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A Guide 1~1~J~'~ci!J~ection by the Working Committee on Bridge Inspection of the
Standing Coihm~€ on Road Structure, Road Engineering Association of Malaysia
(REAM) provides recommendations of good practices for conducting bridge inspection.
The document covers mainly bridge inspection for condition assessment. Determination
of load-carrying capacity of existing bridges or strength assessment is not covered in this
Guide. This document provides detailed descriptions of the necessary organization,
equipment and procedures for a systematic inspection exercise for both bridges and
culverts.
It is intended that this document will serve as a national guide for all bridge
owners/authorities in the country. The Working Committee sincerely hopes that all bridge
agencies in Malaysia would find this document useful for ensuring the safety and
economy of their existing bridge stock. The Working Committee also hopes that the
Guide will help to promote a uniform standard among various bridge agencies, so that a
uniform level of service is assured for all the bridges in the nation. Sharing of information
and resources among these agencies could be more easily achieved when there is a
uniform standard of practice.
Many guidelines or manuals on bridge inspection exist from the U.S.A., Canada, the U.K.
and Japan. The need for a standard that takes into considerations local Malaysian
conditions, for example the engineering practices, the climate and environment; etc., has
often been felt by bridge agencies. This Guide focuses more on types of damages and
structures found in this country.
THE ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA
46-A, Jalan Bola Tampar 13114, Section 13,40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Tel: 603-5513 6521 Fax: 5513 6523 e-mail: ream@po.jaring.my
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Organisation of Document ............................................................................................................ 1-1
1.3 Types and Frequency of Inspection .............................................................................................. 1-2
1.4 Organisation of An Inspection Program ....................................................................................... .1-5
1.5 Inspection Equipments .................................................................................................................. 1-9
CHAPTER - 2 TYPES OF DAMAGE

1. Corrosion of Steel ..........................................................................................................................2-1
2. Fracture in Steel ............................................................................................................................2-2
3. Loose Connections ........................................................................................................................2-3
4. Permanent Deformations ...............................................................................................................2-3
5. Paint Deterioration on Steel Surfaces ............................................................................................2-4
6. Cracks in Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete ............................................................................2-4
7. Spalling ..........................................................................................................................................2-6
8. Corrosion of Reinforcement ..........................................................................................................2-6
9. Wear and Abrasion ........................................................................................................................2-7
10. Material Deterioration ....................................................................................................................2-8
11. Surface Defects ..............................................................................................................................2-8
12. Delamination ...................................... '" .........................................................................................2-9
13. Abnormal Vibration / Deflection ..................................................................................................2-9
14. Water Leak ....................................................................................................................................2-10
15. Tilt / Settlement. .............................................................................................................................2-11
16. Abnormal Movement ....................................................................................................................2-11
17. Scouring ........................................................................................................................................2-12
18. Ponding Water ................................................................................................................................2-12
19. Debris and Vegetation ....................................................................................................................2-12
20. Drainage Blocked ..........................................................................................................................2-13
21. No Pipe / or Inadequate Pipe Length ............................................................................................2-13
22. Impact Damage ..............................................................................................................................2-13
23. Potholes ..........................................................................................................................................2-14
24. Wheel Track Rutting ......................................................................................................................2-14
25. Loss of Bond and Delamination (Pavement) ................................................................................2-14
26. Rippling .........................................................................................................................................2-15
27. Pavement Cracking ........................................................................................................................2-15
28. Cracking at Expansion Joint ..........................................................................................................2-16
29. Abnormal Spacing at Bridge Joint ................................................................................................2-16
30. Difference in Level at Bridge Joint.. ............................................................................................. .2-16
31. Abnormal Noise ............................................................................................................................2-17
32. Rupture at Bridge Joint ..................................................................................................................2-17
33. Abnormal Bulging at Elastomeric Bearing ....................................................................................2-18
34. Abnormal Displacement of Elastomeric Bearing Pad ..................................................................2-19
35. Erosion ..........................................................................................................................................2-19
36. Material Loss / Disintegration ......................................................................................................2-20
37. Silting at Culvert ............................................................................................................................2-20
38. Inadequate Size ..............................................................................................................................2-21
CHAPTER - 3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND REPORTING

3.1 Bridge Inspection Procedures ..........................................................................................................3-1
3.2 Reporting..........................................................................................................................................3-3
CHAPTER - 4 CONDITION RATING GUIDE BASED ON DAMAGE

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................4-1
4.2 Guideline for Clarifying Severity of Oamage................................................................................. .4-2
4.3 Recording of Infonnation ................................................................................................................4-14
REFERENCES
APPENDIX -ASTATISTICS ON MALAYSIAN BRIDGES ..........................................................A-l
APPENDIX - B BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................B-1
1.2 Types of Bridges ............................................................................................................................B-2
1.3 Bridge Components ......................................................................................................................B-3
APPENDIX., C BMS REFERENCING SYSTEM .......................................................................... C-l
APPENDIX - D NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

01 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................0-1
02 Non-Destructive Testing for The Examination of Concrete Bridges ............................................0-2
03 Non-Destructive Testing for The Examination of Steel Bridges ..................................................0-9
APPENDIX - E FORM AND CHARTS

Summary Report Fonn (REAM FORM 1101) ...................................................................................... E-l
Structural Condition Checklist (Bridge) ................................................................................................E-2
Structural Condition Checklist (Culvert) .............................................................................................. E-4
Material Condition Rating Card ............................................................................... ~ ............................E-5
Bridge Inventory Card ..........................................................................................................................E-6
APPENDIX - F PHOTOGRAPHS OF TYPICAL DAMAGE ........................................................F-1
ii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Bridges are key elements in our road networks and represent a major investment of our country's
resources. Over time, a bridge will deteriorate and become unfit for its intended purposes if no
intervening action such as maintenance, rehabilitation or strengthening is taken. Due to their
strategic locations over natural or other manmade obstacles, any failure of a bridge may limit or
severely disrupt the traffic flow in the networks, with consequent inconvenience and economic
loss to the community. Although it rarely happens, catastrophic collapse of bridges very often
result in tragic loss of human lives. It is therefore imperative that bridges be regularly inspected
and appropriate actions taken. As a second motivation for bridge inspection, high in the agenda for
most bridge owners around the world is the preservation of capital investment. There is a need to
optimise the limited bridge funds by more effective bridge management strategies. It has become
mandatory in some countries to operate a computerised Bridge Management System (BMS).
Bridge inspection provides the necessary inputs for the BMS.
In Malaysia, the Public Works Department or labatan Kerja Raya (lKR) is the custodian of over
7,000 highway bridges* along the Federal Roads in the Peninsula and perhaps, the same amount of
highway bridges along the State Roads. Although different levels of bridge inspection have been
carried out by lKR from time to time, it was not until 1995 that bridge inspection was made
mandatory to all the districts for Federal bridges.
With the privatisation of road projects starting in 1984, many bridges in Malaysia are now also
operated and managed by private companies which recoup their investments from toll collections.
Although the majority of the privately managed bridges are new, the need for a systematic bridge
inspection program of these bridges cannot be over-emphasised.
1.2 Organisation of Document

This document comprises recommendations and guidelines to bridge inspection organised in four
chapters and appendices. Chapter 1 provides a brief discussion of the types of bridge inspection,
the organisational setup and equipment needed for bridge inspection. Chapter 2 is devoted entirely
to the discussion of common damages found in Malaysian bridges. Chapter 3 provides some
guidelines on the procedures for conducting bridge inspection. Condition rating is used as a
measure of the severity and extent of the damages and thus the performance state(s) of a bridge or
its components. The recommended rating system based on lKR practice is presented in Chapter 4.
* Bridges include box and pipes culverts ofspan over O.Sm
A Guide lor Bridge Inspection 1-1

Introduction
Appendix A gives some statistics of Malaysian bridges. It is important that a bridge inspector
should have some basic understanding of bridge engineering. A brief introduction to common
Malaysian bridges is thus given in Appendix B. It is also important that a common bridge
referencing system be adopted by the different agencies in the country if the objectives set forth
for a national guide are to be achieved. Bridge referencing system is discussed in Appendix C.
Deficiencies and site conditions vary widely among structures, making it difficult to detect and
diagnose some bridges through a single inspection. Often times, a more elaborate inspection
using more sophisticated equipment may be needed after the first round of inspection.
Nondestructive testing is discussed in Appendix D and special types of inspection not already
covered in the main text. Recommended standard forms are given in Appendix E. Photographs of
typical damage to our bridges are presented in Appendix F.
1.3 Types and Frequency of Inspection
1.3.1 .Bridge inspection is classified in the Overseas Economic Congress Development

(OECD) Bridge Inspection Report in terms of the scale or intensity, and/or its frequency
of the inspection. Based on this classification, three types of bridge inspection have been
identified. A superficial inspection would be carried out as the opportunity arises by
highway maintenance personnel who have a good practical knowledge of road structures,
but not necessarily trained in bridge inspection. A principal inspection will usually be
made by trained inspectors at regular intervals. A special inspection will usually be made
by experts in connection with unusual circumstances, such as exceptional loading, with
occurrence of major weaknesses or with reassessment of the structure against revised
specifications and regulations.
1.3.2 In this document, bridge inspection is classified in terms of its purposes in the context of
a maintenance management system. In this regard, a series of different types of bridge
inspection has to be carried out to identify the annual work programmes:
a) Inventory inspection
b) Routine condition inspection
c) Confirmatory inspection
d) Detailed inspection
It is to be noted that these different types of inspection require different levels of

competence and training; and are to be performed by inspectors from either the
Headquarters or regional office.
1·2 A Guide for Bridge Inspedion

Introduction
Inventory inspection is the first inspection carried out by the inspectors at the regional
levels on a particular bridge to collect inventory data. This inspection is done visually
and systematically on every bridge in the network. Dimensioned measurements,
sketches and photographs are taken and recorded onto the inventory card of each bridge.
A sample bridge inventory card is shown in Appendix E.
Routine condition inspection is a routine inspection carried out at the regional level for
the purpose of rating the bridges based on their physical conditions and to ensure the
safety of these bridges. This type of inspection is done visually following a checklist.
This inspection can be done at least once a year, preferably during the period after the
flood season, which would normally be around March.
Confirmatory inspection follows the routine condition inspection, to ensure that

reporting done by the regional inspection teams are consistent with the established rating
criteria. This inspection shall be carrie.d out by inspection teams from the Headquarters
on those bridges that are reported to be defective. The inspection will also enable the
Headquarters to prepare the programme for bridge maintenance or further detailed
inspection.
Detailed inspection shall be carried out by engineers from the Headquarters after the
confirmatory inspection had identified the need for the bridge to be rehabilitated. The
bridge engineers will inspect the defects on the bridge and this include taking and testing
samples of defective materials and partly to assess the cause and extent of damage.
Recommendations will then be made on the most feasible rehabilitation methods.
The different type of inspection is rarely carried out alone. More often than not, to obtain
a complete surveillance of a bridge calls for a bridge inspection program involving a
series of different types of bridge inspection. A bridge maintenance management
procedure must exist in the context of a bridge management system, which stipulates
how various leyels/types or inspection should be carried· out to identify projects for
bridge maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement.
An example based on JKR practice is shown in Fig. 1.1
A Guide For Bridge Inspection 1·3

Introduction
®JKRHQ
®JKRDaerah
®JKRNegeri
Fig. 1.1 Different Levels ofJKR Bridge Maintenance Procedure
1·4 A Guide for Bridge Inspection

Introduction
1.4 Organisation of an Inspection Program
1.4.1 Roles of Key Personel
In general. bridge inspection shall be conducted at two levels: the regional and the
Headquarters. A recommended organisational set up is presented in Fig. 1.2.
I Bridge •Mallftger l
,.....-----------1................. 0
•••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••••
Team-} Team-2
r
Bridge Engineer . II Bridge ____
L -______ ~
Engineer
____
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I
a) HQ Level
.....-----------.........................................................
Team-} Team-2
b) Regional Level
Fig. 1.2 Suggested Organisational Setup
A Guic/e lor Bridge Inspection

Introduction
At the regional level, the inspection team is to be headed by a Bridge Inspector who has
attended the inspection training conducted or approved by the Headquarters. He is
assisted by two or more general workers and provided with a vehicle and driver. The
inspector in turn will carry out his duty under the order of the Regional Manager. At the
Headquarters level, the inspection team shall be headed by a bridge engineer with
sufficient experience in Bridge Engineering. These Bridge Inspectors report to a Bridge
Manager. The number of inspecting teams in the Headquarters or regional office depends
on the needs.
The roles of each member of the organisational setup are discussed here below:
Bridge Manager
The Bridge Manager is overall incharge of the whole bridge inspection and management
program. He is responsible for ensuring that the bridge inspections are duly carried out
and reported.
Regional Managers
The routine condition inspection provides the Regional Manager with an up-to-date
information about the condition of each bridge in his region and also to enable him to
assess maintenance requirements. ~n implementing the annual inspection program the
Regional Manager has the key role of coordinating, mobilising and supporting his
personnel, which include:
a) Set up a Bridge Inspection Team
b) Select suitable personnel as Bridge Inspectors and assistants.
c) Ensure that each Bridge Inspector fully understands l)is.duties and responsibilities.
d) Ensure that each Bridge Inspector has access to all necessary equipment, including
safety equipment.
e) Ensure that prior to an inspection, the Bridge Inspector is given the necessary
documents.
f) Read each inspection report carefully and make comments or suggestions if
necessary.
g) Send to the Headquarters all inspection reports as required.
h) Determine what maintenance is required, catagorise, prioritise and prepare work
schedule.
1·6 A Guide for Bridge Inspediori

Introduction
i) Ensure that the records are updated (into the Bridge Inventory Card).
j) Initiate counter measures to emergency situations.
Regional Bridge Inspectors
The Bridge Inspector acts as the leader of the inspection team, and together with his
workmen will need to go down to every bridge in his region. His duties include:
a) To conduct an inspection regularly, for example, once a year and whenever deemed
necessary by the Regional Managers.
b) To record as clearly as possible any defects found on a bridge.
c) To report any serious defects found on a bridge to the Regional Managers be it after
the condition inspection or at any other time.
d) To close down the structure in the event of emergency after consultation with the
Regional Managers.
e) Should always be on the look out for any unusual circumstances of any bridge in the
region he is working.
f) Should be familiar with all the bridges available in the region and keep a list of them.
g) To make sure that all inspection equipment are available and in good condition.
h) To carry out maintenance operation as directed by the Regional Managers.
1.4.2 Quality of a Good Bridge Inspector
The success of an inspection exercise depends on the ability of the Bridge Inspectors. In
general, a good inspector, whether a technician or an engineer by training, should possess
the general traits as follows:
a) Reliability
Bridge inspections are done at sites away from the office. A bridge inspector must
therefore be a dependable person to carry out a task as instructed; and can be counted
on to take all the necessary actions in emergency circumstances.
A Guide lor 8ric1ge Inspection 1·1

Introduction
b) Technical and Communication Skills
A bridge inspection, regardless of the type or purpose, should include the following
steps:
1. determine if there is a problem

ii. assess the severity and extent of the problem
111. evaluate any possibility of further deterioration
iv. identify the probable causes of the problem
v. report the inspection
VI. propose solutions to the problem and/or recommend a more detailed and
specialised type of inspection
To be able to do the above requires that the bridge inspectors be technically sound.
The amount of technical know ledge needed depends on the types and purposes of the
inspections. It .is important thal he has undergone' a formal training in bridge
inspection. In addition, a bridge inspector must be able to write, draw or verbally
communicate his observations to the Regional Manager.
c) Health
A Bridge Inspector must be physically fit and has good eyesight. This would en~ble
him to inspect difficult places without taking unnecessary risks as well as detecting
small defects in conditions of varying light and shade. Safety is very important and
inspectors must never take unnecessary risks.
d) Attitude
Bridge inspectors often find themselves in a dangerous, dirty and/or difficult

",'
environment. A good inspector must have the right attitude and enthusiasm to do a
good job in inspection. He must be willing to inspect items thoroughly and critically
in difficult or unusual environment.
e) Inquisitive Minds
Bridge inspection is like a detective work in which the presence of a problem, its
severity and extent, and its probable causes; etc. are deduced based on whatever tell
tales found on the bridge structure. An effective bridge inspector should thus possess
an inquisitive mind to probe into the problem and establish a logical link between
what he sees and what had probably happened.
1-8 A GuiJe lor Bridge Inspection

Introduction
1.5 Inspection Equipment
In order to carry out the inspection properly Bridge Inspectors must be properly equipped with
inspection equipment. This equipment is needed for measurement, recording, safety and access.
A set of recommended list of equipment is given below. For more specialised inspection
nondestructive testing (NDT) equipment may sometimes be needed.
Measurement Equipment
No. Eqljipmenf .'. ".,'.
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1. I 5m measuring tapes For measuring short dlm,ensions
2. 50m measuring tapes For measuring span length, width and other longer
dimension .
3. Plumbob For measuring degree of tilting at pier

4. Vernier calip~rs For measuring steel thickness
5. Crack scale For measuring crack width

-
6. Deep sounding apparatus For measuring river depth and to check scoured depth
7. Spirit Levels For measuring perpendicular distance to any structural

member and tilting of pier
8. Ranging rods For probing and measuring scour under culvert, piers and
abutments
Recording Equipment
1. Camera To take photographs of defects or damages to the

structures, and for bridge identification;
2. Blackboard To record bridge number/name while taking photographs

for bridge identification; should be supplied with chalks
and duster.
3. Clipboard As a hard surface to write on when filling forms

4. Writing paper For drawing sketches
5. Markers, pens and pencils For marking and writing
Table 1.1 Recommended List ofInspection Equipments
A Guide lor Bridge Inspection 1·9

Introduction
Safety Equipment
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1. Safety jacket (fluorescent) To be worn at all times during inspection

2. Safety helmet To be worn at all times during inspection
3. Safety boots To be worn at all times during inspection
4. life jacket worn when inspecting over waterways
5. Traffic sign boards and cones To be installed for traffic contral

6. Safety belts To be used when climbing the structure
i 7. First-aid kit For first-aid treatment of any iniuries

8. Goggles To protect the eyes while looking under deck
9. Overalls As a protective clothing
Access Equipment
,
No.·, Equip~.)r~· , '
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p(.rpOses "
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1. ladder For access to soffit, bearing, walls, etc.

