CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Concrete is a widely used structural material with applications ranging from simple
elements such as fence posts and railway sleepers to major structures such as bridges,
offshore oil production platforms and high-rise buildings. In essence the material is a
conglomerate of chemically inert aggregates (i.e. natural sands, crushed rock etc.) bonded
together by a matrix of mineral cement. The aggregates and cement are mixed together
with water to create an amorphous, plastic mass, i.e. concrete. A chemical reaction
between the cement and the water (known as the hydration process) causes the cement to
harden and the conglomerate to gain strength over a period of time. The process of
hardening is known as curing of the concrete and is important in developing the final
strength of the material. Prior to hardening, the concrete, which has been mixed into
aplastic mass, can be molded to virtually any desired shape and dimension enabling an
almost limitless variation in architectural expression.(W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)
The constituents of concrete can be found throughout the world and its use is suited
equally well to primitive, low-technology, labor-intensive applications frequently
encountered in the developing world and to highly sophisticated, capital-intensive
applications in the industrialized nations. The success of concrete as a material is due to
its versatility, particularly when combined with steel to act compositely as reinforced or
pre-stressed concrete; only reinforced concrete is considered in this text. Whilst hardened
concrete has a high compressive strength its tensile strength is very low (i.e. in the region
of 10% of the compressive strength e.g. 2 N/mm2; this is normally assumed to be equal to
zero in reinforced concrete design). This minimal tensile strength restricted the use of
concrete to circumstances in which the stress was almost entirely compressive until the

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late 19th century when methods were developed for reinforcing concrete to overcome its
weakness in tension.(W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)

2.2 Concrete Materials.

A composite material is made up of various constituents. The properties and

characteristicsof the composite are functions of the constituentmaterials’ properties as
well as the various mix proportions. Before discussing the properties of thecomposite, it
is necessary to discuss those of theindividual constituents as well as the effects ofthe mix
proportions and methods of production. (engineers without boders USA 2005)
2.2.1 Cement.
There are many different kinds of cements.In concrete, the most commonly used is
Portland cement, hydraulic cement which sets and hardensby chemical reaction with
water and is capable ofdoing so under water. Cement is the “glue” thatbinds the concrete
ingredients together and is instrumental for the strength of the composite.
Althoughcements and concrete have been around for thousands of years, modern Portland
cement was invented in 1824 by Joseph Aspin of Leeds, England.
The name derives from its resemblance of the natural building stone quarried in Portland,
England.
Portland cement is made up primarily of four mineral components (Tricalcium silicate,
dicalciumsilicate, tricalcium Illuminate, and tetracalciumaluminaferrite), each of which
has its own hydration characteristics. By changing the relative proportionsof these
components, cement manufacturers cancontrol the properties of the product.
The primary product of cement hydration isa complex and poorly crystalline calcium-
silicatehydroxide gel (or CSH). A secondary product of hydration is calcium hydroxide, a
highly crystalline material. A category of siliceous materials known aspozzolans have
little or no cementitious value, butin finely divided form and in the presence of moisture
will react chemically with calcium hydroxide toform additional CSH. This secondary
hydration process has a generally beneficial effect on the final concrete properties.

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Examples of pozzolans are flyash,ground granulated blast-furnace slag, and microsilicaor
silica fume.
The American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM) defines five types of cement,
specifying foreach the mineral composition and chemical andphysical characteristics such
as fineness. The mostcommon cement is Type I. Type III cement is usedif more rapid
strength development is required. Theother types are characterized by either lower heatof
hydration or better sulfate resistance than that of

2.2.2 Aggregate.

The aggregate is a granular material, suchas sand, gravel, crushed stone, or iron-blast
furnaceslag. It is graded by passing it through a set of sieveswith progressively smaller
mesh sizes. All materialthat passes through sieve #4 [0.187 in. (4.75 mm)openings] is
conventionally referred to as fine aggregate or sand, while all material that is retainedon
the #4 sieve is referred to as coarse aggregate,gravel, or stone. By carefully grading the
materialand selecting an optimal particle size distribution,a maximum packing density
can be achieved, wherethe smaller particles fill the void spaces between thelarger
particles. Such dense packing minimizes theamount of cement paste needed and generally
leadsto improved mechanical and durability properties ofthe concrete.

