertia.
• However, they had to be taken under control
because mechanical behavior (flywheel and
bearings) depend on the torque dynamics.
• As a result, an agreement between power quality
and the switching frequency has to be achieved.
PE Interface for flywheel
• The power electronic converter used as interface between a flywheel and
the load or the electric grid is usually a pulse width modulated (PWM) bi-
directional converter that uses insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
technology.

Fig. 10.25 PWM Power converter connecting a flywheel


• Fig. 10.25 shows, and depends on two different topics:
• the connection point to exchange the power with the load and
• the type of electric machine used for driving the flywheel.
• Connection Point
• Most of the renewable applications where a flywheel is suitable to
be installed are composed by a back to back converter with a
common dc-link.
• The dc voltage is maintained constant by one of those converters.
• The connection to it ensures a faster response, a lower cost for
the whole system and a better energy management due to the
integration with the generation device.
• Many times the owner of the generation power system does not
permit the access to the already installed power converter because
it implies several design and operation modifications and
responsibilities in the system behavior.
• That is not only the case of connecting flywheels but any other type
of energy storage device
• Figure 10.26 presents the two connection possibilities,
(a) for AC connection and
(b) for DC connection.
• The recommendation is to connect the smallest power
converters to increase the reliability of the system.
• For instance, in wind energy and wave energy
converters, the FESS can be connected to the dc-link
easily.
• However, in the case of solar PV-plants, if the FESS is
connected directly to the inverter at the PV-panels
side, the dc voltage depends on the optimum
operation point and it will change continuously,
• so the flywheel-machine might have variable voltage
and an extra dc/dc converter could be required,
(a) for AC connection and (b) for DC connection
• Applications of Fast Response Energy Storage Systems

• Peak Shaving Application (Grid Frequency Regulation): Peak shaving


application concerns in reducing peak power demand that should be supplied
by the grid during small times.
• These power peaks are usually due to connection or disconnection of loads
such as heavy motor drives.
• As it is not possible to know when these loads are going to be connected or
disconnected, these peaks are not included in the power production schedule.
• For this reason, the power peaks produce unbalance between the power
supplied and the power consumed leading to variation of the grid frequency
that can destabilize the utility system.
• To solve this problem the independent system operator (ISO) has the
regulation operating reserves.
• The objective of the frequency regulation reserves is to respond fast enough
increasing or decreasing generation to respond to random, unpredictable
variations in demand.
Grid Voltage Stability

• Compared to conventional systems, FESS provides faster response.


This reduces the time needed to act and consequently reduce the
amount of reserves needed to ensure system stability.

• Compared to battery energy storage systems, FESS can have more


number of discharging cycles without affecting the life time of the
device. This supposes lower maintenance cost.

• To know the state of charge (SOC) of a battery usually require


complex systems.
• In contrast, for a flywheel unit it is possible to know the exact SOC,
because it only depends on the rotational speed that can be easily
measured.
Supercapacitors or Ultracapacitors
• Supercapacitors, which are also known as ultracapacitors or electric double
layer capacitors (EDLC), are built up with modules of single cells connected in
series and packed with adjacent modules connected in parallel.
• Single cells are available with capacitance values from 350 to 2700 F and
operate in the range of 2 V.
• The module voltage is usually in the range from 200 to 400 V.
• They have a long life cycle and are suitable for short discharge applications and
are less than 100 kW.
• New trends focused on using ultracapacitors to cover temporary high peak
power demands, integration with other energy-storage technologies, and
development of high-voltage applications.
• Electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) works in much the same way as
conventional capacitor in that there is no ionic or electronic transfer resulting
in a chemical reaction.
• In other words, energy is stored in the electrochemical capacitor by simple
charge separation.
• Therefore, the energy stored in the electrochemical capacitor can be
calculated using the same well-known equation that is used for conventional
capacitors:
• As for the conventional capacitor, the capacitance ‗C‘ is
proportional to the area ‗A‘ of the plates and the permittivity of
the dielectric ‗e‘ and is inversely proportional to the distance
‗d‘ between the plates.
• EDLCs are designed to have a very high electrode surface area
and use high permittivity dielectric.
• The electrode surface area is maximized by using porous
carbon as the current collector allows a relatively large amount
of energy to be stored at the collector surface.
• Therefore EDLC attain very high capacitance ratings (kilo-
Farads versus mili- and micro-Farads for conventional
capacitors).
• The two electrodes are separated by a very thin porous
separator and immersed in an electrolyte such as propylene
carbonate.
• Due to the high permitivity and close proximity of the
electrodes, EDLCs have a low voltage withstand capability
(typically 2 V–3 V).
• EDLC stores energy by physically separating unlike charges.
• This has deep implications on cycle life, efficiency, energy, and
power density.
• EDLCs have a long cycle life due to the fact that (ideally) there
are no chemical changes on the electrodes in normal
operation.
• EDLCs have superior efficiency: it is only a function of the
ohmic resistance of the conducting path.
• EDLCs also provide exceptional power density, since the
charges are physically stored on the electrodes.
• Conversely, energy density is low since the electrons are not
bound by chemical reactions.
• This lack of chemical bonding also implies that the EDLC can
be completely discharged, leading to larger voltage swings as
a function of the state-of-charge.
EDLC
technology –
a Basic cells
structure
Constructive Blocks
• The minimum constructive EDLC element is a cell. This cell can be built as a
classical capacitor that could be piled or rolled up as shown in Fig.
• In this device, the charge is stored as the solvated ions (combined with the
molecules of solvent) reach the so-called Helmholtz double layer region,
close to the porous carbon electrodes.
• When a voltage is applied, solvated anions are accumulated at the positive
layer and solvated cations are accumulated at the negative layer.
• These ions are always solvated, that is, surrounded by water or other
solvent molecules and isolated from carbon electrode by an extremely
short distance, in the range of several angstroms (1 angstrom=10e-10
meters).
• The electrodes are built by porous activated carbon. After activation,
carbon is a highly porous material and offers a large surface area per gram.
• These two geometric characteristics, high surface area, and small dielectric
distance produce a very high capacitance, in the range of several hundred
farads.
• The voltage and capacitance of an elementary cell is
very low, typically 2.5 V and 10F respectively.
• To increase these parameters, cells are arranged in
series and parallel constituting a stack.
• Cells and stacks also operate as ideal capacitors and so,
voltage is linear and drops evenly from full voltage to
zero volt with constant current discharge.
• Because of this, a dc/dc converter is needed to
connect the capacitor stack to a constant voltage to get
the maximum efficiency of the overall system.
• Connecting several cells in series requires equalization
of the overall system because, as cells are cycled,
voltages are different for each cell.
• This effect is produced because the capacitance,
efficiency, and leakage current of each cell are different
Basic Principles of Ultracapacitors
• Double-layer capacitor technology is the major approach to achieving the
ultracapacitor concept.
• The basic principle of a double-layer capacitor is illustrated in Figure
10.8.
• When two carbon rods are immersed in a thin sulfuric acid solution,
separated from each other and charged with voltage increasing from zero
to 1.5 V, almost nothing happens up to 1 V;
• then at a little over 1.2 V, a small bubble will appear on the surface of both
the electrodes.
• Those bubbles at a voltage above 1 V indicate electrical decomposition of
water.
• Below the decomposition voltage, while the current does not flow, an
―electric double layer‖ then occurs at the boundary of electrode and
electrolyte.
• The electrons are charged across the double layer and for a capacitor.
• An electrical double layer works as an insulator only below the
decomposing voltage.
• The stored energy, Ecap, is
expressed as