2. Binoculars To be used when there is no access to the structure
3. Boats or inflatable dinghy For access to river piers and spans
4. Tapping hammer For tapping the concrete surface in order to determine the
soundness of the structure
5. Chisel & electric drill For removing the concrete for tests
6. Parang For clearing bushes, branches, weeds, etc.
7. Flashlights For lighting dark areas
8. Shoulder bag For holding equipment
9. Ropes & harness For tying and climbing
Figure 1.3 Example ofMeasuring Equipment
1-10 A Guide for Bridge Inspection

Introduction
1.6 Safety During Insp~tion
Bridge inspection can be dangerous if the inspector is not careful. Dangers may arise from
running vehicles, wild animals, insect bites and tendency of falling into the river when inspecting
above waterway. As such, a bridge inspector must always bear in mind 'Safety first' during his
planning and conduct of the inspection. A few safety rules are presented here:
• Always carry with you signs such as !tAWAS" and "PEMERIKSAAN JAMBATAN SEDANG
DUALANKAN", or similar signs which will warn drivers.
• Always put on a reflective jacket.
• Protect the work area with cones, have assistants control the traffic or close the road for a short
time, if necessary.
• Never inspect a bridge alone.
• Keep a look out for animals and insects that may harm you.
• If you have to go into enclosed places, such as inside a box girder, make sure that there is a
flow of fresh air.
• Use proper and safe access for inspection.
• Regularly service and check the inspection vehicle.
• Put on safety jacket when inspecting above waterway.
AGuide for Bridge Inspection 1-11

CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF DAMAGE
CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF DAMAGE
INTRODUCTION
The following briefly describes the type of damage normally observed at a bridge structure. Some of the
damage referred herein may indicate the factors that will contribute to further damage if immediate action
is not taken, e.g. inadequate pipe length. However for simplicity sake it is classified under types of
damage.
The princ:ipal forms of deterioration/damage arise from basically three principal causes:
i) deterioration or decay of materials used in the construction of the bridge, e.g. concrete, steel,
masonry, etc.
ii) damage by external forces to the structural elements due to impact forces and overloading, founda~ion
movement and stream forces
iii) failure of joints and bearings
The numbering preceding a type of damage refers to the code for ease of reference and use in
computerised database management system. As example, I corrosion means 1 is the code number and
corrosion is the type of damage.
1 CORROSION OF STEEL
Corrosion is the deterioration of steel members by chemical or electro-chemical reaction resulting

from exposure to air, moisture, air-borne salts, industrial fumes and other chemicals and
contaminants in the environment in which it is placed. The terms rust and corrosion are used inter
changeably in this sense. Corrosion, or rusting, will only occur if the steel is not protected or if the
protecti ve coating wears or breaks off.
Rust on carbon steel is initially fine grained, but as rusting progresses it becomes flaky and
delaminates exposing a pitted surface. The process thus continues with progressive loss of
section.
Weathering steel, on the other hand, will form a relatively smooth rust layer, called a patina,
which protects the underlying metal from further corrosion. However, in less than ideal
circumstances, the patina may not form or may be penetrated and delaminated, resulting in
progressive corrosion.
A Guide for Bridge Inspection 2·1

2 FRACTURE IN STEEL
Crack is a linear fracture in the steeL Cracks are mainly produced due to fatigue and can, under
certain conditions, lead to a brittle fracture.
Brittle fracture is a crack completely through the component that usually occurs without prior
warning or plastic deformation. Brittle fracture may result at fatigue prone details after initial
fatigue cracking. Fatigue prone details are those details that are susceptible to the growth of
fatigue cracks.
Fracture critical components are components which are subject to tensile stresses in a
single load path structure and whose failure could lead to collapse of the structure. Any
attachment having a length in the direction of tension stress greater than lOOmm and that is
welded to the tension area of a fracture critical component shall also be considered as fracture
critical.
The primary factors leading to fatigue cracking are : the number of applied stress cycles, which
is a function of the volume of traffic; the magnitude of the stress range, which depends on the
applied live load; and the fatigue strength of the connection detail. Cracks caused by fatigue
usually occur at points of tensile stress concentrations, at welded attachments or at termination
points of welds. Cracks may also be caused or aggravated by overloading, vehicular collision or
loss of section resistance due to corrosion. In addition, stress concentrations due to the poor
quality of fabricated details and the fracture toughness of materials used are contributing factors.
Material fracture toughness will determine the size of crack that can be tolerated before fracture
occurs.
Welded details are more prone to cracking than bolted or riveted details. Grinding off the weld
reinforcement to be smooth or flush with the joined metal surfaces improves fatigue resistance.
Once cracking occurs in a welded connection, it can extend into other components due to a
continuous path provided at the welded connection, and possibly lead to a brittle fracture.
Bolted or riveted connections may also develop fatigue cracking, but a crack in one component
will generally not pass through into the others. Bolted and riveted connections are also susceptible
to cracking or tearing resulting from prying action, and by a build-up of corrosion forces between
the parts of the connection.
As cracks may be concealed by rust, dirt or debris, the suspect surfaces should be cleaned prior to
inspection.
2-2 A Guiele lor Bridge Inspection

3 LOOSE CONNECTIONS
Loose connections can occur in bolted or riveted connections; and, may be caused by corrosion of
the connector plates or fasteners, excessive vibration, over stressing, cracking, or the failure of
individual fasteners.
Loose connections may sometimes not be detectable by visual inspection. Cracking or excessive
corrosion of the connector plates or fasteners, or permanent deformation of the connection or
members framing into it, may be indications of a loose connection. Tapping the connection with a
hammer is one method of determining if the connection is loose.
Loosening or movement of the joint and its components is the most common form of failure and
may be accompanied by ratting and by breaking of bolts, joint components and seatings. The
onset of some form of loosening can usually be detected by a crack developing between the joint
and the adjoini42p.567ng surfacing and by increased noise under traffic. Eventually a series of
cracks will develop in the surfacing itself. Adhesion or anchorage of the joint to the seating can
usually be checked by the ringing note when the joint is tapped with a hammer. Waters tops cast
into the deck at construction may induce fracture in the concrete at the end of deck slab. Loose
parts of the joint thrown up by the passage of a wheel can present extreme danger to traffic. The
tightness of anchor bolts and nuts in bearings should be checked to ensure freedom from
excessive vibration and proper restraint.
4 PERMANENT DEFORMATIONS
Permanent deformation of steel members can take the form of bending, buckling, twisting or
elongation, or any combination of these. Permanent deformations may be caused by overloading,
vehicular collision, or inadequate or damaged intermediate lateral supports or bracing. See Photo
4aand4b.
Permanent bending deformations occur in the direction of the applied loads and are usually
associated with flexural members; however, vehicular impact may produce permanent
deformations in bending in any other members.
Permanent buckling deformations normally occur in a direction perpendicular to the applied load
and are usually associated with compression members. Buckling may also produce local
permanent deformations of webs and flanges of beams, plate girders or box girders.
A Guide for Bridge Inspedion 2-3

Types of Damage
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Permanent twisting deformations appear as a rotation of the member about its longitudinal axis
and are usually the result of eccentric transverse loads on the member. Permanent axial
deformations occur along the length of the member and are normally associated with applied
tension loads.
5 PAINT DETERIORATION ON STEEL SURFACES.
Structural steel elements are protected against corrosion by painting with protective coating
system. When corrosion risks are high, the steel is first galvanised and subsequently painted.
Galvanising is a thin layer of zinc on the surface of the steeL It is put on the steel by a special
process. In air, galvanising stops the steel from rusting for a longer time than paint. But in salt
water, galvanising soon comes off and the steel starts to rust.
There are several types of material defects that commonly occur in coatings which can be grouped
into the following three categories:
(a) Coating Related Defects
These are defects which are related to the basic chemistry or composition of the coating
and reaction of the coating materials with each other and the environment.
(b) Adhesion Related Defects
These are defects which are usually a result of incorrect coating selection, contaminated
substrate or improper surface preparation.
(c) Application Related Defects
These are defects which are usually a result of the improper application of the coating.
6 CRACKS IN REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
A crack is a linear fracture in concrete which extends partly or completely through the
member. Cracks in concrete occurs as a result of tensile stresses introduced in the concrete.
Tensile stresses are initially carried by the concrete and reinforcement until the level of
the tensile stresses exceeds the tensile capacity (modulus of rupture) of the concrete. After
this point the concrete cracks and the tensile force is transferred completely to the steel
2-4 A Guide lor 8ridge Inspection

Types of Damage
------------~----------------------------------------------
reinforcement. The crack widths and distribution is controlled by the reinforcement

in reinforced and prestressed concrete, whereas in plain concrete there is no such
controL
The build-up of tensile stresses and, therefore, cracks in concrete may be due to externally
applied loads, external restraint forces, internal restraint forces, differential movements
and settlements, or corrosion of reinforcement. Externally applied loads generate a system(s)
of internal compressive and tensile stresses, in the members and components of the structure,
as required to maintain static equilibrium. Cracks resulting from externally applied loads
initially appear as hairline cracks and are harmless. However, as the reinforcement is
further stressed the initial cracks open up and progressively spread into numerous wider cracks.
Photo 6a to 6c shows typical flexure, shear, axial and torsional cracks due to applied external
load.
External restraint forces are generated if the free movement of the concrete in response to the
effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage is prevented from occurring due to restraint at the
member supports. The restraint may consist of friction at the bearings, bonding to already
hardened concrete, or by attachment to other components of the structure. Cracks resulting from
the actions of external restraint forces develop in a similar manner as those due to externally
applied loads.
Internal restraint forces are caused by the differential expansion or contraction of the exterior
surface of concrete relative to the interior surface of concrete relative to the interior mass of the
concrete, as in plastic shrinkage. The resulting surface cracks are normally shallow and appear as
pattern cracks, checking and D-cracks.
Differential movements or settlements result in the redistribution of external reactions and

internal forces in the structure. This may in tum result in the introduction of additional tensile
stresses and, therefore, cracking in the concrete components of the structure. Movement cracks
may be of any orientation and width, ranging from fine cracks' above the reinforcement due to
formwork settlement, to wide cracks due to foundation or support settlement. Corrosion of
reinforcement produces cracks as described in Code Number 8.
Prestressed bridges are normally designed to avoid cracks in the concrete and, accordingly, the
development of cracks can have serious structural implications. Spalling of the concrete may
sometimes occur with or without associated cracking. Again the structural implications can be
serious.
A Guide for Bridge Inspection 2-5

Types of Damage
7 SPALLING
A spall is a fragment, which has been detached from a larger concrete mass. Spalling is a
continuation of the delamination process whereby the actions of external loads or pressure exerted
by the corrosion of reinforcement. The spalled area left behind is characterized by sharp edges.
Very severe spalling in a concrete beam and local severe spalling in a concrete deck are illustrated
in Photo 7a and 7b respectively.
Vehicular or other impact forces on exposed concrete edges, deck joints or construction joints,
may also result in the spalling or breaking off of pieces of concrete locally.
Spalling may also be caused by overloading of the concrete in compression. This results in the
breaking off of the concrete cover to the depth of the outer layer of reinforcement. Spalling may
also occur in areas of localized high compressive load concentrations, such as at structure
supports, or at anchorage zones in post-tensioned concrete.
Spalling of patched areas may occur due to continued deterioration of the old concrete and
subsequent breaking off of the new patch.
8 CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
Corrosion is the deterioration of reinforcement by electrolysis. The products of the corrosion

process have a volume much larger than the parent steeL This volume increase generates high
internal pressures which cause debonding, cracking and eventually spalling of the concrete (Photo
8).
• In an R.C. construction, the alkali content in concrete protects the reinforcement from
corrosion. However the steel can be de-passivated by the ingress of carbon dioxide or
chlorides through the pore structure of the concrete.
• Carbonation - the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in pore water of the concrete and
reacts with the calcium hydroxide to give neutral calcium carbonate. This reaction
progressively lowers the alkalinity of the concrete to a pH of less than 9.5. This removes the
passive oxide layet from the steel which then allows corrosion to occur if sufficient electrolyte
and oxygen are present. Carbonation of the concrete does not itself cause the steel
reinforcement to corrode, but creates an environment where corrosion can occur in the
presence of moisture, oxygen and an electrolyte. An electrolyte can be formed by very small
quantities of carbon dioxide, sulphates or chlorides in the water.

• Chloride contamination - chloride contamination of concrete results in rapid corrosion of
the steel. The chlorides can come from a number of sources including contaminated
aggregates, admixtures such as calcium chloride, and exposure to sea water, salt spray or
saline water.
The chloride dissolves in the pore water within the concrete to from an electrolyte and the
chloride ions can locally depassivate the steel reinforcement by breaking down the protective
oxide layer, even in highly alkaline concrete.
Corrosion of prestressing tendons occurs in similar circumstances and by similar mechanisms to

corrosion in normal reinforcement.
The better quality of concrete normally used for prestressed concrete and higher standard of
workmanship normally available in a prestressing yard both reduce the probability of corrosion.
However the faster rate at which it progresses due to the high stress in the tendons and the more
sudden mode of failure of prestressed concrete members with tendon corrosion both make the
consequences of tendon corrosion much more serious. Furthermore, because prestressing tendons
often have a thicker cover than reinforcing steel or are located inside metal ducts, evidence of
corrosion may not be visible.
Poor quality grout or bad grouting techniques may result in voids being present in the duct
and lead to corrosion of the tendon. This is more likely in early prestressed concrete bridges,
when good grouting techniques were. still being developed, and in vertical prestressing
ducts.
9 WEAR AND ABRASION
Wear is usually the result of dynamic and/or frictional forces generated by vehicular traffic,
coupled with the abrasive influx of sand, dirt and debris. It can also result from the friction of
water-borne particles against partly or completely submerged members. The surface of the
concrete appears polished.
Abrasion is the deterioration of concrete brought about by vehicles or sea vehicles scraping
against concrete surfaces, such as, decks, curbs, barrier walls or piers.

Types of Damage
10 MATERIAL DETERIORATION
For the purpose of bridge inspection work, material deterioration is the physical deterioration or
breaking down of the concrete into small fragments or particles or construction defect. Material
deterioration may be caused by chemicals, such as sulphates, chlorides or acid from the ground or
river water. Construction defects, results in honeycombing due to insufficient compaction or leaky
formwork. Material deterioration of the concrete is illustrated in Photo 1O.
11 SURFACE DEFECTS
The following surface defects in concrete are described herein:
a) Stratification
b) Segregation
c) Cold Joints
d) Deposits - efflorescence, exudation, incrustation, stalactite
e) Honeycombing
f) Pop-outs
Surface defects are not necessarily serious in themselves; however, they are indicative of
potential weakness in the concrete, and their presence should be noted but not classified
as to severity, except for honeycombing and pop-outs.
Stratification is the separation of the concrete components into horizontal layers in

overwetted or overvibrated concrete. Water, laitance, mortar and coarse aggregates
occupy successively lower positions. A layered structure in concrete will also result from
the placing of successive batches that differ in appearance.
Segregation is the differential concentration of the components of mixed concrete

resulting in non-uniform proportion in mass. Segregation is caused by concrete falling
from a height, with the coarse aggregate settling. to the bottom and fines on top. Another
form of segregation occurs where reinforcing bars prevent the uniform flow of concrete
between them.
Cold Joints are produced if there is a delay between the placement of successive pours
of concrete, and if an incomplete bond develops at the joint due to the partial settling of
the concrete in the first pour.
2-8 . A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

Deposits are often left behind where water percolates through the concrete and dissolves
or leaches chemicals from it and deposits them on the surface. Deposits may appears as
the following :
* Efflorescence - deposits of salts, usually white and powdery
* Exudation - a liquid or gel-like discharge through pores or cracks in the surface
* Incrustation a hard crust or coating formed on the concrete surface
* Stalactite - a downward pointing formation hanging from the concrete surface,

usually shaped like an icicle
Honeycombing is produced due to the improper or incomplete vibration of the concrete

in which results in voids being left in the concrete where the mortar failed to completely
filled the spaces between the coarse aggregate particles.
Pop-outs are shallow, typically conical depressions, resulting from the breaking away of
small portions of concrete surface, due to the expansion of some aggregates or due to
frost. The shattered aggregate particle may be found at the bottom of the depression,
with a part of the aggregate still adhering to the pop-out cone.
12 DELAMINATION
Delamination is defined as a discontinuity of the concrete surface of which is substantially

separated but not completely detaehed from concrete below or above it. Visibly, it may appear as
a solid surface but can be identified as a hollow sound by tapping or chain dragging. Delamination
begins with the corrosion of reinforcement and subsequent cracking of the concrete. However, in
case of closely spaced bars, the cracking extends in the plane of the reinforcement parallel to the
exterior surface of the concrete.
Delamination or debonding may also occur in concrete that has been patched or overlaid due to
the continued deterioration of the older concrete. This may happen even in the absence of any
rusting of reinforcing steeL
13 ABNORMAL VIBRATION / DEFLECTION
Abnormal vibration occurs on a bridge due to overloading, under-designed (at design stage),
under-sizing (construction stage), defective or inadequate bearing and local and general scour due
to undermining of foundation. Failure to arrest this problem could lead to structural problem

Types of Damage
which is catastrophic in nature. Excessive vibration may not be structurally damaging, unless the 1
vibrations are setting up resonance, and, hence, causing instability to the structure.
They can, however, be general indicators of distress within the structure, particularly if vibration
and noise have become more evident since a previous inspection. Vibration can be detected by
standing on the mid-span of the superstructure and/or on the road in the vicinity of the
substructure when vehicles pass.
Excessive deflection occurs on a bridge due to overloading (live loads), under-designed (at
design stage) and under-sizing (construction stage). It is a difficult task to quantify and assess
the excessive deflections with accurate precision. The presence of excessive deflections shall
be checked by standing on the mid-span of the superstructure. The deformation of the structure
or any part of it should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance. Deflections should
be compatible with the degree of movement acceptable by other elements including parapet,
services, etc. Excessive deflection is one of the best visual indicators of the state of the structure.
Small deflections due to heavy traffic loading can usually be detected visually, but longer term
deformations, due to the structure's self-weight or repeated overloads, will require detection by
leveling instruments. Most structural materials undergo a substantial deflection under overload or
conditions of distress before failure takes place.
14 WATER LEAK
Sign of water leak is normally indicated by dampness, fungus or mould growth and sometimes
vegetation growth. Water leak occurs as a result of defective expansion joint, construction joint,
porous concrete, micro-crack within concrete itself and inadequate drainage. In short, any water
that fallon the bridge structure was not diverted away from it. Periodic wetting and drying at the
leak area will eventually lead to material deterioration.
Expansion joints are designed with open gaps through which water and debris can fall whilst
others are designed to be sealed and prevent passage of water. For open joints a drainage system
is provided under the joint to carry the water and debris away from the bearing sill. This system
should be checked for free drainage. Sealed joints use compressed seals, strip seals or sealants.
Water tightness is unlikely to be maintained for the whole life of the joint, so it should be checked
for leaking water. The quantity of water going through a nominally sealed joint can be substantial
and the period very prolonged as water stored in the surfacing system may continue leaking out at
joints for several weeks after rain has ceased.
\

Types of
15 TILT/SEmEMENT
Tilt normally occurs due to uneven settlement of foundation, displacement of pier (inclination)
due to traffic impact or slip circle failure.
All foundations undergo small movements, which if they remain small and uniform, cause no
distress to the structure. Movements of large magnitudes, especially when they are differential
movements, cause distress to nearly all structures, unless specific provisions have been made
during design. Such movements result from the unpredicted settlement or failure of foundation
material, which is sometimes associated with mining subsidence, the development of cavities
in rocks, scour, frost action and changes in water table. The onset of foundation movement
may be difficult to detect, unless periodic leveling surveys have been carried out. Usually
the first indication of trouble is a visual one caused by a change in the geometry of the
structure, such as excessive or unusual movements at bearings and at expansion joints,
cracking of abutments, wingwalls and ends of beams, or tilting of piers, abutments or
wingwalls.
16 ABNORMAL MOVEMENT
Abnormal movements can produce lateral and/or vertical movements, depending on the
characteristic of the loads or substructures.
Simple span structures, and those with sufficient joints, will tolerate even moderate differential
displacements with little difficulty other than minor cracking. Movements of large magnitudes,
can cause distress in structure. Large movements will cause deck joints to jam, slabs to crack,
bearings to shift, substructures to crack, rotate, or slide, and superstructures to crack, buckle, and
possibly even to collapse.
A statically indeterminate bridge superstructure can be seriously affected by differential

movements, since such movements at supports will redistribute the loads, possibly causing large
overstresses. Continuous bridges have fewer joints than simple spans. Such bridges are very
likely to be damaged if subjected to displacements which are greater in magnitude or different in
direction from those that were considered in the original design.
During the inspection, abnormal movements can be detected by first observing for any signs of
deviations from the proper geometry of the bridge. With the exceptions of curved structures,
haunch members, and steeply inclined bridges, members and lines should usually be either

Types of Damage
parallel or perpendicular to each other. While not always practical, especially for bridges
spanning large bodies of water or those located in urban areas, careful observation of the overall
structure for lines that seem incongruous with the rest of the bridge is a good starting point.
17 SCOURING
Scour is the removal of material from the stream bed or bank due to the erosi ve action of moving
water in the stream. Scour may be general or local. General Scour occur due to constriction to the
,.
A
general flow created by the structure. It is measured by the average depth below the original
stream bed. Local scour occurs as a result of an obstruction to the flow such as, a pier, an
abutment, the toe of the embankment or accumulation of debris such as timber log in the stream.
Local scour is measured below.the level of general scour.
Bridges often constrict the natural waterway as a result of the construction of embankments
for the approaches. During major floods water velocities may be greater than those
which previously occurred naturally and this can cause major scour damage. A major review
concluded that 80% of all bridge failures were due to scour. Bridge openings which are either
misaligned with the waterway or sited on a bend in the stream may be subject to scour of the bank ,
;.
on the outside edge of the bend. Since the water on the outside edge of a bend speeds up, it has a
greater potential to cause scour, particularly if the material is friable or softened by water. The
presence of other obstructions in the waterway also speeds up the flow, thus increasing the
potential for scour.
18 PONDING WATER
Ponding water normally occurs on flat area such as at bearing or pavements surface. On
impermeable surface the water collects and accelerate material deterioration process.
19 DEBRIS AND VEGETATION
Debris and vegetation normally accumulate or grow at damp area such as at failed expansion joint
and bearing area. Accumulation of debris at bearing accelerates material degradation and may
hide serious defects. This may lead to excessive restraint against movement and cause spalling in
concrete and local buckling in steel members. If these are detected during inspection work it
should be immediately removed.