The aggregate constitutes typically 75% of the concrete volume, or more, and therefore
its propertieslargely determine the properties of the concrete. Forthe concrete to be of
good quality, the aggregate hasto be strong and durable and free of silts, organic matter,
oils, and sugars. Otherwise, it should be washedprior to use, because any of these
impurities mayslow or prevent the cement from hydrating or reduce the bond between the
cement paste and theaggregate particles.(American ConcreteInstitute, Farmingdale Hills,
MI, 2001;)

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2.2.3 Admixtures.

While aggregate, cement, and water arethe main ingredients of concrete, there are a
largenumber of mineral and chemical admixtures that maybe added to the concrete. The
four most commonadmixtures will be discussed.

1. Air-entraining agents are chemicals that areadded to concrete to improve its freeze–
thaw resistance. Concrete typically contains a large number of pores of different sizes,
which may be partially filled with water. If the concrete is subjectedto freezing
temperatures, this water expands whenforming ice crystals and can easily fracture the
cement matrix, causing damage that increases witheach freeze–thaw cycle. If the air voids
created bythe air-entraining agent are of the right size and average spacing, they give the
freezing water enoughspace to expand, thereby avoiding the damaging internal stresses.

2. Water-reducing admixtures, also known as superplasticizers, are chemicals that lower

the viscosity of concrete in its liquid state, typically by creatingelectrostatic surface
charges on the cement and veryfine aggregate particles. This causes the particles to repel
each other, thereby increasing the mix flowability, which allows the use of less water in
the mixdesign and results in increased strength and durability of the concrete.

3. Retarding admixtures delay the setting time,which may be necessary in situations

where delaysin the placement of concrete can be expected. Accelerators shorten the
period needed to initiate cement hydration—for example, in emergency repair

2.4 Material Properties

2.4.1 Concrete Compressive Strength: (FCU)

In structural terms the most important material property of concrete is its inherent
compressive strength.
In BS 8110 − 1:1997, Part 1, the characteristic strength, As the value of the cube
strength of concrete FCU. The cube strength is defined on the basis of test results carried

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out on 10 cm or 15 cm (4 inch or 6 inch) cubes cast and cured under rigid, specified
conditions and loaded to failure in a standardized compression testing machine as
indicated in
BS 1881: Testing Concrete. The characteristic value is the value below which not more
than 5% of all possible results fall, and is given by:
fk = fm1.64 s Where:
fk is the characteristic value,
fm is the mean value - normally determined from cubes which are tested 28 days after
casting, s is the standard deviation of the test results. (W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004).
In the design code (BS 8110) concrete is graded according to the characteristic
compressive strength and designated as: C30, C35, C40, C45 and C50, where the
numbers30, 40, 45 and 50 represent compressive strengths in N/mm2. Other grades of
concrete are also used for specific purposes, e.g. low-strength concretes are often used to
provide a base on which construction work can begin whilst high-strength concretes are
often used in circumstances where high stresses are developed, such as in pre-stressed
concrete.(W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)
It is important to realize that the characteristic cube strength represents the potential
strength of the concrete. The material in a structural element is likely to be less than this
value since it will have been created under less stringent manufacturing control and
curing conditions than the sample cubes used for testing. The difference between the
potential and actual strengths is reflected in the material partial safety factor(W.M.C.
McKenzie BSc, 2004)

2.4.2 Concrete Tensile Strength: ft

In reinforced concrete design the tensile strength of the concrete is normally assumed to
be zero. In serviceability calculations, e.g. for the determination of cracking strengths of
prestressed concrete members, reference is made to Section 4 of the code; this is without
the scope of this text. Calculations to determine crack widths of reinforced concrete
members under serviceability limit state conditions are carried out assuming material
properties as described in Clause 3.2.4 of BS 8110:Part 2:1985. (W.M.C. McKenzie BSc,
2004).

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2.5 Concrete Stress-Strain Relationship

The flexural strength of a reinforced concrete section is determined by consideration of

the stress-strain relationship of both the concrete and the reinforcing steel. These
characteristics are defined in Clause 2.4.2.3 and Figures 2.1 and 2.2 of the code. A typical
stress-strain curve for concrete is shown in Figure 5.8. This is a non-linear curve in which
the peak stress is developed at a compressive strain of approximately 0.002 (depending
upon the fcu value) with an ultimate strain of approximately 0.0035. There is no clearly
defined elastic range over which the stress varies linearly with the strain. Such
stress/strain curves are typical of brittle materials. (W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)

Figure 2.1 Typical stress/strain curves for concrete

This curve is replaced in the design code by a simplified representation of the short-term
design stress/strain curve for normal concrete shown in Figure 5.9 (see Figure 2.1 of the
code). (W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)

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Figure 2.2 stress and strain relationship