Ecap = ½ C V2,
where C is the capacitance
in Faraday and
V is the usable voltage in
volt.
• This equation indicates that the
higher rated voltage V is desirable
for larger energy density
capacitors.
• Up to now, capacitors‘ rated
voltage with an aqueous
electrolyte has been about 0.9 V
per cell, and 2.3 to 3.3 V for each
cell with a non aqueous
electrolyte.
PE interface for ultracapcitor
• The most common power converter interface used for EDLC is the
dc–dc buck boost converter [14–18].
• Two different scenarios can be considered.
• The first one, when voltage level in the connection point (Vout) is
higher than the maximum voltage achieved by the EDLC (VSC)
device.
• The second case, when the minimum voltage allowed to the EDLC
stack is higher than the voltage level in the connection point.
• This converter can be used in both situations as it is shown in Fig.
10.4.
• In both cases the EDLC module (SC) is connected to the output
capacitor Cout.
• It should be noticed that in Fig. 10.4 only a single dc–dc stage has
been considered.
• However it is possible to use several stages if they are needed to
achieve the desired voltage level.
• EDLCs are devices that store energy in an electric field. To put in or to get
out energy is necessary.
• A power converter that adapts the actual dc voltage output of the EDLC to
the connection point of the energy storage system.
• Different options can be chosen as the power converter topology.
• It mainly depends on the specific application and the voltage level in the
connection point.
• In any case, the power converter should provide bi-directional energy flow
capability.
• The control of the current supplied by the EDLC (Isc)
can be done using conventional techniques.
• Figure 10.5 shows the control scheme when the
converter in Fig 10.4a is used.
• The controller is performed by a simple PI over the
error between the measured current ISC and its
reference ISC.
• The final control signal (δsc)is calculated adding the
voltage of the EDLC to the output of the PI block.
• Finally, the firing pulses for the power switches are
calculated comparing control signal δSC with a PWM
carrier
• In some cases there are technical restrictions over the current
ripple that can be provided by the EDLC device.
• In these circumstances the interleaved dc–dc buck boost
power converter topology is a good option [19, 20].
• This converter is composed by several two power switches leg
connected in parallel to the storage device as it is shown in
Fig. 10.6.
• Each leg supplies part of the total current drawn from the
EDLC stack.
• If the PWM carriers used to generate the switching pulses of
each leg are suitable shifted then the ripple of each leg
current are canceled in the total current provided by the
module.
• To control this current the same algorithm as for the
conventional dc–dc buck-boost converter can be used.
• Other power converter topologies have been considered regarding
the application characteristic or the voltage level in the connection
point
• For instance, if the voltage steps between the EDLC device and the
output is too large then an option is to use dc–dc converters with
transformer as presented in Fig. 10.7].
• This topology allows higher operating range than conventional
buck-boost converter.
• Besides, if high frequency transformers are used then it permits to
build converters with reduced weight and volume.
• Also, it is possible to use zero voltage switching (ZVS) or zero
current switching (ZCS) modulation strategies that increase the
efficiency of the system.
• On the other hand, for grid connection it can be
adopted a conventional two level three-phase
converter (Fig. 10.8).
• This choice usually requires a large number of
series and parallel connection of EDLC cells.
• This structure is not normally optimal.
• For this reason, the use of multilevel converters,
like neutral point clamped (NPC) or cascaded H-
bridge converter (CHB), is also a good option for
grid connected applications

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