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Types of Damage
;5 20 DRAINAGE BLOCKED
,
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Blocked drainage occurs due to inadequate design, ineffective maintenance or vandalism.
'1:.
Blocked "drainage will cause water to overflow on adjacent bridge component giving rise to wet
~
f area. Similar as in debris and vegetation (see item 15). When detected immediate clean up
~
operation or increasing the drain size should be undertaken.
21 NO PIPE/OR INADEQUATE PIPE LENGTH
Insufficient drainage due to absence of pipe or inadequate pipe length will result in water
stained area, promote growth of vegetation and eventually lead to material deterioration at the
affected area. For a typical JKR bridge, 4 nos of lOOmm diameter (4") pipe is normally
prescribed at each bay of the deck slab. The pipes are normally placed at each comer of the slab.
If missing pipes or inadequate pipe length is/are observed during the inspection work
immediate action need to be taken to install the missing pipes and modifying the existing
inadequate pipe length.
22 IMPACT DAMAGE
For this work, impact damage on a bridge structure occurs due to vehicular traffic such as
motorist hitting the parapet. These results in the safety of the motorist/pedestrian being
compromised.
Impact on piers are damages caused when:
a) ships strike a glancing blow against piers, abutments and fendering
b) trains are derailed or motor vehicles are out of control and collide against piers and
abutments
c) over width loads or projecting parts of trains or motor vehicles, such as open doors of rail
cars, having a narrow clearance to the bridge substructure, strike against piers, abutments
t or guardrailing
I
d) heavy floating debris carried by rapidly flood waters impacts against the bridge
structure
n A Guide for Bridge Inspection 2-13

,
I
e) air borne debris carried by strong winds strikes the structure
The damage typically caused inc1udes:
a) spalling of concrete members, with or without exposing the reinforcement
b) cracking of members, both steel and concrete
c) pennanent defonnation of members
d) damage to posts, railing and parapets
e) rupture or fracture of members
f) collapse of bridge
23 POTHOLES
Potholes are bowl-shaped holes in the pavement caused by the penetration of water through the
pavement due to heavy rain and breaking up of the pavement due to subsequent traffic action.
Pavements already deteriorated with such defects such as alligator cracking and ravelling are
prone to the occurrence of potholes.
A typical example of a pothole is illustrated in Photo 23.
24 WHEEL TRACK RUTTING
Rutting is the fonnation of longitudinal depressions in the pavement at the locations of the wheel
tracks of vehicles resulting from the compaction and shoving of the pavement laterally under
repeated vehicle traffic.
25 LOSS OF BOND AND DElAMlNAnON (PAVEMENT)
Loss of bond and delamination may occur betweeen the asphalt pavement and deck surface,
between the waterproofing and the deck surface, between the waterproofing and asphalt pavement
or between individual lifts of pavement.
Loss of bond and delamination is not directly visible on the pavement surface; however, they may
often be detected by hanuner sounding or chain drag. The accurate assessment of the extent or

Types of VU"'U~t:I
severity of these defects can usually only be determined by detailed deck survey methods; such as,
thermography, radar and removal of the pavement.
RIPPLING
Rippling is the formation of transverse undulations in the pavement surface consisting of closely
spaced valleys and crests. Rippling is the result of poor bond of the pavement to the surface
below with the subsequent action of wheel friction and braking forces moving the pavement 'mat'
forwards, backwards and sideways.
27 PAVEMENT CRACKING
A crack is a linear fracture extending partially or completely through the pavement. Cracking in
pavements may be caused by anyone or a combination of the following factors; the action of
vehicular wheel loading; poor quality material; poor compaction; placement or quality control;
poor drainage; temperature susceptibility of the asphalt cement binder; and as reflection cracks,
which are the extension of cracks in the surface below the pavement.
Cracks are distinguished by their appearance and direction. The following types of cracks are
commonly observed in pavements; longitudinal, transverse, alligator, map, and progressive edge
cracking.
Longitudinal cracks are roughly parallel to the direction of travel and may be situated at or near
the center of the wheel tracks, centreline roadway, mid-lane, or along pavement edges.
~l
Transverse cracks are approximately at right angles to the pavement centreline and may extend
:r
partially or completely across the pavement.
Alligator cracks form a network of multi-sided polygons or blocks resembling the skin of an
alligator. The block sizes typically range from 50mm to 500mm. They may occur anywhere in the
pavement surface, and may be accompanied by depressions in the surface.
Map cracks run randomly along the pavement, sometimes in a serpentine manner. They appear to
It
consist of longitudinal and transverse cracks combined to form a 'map' pattern.
y
Ir
J/1 A Guide for Bridge Inspection 2-15

Progressive Edge cracks begin parallel to and usually within 300mm of the edges of the
pavement; such as, along curb edges and expansion joint darns. The cracks are either fairly
straight and continuous or consists of crescent-shaped cracks in a wave formation. These cracks
may progress significantly into the travelled portion of the pavement. Edge breaking of the
pavement often results from these.
28 CRACKING AT EXPANSION JOINT
Cracking of surfacing at buried joints are a common phenomenon for short span bridges. It is
convenient to carry the road surfacing over the joint, both to make the surfacing operation easier
and to provide a better standard of riding quality. Cracks may eventually appear over the buried
expansion joint and the extent of this cracking should be taken as an indication of the need for a
local repair of the surfacing.
The various types of cracks observed at expansion joint 'are illustrated in Photo 28a and 28b.
29 ABNORMAL SPACING AT BRIDGE JOINT
Abnormal spacing refers to the condition where the normal prescribed spacing is either
abnormally wide or where there is no provision for movement. Abnormal spacing could arise due
to construction error or damages incurred by the bridge throughout its life. Abnormal spacing
could lead to damage occurring on the bearings and backwalls.
Freedom of movement, clearance and alignment should be adhered to so that there would
be adequate space for the joint to function under the prevailing temperatures. Clearance
may, however, be lost because of unforeseen or accidental movement taking place in
the foundations, substructures and superstructures. It may also result from the wrong setting
of the joints during the construction period. This defect may lead to restrictions on
movements of the joint which, in turn, introduce stresses into the structure, or the gap in the
joint may become excessively large, thereby presenting a hazard to traffic or damaging the
seal.
30 DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL AT BRIDGE JOINT
Despite adhering to construction practice of the highest standard, difference in level especially at
bridge approach and expansion joint do occur either due to settlement or failure of joint detail
itself.

Types of Damage
Irregularity of vertical profile refers to one part of a joint being displaced vertically relative
to the other and if this displacement is excessive it will cause additional impact forces
under traffic loading and may present a hazard to the safety of small and two-wheeled
vehicles.
Approach settlement normally occurs at approaches to a bridge where a sudden

depression at the road surface causes vehicles to bounce up and down as they traverse
across the bridge. Problems arise from the differential settlement of embankments and
substructures. They are usually made evident by the depression that occurs in the road
surface adjacent to the bridge deck. Settlement may introduce a risk of impact damage
to the bridge from vehicles and cause discomfort and risk of accidents to the vehicles
and their occupants. Research by the Civil Research Institute of Japan has indicated
that a difference in level between 15mm or greater can induce shock to the bridge and the
motorist.
Sometimes transition slabs are used to reduce the effect of differential settlement between
abutments and the approaches. Unfortunately these slabs, and their supports are often
inaccessible for inspection.
31 ABNORMAL NOISE
Abnormal noise are produced by any structural defects such as loosening of bolts due to the
pounding action of vehicular traffic, corrosion of connector plates/fasteners/splice joints,
excessive vibration and clashing of structural members, overstressing of members due to live
loads, cracking of members etc. The source of generation location/position shall be noted.
Attention should also be focused on abnormal noise heard from stopper for shifting of movable
bearings and steel girders.
32 RUPTURE AT BRIDGE JOINT
Rupture refers to deterioration experienced by the rubber seal and elastomeric components
of bridge expansion joint. Rupture could lead to water leaking debris impaired ordinary
comfort.
Various types of seal and sealants have been used. and suffer a range of deterioration.
Deterioration may be so rapid that after a period of only one to five years the seal or the sealant
may not perform adequately. Some typical problems include:

I
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~,
a) Neoprene compression seals lose their initial compression over a period of time and ~ 3
j
under extreme coldlheat may be unable to expand sufficiently to keep the joint sealed. ~
The seal will leak, and may even fall out. Debris may also enter the gaps between the
seal and the nosing, thus preventing the seal from resealing the joint when it next
contracts.
b) Neoprene strip seals may be punctured by debris trapped in the joint when it closes or by
debris hammered by the wheels of traffic. The seal will then leak.
c) Polysulphide and polyurethane sealants may be damaged by debris pressed into the soft
surface by wheels. These are subjected to repeated tensile stresses which may cause the
sealant to break away from one or both edges of the joint and repeated compressive
stresses which may cause the sealant to be extruded from the joint. In general
polyurethane sealants have been found to perfonn better than polysulphide.
33 ABNORMAL BULGING AT ELASTOMERIC BEARING
Faults include splitting, tearing or cracking of the outer casing and uneven bulging and
distortion caused by excessive compressive forces. The first signs of distress usually show as
non-unifonn ripping of the vertical surfaces followed by horizontal cracks near the junction of
the rubber pad and steel laminate. The bearings should also be examined for excessive rotation
which is usually indicated by differences in thickness between the back and the front of the
bearing. In other bearings where there is no outer casing corrosion and delamination of the steel
plates may occur.
Elastomeric bearing pads should be examined for any bulging caused by excessive compression
forces. The bearing pads should be carefully inspected and there should be slight bulges in each
lamination as the loads push the elastomer out. These bulged faces should be smooth with no
, checks or cracks. Poor quality material often develops a crack along the point of greatest bulge.
These cracks often work into the pad until it is ruined.
There should also be plenty of room for the pads to work back and forth. If the restraining
lips of concrete around the pad are too restrictive, the concrete will break away and restraint
will be lost. Pads of sound design and quality that are properly installed need very little
maintenance.
2-18 A Guicle for Bridge Inspection

Types of Damage
34 ABNORMAL DISPLACEMENT OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING PAD
Elastomeric bearings are normally used on prestressed concrete or curved steel girders of short
and moderate span lengths. These bearings are constructed of natural rubber and composed of
elastomer with laminates of another material, such as steel embedded in and bonded to it. The
elastomeric expansion bearing is designed to accommodate both horizontal and vertical
movement by distortion of the bearing itself. The fixed elastomeric bearing is usually restrained
against horizontal movement by the use of anchoring dowels extending from the superstructure
through the bearing into the substructure.
The condition of a bearing and its seating is an important indicator, not only of the condition of the
bearing itself but sometimes of some other defect in the structure. Bearings are located where
movement is intended to take place so that if they do not function adequately the structure may
suffer excessive stress.
Faulty positioning or alignment may prevent the bearing from functioning correctly. For
example, there may be incomplete contact at bearing surfaces on thrust plates, and keyways and
gearing may bind or not engage properly. In skew and curved bridges, bearings and lateral shear
keys may bind of suffer damage.
When skews are extreme, normal expansion and contraction does not occur in a direction that
is parallel to the centreline of the roadway. Therefore a careful study of the geometry of the
bridge is important to determine how the expansion is going to take place. The design shall take
into account the longitudinal and horizontal forces on the expansion joint and its bearing,
otherwise distress will occur resulting in the 'walking of bearing'. When elastomeric pads
are used between concrete surfaces, the concrete is usually placed against them without any
adhesive. However, under violent movement, such as an earthquake, pads tend to walk out of
position.
35 EROSION
Erosion is the gradual wearing away or removal of material by surface drainage or wind.
Sources of surface drainage potentially leading to erosion are leakage through expansion
joints onto the embankment, runoff around the ends of wingwalls, discharge from deck drains
directly above the embankment and abutment and wingwall subdrains discharging onto the
embankment. Erosion detection on embankment should be limited within 30m surrounding the
structure.

of Domoge
This most destructive condition occurs where the orientation of the pier or footing and flow 31
direction differ. Undermining of the pier and subsequent settlement may result in serious
structural damage to a bridge. Erosion may also result in the reduction of friction pile stability
since it removes some of the material from the friction area. In some cases, bearing piles founded
in a hard layer may even lose some stability due to scour.
-
Erosion is also caused by the constriction of flow at the bridge site, meander geometry of the
stream, the stream bed material, the bank material as well as the size of the piers.
Severe channel misalignment at a structure, often attributed to improper design, actually may be
the result of changes in channel morphology that make the design improper or ineffective at that
time. These changes may have resulted from circumstances connected with a particular flood
flow that causes a large discharge moving at high velocity to act on the stream bed, carrying away
large quantities of material, and thus lowering the elevation of the bottom of the stream.
Erosion is a time-dependent process, which is strongly influenced by the variable nature of stream
flow. The effects of erosion are particularly evident after rare and unusual floods have been
experienced. Many complex factors interact to cause streambeds and banks to erode, shift
alignment and change profile. Therefore, expert advice should be obtained before attempting to
correct a serious erosion problem.
36 MATERIAL LOSS/DISINTEGRATION
Material loss/disintegration at the slope protection area refers to the splitting, spalling and
disintegration of the slope protection material such as masonry, rubble pitching etc. The cause
of this occurrence could be due to abrasion and weathering, actions of acids, sulphates or
chloride (present in the water), movement and vegetation growth or the loss of strength to the
mortar joint.
37 SILTING AT CULVERT
Silting is the raising of the stream/river bed or the narrowing of the stream/river channel due to
deposition of material by the stream/river. It usually results in the transport sediment capacity of
the stream/river to decrease. Silting often results from a natural flattening of the stream bed
gradient or as a result of artificial alterations. In Malaysia silting will inadvertently expose the
bridge to flash flood which eventually will affect the surrounding area. For a culvert, silting will
cause choking and results in overflow of water to the adjacent area.
2-20 A Guide lor Bridge Inspedion

Types of Damage
38 INADEQUATE SIZE
This refer to disproportionate sizing of the bridge or culvert opening with respect to the waterway.
If the opening is smaller than the waterway, overtopping will occur and subsequently lead to
scouring/instability around the abutment area or soiVfoundation surrounding the culvert.
Overtopping at bridge abutment area could lead to erosion hence affecting the overall structural
performance.
'1 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection 2-21

CHAPTER 3
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
AND REPORTING
Inspection Procedures and /(pnflrtIl11"1
CHAPTER 3
INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND REPORTING
3.1 Bridge Inspection Procedures
Bridge inspection is the process by which infonnation on the structural and physical condition of
a bridge and its immediate surroundings is collected. The inspection exercise involves identifying
and quantifying the damages and deterioration in a bridge caused by applied loads from various
sources, its intrinsic weakness or by chemical influences imposed by the environment.
In order to achieve the purposes of an inspection program the bridge inspector must be systematic
and meticulous in planning and performing the bridge inspection. Equally important is in
reporting the results of the inspection. It is important that the following procedures be observed:
Before Inspection
a) Prepare an inspection schedule for the bridge inspection.
b) Do a desk study of available documents for the bridge to be inspected.
c) Fill out Standard Reporting Fonn and Structural Condition Checklist based on Bridge
Inventory Cards. This includes the location data, bridge type, structure data and previous
rating if any.
d) Make sure all the equipment needed for the inspection is available and in good working
condition.
e) Clear the bridge and areas surrounding the bridge from undergrowth and vegetation.
During Inspection
The main duty of the bridge inspector during inspection is to look for signs of problems and to fill
out the Structural Condition Checklist (REAM Form 1101) and Standard Reporting Fonn as
shown in Appendix E.
a) On arriving at the bridge the inspector should check the following to avoid mistake in
identifying .the bridge:
i) the bridge number, if any
ii) bridge name/river name, if any
iii) road section number and distance to the bridge
i v) other identification mark if none of the above is available

Inspection Procedures and Reporting
b) Check information on the top part of the Structural Condition Checklist and the
Summary Report Form. (REAM Form 1101)
c) Observe all safety precautions before starting to inspect the various members of the
bridge.
d) Start inspecting the various members of the bridge following the Structural Condition
Checklist. A separate checklist must be used for each span. Note that a different checklist
is used for culverts. Refer to the guide on types of damages for severity classification and
material condition rating card to determine the rating of damage.
e) Take photographs or make sketches to highlight any defects. For bridges which have no
inventory card, additional photographs should be taken to obtain the following view. This
photograph should be taken with identification of location and date taken wherever
possible. (as shown in sample of the Inventory Card in Appendix E) :
i) elevation or side view
ii) view from approach road, with the bridge number or other identification written on a
blackboard.
f) Complete the Summary Report Form, putting in all observations and comments. One
report form is used for each bridge. For bridges with more than one span, the worst
member rating for that bridge shall be taken as the rating for all spans.
g) At the end of the inspection inspectors have to ensure that:
i) all the forms have been filled out including the date of inspection and the name of
inspector.
ii)
iii) all forms and checklists are properly compiled.
The inspectors must mow what and where to look for in detecting any bridge defects. Below is a
general guide;
Main beam: Detecting corrosion, cracks, abnormal noise, deformation, spalling, delamination,
abnormal vibration, etc.
Deck slab: Detecting corrosion, cracks, abnormal noise, deformation, spalling, delamination,
abnormal vibration, etc.,
Abutments: Detecting corrosion, cracks, deformation, scouring, tilting, settlement, etc.
Bearings: Detecting corrosion, ponding water, abnormal bulging, etc.,
3·2 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

Inspection Procedures and Reporting
Drainage: Detecting water leakage, no or inadequate pipe length, blocked, etc.
Parapet: Detecting corrosion, cracks, spalling, etc.
Railing: Detecting cracks, paint deterioration, deformation, etc.
Pavement: Detecting pot holes, rutting, settlement, etc.
Expansion Joint: Detecting cracks, abnormal spacing, water leakage, abnormal noises, etc.
t
River bank: Detecting erosion, defects (illegal waste proposal, shack, pen), etc.
3.2 Reporting
The results of an inspection must be reported to the Regional Manager so that the necessary
r actions can be decided and taken. The format of reporting depends on the types of inspection and
largely the qualifications of the inspectors. For inventory inspection and condition inspection
involving technician.s as bridge inspectors more guidance must be given to the inspectors. Very
often che.cklists and standard forms are used. For inspections involving bridge engineers, there is
1
no standard format to adhere to. Indeed, the format to be adopted depend more on the intended
readers of the report.
Notwithstanding, there are a few basic information which must be included in the report:
t
• Names of inspectors,
• Date of inspection,
• Objectives of inspection,
f
• Observations & photographs
• Recommendations
.,
n A Guide lor Bridge Inspection 3·3

I
f
CHAPTER 4
! CONDITION RATING GUIDE
BASED ON DAMAGE
Condition Rating Guide Based on Damage
CHAPTER 4
CONDITION RATING GUIDE BASED ON DAMAGE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the principles and general application of the condition rating system used
to assess observed defects in the material of individual components of a structure.
The condition rating systems are numerical systems where a number from 1 to 5 is assigned to
each component of the structure based upon observed material defects and the resulting effect on
the ability of the component to perform its function in the structural system.
All components of a structure are classified as either primary or secondary as given in Table 4-1.
The classification is generally along traditional structural behaviour of the components except for
non-structural components which should be classified as shown in Table 4-1.
Condition rating system for components of a structure
The condition rating system for the components of a structure represents the condition of the
component based upon observed defects in the materials of the component. Commonly occurring
damage in materials typically used in structures are described and categorised in Chapter 2.
The application of the condition rating system to components depends on the type, location,
severity and the extent of the defects. General guidelines based upon the severity and extent of
observed defects are given in Table 4-2.
The condition rating should represent the worst observed material condition of the component and
shall be based on anyone or a combination of the guidelines given under that rating. The inspector
shall record the observed material defects and the causes producing those defects wherever
possible. Some measurements may be required to determine the location and extent of the defects.
However, extensive measurements would not normally be required.
Condition rating system for structures
The performance of the structure is directly related to the performance of the primary
components. The worst condition rating of the primary components shall be the rating of the
structure.
Rating General Definition
1 No damage found and no maintenance required as a result of the inspection.