Where:
fcu is the cube strength in N/mm2,
m is the partial safety factor for concrete (taken as 1.5 in the code),
0.67 is a coefficient to allow for the difference in compressive strength as determined
using a cube in axial compression and the compressive strength developed in a section
due to flexure. (W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)
Figure 2.2 BS 8110 Short-term design stress/strain curve for reinforced concrete

2.6 Failures in Concrete Structures

2.6.1 Factors affecting failure

Failures in concrete structures can be due to any of the following factors:

1. Incorrect selection of materials
2. Errors in design calculations and detailing
3. Poor construction methods and inadequate quality control and supervision
4. Chemical attack
5. External physical and/or mechanical factors including alterations made to the structure
The above items are discussed in more detail below. (harold, 1991)

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2.7 Reinforcement
Reinforcing bars are produced in two grades: hot rolled mild steel bars have a yield
strength fy of 250 N/mm2; hot rolled or cold worked high yield steel bars have a yield
strength fy of 460 N/mm2.(harold, 1991)
Steel fabric is made from cold drawn steel wires welded toform a mesh; it has a yield
strength fy of 460 N/mm2.(harold, 1991)

2.8 Failures in Concrete Structures

2.8.1 Factors affecting failure

Failures in concrete structures can be due to any of the following factors:

1. Incorrect selection of materials
2. Errors in design calculations and detailing
3. Poor construction methods and inadequate quality control and supervision
4. Chemical attack
5. External physical and/or mechanical factors including alterations made to the structure
The above items are discussed in more detail below.(harold, 1991)

2.8.2 Incorrect selection of materials

The concrete mix required should be selected to meet the environmental or soil conditions
where the concrete is to be placed. The minimum grade that should be used for reinforced
concrete is grade 30. Higher grades should be used for some foundations and for
structures near the sea or in an aggressive industrial environment. If sulphates are present
in the soil or groundwater, sulphate-resisting Portland cement should be used. Where
freezing and thawing occurs air entrainment should be adopted. Further aspects of
materials selection are discussed below.(harold, 1991)

2.8.3 Errors in design calculations and detailing

An independent check should be made of all design calculations to ensure that the section
sizes, slab thickness etc. and reinforcement sizes and spacing specified are adequate to

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carry the worst combination of design loads. The check should include overall stability,
robustness and serviceability and foundation design. Incorrect detailing is one of the
commonest causes of failure and cracking in concrete structures. First the overall
arrangement of the structure should be correct, efficient and robust.(harold,
1991)Movement joints should be provided where required to reduce or eliminate
cracking. The overall detail should be such as to shed water.(harold, 1991)
Internal or element detailing must comply with the code requirements.
The provisions specify the cover to reinforcement, minimum thicknesses for fire
resistance, maximum and minimum steel areas, bar spacing limits and reinforcement to
control cracking, lap lengths, anchorage of bars etc.(harold, 1991)

2.9 Elements of RCC

The Elements of RCC includes:
 Beam
 Colum
 Slab
 Foundation

2.9.1 Slab design

Slab is a structural element with a small overall depth (h) compared to breadth (b) and
span L . It behaves similar to RC beam and as such the design will be the same. In
general, the design is as follows:
 The breadth of the beam is taken as 1000 mm
 The shear stress in the slab is considered not critical except when there is high
concentrated load
 The compression reinforcement usually not required.
 The load is uniformly distributed

2.9.2 Types of slab

There are various types of slab used in construction. However, the most popular one is the
solid slab that will be discussed in this course. The various types of slab are:
1. Solid slab
2. Flat slab

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3. Flat slab with drop panel
4. Ribbed slab
5. Waffle slab (W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, 2004)

Figure 2.3 Types of Slab

2.9.3 BEAM
Beam is a horizontal member of the structure carries transverse loads reinforced concrete
beam is subjected to the bending moments and shears. Due to the vertical external load
bending compress the top fibers of the beam and elongates the bottom fibers. The strength
of the reinforced concrete beam depends on the composite action of concrete and steels

2.9.4 Column design

A column is a very important component in a structure. It is like the legs on which a
structure stands. It is designed to resist axial and lateral forces and transfer them safely to
the footings in the ground.
The main function of the columns is to transfer vertical loads from slabs and beams to the
foundation. (Al Nageim, H., Durka, F., Morgan, W. & Williams, D.T. 2010)

2.9.5 Types of the column.

As we have learnt earlier the column types can be.
 Braced
 Unbraced.

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Figure 2.4 types of Column

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