Condition Guide Based on Damage
2 Damage detected and it is necessary to record the condition for observation purposes.
3 Damage detected are slightly critical and thus it is necessary to implement routine
maintenance work.
4 Damage detected is critical and thus it is necessary to implement repair work or to

carry out a detailed inspection to determine whether any rehabilitation works are required
not.
5 Being heavily and critically damaged and possibly affecting the safety of traffic, it
is necessary to implement emergency temporary repair work immediately or
rehabilitation work without delay after the provision of a load limitation traffic
sign.
4.2 GUIDELINE FOR .,CLARIFYING SEVERITY OF DAMAGE
1.. CORROSION
Severity
Light - Loose rust formation and pitting in the paint surface. No noticeable
section loss.
Medium - Loose rust formation with scales or flakes forming. Definite areas of rust
are noticeable. Up to lO% section loss.
Severe - Stratified rust with pitting of the metal surface. Between 10% to 20%
section loss.
Very Sever Extensive rusting with local perforation or rusting through. In excess of
20% section loss.
2 FRACTURE IN STEEL
Cracks that are parallel with the direction of stress are usually not very serious; however,
those perpendiculars to the direction of stress are very serious. In either case, cracks in
steel should generally be considered serious, as a parallel crack may for a number of
reasons tum into a perpendicular crack. Therefore, no severity description for cracks is
given. Any crack should be carefully noted and recorded as to its specific location in the
member, and member in the structure. The length, width (if possible) and direction of
crack should also be recorded.
If detected, rating shall be 4.
4·2 A Guide for Bridge Inspection A

3 LOOSE CONNECTIONS
The severity for loose connections depends largely on the number of loose or missing
fasteners, relative to the total number in the particular connections. Thus the severity
description involves the determination of this ratio. In the case of beam connections, the
flange and web connections must be considered separately. Also, where several members
meet at a common connection, the individual connection to each member must be
considered separately. In addition, a sketch should be made showing the layout of the
connection and the location of loose or missing fasteners.
Severity for connections of Primary Components

Light - Up to 10% of fasteners loose or missing.
Medium - 10 to 20% of fasteners loose or missing.
Severe - 20 to 30% of fasteners loose or missing.
Very Severe - Over 30% of fasteners loose or missing.
Severity for connections of Secondary Components

Light - Up to 20% of fasteners loose or missing.
e
Medium - 20 to 40% of fasteners loose or missing.
;t Severe - 40 to 60% of fasteners loose or missing.
Very Severe - Over 60% of fasteners loose or missing.
4 PERMANENT DEFORMATIONS
As permanent deformations may be critical to the integrity of the member and/or

structure, no classification of severity is given. Photographs and measurements of the
amount and extent of deformation shall be taken and recorded for analysis.
Hence, if permanent deformations are detected, rating shall be 4. However, the location
of the deformation in the member, and member in the structure, should be recorded.
or,
in 5 PAINT DETERIORATION ON STEEL SURFACES
)f There shall be no classification of severity for paint deterioration.
is
Rating = 1 - if < 10% of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, p~els, bulging or
le
rust.
of
Rating =2 - if 10 - 20% of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulging
or rust.
ion AGttide lor Bridge Inspection 4·3

Condition Rating Guide Based on U'HT""""
Rating =3 if 20 30% of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulging

or rust.
Rating =4 if >30 of surface area appearance exposed to cracks, peels, bulging or
rust.
6 CRACKS IN CONCRETE I MASONRY
This item covers ratings for prestressed, reinforced, mass and masonry members.
Rating for prestressed and reinforced concrete members shall be given based on the crack
width bellow:
Hairline cracks - <O.lmm wide. Rating = 1.
Narrow cracks - O.lmm to O.3mm wide. Rating = 2.
Medium cracks - O.3mm to LOmm wide. Rating = 3.
Wide cracks - > 1.0mm wide. Rating;" 4.
For mass concrete and masonry members a rating of 4 shall be given if the crack width is
greater than 3mm wide.
7 SPALLING
Severity for reinforced concrete

Light Spalled area measuring less than 150mm in any direction or less than
25mm in depth.
Medium - Spalled area measuring between 150mm to 300mm in any direction or
between 25mm and 50mm in depth.
Severe:'" Spalled area measuring between 300mm to 600mm in any direction or
between 50mm and 100mm in depth.
Very Severe Spalled area measuring more than 600mm in any direction or greater
than lOOmm in depth.
Severity for prestressed concrete

Spalled area measuring less than 25mm in any direction or less than 25mm in depth.
Rating = I
Spalled area measuring between 25mm to 50mm in any direction or between 25mm
and 50mm in depth. No lost in cross-sectional area. Rating =2
4-4 A Guide for Bridge Inspection A

- Spalled area measuring between 50rnrn to lOOmm in any direction or between 50mm
and lOOmm in depth. Loss of cross-sectional area is large. Rating =3
r - Spalled area measuring more than 100mm in any direction or greater than lOOrnrn in
depth. Existence of further spalling and possibility of worsening. Rating::: 4
8 CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
Light - Light rust stain on the concrete surface;
Medium Exposed reinforcement with unifonn light rust. Loss of reinforcing steel
k section less than 10%;
Severe - Exposed reinforcement with heavy rusting and localised pitting. Loss of
reinforcing steel section between 10% and 20%;
Very Severe - Exposed reinforcement with very heavy rusting and pitting. Loss of
reinforcing steel section over 20%.
9 WEAR AND ABRASION
is Severity
Light - Section loss up to 25rnrn in depth with some loss of coarse aggregate.
Medium - Section loss between 25mm and 50mm depth, loss of aggregate and
exposure of reinforcement.
Severe Section loss between 50rnrn and lOOmm depth, loss of aggregate and
large area of reinforcement exposed.
an
Very Severe - Section loss in excess of lOOrnrn depth and extends over a large area.
or
10 MATERIAL DETERIORATION
or -- Severity for concrete

Light - Loss of section up to 25rnrn in depth with some loss of coarse aggregate;
ter Medium - Loss of section between 25rnrn and 50rnrn deep with considerable loss
of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement;
Severe - Loss of section between 50rnrn and 100rnrn deep with substantial loss of
tho coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement over a large area.
Very severe - Loss of section in excess of lOOrnrn deep and extending over a large
lID area.
:lion A Guide for Sriclge Inspection 4·5

Severity for masonry

Light - Mortar lost from the joints in a few places, to a depth of 20mm;
Medium - Mortar lost from joints over an extended area, to a depth between 20 and
50mm;
Severe - Extensive loss of mortar resulting in the loss of a few stones;
Very severe - Extensive loss of stones endangering the stability of the structure.
11 SURFACE DEFECTS
Severity for honeycombing

Light - Honeycombing covering an area less than 150mm in any direction
Medium - Honeycombing covering an area between 150mm to 300mm in any
direction
Severe - Honeycombing covering an area between 300mm to 600mm in any
direction
Very Severe Honeycombing covering an area greater than 600mm in any direction
Severity for pop-outs
Light - Pop-outs leaving holes up to 25mm in diameter;
Medium Pop-outs leaving holes -between 25mm and 50mm in diameter;
Severe - Pop-outs leaving holes between 50mm and l00.mm in diameter;
Very Severe Pop-outs leaving holes greater than l00mm in diameter.
12 DELAMINATION
Severity
Light - Delaminated area measuring less than 150mm in any direction;
Medium Delaminated area measuring 150mm to 300mm in any direction;
Severe - Delaminated area measuring 300mm to 600mm in any direction;
Very Severe Delaminated area measuring more than 600mm in any direction.
4·6 A Guide lor Bridge Inspedion J.

13 ABNORMAL VIBRATION / DEFLECTION
There is no accurate severity level that could be assigned for this phenomenon. If
detected the rating should be ranked as 4.
14 WATER LEAK
For severity level the following is adopted for monolithic PierIAbutment or Pier Head
but limited to 1.0m below for the bearing shelf.
Severity for expansion joint

Low
Medium - < 25% of surface area. Rating =2
Severe - 25 50% of surface area. Rating = 3
Very Severe > 50% of surface area. Rating = 4
I
For other individual component such as slab, etc. the following severity shall be
adopted:
Severity for deck slab

Low - < 2% of surface area. Rating = 1
Medium - 2 - 5% of surface area. Rating = 2
Severe - 5 - 10% of surface area. Rating = 3
Very Severe - > 10% of surface area. Rating = 4 .
15 TILT/SETTLEMENT
Any tilt or settlement observed should be reported immediately and the rating ranked as
4.
.16 ABNORMAL MOVEMENT
Any abnormal movement observed should be reported immediately and the rating ranked
as 4.

Condition Guide Based on uf1mrf1f1..
17 SCOURING
Scouring severity for Culvert
Severity
Light - Minor scour at the inlet or outlet of culvert. Include in table. Scour depth
< 200rnrn.
Medium - Significant scour at the inlet or outlet of culvert. Scour depth between
200rnrn to 300mm.
Severe Severe scour at the inlet or outlet of culvert. Scour depth between
300mm to 500mm.
Very Severe - Extensive washouts around the inlet or outlet of culverts with loss of
embankment filL Scour depth >500rnrn.
Note:
The extent of scouring is measured on percentage length scoured underneath the culvert
with respect to the culvert length.
Scouring severity at Abutment and Pier

- Numerous locations of scour of the stream bed or stream banks but not exposing the
abutment. Undermining and loss of support over up to 5% of the foundation. Rating
=1
- Sco.ur of the stream bed or stream banks to the top of previously covered abutment.
Undermining and loss of support over 5% to 15% of the foundation. Rating =2
Scour of the stream bed or stream banks to below the top of previously covered
abutment. Undermining and loss of support over 15% to 20% of the foundation.
Rating = 3
Scour of the stream bed to the bottom of previously covered abutment. Undermining
and loss of support over more than 20% of the foundation. Rating:::: 4
Scouring severity at Slope Protection

Scour area measuring < 10% in any direction. Rating:::: 1.
Scour area measuring between 10% to 20% in any direction. Rating:::: 2
Scour area measuring between 20% to 30% in any direction. Rating:::: 3
Scour area measuring greater than 30% in any direction. Rating = 4
18 PONDING WATER
Whenever ponding of water is detected a rating of 3 should be adopted.

19 DEBRIS AND VEGETATION
The severity parameters are difficult to quantify. Hence for rating purposes the following
are adopted:
a) When debris is detected a rating of 3 is used.
b) When debris is detected together with vegetation a rating of 4 is adopted.
20 DRAINAGE BLOCKED
Severity
Low - 25% of the cross sectional area is blocked.
Medium - 25 - 50% of the cross sectional area is blocked.
Severe 50 - 75% of the cross sectional area is blocked.
Very severe > 75% of the cross sectional area is blocked.
21 NO PIPE/OR INADEQUATE PIPE LENGTH

Severity
Light - No water stain observed.
Medium - Slight water stain observed.
Severe - Water falls directly on facade e.g. surface of beam.
Very severe - Very wet surface.
22 IMPACT DAMAGE
Severity
Low Parapet/Body intact
Medium -:~~nor indentation to parapet/body
Severe- Severely damaged parapet/body
Very severe Parapet/body totally removed
23 POTHOLES
Severity
Light - Holes measuring less than 150mm in any direction and 25mm in
depth.
Medium - Holes measuring between 150mm to 300mm in any direction or between
25mm to 50mm in depth.
- ;

Condition Guide Based on varrluue
Severe - Holes measuring between 300mm to 600mm in any direction or between

50mm to 100mm in depth.
Very Severe - Holes measuring over 600mm in any direction or over 100mm deep.
24 WHEEL TRACK RUTTING

Severity
Light - Less than lOmm deep.
Medium - From lOmm to 20mm deep.
Severe - From 20mm to 40mm deep.
Very Severe - Greater than 40mm deep.
25 LOSS OF BOND AND DELAMINATION (PAVEMENT)
Severity
Light - Delaminated area measuring less than 150mm in any direction.
Medium - Delaminated area measuring 150mm to 300mm in any direction.
Severe - Delaminated area measuring 300mm to 600mm in any direction.
Medium - Delaminated area measuring more than 600mm in any direction.
26 RIPPLING
Severity
Light - A few noticeable bumps
Medium - Several bumps producing a rough ride
Sever Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with possible loss of
vehicle control
Very Severe - Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with difficulty in
maintaining vehicle control and imminent danger of loss of vehicle
control

27 PAVEMENT CRACKS
Severity
If cracks length/area measure less than 10% within the same span. Rating = I
- If cracks length/area measure between 10% to 15% within the same span. Rating =2
If cracks length/area measure between 15% to 20% within the same span. Rating = 3
- If cracks length/area measure more than 20% within the same span. Rating =4
28 CRACKS AT BURIED EXPANSION JOINT
Severity
Light less than 5mm wide single or multiple cracks~
Medium 5mm to lOmm wide single or multiple cracks~
Severe - lOmm to 15mm wide single or multiple cracks;
Very severe . Greater than 15mm wide single or multiple cracks;
29 ABNORMAL SPACING
The severity level could not be quantify. Hence, if no room for movement is detected at
the expansions joint a rating of 4 is adopted.
30 DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL AT BRIDGE JOINT
Severity
Low - difference in level < 10mm
Medium - difference in level between 10 - 20mm
f
Severe difference in level between 20 - 30mm
1
Very severe - difference in level> 30mm
"
v
31 ABNORMAL NOISE
If presence of noise is obvious a rating of 4 is adopted.

Condition Guide Based on UOfliro~e
32 RUPTURE AT BRIDGE JOINT
Severity
Low - With hairline crack on rubber sealfelastomeric
Medium - Medium crack detected on rubber seaVelastomeric
Severe - Wide crack detected on rubber seaVelastomeric
Very severe - Rubber sealfelastomeric peeled off or dislodge from location.
33 ABNORMAL BULGING AT ELASTOMERIC BEARING
Severity'
Low .- Not applicable
Very Severe - When it is detected that the whole rubber body has been very severely
cracked abnormally bulged orwom out and aged, 'the rating is 4.
34 ABNORMAL DISPLACEMENT OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING PAD
Severity
Low - Not applicable
Medium - Occurrence where rubber body has been displaced less than 10% of its
area. No reduction in load carrying capacity. Rating = 2
Severe - Occurrence where rubber body has been displaced between 10% - 20%
to its area. Slight reduction to its load carrying capacity. Rating = 3
Very Severe - Occurrence where rubber body has been displaced >20% of its area. No
longer functioning as load bearing. Rating =4
35 EROSION
Severity
Light Up to 10% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting
foundations ; or up to 5% loss for embankments directly supporting
foundation. Rating = 1
4·12 A Guide for Biiilge In$pedion

Condition Guide Based on I..IClUIClQfI
Medium 10% to 30% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting
foundations: or 5% to 15% loss for embankments directing supporting
foundation. Rating =2
Severe - 30% to 40% loss of materials for embankments not directly supporting
foundations; or 15% to 20% loss for embankments directly supporting
foundation. Rating = 3
Very Severe - More than 40% loss of materials for embankments not directly
supporting foundations ; or more than 20% loss for embankments
directly supporting foundation. Rating =4
36 MATERIAL LOSSIDISINTEGRATION
Severity
Light - Hairline cracking and minor loss of stone surface with loss of section up
to 50mm. Mortar loss from the joints in a few places, to a depth of
20mm.
Medium - Narrow cracking or chipping away of stone with loss of section between
50 and l00mm. Mortar loss from the joints over an extended area, to a
depth between 20 and 50mm.
Severe - Spalling and disintegration of stone with a loss of section between 100
and 150mm. Extensive loss of mortar resulting in the loss of a few
stones.
Very severe Extensi ve spalling and disintegration of stone with a loss of section in
excess of 150mm. Extensive spalling and disintegration of stone
endangering the stability of the structure.
37 SILTING AT CULVERT
Severity
Light - Silting covering < 20% of culvert height
Medium - Silting covering 20% to 30% of culvert height
Severe - Silting covering 30% to 50% of culvert height
Very Severe Silting covering> 50% of culvert height

38 INADEQUATE SIZE
Severity
Ratio of abutment spacing! culvert size to the size (span) of rivers/stream.
Light - 1:1 Rating =1
Medium 1 : 1.5 Rating =2
Severe 1:2 Rating =3
Very severe - > 1: 2 Rating =4
4.3 RECORDING OF INFORMATION
In order to arrive for a proper and systematic data collection of defects, the inspector need to
fill in Structural Condition Checklist (for bridge and culvert) for each individual span
and summarise the finding in Standard Reporting Form. Table 4~2 is to be" used by the field
inspector as a reference guide for classifying the observed defect. The tables for Structural
Condition Checklist (for bridge and culvert) and Summary Report Form are as shown in
Appendix E. As stated earlier the primary objective of this exercise is to obtain a clearer picture
on the condition of all bridge structures . The immediate impact is the bridges that are missing
from the BMS could be systematically inventoried. Based on these findings the following
decisions can be made.
1. Whether further detailed inspection is required;
2. Whether immediate maintenance action is necessary;
3. Based on the outcome of the detailed inspection work, structural assessment work to
check the adequacy of the bridge structure with respect to the latest National loading
requirement viz. Long Term Axle Load .(LTAL) and Special Vehicle (SV) can be
conducted.
4. Preventive Maintenance Schedule.
4-14 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

REFERENCES
1. Bridge Inspection, Maintenance and Rehabilitation Manual,
The Study on The Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Bridges in Malaysia,
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 1992
2. Ontario Structure Inspection Manual,

Bridge Management Section, Structure Office, Highway
Engineering Division, Ministry of Transportation,
Ontario, 1989
3. A Guide to Bridge Inspection and Data System For District Engineer

Overseas Road Note 7,
Overseas Unit, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 1988
4. Bridge Management Practice, Austroads, 1991
~ Guide lor Bridge Inspection 4-15

J"'"
Condition Rating Guide Based on DafYlage
Table 4-1 - Classification o/Components
PRIMARY COMPONENTS
SECONDARY COMPONENTS
Embankments supporting foundations Embankments not supporting foundations
Foundations Ballast Walls

Abutment Walls Wingwalls
Piers Retaining Walls
Bearings
Bearing Seats
Slope Protections
Expansion Joints
Beams, Girders Non-load Bearing Diaphragms

Trusses . Bracings
Arches Connections of secondary components
Culverts Parapet
Load Bearing Diaphragms Drainage
Connections of primary components
Deck slab Kerbs

Pavement Sidewalks
Approaches
Approach Slabs
Signs
Utilities
Structural Steel Coatings on

primary components
4-16 A Guide for 8ridge Inspection

Table 4-2
CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SEVERITY OF DAMAGE
[i~ 1YPEOFD~GE$ 'S~OF!>AMAGE.
.'
'.'
. ........ >.' ~ .• •·'T~:i01~Z;).·;· . . . . ., < .' . ' ...........
•
...
1 CORROSION LIGHT loose rust formation and pitting in the paint surface. No noticeable section loss.
(Steel) MEDIUM loose rust formation with scales/flakes.Definite areas of rust up to 10% section loss.
SEVERE Stratified rust with piHing of metal surface. 10% to 20% section loss.
V.SEVERE Extensive rusting with local perforation/rusting through. >20% section loss.
2 FRACTURE AT STEEL LIGHT
(Steel) MEDIUM
SEVERE If detected rating shall be 4
V.SEVERE
3 LOOSE LIGHT Up to lOOA. of fasteners loose or missing
CONNECTIONS MEDIUM I0 10 20% of fasteners loose or missing
Primary SEVERE 20 to lO% of fasteners loose or missing
(Sreel) V.SEVERE > 30% of fasteners loose or missing
LOOSE LIGHT Up to 200A. of fasteners loose or missing

CONNECTIONS MEDIUM 20 to 40% of fasteners loose or missing
Secondary SEVERE 40 to 60% of fasteners loose or missing
V.SEVERE > 600k of fasteners loose or missing
4 PERMANENT UGHT
DEFORMATIONS MEDIUM -
(Sre.1 & Robber) SEVERE If detected rating sholl be 4
V.SEVERE -
5 PAINT LIGHT Up 10 10% ahurface area affected
DETERIORATION MEDIUM IOta 20% of surface area affected
(Steel/ SEVERE 20 to 30% of surface area affected
V.SEVERE > 30% of surlace area affected
6 CRACK LIGHT If crocks are Hairline i.e. < 0.1 mm wide, rating shall be 1
(Reinforced Concrete) MEDIUM If crocks are Narrow i.e.· 0.1 mm to O.lmm wide, rating sholl be 2
SEVERE If cracks are Medium size i.e.. 0.3mm to 1.0mm wide, rating shall be 3
V,SEVERE If crocks are Wide size I.e. • > 1,Omm wide, rating sholl be 4
CRACK LIGHT
(presrressed Concrere/ MEDIUM If cracks are Narrow i.e. > 0.2mm & crack spocing between 500mm & lOOOmm, rating shall be 2
SEVERE If cracks are Medium size i.e. > O.lmm & crack spacing < 500mm, rating shall be l
V,SEVERE If cracks are Wide size i.e. . > 1.0mm wide, roling shall be 4
7 SPAWNG LIGHT Spoiled area measuring < 150mm in any direction or < 25mm in depth.
IReinforClld Conerere/ MEDIUM Area measuring 150mm. lOOmm in any direction or between 25mm ·50mm in depth.
SEVERE Area measuring 300mm· 600mm in any direction or between 50mm· l00mm in depth.
V.SEVERE Spoiled area measuring> 600mm in any direction or > l00mm in depth.
SPAlUNG LIGHT Spoiled area measuring < 25mm in any direction or < 25mm in depth.
IPr",rre"ed Canerer_/ MEDIUM Area measuring 25mm . 50mm in any direction or 25mm . 50mm in depth, rating shall be 2.
SEVERE Area measuring 50mm . l00mm in any direction or 50mm· lOOmm in depth, rating shall be l.
V,SEVERE Spoiled area measuring> 100mm in any direction or > lOOmm in depth, rating shall be 4,
8 CORROSION OF LIGHT light rust stain on the concrete surface.
REINFORCEMENT MEDIUM Exposed rebar with uniform light rust. Loss of reinforcing steel section < 10%.
(Concrerej SEVERE Exposed rebar with heavy rusting and localized pilling. lass of section 10%-20%
V.SEVERE Exposed rebar with very heavy rusting and pilling. loss of section> 20"10
9 WEAR/ABRASION lIGHT Section loss up to 25mm in depth with some loss of coarse aggregate.
(Concre"/ MEDIUM Section loss 25mm ·50mm deep. loss of aggregate & exposure of rebar
SEVERE Section loss 50mm· l00mm deep,loss of aggregate & rebar exposure large area.
V.SEVERE Section loss > lOOmm deep & extending over large area.
10 MATERIAL LIGHT Section loss up to 25mm in depth with Some loss al coarse aggregate.
DETERIORATION MEDIUM Section loss 25mm •50mm deep, loss of aggregate & exposure 01 rebar
ICancr."/ SEVERE Section loss 50mm· l00mm deep,loss 01 aggregate & rebar exposure large area.
V.SEVERE Section loss> lOOmm deep & extending over large area.
MATERIAL LIGHT Morlor lost from the joints in a lew places, to a depth 0120 mm.
DETERIORATION MEDIUM Mortar lost from the joints over an extended area, to a depth between 20 and 50 mm.
{Masonry! SEVERE Extensive loss of morlor resulting in the loss of a lew stones.
V.SEVERE Extensive loss of stones endangering the stability 01 the structure
11 SURFACE DEFECTS lIGHT Honeycomb area measuring < 150mm in any direction.
(ConCtSfll) MEDIUM Honeycomb area measuring 150mm· 300mm in any direction.
SEVERE Honeycomb area measuring lOOmm· 600mm in any direction.
V.SEVERE Honeycomb area measuring> 600mm in any direction.
12 DElAMINATION LIGHT Delaminated area measuring < 150mm in any direction.
(Concrete) MEDIUM Delaminated area measuring 150mm· 300mm in any direction.
SEVERE Delaminated area measuring 300mm ·600mm in any direction.
V.SEVERE Delaminated area measuring > 600mm in any direcfion.

F"
Condition Roting Guide Based on Damoge

-
Table 4-2
CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICAl"ION OF SEVERITY OF DAMAGE
CODE TYPE OF DAMAGES $EVERI1Y OF DAMAGE
I _
13 ABNORMAL LIGHT
VIBRATION/ MEDIUM
-
DEfLECTION SEVERE
If detected rating shall be 4
(At Seam) VSEVERE
-
14 WATER LEAK LIGHT
If detected area measure < 2%, rating shall be 1
(At Deck/Culvert) MEDIUM

If defected area measure 2% 5%, rating shall be 2
(Concrete) SEVERE
If detected area measure 5% 10%, rating shall be 3
V.SEVERE
If detected area> 10%, rating sholl be 4
WATER LEAK LIGHT

• Area is measured along the abutment/pier
(AI Expansion Joint) MEDIUM
If detected area measure up to 25%, rating sholl be 2 face and 1 metre below the bearing shelf
SEVERE
If detected area measure 25% . 50%, rating shall be 3
V.SEVERE
II defected area> 50%, rating shall be 4
15 TILT/SETTLEMENT LIGHT
(At Abutment/pier) MEDIUM

-
SEVERE
If detected rating sholl be 4
V.SEVERE
16 ABNORMAL LIGHT
MOVEMENT MEDIUM
SEVERE
If detected rating shall be 4
V.SEVERE
-
17 SCOURING LIGHT
If undermining and loss of support up to 5% of foundation, rating sholl be I
{At Abutment/pier) MEDIUM
If undermining and loss of support of between 5 10 15% of foundalion, rating sholl be 2
SEVERE
If undermining and loss of support of between 15% 10 20% of foundation, raling shall be 3
V.SEVERE
If undermining tmd loss of support of more than 20% of foundation, rating shall be 4
r
LIGHT
(At Slope Protection) MEDIUM

Scour area measuring 10%·20% in any direction, rating shall be 2
SEVERE
Scour area measuring 20%-30% in any direction, roling shall be 3
V.SEVERE
Scour area measuring >30% in any direction, rating sholl be .4
LIGHT
Minor scour at inlet\outlet of culvert, scour depth < 200mm
(At Culvert) MEDIUM

Significant scour at inlet\outlet of culvert, scour depth between 200mm - 300mm.
SEVERE
Severe scour at inlet\autlet of culvert, scour depth between 300mm 500mm.
V.SEVERE
Extensive washout around inlet\autlet with loss of embankmenl fill, scour depth > 500mm.
-
18 PONDING WATER liGHT
(At Bearing) MEDIUM

If detected roling shall be 3
SEVERE
V.SEVERE
-
19 DEBRIS/ LIGHT.
VEGETATION MEDIUM
If only debris detected, the rating shall be 3
(Ai Bearing) SEVERE

If debris with vegetation detected, the rating shall be 4.
V.SEVERE
- I
20 DRAINAGE LIGHT
Blockage of pipe up to 25%
BLOCKED MEDIUM
Blockage of pipe 25% • 50%
(At Drainpipe) SEVERE

Blockage of pipe 50% - 75%
V.SEVERE
Blockage of pipe> 75%
I
21 NO PIPE/
LIGHT
No water mark observed.
INADEQUATE PIPE
MEDIUM
Slight water mark observed
LENGTH
SEVERE
Water spill direcdy on facade.
(At Drainpipe) V.SEVERE

Very we! surface.
-
22 IMPACT DAMAGE LIGHT
Parapet/Body intact
(Ai Parapet) MEDIUM

Minor indentation to parapet/body.
SEVERE
Severely damaged parapet/body.
V.SEVERE
Parapel totally shifted out of position.
POT-HOLE LIGHT
Hales measuring < 150mm in any direction or 25mm in depth
-
23
(At Pavement) MEDIUM
Holes measuring 150mm - 300mm in any direction or between 25mm - 50mm in depth
SEVERE
Hales measuring 300mm - 600mm in any direction or between 50mm lOOmm in depth
V,SEVERE
Holes measuring> 600mm in any direction or > lOOmm deep
'
24 RUTTING UGHT
Less than 10mm deep
(At Pavement) MEDIUM

Fram 10mm - 20mm deep
SEVERE
Fram 20mm - 40mm deep
V.5EVERE
> 40mm deep
25 lOSS Of BOND & LIGHT

Delaminated area measuring < 150mm in any direction.
DELAMINATION MEDIUM
Delaminated area measuring 150mm· 300mm in any direction.
(Ai PCM>men~ SEVERE

Delaminated area measuring 300mm - 600mm in any direction.
V.SEVERE
Delaminated area measuring> 600mm in any direction.
4·18 A Guide lor 8ric1ge Inspection A

-
~
Table 4-2
CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF SEVERITY OF DAMAGE

1liooe TYPE OF DAMAGES SEVERITY OF DAMAGE .
26 RIPPLING LIGHT Few noticeable bumps
fAt Pavementl MEDIUM Several bumps producing a rough ride.
SEVERE Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with passible loss of vehicle conlrol.
V.SEVERE Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with imminenl danger of loss vehicle control.
27 PAVEMENT LIGHT If alligator cracks cover on area of less than 10% within the some span rafing shall be 1
CRACK MEDIUM If alligator cracks caver an area of 10% to 15% within the same span rating shall be 2
SEVERE If alligator cracks cover an area of 15% to 20% within the some span rating shall be 3
V.SEVERE If alligalor cracks caver an area of more than 20% within the some span rating shall be 4
28 CRACKS AT LIGHT less than 5mm wide single or multiple cracks.
EXPANSION JOINT
MEDIUM 5mm·l0mm wide single or multiple cracks.
SEVERE 1Omm-15mm wide single or multiple cracks.
V.SEVERE > 15mm wide single or multiple cracks.
29 ABNORMAL LIGHT
SPACING
MEDIUM -
{At Expansion laintl SEVERE If detected rating shall be .4
V.SEVERE -
30 DiffERENCE IN LIGHT Difference in level < 1Omm at expansion gap/bridge approach.
LEVEL MEDIUM Difference in level between lOmm· 20mm at exponsion gap/bridge approach.
{At Expansion lointl SEVERE Difference in level between 20mm • 30mm at expansion gap/bridge approach.
VSEVERE Difference in level> 30mm at expansion gap/bridge approach.
31 ABNORMAl LIGHT -
NOISE MEDIUM
fAt Expansion lointl SEVERE If detected rating shall be 4
V.SEVERE
32 RUPTURE LIGHT Fine or hair line crack detected on rubber seal.
(At Expansion loint) MEDIUM Medium crack detected on rubber seal.
SEVERE Wide or large crack detected on rubber seal.
V.SEVERE Rubber seal dislodge or peel off from location.
33 BUlDGlNG UGHT
fAt Bearing} MEDIUM -
SEVERE Severe crack, abnormal buldge, worn out and aged, rating 4.
V.SEVERE -
34 ABNORMAL lIGHT -
DISPlACEMENT MEDIUM If bearing has been displaced by less than 10%, rating shall be 2.
{Beoringl SEVERE If bearing has been displaced by less than 10%· 20%, rating shall be 3.
V.SEVERE If bearing has been displaced by more than 20%, roting shall be 4.
35 EROSION UGHT Less than 5% loss of materials at embankments directly supporting foundation, rating shall be 1.
(At Slope Protection) MEDIUM 5% to 15% loss of materials at embankments direcdy supporting foundation, rating shall be 2.
SEVERE 15% to 20% loss of materials at embankments direcdy supporting foundation, rating shall be 3
V.SEVERE More than 20% lass of materials at embankments direcdy supporting foundation, rating sholl be 4.
EROSION LIGHT Less than 10"4. lass of materials at embankments, rating sholl be 1.
{At River Bank} MEDIUM 10% to 30% loss of materials at embankments, rating shall be 2.
SEVERE 30% 10 40% loss of materials at embankments, rating shall be 3.
V.SEVERE More than 40% loss of materials at embankments, rating shall be 4.
36 MATERIAL LOSS/ LIGHT Hairline cracks and minor loss of stones 10 a depth of 50 mm deep
DISINTEGRATION MEDIUM Narrow cracks and loss of stones between 50 and 100 mm deep
(AI Slope Protection) SEVERE Spoiling and disintegration of stones with sedion loss between l00mm to 150mm:
V.SEVERE Extensive loss of stones and disintegration endangering the stability of the structure.
37 SIlTING LIGHT Sitting covered" 20% of culvert height.
(At Colveri} MEDIUM Silting covered from 20% . 30% of culvert height.
SEVERE Silting covered from 30%·50% of culvert height.
V.SEVERE Silting covered> 50% of culvert height.
38 INADEQUATE UGHT I: I Ratio of abutment spacing/culvert size to the size of rivers/streams, rating shall be 1
SIZE MEDIUM 1: 1.5 Ra~o of abutment spacing/culvert size to the size of rivers/streams, rating shall be 2
SEVERE 1:2 Ratio of abutment spacing/culvert size to the size of rivers/streams, rating shall be 3
V.SEVERE >1:2 Ratio of abutment spacing/culvert size to the size of rivers/streoms, rating shall be 4
II A Guide for Bridge Inspection 4-19

APPENDIX A
STATISTICS ON MALAYSIAN BRIDGES
Statistics on Malaysian Bridges
APPENDIX A
STATISTICS OF MALAYSIAN BRIDGES DISEMBER 2001
No. ROUTES I OWNER!AUTHORITY NUMBER OF DEFINITION

BRIDGES
1 Federal Routes in JKR Federal >7000 Include
Peninsula Culverts
2 KTMB KTMB >920 Exclude
Culverts
3 Federal Routes in JKR Sarawak >890 Include
Sarawak Culverts
I
4 Federal Routes in JKR Sabah >780 Include
Sabah Culverts
5 Toll Highway llM/JKR/DBKl >560 Exclude
.. Culverts
6 DBKl DBKl >255 Exclude
Culverts
, A Guide lor Bridge Inspec60n A-l

APPENDIX B
BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
APPENDIXB
BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Bridges are structures, which connect the roadway across obstacles such as rivers, roads,
rails, etc. without closing the way beneath. They can be the weakest links in a road network
and must be very well maintained in order to keep the roads open to traffic. Most of the
bridges carry a road over a river. Culverts are included too because they are like small
bridges.
Road network is designed to ensure efficient movement of people and goods, in which bridges
are integral elements because of their strategic location and the serious consequences when
their capacity is impaired, or even worse, when they faiL Particular attention must be given to
the systematic inspection of bridges as an essential part of the surveillance and management of
the road network.
1.2 TYPES OF BRIDGES
Bridges can be classified ill many ways and three common classifications described
below are with respect to a particular construction material, structural system type or deck
type.
Construction Material Type
The materials most commonly used for bridge construction are concrete, steel, masonry and
timber.
CONCRETE Concrete is made up of stone aggregates and sand bounded together

by hardened cement paste. It is strong in compression but weak when
in tension. To give concrete more strength steel reinforcing bars or
wires are normally fixed inside the concrete. Thus concrete used in
bridges can be in the form of mass concrete, reinforced concrete or
prestressed concrete.
A Guide For Bridge Inspec60n 8·1

STEEL
Steel has greater strength in both tension and compression
than concrete. However it is susceptible to corrosion and need
frequent maintenance. Steel used in bridges is most commonly
in the form of rolled beam, welded or riveted plate girders and
trusses. Steel cables are used in suspension and cable-stayed
bridges.
MASONRY Masonry consists of bricks or stones with sand and cement mortar
in joints between them. It is strong in compression and weak
in tension, like mass concrete. Masonry is used for constructing
masonry arches, abutments, piers and retaining walls.
TIMBER Timber js used for constructing abutments, piles, piers and decks.
Timber can readily decay and is susceptible to insect attack and thus
not normally used in permanent bridge structures.
Structural System Type
Structural system refers to the way. the longitudinal span members are put together and behave
under structural loading. The following are the common type:
SIMPLY SUPPORTED Each span between any two supports is not structurally connected to
the adjacent span; one end is a free end while the other is a hinge end
(see Fig.I.l)
CONTINUOUS The spans extend continuously over one or more intermediate

supports (see Fig.I.2).
CANTILEVER Spans with one end fixed and one end free (see Fig.I.3). A span may
be suspended between two cantilever spans.
The rigid frame structure has an integral construction of horizontal

and vertical members (as in Fig.I.4).
B-2 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

Bridge Structural Systems
ARCHES The roadway or bridge deck is carried on arches. The most common
arch bridges are the earth filled spandrel arches for short spans, and
the open spandrel arches for longer spans (see Fig. 1.5).
TRUSSES A truss is a triangulated assembly of straight steel members. The

Bailey bridge is a common form of truss bridge used locally (see
Fig.l.6).
SUSPENSION This consists of a hanging catenary steel cable which is suspended

from two towers and anchored at the two ends, and the deck is
supported by these cables (see Fig. I.?).
CABLED-STAYED This consists of inclined cables, towers and deck. The deck is
supported by the cables fixed to the towers in a fan-like form (see
Fig. 1.8).
CULVERTS Culverts are considered as small bridges. There are two types of
culverts, namely, BOX CULVERT (Fig.1.9a) and PIPE CULVERTS
(Fig.I.9b).
8-3
Abut. 'A' Abut.'B'
Fig. 1.1 - Simply Supported (SG)
• I
-jj
Fig. 1.2 - Continuous Span (CG)
:r"' ·--~-::·i·~ ............

-:=EII!!IIII'I
Fig. 1.3 Cantilever with Suspended Span (Cr)
8·4 A Guicle for Sriclge Inspection

Fig. 1.4 Frame (FR)
Fig. /.5 - Arch Bridge (AR)
Fig. 1.6 - Truss Bridge (TR)=
A Guide for Bridge Inspection 8-S

Fig. 1.7 - Suspension Bridge (SP)
Fig. 1.8 Cabled Stayed Bridge (CS)
Fig. 1.9a - Box Culvert (BC)
8-6 A Guido lor 8riclge Inspection

Fig. 1.9b - Pipe Culvert (PC)
n B-7
Deck Type:
Deck type relates to the different types of slabs and beams or girders used to form the flooring
system. Those commonly found are the following:
1. Reinforced Concrete Beam (Fig. 1.10) (RCB)

ROAD---,
.... -.'
~
r-----.:..;...],.-'-"-""'\, •. '
. .~. : ...... ' :~ ... ".
:."." ~ ..
"
BEAM----' ' - - - - - - DECK. SLAB
2. Precast Reinforced Concrete beam (Fig. 1.11) (PRCB)

PRECAST BEAM---,
3. Prestressed Concrete I-Beam (Fig. 1.12) (PCB)

4. Prestressed Inverted Tee Beam (Fig. 1.13) (IT)
"----INVERTED T BEAM
5. Reinforced Concrete Slab (Fig. 1.14) (RCS)
I
~
'DAD '"'.'ACE
,oonAffi
=.;: "S; :'~, :";,", "..' "."'..'" ,...... , ...... .... .
6, Voided Concrete Slab (Fig, 1.15) (VCS)
ROAD SURFACE-----,
';"'0"0"'0"
-..
' ::. . .
.-. ..' ~'.
Guide for Bridge Inspection 8·9

7. Concrete Box Girder (Fig. 1.16) (CBG)
DECK SLAB
ROAD SURFACE - - - - ,
8. Steel Beam and Concrete Slab (Fig.I.I7) (SBC)
CONCRETEDECK~
. '.:.&:.. ' .... :....'... ~ o· ! .~":.! : ..:'~ : :.." :'.~ '............. : .. ' .. '.' .....
9. Steel Beam Encased and Slab (Fig.1.I8) (SBE)
8-10 A Guide lor BricIge Inspection

Bridge Structural
10. Steel Buckle Plate (Fig.l.19) (SBP)
CRUSHER· RUN ~--ROAD SURFACE
STEEL PLATE---'
11. Steel Trough (Fig.L19a) (ST)
......
: .... ". '.' • '" ........... :
s •
"'0
o
STEEL TROUGH
12. Timber Deck (Fig. 1.20) (TD)
8-11
2.3 BRIDGE COMPONENTS
A bridge is an assembly of many components which interact with each other and with their
environment. The components can be grouped into three categories, i.e. superstructures,
substructures and miscellaneous components.
The superstructure consists of the structural components above the bearings. These include the
deck slab, beams or girders, diaphragms and parapets.
The substructure consists of those components of the bridge below the bearing supporting the
superstructure. It comprises abutments, piers and the foundation system.
The miscellaneous components include bridge surfacing or pavement, approach slab, expansion
joints, drainage, slope and bank protection, railings, kerbs, sidewalks, etc.
The various components are shown in Fig.1.21a and Fig. 1.21b.
Superstructure
Parapet
Approacb
embankment Approach
road
~---- ~p ----~
Abutment
:;lI<>--- Abutment foundations
Retaining wall
SINGLE SPAN BRIDGE (or wingwall)
Fig.l.21a
8-12 A Guide lor 8ric1ge Inspedion

)io.
g>
~ 3D- VIEW OF BRIDGE COMPONENTS
~
,
i
GVLVANISED IRON RAILING----- ,..---PARAPET WALL
f.
~
APPROACH SLA8-Fl-------.
END DIAP~AGMMI__-___.
WINGWALI.; ~
DOWEL BA j
__ J
I
~E-STRESSED
CONCRETE BEAM
'----INTERMEDIATE
CUR.TAIN WALl.; I '" DIAPHRAGM
ABUTMENT WALl; y..

" I
-. ." - ___II
"'--300m", THK. RUBBLED
PITCHING
" 2m X 1m X 1m ROCK
FILLED GABIONS
~
c8t1>
VER.TICAL PILES V>
..". RAKED PILES '"c:

<::
()
~
V>
~
~
w Fig. 1.21a
~
'"
Deck Slabs
The deck forms the platform which carries the traffic and distributes the live loads and dead loads
to the supporting members. The deck slab can be either of concrete, steel or timber. The various
types of deck slabs are shown under Deck Type in Section 1.2 (see Fig. 1.10 to Fig. 1.20).
Beams and Girders
Beams and girders are the main load-carrying elements of bridge superstructure. Beams are
generally either of concrete or steel. Timber is only used for temporary bridges, while masonry
was once used as clapper bridges.
Concrete beams can be cast-in-situ, precast, post-tensioned prestressed or pre-tensioned

prestressed. They can take various shapes, such as rectangular beam, Inverted T - Beam, I - Beam,
M - Beam and V - Beam. Steel beams can be in the form of rolled I - Beam, riveted I - Beam and
welded plate girder. I - Beam may also be encased in concrete. as. a form of protection.
Some examples of pre-tensioned prestressed (M-Beam, Inverted Tee- Beam, V-Beam) and post
tensioned prestressed (I-Beam, T-Beam)) beams are shown in Fig. 1.22 below.
M-Beam Inverted T - Beam V - Beam
I - Beam T- Beam
Fig..J.22

Diaphragms
Diaphragms are transverse beams connecting the longitudinal girders to prevent movement of the
girders with respect to each other and provide stiffness in the transverse direction.
Abutments
They are the end supports of the bridge superstructure. They are provided for the following
purposes:
a) to transmit the reaction of superstructure to the foundations
b) to retain the earth filling
c) to connect the superstructure to the approach roads
The common types of abutments are:
1. Bank seat (Fig. 1.23)
2. Retaining wall (Fig. 1.24)
14. Guide lor 8riJge Inspection B-15

3. Pile bents (Fig. 1.25)
Piers
A pier is an intermediate support for the superstructure. Piers allow the total length of the bridge
to be divided into viable span lengths. Those commonly found are the following:
1. Wall type (Fig. 1.26)
8-16 A Guicle for Bridge Inspection

2. Pile bents (Fig. 1.27)
3. R.c. Frame on Pile Foundation (Fig. 1.28)
AGuide for Bridge Inspection 8-17

Bearings
They are provided over the supports, i.e. abutments and piers, for the following purposes:
a) transfer loads from superstructure to substructure
b) to accommodate expansion and contraction movements between different parts of the
structure
c) to damp down vibrations and minimize the effect of impact loading
Bearings can either be free or fixed. Free bearing allows displacement and rotational movements
while fixed bearing allows only rotational movement. Bearings can be made of rubber or steeL
Rubber Bearing
The following are some of the more common types of rubber bearing:
1. Bearing pad, which is a single unreinforced rubber slab
.2. Bearing strip. which is a continuous bearing pad
3. Laminated bearing, which consists of one or more slab bonded to metal plates so as to
form a sandwich
These are shown in Fig. 1.29 below.
(i) Bearing Pad
(ii) Bearing Strip
B·18 A Guide lor Bridge Inspedion

(iii) Laminated Bearing
(iv) Plane Sliding Bearing

Fig. 1.29
A Guiele lor BricIge Inspection 8-19

Steel Bearing
There are two types of steel bearing as follows:

L Steel plate
2. Mechanical bearing
The common types of bearings are shown in Fig.I.30.
Bearing Plate With

Half Rounded Base
' - - - - Half Round Knuckle
eii} Cylindricaf Knuckle Bearing
Outer Bearing Plate
Roller ---....-.,
(i) Multiple Roller Bearing
B·20 A Guide For Bridge Inspection

Structural Systems
Outer Bearing Plate
Circular Centre Core
Spherical Rocker
(iii) Point Rocker Bearing
.....rf-~~--Outer Bearing Plate
>---Leaves
(iv) Knuckle Leaf Bearing
Fig. 1.30
------------------------------------------------------------------
Guk/e for Brk/ge Inspection B·21
Structural Systems
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints are provided at joints between span members to accommodate various
movements at the joints. The common types of joints are shown in Fig. 1.31 below.
_~~~lOJJ-+- ____
L.OCA~ PI~ -+-J-:--~
-f,t 26mm WAX.
ASPHALTIC PLUG JOINT
190
. .. . • ." . ...
. •
. ...
.. ..
.
. ... ""
" ..
• ..
.•. "
• 4: . . . .
... ... ." ... .....
"
REINFORCED ELASTOMERIC JOINT

(21rnm-41mm)
SB. ccttcRm CIt EQUIVAL£HT

PAVEWENT-----,
it
SHO- BOND SR OR EQUlVAL£HT
IS APPLEIJ:
COMPRESSION SEAL JOINT
Fig. 1.31
8-22 A Guide for Bridge Inspedion

Bridge Structural
Parapet
Parapet is the vertical wall located at the outermost edge of the bridge deck. They are provided
mainly for vehicular and pedestrian safety and designed to take certain impact load and hence
preventing vehicles from falling off the bridge. Fig. 1.32 below shows two common parapets.
25mm CHAMFER
SOmm CHAMFER
.75mm C.I. PIPE
NEW JERSEY PARAPET WITH GALVANISED IRON RAILING
102
ti
o
.n
25mm CHAMFER
,,
" ,'-----l~::..-..,
,, , ,
,, , ,
50mm CHAMFER
r---'75mm Col. PIPE
STANDARD KERB WITH STEEL RAILING

Fig. 1.32
A GviJe for Bridge Inspection B-23

Approach Slab
The bridge is joined to the roads on either side by the approach road. An approach slab is nonnally
provided for a short length of the approach road adjoining the bridge abutment.
Surfacing or Pavement
This fonns the wearing surface of the deck. Reinforced concrete and steel decks are typically
covered with premix surfacing.
Drainage
Water on bridge decks is drained through deck drains or allowed to drain off the deck by PVC or
steel pipes ..
Embankment and Slope Protection
Embankments are sloped fills or cut in the vicinity of the structure. The sloping faces of the
embankments may be protected from the effects of erosion or scour by some form of slope
protection system. The most commonly used are rubble pitching and gabion mattress.
Foundations
The foundation system supports all vertical loads and horizontal forces from the superstructure
and substructure. The type of foundation system depends on the type of soil underlying the
foundation. Where rock or soil with adequate bearing capacity is found at or near the ground
surface, shallow foundation in the fonn of pad or strip footing is used. Where rock or harder soil
is overlain by softer material, piles are used.
Dowel Bars
Elastomeric bearing can be conveniently subdivided into two type ;

1. Fixed - where the support member can only rotate, all horizontal movements being
restrained.
11. Free - where the member can rotate and also move horizontally.
The fixed state is provided by dowel bars passing from the beam to its support. In order to make
the provision for possible replacement of bearings, these dowels are best placed between bearings.
But where space is restricted they can pass through holes in the bearings. Dowels usually need an
8·24 A Guide lor Sriclge Inspection

elastomeric cap at one end to permit the superstructure to rotate relative to the substructure. The
dowels must penetrate to sufficient depth to resist the horizontal load, without including excessive
stresses in the concrete. In all cases the dowels should be long enough to reach the reinforcement
in the support.
Dowel bars at one end of a bridge span wi1l form an expansion centreline : longitudinal
movements of the deck will be accommodated by the bearings at the free end, whereas horizontal
loads will be carried by the dowels.
It should be remembered that the horizontal forces would be transmitted to the support at the free
end, due to the resistance of the bearings there to the horizontal movement. This force will be
transmitted through the superstructure to the fixed end dowels. This force is calculated on the
basis of the movement of the deck due to changes in shrinkage, temperature and creep of concrete
(S.T.c.)
The dowel bars shall be designed to resist a combination of three types of horizontal load as
follows :
(i) Tractive Load
(ii) Wind Load
(iii Load due to the effect of Shrinkage, Temperature and Creep.

APPENDIX C
BMS REFERENCING SYSTEM
Appendix C
BMS REFERENCING SYSTEM
In order to ensure that each bridge and its component is correctly identified, there must be a standard way
of naming the bridge components. Two reference systems, two type of reference systems are :
a) Bridge numbering system
b) Superstructure/substructure reference system
Bridge Numbering System
The Bridge Numbering System ensures that the bridge number is unique and easy to identify. The system
requires the inspector to indicate the route number where the bridge is located and the distance from the
route origin to the centreline of the bridge.
In identifying the bridge number the system uses the road section number (referred from the kilometer
post - see Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.2) followed by the distance from the kilometer post at the start of the section
to the bridge centerline, to the nearest hundred meters.
Fig. 2.1 kilometer post type 'A'.

This kilometer post is located
at every 5 km. A route number
plate with a yellow background
is located at the top of the post.
The road section number is inscribe
in blact at the bottom of the post.
Fig.2.2 This is type 'B' kilometer post.

A part from showing the
destination it also indicates the
road section number at the bottom
of the post.
A Guide for Bridge Inspection C-l

BMS Ket€~ren.:lna
Example
Fig.2.3 shows a bridge located on Federal Route I as indicated by the route number marker at the top of
the kilometer post. The road section number at the kilometer post is 50 and the distance between the
kilometer post and the bridge is 700 meter. Therefore the bridge number is 5017 which indicates that the
bridge is located 50.7km from the origin of Federal Route 1.
lohor ---~::'-"'--"-'..--...-...--...-....
\- .~- \-----~="----
'\,
\
\
l Bukit
Bahru -A'J-_1~00m~_...,lIT K£yu Hitam
Fig. 2.3
C-2 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

BMS /(etE!fem:ina
Superstructure/Substructure Reference System
In order to standardize the reporting system and to help the bridge manager to easily interpret the
inspection report, a reference system in identifying the bridge component parts are devised. The reference
system are described below:
a) Beams are numbered 1, 2, 3 etc in ascending order from left to right when moving away from the
origin as shown in Fig. 2.4.
b) Piers and spans are numbered 1,2,3 etc in ascending order from the route origin as shown in Fig. 2.5.
c) Abutments are labeled A and B with abutment A being nearest to the origin.
Fig. 2.4
D~JOHOR8AHRU~ KE SEGAMAT ----c>

(ROUTE ORIGIN)
Fig 2.5
A Guide for Bridge Inspection

APPENDIX D
.NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non Destructive
AppendixD
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
01 Introcluction [1 J
A strict definition of non-destructive testing would confine it to techniques, which do not

in any way change the properties of the structure or alter it physically. This definition is
somewhat restrictive when applied to bridge inspection and the term non-destructive
testing is widened to include, tests which involved removal of small samples by drilling
or cutting but on a minor scale which will not impair the effectiveness of the bridge structure.
Non-destructive testing can make a valuable contribution to the investigation of many problems
that occur in bridges. It is important however that the nature of its contribution should be properly
understood. It is not often that a single non-destructive testing technique will be able to give the
engineer all the information he wished to obtain. More commonly it will provide him with some
additional evidence about a fault or problem which he already suspects; sometimes indeed it may
for no more than to confirm his suspicions.
Non-destructive testing should not therefore be regarded as a diagnostic technique in itself but as
part of a broad approach to the investigation of a problem. The drawings, the records of
construction and testing, visual examination of the structure sometimes augmented by strain and
deflection measurements and non-destructive testing should be regarded as being complementary
to each other. Theories about the mode of behavior or the type of fault can then be tested against
the assembled evidence. Non-destructive testing is probably most valuable when used in a
supporting role and its likely contribution to solving a problem must be carefully considered when
planning the tests.
Non-destructive testing is a subject which is continuously progressing and developments for use
in other industries may sometimes provide useful techniques for bridge inspection. It is difficult
for any summary to be completely up to date and all that can be done is to give a general outline.
The description of these methods are available in standard literature [2, 3,4, 5, 6]. Some methods
are likely to be improved, other to be superseded and techniques not at present used for bridges
may become available later.
The tests to be used depend very much upon the circumstances and condition of the particular
bridge being investigated. For instance, if corrosion of reinforcement in concrete bridges is
suspected then measurements of electrical potential and resistivity would be supplemented by
measurement of the concrete cover, and of the permeability and chloride content of the
permeability and chloride content of the concrete. If proof loading is to be carried out then not
only should strains and deflections be measured but there may be a case for using acoustic
A Guiele for 8ric1ge Inspection D·l

Non Destructive
emission to check whether cracks are propagating as the load is applied. If lamination is
suspected in concrete then tests to detect it might be supplemented by the applications of vibration
techniques together with the drilling of small diameter cores. The application of many of the non
destructive techniques for the examination of faults in bridges is comparatively new and some of
the older methods have not yet been widely used. Until there is experience of the application of
these techniques to bridges on the wider scale it is difficult to make fiml recommendations and it
will be necessary for the engineer to consider each particular case on its merits
Where information is needed on the strength of the materials used in a bridge, two problems arise.
Firstly the removal of samples for strength tests may permanently weaken the structure,
particularly in fatigue. Secondly, it is not usually practicable to make sufficient te.sts to provide
adequate data on the variability of strength. A few tests can be useful in giving a broad indication
of the quality of the materials. The Engineer's approval should always be obtained before any
samples are removed. He will have to consider the likely value of the results in relation to
possible damage to the structure and whether indirect methods of assessing strength might not be
more appropriate.
Some of the testing methods used in concrete bridge investigation are summarised in Table 01,
Table 02 and Table D3 of this Appendix.
02 Non-Destructive Testing for the Examination of Concrete Bridges
02.1 The strength of concrete from surface tests
Several methods of testing concrete strength are available and the detailed description of
these methods are available in literature [2, 3] and standard guidelines [4, 5,6].
The Schmidt or Rebound Hammer is an impact hammer consisting of a plunger, which is

held in contact with the concrete, and a spring loaded mass which strikes the free end of
the plunger and rebounds. The extent of the rebound (the 'rebound number') gives an
indication of the strength of the concrete at the surface position where the measurement
is made. The measurement is influenced by the finish to the concrete and should be made
on a smooth surface. The correlation is influenced by the properties of the concrete and
accuracy of the order of plus or minus 15% is claimed. As an inspection technique, the
rebound hammer may be used to compare the quality of concrete in different parts of the
bridge or between different bridges if the concrete is similar. It should always be
remembered that only surface concrete is being tested. The results should not be used for
calculating the strength of the structure but, with caution, they could be used as
confirmation of results obtained by other means.
0-2 A Guide lor Bridge Inspedion

Non Destructive
The compressive strength of in-situ concrete may also be assessed by the Windsor Probe,
which is a device which drives a steel probe into the concrete using a constant amount of
energy. The length of probes projecting from the concrete is measured and a result is
based on the average of three measurements.
A simple pull-out test to assess the strength of in-situ concrete has been developed by the
Building Research Establishment. It requires a hole 6mm in diameter and 30-35mm in
depth to be drilled into the concrete. A 6mm diameter wedge anchor bolt with an
expanding sleeve is tapped into the hole to a depth of 20mm and the compressive
strength of the concrete is estimated from the torque that has to be applied to the wedge
anchor to produce internal cracking.
02.2 Core Drilling

Cores can provide information on concrete strength, compaction and on cracks. Cores of
50 mm diameter can be drilled but a diameter of not less than lOOmm usually needed for
strength tests. A skilled operator is needed, particularly for drilling small cores, and a
number of forms undertake this work. Core drilling, can weaken the structure and should
be carried out only on the authority of the engineer. Further details on core drilling and
testing are available in the relevant British Standard [7] and other literature [8].
D2.3 Electromagnetic Devices for Measuring Concrete Cover

An electromagnetic technique can be used to locate reinforcing steel and to determine the
depth of cover up to a.bout 120mm. It is sometimes possible to estimate the size of bars
with this technique but this depends on cover and bar spacing. The device consists of 2
coils placed on the concrete surface. An alternating current is passed through on coil and
the induced current in the second coil is measured. The induced current is influenced by
the presence of reinforcing steel. Further information is available in literature [3,4,5,6].
D2.4 Ultrasonic Techniques

The normal method of use consists of measuring the velocity in concrete of an ultrasonic
pulse generated by a piezoelectric transducer. The pulse velocity depends on the
composition, degree of compaction and maturely of the concrete and is related to the
elastic properties. The relationship to strength depends upon various other properties of
the concrete and is best determined experimentally. Wherever possible the direct
transmission method should be used, with the transmission and receiving probes in line
on opposite sides of the thickness. Caution is required in comparing results from min
direct transmission test with calibrations techniques.
A Guide lor Bridge Inspection 1>-3

Non Destructive Testing
For some structures, there may be sufficient concrete test specimens available to enable
the pulse velocity-strength relationship to be determined for the likely range of strength
variation. Where this cannot be done specimens can sometimes be cut from an
unimportant part. The quality of this concrete is then compared with that in the more
highly stressed parts by pulse velocity measurements. The presence of steel parallel to the
line of the transmitted pulse provides a path along which the pulse can travel more rapidly.
Corrections can be made but detailed information on the reinforcement is needed.
Another use of the ultrasonic technique arises from the reflection of the ultrasonic pulse
at open crack voids. The path of the pulse will thus travel around any cavity in the
concrete the time of transmission of the pulse is thus lengthened. Large voids and open
cracks may be detected by this means. Narrow cracks will transmit the pulse through
points of contact and small voids will increase the path length by only a small amount,
which may be indistinguishable from the normal variability of the measurement.
The use of ultrasonic techniques and the interpretation of the results require knowledge
and experience. Equipment for routine work is available commercially. Further
information is available in literature [3,4, 5, 6].
D2.5 Detection of Concrete Lamination

At present aural methods (I.e. listening to the notes produced by tapping the concrete
surface) are normally used to detect any lamination of the concrete. A method of doing this
electronically has been developed by the US Federal Highway Authority [9] for application
to the surface of bridge decks. The pulse is applied to the deck by a tapping device and the
response is detected by a pressure transducer in an oil-filled tyre, which couples the
transducer to the deck. The signal is processed and the results are shown on a chart recorder.
The apparatus is mounted on a trolley and is suitable for surveying large area of deck.
D2.6 Endoscopes
These instruments consist of rigid and flexible viewing tubes, which can be inserted into
holes or crevices in steel and concrete structures. Illumination where needed is conveyed by
glass fibres from an external source. In the rigid tubes viewing is by reflecting prisms and
in the flexible tubes, by a fibre optics system. The equipment is available commercially
and provision can be made for the attachment of a camera or a television monitor.
Endoscope allows close examination of parts of the structure which otherwise could not
be viewed. For instance the interior of a partially grouted post-tensioning duct can be
examined and photographed through a hole drilled into it. The interior of a steel box or
tubular member could be similarly examined. Other applications could be in the
examination of joints and bearings.
0·4 A Guiele lor Bridge Inspedion

-----~~~~------------------------------------------------------------~
D2.7 In-situ Permeability Tests

Air and water permeability can be measured by the procedure developed by Figg [10].
This consists of drilling a small hole into the concrete, sealing it with liquid rubber and
then inserting a hypodermic needle. Permeability to air is determined by evacuating the
hole and measuring the increase of pressure with time. Permeability to water is measured
by filling the hole with water and then measuring the flow into the concrete at a pressure
similar to that created by rainfalL The results are influenced by the moisture content of
the concrete and this makes it difficult to interpret the results in comparative terms.
D2.8 Carbonation of Concrete

The protection given by the concrete against corrosion of the reinforcement is reduced if
the concrete becomes carbonated.- This is caused mainly by atmospheric carbon dioxide
reacting with calcium hydroxide in the concrete. Carbonation proceeds inwards from the
exposed surfaces of the concrete but the process is usually slow and is measured in years
or decades. A convenient method of determining whether the concrete has carbonated
sufficiently to allow corrosion is to spray a freshly fractured surface with phenolphthalein
indicator. The colour of any uncarbonated concrete is unchanged but the carbonated
material turns purple. The pH value at which the colour change occurs is about 9.
D2.9 Determination of Chloride Content

Samples of concrete are obtained by collecting the powder produced when a hole of
about lOmm diameter is drilled into the concrete. Care is needed to separate the samples
obtained at different depth. The powder is analyzed for chloride content either by the
titration method given in BS 1881: Part 6 or by a proprietary method using an indicator
in capillary tubes. The amount of chloride needed to cause corrosion varies according to
circumstances but useful guidance is provided [11, 12].
D2.10 Measurement of Electrical Potentials
Corrosion of reinforcement is caused by differences in electrical potential (at different

points in the same bar) which produce corrosion cells. The differences in potential along
the reinforcement can be detected by placing a copper-copper SUlphate half cell on the
surface of the concrete and measuring the potential difference between the half cell and
the steel reinforcement [13,14,15]. It has been established that potentials more negative
than -350mV indicate a high probability of corrosion while potentials less relative than
200mV indicate a high probability that the steel is not corroding. Unless the latter
condition is indicated, the electrical resistively test should be carried out to assess the
approximate rate of corrosion.
A Guicie for Bridge Inspection 0.5

Non Destructive
D2.11 Measurement of Strains and Deflections
Strains are usually measured by acoustic gauges or electrical resistance gauges. The
former will not measure transient or dynamic strains but are a fairly robust type of gauge
well suited to use on concrete structures and for site conditions. Electrical resistance
gauges will measure dynamic stresses, they can be applied to steel but are more difficult
to apply to concrete.
There is variety of methods for measuring deflection. Where there is a rigid base to
which the gauges can be attached, dial gauges may be used when accessible for visual
reading or electrical transducers where remote recording is needed. Sometimes
stretched wires are used to transmit the deflection from the bridge deck down to ground
level where gauges can be more easily installed. Where a high degree of accuracy
is needed a precise water level or sometimes laser techniques may be needed. Where
lower accuracy is adequate a precise level may be used. It may be necessary to
supplement the measurement of deflections by measurement of rotation or change of
slope, and for this purpose a number of commercially produced inclinometers are
available.
On many highway bridges it may be difficult to provide sufficient load to produce

measurable strains and deflections. When the strains, in particular, are small it may
be found that on subsequent loading the original reading are not repeated.
Changing temperatures during the measurements will produce thermal strains which
can be of the same order as those due to loading. Careful consideration needs to be given
to the method of loading and the likely strains and deflections before any tests are
carried out. It may be necessary to select a time of day and weather when thermal strains
are smalL
D2.12 Radiography
Radiography can be described simply as photography using a type of radiation, normally

gamma radiation for concrete, which will penetrate through the concrete. A source
radiation is placed to one side of the concrete and a film is attached to the other side.
Steel which, because of its higher density impedes the transmission of radiation more
than concrete, shows up on the negative as litter than the surrounding concrete sand
conversely voids shown up as darker areas. The negatives are usually examined in a
viewer although positives (i.e. prints) can be obtained. The picture shows all the steel
and voids throughout the depth of the concrete examined in a projected view so that if
there is more than one layer of reinforcement or tendons, these are superimposed and
careful interpretation is needed. Details may be found in literature [3].
A Guide lor Briclge Inspection

The use of radioactive isotopes is subject to very stringent safety precautions and it will
usually be necessary for an area around that to be examined to be cleared of personnel
and closed off by ropes or barriers. This may mean that such work may only be done
outside normal working hours and or with road closures.
Radiography can only be carried out by a specialist firm or organisation licensed to store,
move and use the radioactive isotopes. It should be specified that the work be done in
accordance with the relevant British standard. Particular attention should be given to
marking out the source and film positions so that these are accurately located relative to
each other.
Information should also be provided upon the type of source to be used (normally cobalt
60, cacsium 137, or iridium 192), the type of film, the source to film distance and other
details such as whether intensifying screens will be used. The procedure must be
approved by relevant authority and it may be advisable to consult them at an early stage
in planning the work.
There are practical limits to the use of radiography for concrete. The maximum thickness
which can be radiographer is about 500 to 600mm. For checking the adequacy of the
grouting of ducts it must be possible form the radiation beam to be passed horizontally
through the concrete and there must be access to both sides. The object being examined,
reinforcement or tendon etc. must be as close to the film as possible and the source/object
distance. Radiography of concrete is expensive and only a limited area can be covered
by one exposure.
A combination of a preliminary survey by covermeter, followed by selected radiography

may be of advantage if the object is to check size and position of reinforcement. The use
of radiation generators instead of radioactive source is a possible development for
application to bridges. A betatron generator has already been used for this purpose
abroad and linear accelerators which are used in the aircraft industry might also be
applied to .c{)ncrete stru~tures.
D2.13 Radiometry
The principle of radiometry are similar to those of radiography except that the source is
of lower density and the film is replaced by a detector such as a Geiger or scintillation
counter, which is used to scan the area of interest. Radiometric methods are used to
determine the density of concrete from the attenuation of radiation transmitted through it.
Attenuation increases with increasing density. Either direct transmission or backcatter
. techniques can be used; in the latter the source and detector are on the same face. Further
details may be obtained from literature [3].

D2.14 Pressure-Vacuum Technique
The volume of voids in a post-tensiOning duct, the continuity of voids along the duct and
the leakage in to the duct may be investigated by pressure/vacuum technique through
holes drilled in to the duct [16]. Close supervision of the hole drilling is needed to reduce
the risk of damage to the tendons. Therefore this technique should only be done under
the direction of the Engineer.
D2.15 Vibration Techniques

These techniques use the vibration response of a structure as a means of detecting the
presence or development of defects. Forced vibration over a range of frequencies [17] or
traffic-induced vibrations [18] are used to provide the excitation and the response of the
structure is measured by accelerators.
D2.16 Acoustic Emission

When a structure is first loaded, or loaded to a higher value than before, the resulting
deformation of the material may release strain energy and this produces stress waves
which can be detected with suitable transducers. By placing several transducers on the
structure, the sources of the emission may be located. Acoustic missions may be
produced by several different causes including crack growth, local crushing, bar slip and
corrosion. The technique has been used mainly on homogeneous materials such as steel
and its application to concrete structures increases the difficulty of interpreting the
results. It is a highly specialized technique and the reliability of the information obtained
depends very much upon skill in analyzing and interpreting the results. More details
available in literature [3].
D2.17 Leakage Through Waterproof Membranes

. An electrical resistance technique may be used to locate leakage through waterproofing
membrane. The resistance is measured between the reinforcement in the concrete deck
and contact points on the bituminous surface formed by sponges saturated with water
containing a wetting agent. A high resistance indicates that the waterproof membrane is
in fact but lower values indicate leakage. Measurements are made over a grid of points
and contours of electrical resistance plotted. The results need careful interpretation and
allowance must be made for apparent leakage due to the conditions at the edges or joints.
------------------------------------------------------------ A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

0·8
Non Destructive
D2.14 Pressure-Vacuum Technique
The volume of voids in a post-tensioning duct, the continuity of voids along the duct and
the leakage in to the duct may be investigated by pressure/vacuum technique through
holes drilled in to the duct [16]. Close supervision of the hole drilling is needed to reduce
the risk of damage to the tendons. Therefore this technique should only be done under
the direction of the Engineer.
D2.15 Vibration Techniques
These techniques use the vibration response of a structure as a means of detecting the
presence or development of defects. Forced vibration over a range of frequencies [17] or
traffic-induced vibrations [18] are used to provide the excitation and the response of the
structure is measured by accelerators.
D2.16 Acoustic Emission
When a structure is first loaded, or loaded to a higher value than before, the resulting
deformation of the material may release strain energy and this produces stress waves
which can be detected with suitable transducers. By placing several transducers on the
structure, the sources of the emission may be located. Acoustic missions may be
produced by several different causes including crack growth, local crushing, bar slip and
corrosion. The technique has been used mainly on homogeneous materials such as steel
and its application to concrete structures increases the difficulty of interpreting the
results. It is a highly specialized technique and the reliability of the information obtained
depends very much upon skill in analyzing and interpreting the results. More details
available in literature [3].
D2.17 Leakage Through Waterproof Membranes
An electrical resistance technique may be used to locate leakage through waterproofing

membrane. The resistance is measured between the reinforcement in the concrete deck
and contact points on the bituminous surface formed by sponges saturated with water
containing a wetting agent. A high resistance indicates that the waterproof membrane is
in fact but lower values indicate leakage. Measurements are made over a grid of points
and contours of electrical resistance plotted. The results need careful interpretation and
allowance must be made for apparent leakage due to the conditions at the edges or joints.
0·8 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

- -~- ....... ~~- -~~--~~---~~~--~~~~---~~----~----
D3 Non-Destructive Testing for the Examination of Steel Bridges

03.1 Thickness Testing
Testing for the thickness of members subject to corrosion can be carried out either by direct
measurement where access is available, or alternatively by special ultra<;onic testing equipment.
Ultrasonic thickness testing instruments are available which enable the thickness to be
measured from one surface to an accuracy of approximately O.lmm. This can be particularly
useful for determining corrosion loss in preparation for assessments of remaining strength. Oirt
and corrosion products should be removed from the surface before the measurements are made.
03.2 Weld Sizes

In any cases where there are doubts about the quality of welding or where evidence of
cracking or defects have been found the sizes of fillet welds should be measured and recorded.
These should be measured as leg lengths and in cases where the leg lengths are unequal both
figures should be recorded. In addition a C0mment should be made on the profile to indicate
whether the weld is convex or concave. If the weld is concave the throat should also be
measured. Any evidence of surface 4efects such as pores or undercut should also be recorded.
03.3 Flatness Testing

To check distortions and deviation from flatness the nonnal method is to apply a straight
edge to the surface and to measure the gaps between the straight-edge and the surface
where deformations are present and record the maximum defonnation and position. The
easiest method of measuring gaps of this sort is by using a tapered wedge calibrated in
O.5mm steps, the wedge being pushed into the gap as far as it will go and the magnitude
of the gap read directly from the wedge. The length of the straight-edge used and the
gauge length between crests of any waves of distortion should also be recorded, and a
sketch provided showing the location of the distorted component in the structure. Where
distortion measurements have to be made over a longer gauge length than is convenient
for. straight-edges the nonnal practice is to use a timt wire s'tretched over the gauge length
with offsets taken by tapered wedge to measure gaps between the fault wire and the
surface of the distorted component.
03.4 Black Bolt and Rivet Testing

All such items should be inspected visually to check that they are still present and for any
signs of looseness or movement.
They should also be inspected for evidence of corrosion or deterioration. In addition light
tapping by a hammer in the hands of an experienced inspector will indicate whether the
items are still tight. When they are tight a ringing sound is produced which penetrates

Non Destructive
into the full member, whereas when they are loose there may be movement and the sound
produced is a dull thud.
D3.5 High-Strength Friction-Grip Bolt Testing

It may be required, during certain special inspections that connections using HSFG bolts
are checked to determine whether the bolts are still correctly tightened. If there is
evidence from the original installation of the use of either load indicating devices or the
part-tum method it may be sufficient for occasional bolts to be hacked. If there is no
evidence of these methods being used more extensive checks may be advisable.
Bolts should only be examined one at a time, any loosened bolt removed and replaced
with a new bolt, nut and washer. Where a bolt is removed the exposed surface should be
examined for evidence of corrosion.
D3.6 Dye Penetrant Testing

This form of testing is suitable for determining whether surface defects, and in particular
cracks open to the surface are present. It is necessary to remove paint and to clean the
surface to be tested to obtain satisfactory results. After cleaning, the surface is sprayed
with a red dye of low viscosity, which seeps into any cracks or other defects open to the
surface. The sample area is allowed to soak for a period of some twenty minutes and the
dye is then cleaned off from the surface using a solvent. A dusting of chalk powder is
then applied and if any cracks or surface defects are present the dye seeps back out from
the defect and appears as a stain on the while chalk surface.
The method of testing is relatively straightforward but requires care in cleaning and
preparation. Details of the testing method are given in BS 4416 [19].
D3.7 Hardness Testing
In cases where it is necessary to obtain an approximate indication of the strength of steel

in a particular-location it may be possibie to can; out portable "hardness testing. There
must be adequate access to the surface area under consideration and the surface must be
carefully prepared to a polished finish. this can be done by first grinding a spot of the
order of lOmm to 20mm diameter and then buffing this surfacing using a fine emery band
to produce the required fine surface.
Portable hardness testing instruments fall into two main types. In the first type the
instrument has a ball or diamond which is pressed into the prepared area and gives a
direct reading on the scale in either Brinell (HB) or Vickers (HV) hardness numbers
Several repeat reading should be taken at the same location and the average of these
reading calculated as the hardness value:
0·10 A Guide for Bridge Inspeclion

The second method sometimes used is the Poled hardness method in which a bolt is
placed between a calibration steel piece and the prepared surface and the calibration piece
struck so that an impression is produced on both work piece and calibration piece. The
relative sizes of the impressions are compared to enable the hardness number to be
determined.
In the structural steel range hardness numbers below 150 HV are typical of mild steel or
steel to BS 4360 Grade 43. Hardness numbers in the range 160-200 are typical of higher
yield steels to BS 4360 Grade 50. In the bordering area of 150-160 HV it is not possible
to distinguish with certainty between these two grades of steel and further testing is
necessary which may involve removal of samples.
Hardness testing may also be useful in determining whether there have been any effects of
fire damage in changing the properties of steel by comparing checks on areas in the
neighborhood of and remote from the seat of the fire.
D3-8 Strain and DeOection Measurements

There are a number of methods of measuring strains at detailed locations in a structure.
These generally require specialized equipment and special arrangements for installation.
Electric resistance strain gauges are the most versatile but mechanical strain gauges and
scratch replace techniques can also be valuable.
Overall deflection measurements at specified locations on a structure can be particularly
valuable in monitoring its performance. The measurements can be taken using dial
gauges or linear variable differential transformers but in all cases it is essential that firm
datum points are established and that checks are carried out to ensure that these datum
points do not move relative to each other during the test. The measured strain and
deflections due to loading are often small and thermal strains can be of the same order,
interpretation of the results can be difficult (see also D2.11).
D3-9 Magnetic Crack Detection

This form of crack detection relies upon the disturbance to the lines of a magnetic force in
a magnetic field caused by the presence of a crack or other defect within the field [20] .
There are a number of different forms of magnetic crack detection which amount to
different methods of producing the magnetic field in the test area concerned. The first of
these methods is by the use of a strong permanent magnet, the poles of which are placed
either side of the area to be tested. The test area is then coated or covered with a magnetic
powder and if any cracks or other defects close to the surface are present they show up as
linear defects in the coating or powder on the surface. A second version of this permanent
magnet method is the use of an electromagnet with power supplied by an external current.
AGukle lor Bridge Inspection 0-11

Non Destructive
The second main type of magnetic crack detection is the case where the magnetic field is
induced by the passage of a high current through the steel sample itself by the use of electric
probes. The intensity of the current is related to the strength of magnetic field produced and
this detennines the sensitivity of the technique for the detection of defects. The current may
be either AC or DC although in general Ac techniques are better for detecting surface defects
and DC techniques pennit defects just below the surface to be found. This enables the high
current to be passed into the steel at low voltages any paint or dirt must be cleaned locally at
the probe contact points. Care must also be taken that craters due to arc strikes are not
produced or left at the probe contact points. Any such craters must be removed by grinding.
The third main method of producing the magnetic field is by induction, in which a coil is
wound around the test area and the field produced by passing a current through the coil.
In all of these cases the presence of defects is indicated on the surface by the coating or
magnetic powder.
D3.10 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing involves the introduction of a high frequency sound beam into the area
under test and monitoring either reflections from within a welded joint or the attenuation
of the sound beam on transmission through the joint.
The normal ultrasonic testing techniques are the pulse echo methods in which signals
returned from internal flaws are monitored. The equipment is initially calibrated on
standard test blocks so that the distanc~ from the probe to a defect or reflecting surface is
won directly on the equipment screen. By using probes which introduce the sound beam
into the joint at different angles, and by measuring the distance of the probate from a
datum point at the joint and noting the distance along the path to a defect the position of
the defect can be identified. Estimations of the size of internal defects can usually be
made either by exploring the perimeter of the defect with the sound beam or by noting the
magnitude of the response from the defects.
,
Estimations
. of the type of defect can also be
made by experienced -operafors by noting the response pattern to different incident beams .
. Ultrasonic testing is a highly skilled operation required trained and experienced

personnel. It is particularly suitable for detection, identification and sizing of internal
defects, including planer defects in steel joints above about lOmmthickness. Problem
may arise with surface roughness, the presence of reinforcement or backing strips and
when access is limited to only one side of a joint. Nevertheless the basic method in the
hands of skilled operators is an extremely valuable non-destructive testing tool. General
methods of ultrasonic testing are described in BS 3923 [21] and BS 4336 [22],
The use of ultrasonic testing for detection of lamination in steel also relies upon the pulse
echo technique in general but again, standard testing methods are defined. Relevant
0.12 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

Non Destructive
information on lamination testing and criteria are given in British Standard document
00.21 - quality grading for steel plates [23].
Ultrasonic testing by transmission methods and other variations of ultrasonic testing are
less commonly used and should be the subject of special advice.
03.11 Radiography
Radiography involves passing X-rays or gamma rays through the region of interest and
projecting the resulting image onto a film. The presence of any defects in welded joints is
own on the film by differences in the intensity of radiation reaching the film. Where
cracks, voids or other faults of this type are present less radiation is absorbed by the steel
-
and more is transmitted to the film so that the defects show up as dark lines or shaded
areas. Local increases in thickness such as weld reinforcement, backing strips etc absorb
more radiation and less reaches the film so that such areas show up as lighter zones. The
sensitivity for the technique of the detection of defects depends upon the relative loss of
thickness caused by the defect in the direct path of the radiation. Thus narrow defects
inclined to the path or radiation are not readily detected.
Radiography is most suitable for detecting either three dimensional non-planar defects, or
detecting planner defects which are aligned with the beam of radiation. As noted in the
section on radiography for concrete bridges there are very stringent requirements for the
use of radioactive isotopes and x-ray equipment and it will usually be necessary for an
area round that under examination to be cleared of personnel and closed off by ropes and
barriers. All procedures must be approved by relevant authority and it may be advisable
to consult them at an early stage in planning the work.
For practical results to be achieved it is necessary to have access to both sides of the joint
under examination with the radioactive source placed on one side and the film placed
immediately against the joint on the opposite side. Different techniques for radiography
are described in BS 2600 [24] and BS 2910 [25].
03.12 Eddy current testing
In this form testing a probe with inductive coils is placed at or close to the surface of the
steel and induces eddy currents in the steel. If faults or defects are present close to the
surface they affect the flow of the eddy currents in the steel and this in turn affects the
loading on the probe and produces a response in the measuring circuits. This form of
testing is particularly suitable for surface cracks or defects and with careful calibration
can be used to estimate the depth of such cracks. All eddy current equipment required
calibration on sound details of the same geometrical form as -those to be tested for the
presence of defects.
A Guicle for Bridge Inspection D-13

Non Destructive
03.13 Chemical Analysis
In cases where it is necessary for checks on weld ability of steel or to provide further
information on the type of steel this can be done by chemical analysis of drillings or
scrapings removed from the member concerned. Care must be taken in collecting such
samples to avoid contamination and to be sure that only the materials from the member
under consideration are collected for analysis. For structural steels it will usually be
sufficient to analyze for carbon manganese silicon sulfur and phosphorous. Orillings or
scrapings should only be removed from areas for which agreement has been given by the
Engineer.
03.14 Acoustic Emission
This form of testing is a method of listening for any changes or deterioration' as it occurs
in the structure. Probes are attached to the structure at specific locations and the
equipment detects and bursts of sound produced by the growth of defects already present.
The technique is still in course of development and requires a considerable number or
probes to cover large areas of a structure. It can be used with advantage to monitor
particular critical areas and to check whether any continued growth of defects is
occurring in service.
D3.15 Endoscopes
See paragraph D2.6
D3.16 Assessment of Paint Work

Paint systems generally fail in one of four ways:
a. By weathering form the final coat towards the steel - the signs being chalking and
flaking of the finish breakdown of final undyrcoat and localized rusting.
b. Breaking up of the system due to poor adhesion often of first undercoat to primer coat
of the site coats to shop coats the results of faulty specification or improper
application.
c. From the substrate outwards with rust and corrosion products coming to the surface
spreading and finally breaking up the system.
d. Breaking up of the system due to defective paint in one or more of the coatings - the
nearer the substrate the more difficult the diagnosis and cure.
Early diagnosis and reporting of problems is essentiaL The experienced Inspector will
detect problems at (a) and (b) above with little difficulty but in circumstances such as
0.14 A Guiele for Bridge Inspection

Non Destructive
those at (c) and (d) where upper coatings may be intact early detection of problems will
be very difficult.
There are a number of aids to inspection of painted surfaces, which may be employed
especially in the more difficult cases.
- Samples may be taken for chemical (and other) analysis.
- Expert advice may be needed on causes and remedial action.
- The illuminated magnifying glass or (better) illuminated microscopes are useful in

diagnostic work.
In the hands of an experienced user the Strand illuminated inspection gauge is of

grate value particularly where the problems lie in coating other than the top coat.
This device produces a controlled cut or scratch in the system through to the steel.
The cut is inclined on one side and hence coats can be viewed their thickness
.
measured and usually interface and substrate problems such as under or interface rust
creep can be found.
A Guide For Briclge Inspection 0·15

Non Destructive
Reference for Appendix D
1. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - Bridge Rehabilitation

and Strengthening, Road Transport Research, Paris (1983).
2. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - Durability of

Concrete Road Bridges, Road Transport Research, Paris (1989).
3. Bungey, J.H., The Testing of Concrete in Structures, 2nd. Edition, Blackie Academic &
Professional, Chapman & Hall, London (1994)
4. Malhotra, V.M. and Carino, N.J. (Eds.), CRC Handbook on Non-Destructive Testing of
Concrete, CRC Press, Florida USA (1991).'
5. CIRIA Technical Note 143, Testing Concrete in -Structures, UK (1992).
6. British Standard Institution, BS 1881: Part 201, Guide to the use of non-destructive method
of testing for hardened concrete! BSI UK (1986).
7. British Standard Institution, BS 1881: Part 120 on Core Drilling and Testing, BSI UK
(1982).
8. Concrete Society Technical Report TR11, on Core Testing, Concrete Society of UK (1987).
9. Moore, W., Swift, M.G and Milberger, L.J., An Instrument for Detecting Delamination in
Concrete Bridge Decks, Highway Research Record 44-52.
10. Figg, J.W., Methods ofMeasuring the Air and Water Permeability of Concrete, Magazine of
Concrete Research 25(85) pp213-219, (1973).
11. Building Research Establishment, Simplified Method for the Detection and Determination
of Chloride in Hardened Concrete, BRE Information IS 12177 (1977).
12. Everett, L.M. and Treadway K.W.J., Deterioration due to Corrosion in Reinforced
Concrete, Building Research Establishment, (1980).
13. Stratful R.F., Half-cell Potentials and the Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, Highway
Research Record 433 pp12-19 (1973).
14. Vassie, P.R., A survey of Site Tests for Assessment of Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete,
TRRL Laboratory Report 953 (1980).
15. Stratful R.F., Jurkovich, W.J. and Spellman, D.L., Corrosion Testing of Bridge Decks,
Transport Research Record 539 (1974).
D-16 A Guide for Sriclge Inspection

Non Destructive
16. Woodward, R.J. and Loe, J.A., The Inspection and Maintenance ofPost-tensioned Concrete
Bridges, Proc. Int. Conf. on Gestion des Ouvrages d'Art. Bruxelles- Paris Vol 1, pp 265-270
(1981).
17. Savage R.J. and Hewlitt, P.C., Structural Integrity: A New NDT Method, British Society for
Stress Measurement and Institution of Civil Engineers Joint Conference, Newcastle UK
(1977).
18. McKenzie A.C. and MacDonald F.J., Vibrations as a Useful Tool in Bridge Inspection,
Proc. Int. Conf. on Gestion des Ouvrages d'Art. Bruxelles- Paris Vol 1, pp 229-235 (1981).
19. British Standard Institution, BS 4416: 1969, Method for Penetrant Testing of Welded or
Brazed Joints in metals, BSI UK (1969).
20. British Standard Institution, BS 4397 : 1969, Methods for Magnetic Particle Testing of
Welds, BSI UK (1969).
21. British Standard Institution, BS 3923 : 1968/1972, Methods of Ultrasonic Examination of

Welds, BSI UK (1972).
22. British Standard Institution, BS 4336 : 1968, Methods for Non-destructive Testing of Plate
Materials, BSI UK (1968).
23. British Standard Document, 0021 : Quality Gradings for Steel Plates.
24. British Standard Institution, BS 2600: 1973, Methods for Radiographic Examination of
Fusion Welded Butt Joints in Steel, BSI UK (1973).
25. British Standard Institution, BS 2910: 1973, Methods for Radiographic Examination of
Fusion Welded Circumferential Butt Joints in Steel Pipes, BSI UK (1973)
A Guide lor Bridge Inspection [)'17

APPENDIX E
FORM AND CHARTS
ROUTINE CONDITION INSPECTION

- Summary Report Form -
Location Data:
Route No. : River/Bridge Name'
Structure No .. District: State.
Bridge Type:
System Type Deck Type
Abutment Type Pier Type
Structure Data:
Road Width m Bridge Width I m Skew Angle I
No. of Span Span(s) I Year Built I
Bridge Length m Year Repaired
Summary Report:
- RATING
BRIDGE MEMBEIl MAJOR DAMAGES MAINTENANCE WORK REQUIRED
Old New
[ I Steel
[ I Beam/Girder [ I P. Concrete
[ I R. Concrete
[ I Steel
[ J Deck Slab ( I Concrete
[ I Concrete
[ J Pier [ J Masonry
[ I Concrete
[ J Abutment ( ] Masonry
[ J Steel
[ J Beanng [ J Rubber
[ I Steel I
( J Drainpipe [ I PVC
[ J Steel
[ I parapet [ 1 Concrete
[ J Others
![ I Asphalt
[ J Surfacing I[ I Concrete
,I
1 Ex.pansion I[[ I] Asphaltic Plug
[ Elastomeric
JOint
( I Others
[ I Rubble Pitching
[
Slope
( I Gabions
-
J Protection
[ J Others
[ I Steel
[ I Culvert [ I Concrete
( J Masonry
Hydraulic
Capacity
peetor's Comment:
Detailed Inspection: [ ] Required [ ] Not Required ~s.

Name of Inspector Date
Previous Inspection
Signature
Date
.lK.IIHiRHIO/
E-l
Page 1 of SPAN ............
ROUTINE CONDITION INSPECTION - STRUCTURAL CONDITION CHECKLIST (BRIDGE)

""
..:" ROtlTE NO, STRI1CT. NO, RIVER\BRIDGE NAME: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ NAME ot INSPECTOR: DATE: __-L_~___
---------
PERCENTAGE RATING RATING
.
BRIDGE MEMBER DEFECTS? SEVERITY OF DAMAGE
TYPE OF DAMAGES CODE AFFECTED REMARKS OF OF
Component Material Yes No Light lIe41um Severe V.Severe DAMAGE MEMBER
[ I [ J Steel Corrosion of sleel 1 A
Fracture al steel 2 ,'",,\::,j I;;;,k.t.t'"". r,:i',,),'Ci(' ' ,\:",Y '.!' - If detected rating = 4
Loose Connections 3 NI
Permanent Deformations 4 )?:.':' 1·';/:;' :~~J; r\'~;:~?~'ii;';,;:". ~ If delected raling ~ 4
Painl Deterioration 5 AT
Abnormal Vibration/DeReclion 13 :i':';,,/,,'
;';.,;,',e) ,,,:: fC7,~ If detected rating" 4
BEAM (GIRDER Abnormal Noise 31 fe" ';' i;ii~:;,:>':, " :e"'"',;, ", ,,)'i,),.,' If detected raling " 4
(J'rlmary) I I p, Concrete Surface Defect 11 AI
I I R, Concrete Cracks at Concrele 6
Delamination 12 A
, Spatling 7 A
Corrosion of Reinforcement 8 L
:'>:.:.;~' ',J'~
Abnormal Vibration/Deflection
Abnormal Movement
13
16
";';"'" t. '.:i:":;
"1":::;.,' , ~"'C
If detected raling " 4
If detected rating " 4
[ ) I ) Steel Corrosion of steel 1 A
Fracture at steel 2 If detected raling =4
Loose Connections 3 NI
Permanent Deformations 4 If detected rating = 4
Weter Leak 14 AI
Abnormal Movement 16 ".
':> ..". Co< .•..
,.' I If detected rating = 4
DECk SLAB Abnormal Noise 31 "
"
';'''F'(, ',:\,:"":0 If delected rating. 4
(Primary) [ 1 Concrete Surface Defect 11 AI
Cracks at Concrete 6
Delamination 12 A
Spalling 7 A
Corrosion of Reinforcement e L
Water LeaklFree Lime 14 A
I I [ J Concrete Surface Defect 11 A
I I Masonry Cracks at Concrete 6 -
D'!Iamination 12 A
ABUTMENT Spalling 7 A
(Primary) Corrosion of Reinforceml\!nl a L
Wear/Abrasion 9 A
Material Deterioration 10 A
TilVSettiement 15 .' If detected rating =4
Scouring 17
I I [ J Concrete Surface Defect 11 AI
[ J Masonry Cracks at Concrete 6
Delamination 12 A
PIER NO._ Spalling 7 A
(Primary) Corrosion of Reinforcement 8 L
Wear/Abrasion 9 A
Malerial Deterioration lQ A
TiIVSelliemenl 15 If delp.cted rating = 4
Scourin!! 17 .
I I I I Steel Corrosion of steel 1 A
BEAR1NG [ J Rubber Loose Connections 3 N
(Primary) I I Others Pending Water 18 If detected rating = 3
DebrisNegelation 19
Abnormal Bulging 33
Abnormal Displacement 34 A
Legend; A=Area. N=Numbers. L=Length
Have all the components been inspected?
R£AM Fo.M 1101

- ' " , ..
""9" 2 of SPAN ........... .
ROUTINE CONDITION INSPECTION - STRUCTURAL CONDITION CHECKLIST (BRIDGE,
ROtlTE NO: STRtlCT. NO: RIVER\BRIDGE NAME: NAME OF INSPECTOR: DATE: _--''--_'--_
PERCENTAGE RATING RATING
.
BRIDGE MEMBER DEFECTS? SEVERITY OF DAMAGE
TYPE OF DAMAGES CODE AFFECTED REMARKS OF OF
Component Material Yes No Lil!:ht Medium Severe V.Severe DAMAGE MEMBER
I J I I Steel Corrosion 01 steel 1 LIN
PARAPET I I Concrete CraCks at Concrete 6
(S,condary) ! I Others Spalling 1 A
Impact Damage 22 L
loose Connections 3 N
! I ( I Asphalt Pol-holes 23 A
SURFACING ( I Concrete Wheel Track Rutting 24 A
(Seoondory) Loss 01 Bond & Delamination 25 A
Rippling 26
Pavement CraCk 27
[ I [ 1 Asp. Plug Abnormal Spacing 29 '" ". < .C If detected rating =4 i
EXPANSION JOINT I 1 Elastomeric Dilference in Level 30 L
(Secondary) I 1 Comp, Seal Water leak 14 A
I I Buried CraCking at Exp, Joint 28 L
I 1 Others Rupture 32 L
( J I I Steel CorrOSion 01 steel 1 A i
DRAINPIPES I ) PVC Blocked Drainage 20 N
(Secondary) Water Leak 14 A
Nonnadequate Pipe Length 21 N
I I Slope Protectlonl ( J Rble. Pitching Scouring 17
River Bank I J Gabions Erosion 35 AT
(Secondary) (I Others Material Loss/oisintegralion 36 AI
HYDRAULIC CAPACITY Inadequate Opening 38
legend: A"'Area, N:Numbers, l=length
Have all the components been inspected?
REAM FORM 1/01

SPAll' ..........
ROUTINE CONDITION INSPECTION - STRUCTURAL CONDITION CHECKLIST (CULVERT)

2: 'UTE NO STRUCT.NO , RIVER \ BRIDGE NAME' NAME OF INSPECTOR .
---,.
DATE , ,
•,;)tt~~(~eUtiv~i,MEMIIE~,i!;;;'.i
".'compd;nent . Material'
1'!'j~;riB
.'' , ';5i,,,
DAM~;j~ ........
. .t'·· "::',,:"''; '.<
CODE DEFECTS
; :"·~>i~' . YoU
';SEV)tRtTY OF DAMAGIi;'.,-.',
No Light Medium Severe V.Severe

" ,'PERCItNTAGE '.
' ".' AFFECTED' .i.·
'.' , " .... ~:. :
,r. •REMARKS
.t, t:{~.'
.. RATING,
OF ' 'OJ'
DruGE MEliIsER
RATING
[ I Steel f--<:orroSion of steel 1 A

Fracture at steel 2 [., .. "'.' .,'
"
.,
, . If detected rating =4
Loose Connections
Permanent Deformations
3
4 .', '.i"';;.'
. /"! '
N
If delected rating; 4 I
Paint Deterioration 5 A
! I Concrele Surface Defect
, 11 A
[ I Masonry Cracks al Concrele 6
CULVERT BODY Delamination 12 A
(Primary) Spalling 7 A
Corrosion of Reinforcement e L
Wear/Abrasion 9 A
Malerial Deterioration 10 A
General Water Leak 14 A
Till/Selt/ement 15 ':' If delected raling =4
Silting 37 L
Scouring 17 L
Inadequate Opening 38
[ I Concrete Surface Defect 11 A
I I Masonry Crack 6
Delamination 12 A
HEADWALL I Spalling 7 A
WINGWALL Corrosion of Reinforcement e L
(Primory) Wear/Abrasion 9 A
Material Deterioration 10 ... If detected rating = 4
Till/Seltlement 15 A
--
Scouring 17 L
[ I Concrete Wear/Abrasion 9 A
Corrosion of Reinforcement 8 L
Till/Settlement 15
, .. If detected rating =4
APRON
(Secondary) Material Deterioration 10 A
---- ---- ----
Scouring 17 L
SiUing 37 L
[ I Steet Corrosion of steel 1 LIN
PARAPET [ 1 Concrete Cracks at Concrete 6 L
(Secondary) [ J Others Spalling 7 N
Impact Damage 22
Loose Connections 3 N
[ I Asphalt Pot·holes 23 A
SURFACING f J Concrete Difference in Level 30 L
fS,condory} Wheel Track Rutting 24 A
Pavement Crack 27 A
Rippling 26
• I ........ _.<01.
__ .. 1_Io." •• _ h _ _ I _I ___ i i••
I YES I
1l_1!;~
NO 1
I Have all the components been inspected?
I 1
Material Condition Rating Card
, "J Co' ~
.,{ ,MATERIAL CONDmON RATINGOFOOMP0NENTS· ..

~ ,"
~, ' , -,','
E-S
m
0..
BRIDGE NO. : 168 / 9 NAME OF BRIDGE OR RIVER. PARJT KASIM ROUTE: FT. 005 PHOTOGRAPHS:
STATE: JOHOR DISTRICT: MUAR
STRUCTURE DATA DESIGN LOAD. HA
YEAR BUILT' I %6 (KNOWN) DESIGN CODE
DESIGN BY: CAPACITIES STAL
CONSTRUCTED BY . BENDING MOMENT
COST OF CONSTRUCTION' SHEAR FORCE:
BRIDGE TYPE. 3 SPAN R.C. BEAM SERVICES CARRIED' WATERMAIN
CROSSING ROAD l AAILWA¥ I RIVER I T.N.B c::J TELEPHONE c::J LIGHTING c::J GENERAL VIEW
SKEW ANGLE r::=r=J WATER GZl
SPAN LENGTH: G.35 + 6.08 + 6.35 LOCATION PLAN
MAX. SPAN G.35
INTERNAL WIDTH BETWEEN PARAPETS a. I a m.

t
6.35 6.08 635
CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH . G.21 m.
.... 1 I
~t--
RIVER NAVIGABLE. YES GZl NO c::J t t
N
t
,,
I
,,
I
t
I CLEARANCES WIDTH: m HEIGHT: m I~ OMe

TU PAHAT ,.;
,,
I
,
I
TOMUAR e
I ,
I
TRAFFIC RESTRICTION: ~t--

0
I 6.10 6.15 l
WIDTH: m HEIGHT. m
1
WEIGHT: T AXLE T SIDE VIEW
DATE OF ENTRY JULY 2000
II!:
,-
tf:
'-";iiI."'!1_"~ ""-",~-""N~.- -. ~
D;;;;:f;,,'.';N
CONDITION I -
CROSS SECTION
,0,500.45 0,64 6,21 0,43 0.45 050
RATING , f t t l' f f t
BRIDGE MEMBER MATERIAL I TYPE (1 - 5)
4
BEAM I GIRDER RECT. RC, BEAM 4
:n=~ II OF CARRtGt:WA Y
- J ~-4
on
\~,T 5~
-
DECK R,C. SLAB
. 3
I III
Is i I I I
I" . ] =t~
821
PlEA R.C. PilE t CROSS HEAD 3 "I
~l 183 I 1.83
~
<:>
ABUTMENT R,C, WALL 2 '\ :::
N
::
ALABlJ.LA ,
,~
BEARING STEEL PLATE 3
I 1 ~ WL I I
jW
I
DRAINPIPE
10mm
I
~ L X 380mm
FiLLET SCALE I : 75
PARAPET I RAILING KERB II. STEEL RAILING 3
, -
SURFACING BITUMINOUS 3
~
EXPANSION JOINT BURIED JOINT 4
.lOmm
CHAAlfER ,l 380
\
l EtiC CIAE~BAQId
aEAM SCALE 1 . 2~
SLOPE PROTECTION NONE N/A

LONG SECTION
6.35 S.08 6,35
-
1
fROM BATAU PAHAT $
SPAN 1
I SPAN 2
I SPAN 3
$1
DRAWING NUMBER.
DPWfM 51 III - GENERAL LAYOUT
((
I I I II II 1
IIIII '*J W j~
'* rilJ0
~~. '\\\~
-
~
n
0,66
~
<;7 W,L
"
N
~- ~~,
~UT'S
PI P2
tOOlS
.,.. '
..
SC~LE 1; 12~
MAINTENANCE NOTES'
!
0,40
l' 50mm CHAMFER--
f 0.13
H
h 0.13
1
'd=" 0.045¥
0,32
~
- SIEEL IlEA!!II:l!i
m
DETAil AT PIER
I
..:..
APPENDIX F
FORM AND CHARTS
af Typical Damage
lao Widespread Medium Level of Corrosion to Steel and Buckle Plates
1b. Very Severe Corrosion to Steel Beam. There Is Total Loss of Steel Section at the Web
A Guide for BricJge Inspection F-l

lc. Severe Corrosion at Steel Bearing
2. Fracture at Splice Connection
F-2 A Guide lor Bridge Inspection

Phofographs of Typical UOrTJooe
3. Loose Connections
4a. Deformation of Buckle Plate.

This Defect Shall Be Rated As 4.
A Guide for Bridge Inspection F-3

Damage
4b. Defonnation of Rubber Bearing
5. Paint Deterioration on Steel Surface

Photographs of Typical VUlIIQCre
6a. Very Severe Crack at Pile Columns Due to Bending
6b. Very Severe Crack at Pile Columns Due to Corrosion Of Reinforcement
A Guide lor BriJge Impedion F-5

Phofographs of Typical Damage
6c. Very Severe Crack Due to Differential Settlement at Abutment
7a. Very Severe Spalling of Concrete Deck Slab

7b. Very Severe Spalling Due to Corrosion of Prestressing Tendons
8. Very Severe Corrosion Of Exposed Reinforcement With Heavy Rusting and Pitting

Photographs of Typical Damage
9. Medium Level Wear and Abrasion of Pile Column
10. Very Severe Material Deterioration Due to Acid Sulphate Attack
F-8 A Guide for Bridge Inspection

Photographs of
11. Very Severe Surface Defects Due to Honeycombing
12. Severe Delamination at Deck Soffit Due to Corrosion of Reinforcements

13a. Abnormal Deflection With Vertical Sag at Top Chord
13b. Abnormal Deflection of Steel Girder
F-10 A Guide for Bridge Inspedion

14a. Very Severe Water Leak At Expansion loint With Stain Mark on Pier Head
14b. Free -lime at Deck Soffit Due to Porous Concrete
A Guide for Bridge Inspection F-ll

,
15. Differential Settlement Of Pier. (This Defect Shall Be Rate As 4.)
17a. Very Severe Scouring of Slope Protection

l7b Local Scouring at Pier With Exposed Piles
19. Debris Accumulation At Bearings. This Will Retain Water And

Accelerate Corrosion Of Bearin (When Detected Rating Shall Be 3)
A Guide lor Bridge Inspection F-13

~------------------~
20. Severe Blockage Of Drain Pipe.
21. Badly Stained Deck Soffit Due To Inadequate Pipe Length.

22. Very Severe Impact Damage To Parapet.
23. Medium Level Pothole In The Pavement.
A Guide lor Bridge Inspection f-15

27. Severe Pavement Crack At Bridge Deck.
.. 1-
28a. Very Severe Cracking at Buried Joint

28b. Very Severe Cracking at Asphaltic Plug Joint
29. No Spacing At Expansion Joint Has Induced Crack At Ballast Wall.
A Guide for Bridge Inspection ··f-17

Photographs of Typical UUlIln<IH
32. Very Severe Rupture at Expansion Joint
33. Extensive Bulging to Elastomeric Bearing Pad

34. Abnormal Displacement of Elastomeric Bearing Pad
35. Severe Erosion At Slope Protection.
A Guic/e for Bric/ge Inspection F-19

Photographs of Typical LlUI'''U~I''
38. Inadequate Opening.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT, MALAYSIA

Tan Sri Dato' Ir. Hj. Zaini bin Omar (Director General)
Dato' Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar (Deputy Director General I)
REAM STANDING COMMITTEE ON ROAD STRUCTURES

Dato' Ir. Mohamad Razali bin Othman (Chairman)
Ir. Chin Wei Choong (Secretary)
Dato'Prof Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar (Former Chairman)
Ir. Rohani Abd. Razak (Former Secretary)
Working Committee (Bridge Inspection)

labatan Kerja Raya
- Ir. Leow Choon Heng (Chairman)
- Ir. Dr. Ng See King* (Former Chairman)
Mr. Ku Mohammad Sani bin Ku Mahamud*
Mr. Adnan Ladin
- Mr. Abd. Hamid bin Mohammad
- Mr. Tan Chee Kean
- Mr. Abd. Hadi Md. Sharip
Madam lunaidah Mohamad
Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur - Mr. Low Soo Tan
Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia - Ir. Ismail bin Md. Salleh
Universiti Putra Malaysia - Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohd. Salleh laafar
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia - Assoc. Prof. Dr. Azlan Abdul Rahman
Universiti Sains Malaysia - Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sabarudin Mohd.
Keretapi Tanah Melayu Bhd. - Ir. Zainal Abidin bin Salleh
- Mr. Mohd. Ramli Mohd. Noh

Linkedua (Malaysia) Berhad - Mr. Husney bin Abu Hassan
- Ir. Mohd. Taib bin A. lalil**
Penang Bridge Sdn. Bhd. - Madam Suhaina Baharudin
* Retiredfrom JKR on February 2001
** Retiredfrom Linkedua on September 2000

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A Guide For Bridge Inspection PDF

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STRICTlV FOR

THE ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA

Tel: 603-5513 6521 Fax: 5513 6523 e-mail: ream@po.jaring.my

1.2 Organisation of Document ............................................................................................................ 1-1

1.3 Types and Frequency of Inspection .............................................................................................. 1-2

1.4 Organisation of An Inspection Program ....................................................................................... .1-5

1.5 Inspection Equipments .................................................................................................................. 1-9

CHAPTER - 2 TYPES OF DAMAGE

2. Fracture in Steel ............................................................................................................................2-2

3. Loose Connections ........................................................................................................................2-3

4. Permanent Deformations ...............................................................................................................2-3

5. Paint Deterioration on Steel Surfaces ............................................................................................2-4

6. Cracks in Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete ............................................................................2-4

8. Corrosion of Reinforcement ..........................................................................................................2-6

9. Wear and Abrasion ........................................................................................................................2-7

10. Material Deterioration ....................................................................................................................2-8

11. Surface Defects ..............................................................................................................................2-8

12. Delamination ...................................... '" .........................................................................................2-9

13. Abnormal Vibration / Deflection ..................................................................................................2-9

14. Water Leak ....................................................................................................................................2-10

15. Tilt / Settlement. .............................................................................................................................2-11

16. Abnormal Movement ....................................................................................................................2-11

17. Scouring ........................................................................................................................................2-12

18. Ponding Water ................................................................................................................................2-12

19. Debris and Vegetation ....................................................................................................................2-12

20. Drainage Blocked ..........................................................................................................................2-13

21. No Pipe / or Inadequate Pipe Length ............................................................................................2-13

22. Impact Damage ..............................................................................................................................2-13

23. Potholes ..........................................................................................................................................2-14

24. Wheel Track Rutting ......................................................................................................................2-14

25. Loss of Bond and Delamination (Pavement) ................................................................................2-14

26. Rippling­ .........................................................................................................................................2-15

27. Pavement Cracking ........................................................................................................................2-15

28. Cracking at Expansion Joint ..........................................................................................................2-16

29. Abnormal Spacing at Bridge Joint ................................................................................................2-16

30. Difference in Level at Bridge Joint.. ............................................................................................. .2-16

31. Abnormal Noise ............................................................................................................................2-17

32. Rupture at Bridge Joint ..................................................................................................................2-17

33. Abnormal Bulging at Elastomeric Bearing ....................................................................................2-18

34. Abnormal Displacement of Elastomeric Bearing Pad ..................................................................2-19

35. Erosion ..........................................................................................................................................2-19

36. Material Loss / Disintegration ......................................................................................................2-20

37. Silting at Culvert ............................................................................................................................2-20

38. Inadequate Size ..............................................................................................................................2-21

CHAPTER - 3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND REPORTING

CHAPTER - 4 CONDITION RATING GUIDE BASED ON DAMAGE

4.2 Guideline for Clarifying Severity of Oamage................................................................................. .4-2

4.3 Recording of Infonnation ................................................................................................................4-14

APPENDIX -ASTATISTICS ON MALAYSIAN BRIDGES ..........................................................A-l

APPENDIX - B BRIDGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1.2 Types of Bridges ............................................................................................................................B-2

1.3 Bridge Components ......................................................................................................................B-3

APPENDIX., C BMS REFERENCING SYSTEM .......................................................................... C-l

APPENDIX - D NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

02 Non-Destructive Testing for The Examination of Concrete Bridges ............................................0-2

03 Non-Destructive Testing for The Examination of Steel Bridges ..................................................0-9

APPENDIX - E FORM AND CHARTS

Structural Condition Checklist (Bridge) ................................................................................................E-2

Structural Condition Checklist (Culvert) .............................................................................................. E-4

Material Condition Rating Card ............................................................................... ~ ............................E-5

Bridge Inventory Card ..........................................................................................................................E-6

APPENDIX - F PHOTOGRAPHS OF TYPICAL DAMAGE ........................................................F-1

1.2 Organisation of Document

26. Rippling .........................................................................................................................................2-15