Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
BIOLOGY
BANSAL CLASSES
MODULE – 12
For – NEET/AIIMS
Contents Module - 12
(Human Reproduction & Health)
Chapter Name Page No.
Reproductive System 1 – 59
Theory 1 – 27
Exercise – 1 28 – 34
Exercise – 2 35 – 42
Exercise – 3 43 – 57
Exercise – 4 58
Quick Review Table 59
Embryology 60 – 133
Theory 60 – 103
Exercise – 1 104 – 115
Exercise – 2 116 – 120
Exercise – 3 121 – 130
Exercise – 4 131 – 132
Quick Review Table 133
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION :
To continue its own race, an organism by the process of reproduction, produces off springs like its own. In
sexual reproduction the organisms produce male and female gametes which on combining, develop into a
new individual. The formation of gametes takes place in the reproductive organs.
Essential organs which form the gametes. In males, the gamete forming organs are the testes. In females,
the corresponding organs are ovaries.
These form the passage for the gametes to help the union of male & female gametes.
In male this include epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands & penis.
While in female - Fallopian tube, uterus & vagina. (Breast is an accessory sex organ)
During intra uterine life (IUL) testis & ovary develop from mesoderm. They develop in abdominal cavity in
IUL, at the time of birth, testes descend down into scrotal sac but ovaries remain in abdominal cavity.
• In man, one pair of testes are the main or primary reproductive organ. Size 4-5 cm × 2-3 cm
• Both testes are located in a small bag like structure situated below & out side the abdominal cavity called
as scrotum or scrotal sac. The temperature of scrotum is 2 to 3°C lesser than body temperature.
Dartos muscle helps in regulation of the temperature with in the scrotum during cold season,
It becomes contracted in cold & during warm season, it becomes relaxed.
Cremaster muscles line inside the wall of scrotal & inguinal canal region and help in elevation of testes.
• Each testis is attached to the walls of the scrotal-sac through flexible, elastic fibres. This group of fibres is
called Gubernaculum or Mesorchium.
• Each testis is attached to the dorsal body wall of the abdominal-cavity through a cord termed as the
Spermatic cord. This cord is made up of elastin fibres & spermatic fascia. The contents of cord are vas
deferens, gonadal veins, gonadal arteries, nerves and lymphatics.
During embryonic stage, testes develop in abdominal cavity & they descend to reach the scrotum at the
time of birth. When the testes does not descend to reach the scrotum but remain in abdominal cavity at the
time of birth this conditions is called undescended testes or cryptorchidism. Such testis can not develop
and function properly and may develop malignancy.
Castration : Crushing of testes in bulls to convert them to bullocks. (This makes them more obidient due
to fall in the level of testosterone)
• In some animals the testes descend into the scrotum only in the breeding-season. e.g. Order Chiroptera
Order Rodentia
• Testes of some animals are permanently placed in the abdominal-cavity. Their scrotum is vestigial-organ.e.g.
Prototherians, animals of the order Edentata (Pangolin, Sloth)
Order Proboscida (Elephant)
Order Sirenia and Order Cetacea
• Each scrotum is connected to the abdominal cavity through a passage termed as inguinal-canal. Through
this canal the testes descend down into the scrotal-sacs at the time of birth.
Spermatic cord in males passes through the inguinal canal.
Sometimes the inguinal canal may tear leading to abnormal protrusion of abdominal contents like loops of
intestine into the inguinal canal. This condition is called as inguinal hernia.
Tunica vaginalis has a parietal & visceral layer. It covers the whole testis except it's posterior border from
where the testicular vessels & nerves enter the testis.
The Tunica albuginea is a dense, white fibrous coat covering the testis all around . The posterior border
tunica albuginea is thickened to form vertical septum called the Mediastinum testis.
Tunica vasculosa is the inner most vascular coat of the testis lining testicular lobules.
To urethra
Tubuli recti
• Each lobules has 2 to 3 seminiferous tubules, which join together at the apices of the lobules to form straight
tubules or tubulirecti which enter the mediastinum. Here they form a network of tubules called as rete testis. Rete
testis fuse to form 10 to 20 efferent ductule called as vasa efferentia or ductuli efferentes. These ductules come
out from upper dorsal surface of testis & open into common tubules, which get highly coiled to form epididymis or
ductus epididymis. This epididymis is responsible for functional maturation of sperm.
• The vas deferens now forms ejaculatory duct and opens into prostatic urethra.
1. Seminal vesicle
It is also called Uterus-masculinus. If forms from the Mullerian-duct of the embryo. In females, these ducts
form the oviducts. Internally, it is lined by glandular epithelium which secretes seminal fluid, which is
lubricating, transparent & jelly like substance, which makes 60-70% part of semen. It is slightly alkaline
(pH 7.3.). Fructose is found in seminal fluid, it act as fuel to sperm. Fibrinogen, prostaglandin, citrate, inositol
and several proteins are also present in semen.
2. Prostate gland
This gland is located below the urinary bladder. It is unpaired & made up of 5 lobes in man. In Rabbit 3 or
4 lobe are found. Each lobe opens into prostatic urethra through many fine apertures. It secretes slightly
alkaline prostatic fluid which is milky, thick, sticky or jelly like. It makes about 30% part of semen and
helps in sperm activation. In the secretion of prostate-gland citric acid, Calcium and phosphate, clotting
enzyme and profibrinolysin are present. The secretion of the prostate gland combines with the secretion of
seminal vesicle and so the semen gets coagulated. In the coagulated semen, the mobility of sperms is
reduced and so their energy is conserved. After some time of ejaculation due to fibrinolysins, semen again
liquefies and in this semen now the sperms can move.
3. Cowper's glands
It is a pair of glands found on lateral side of urethra. It is also called as bulbourethral gland. It is situated in
membranous part of urethra & opens into penile urethra. It secretes transparent, slimy, jelly like fluid. It is
slightly alkaline (pH is 7.2). This destroys the acidity of the urethra and cleans it for the movement of sperms.
Penis
Urethra continues in a muscular & tubular organ called as penis. Terminal part of shaft of penis is bulging, it
is called as Glans penis. This glans penis is covered by a movable skin called as prepuce or foreskin.
A special type of sebaceous gland is found on the prepuce called preputial gland which secretes smegma.
Removal of prepuce by surgery is called as circumcision.
Prepuce is attached to the base of glans with the help of an elastic cord like membrane called Frenulum
prepuce.
In penis of some animals a bone is present called Baculum and such a penis is called Os-penis e.g.
Whale, Bat, Rat etc. The penis of opposum, Bandicoot etc. is double branched (Bifurcated).
Penis is an erectile copulatory intromittent organ. Root of the penis containing muscles is called crura.
Penis consists of a long shaft that enlarges to form an expanded tip called the glans penis.
Body of Penis :
It is composed of three longitudinal cylindrical masses of erectile tissue. These masses are, the right &
left corpora cavernosa & a median corpus spongiosum.
The two corpora cavernosa do not reach the end of the penis. Each of them terminates under cover of the
glans penis.
The corpus spongiosum continues further, its terminal part is expanded to form a conical enlargement
called the glans penis. Through out its whole length it is transversed by the urethra.
The base of the glans penis has projecting margin the corona glandis.
External opening of penis is called penile meatus.
Erection of Penis :
Erection of penis is purely vascular phenomenon and is controlled by A.N.S It occurs due to increase of
blood supply, due to dilation of penile arteries causing enlargement and hardening of penis. During this time
the muscles of crura are relaxed.
Superficial dorsal vein of penis
D
Deep dorsal vein of penis
Dorsal artery of penis
Corpus cavernosum Dorsal nerve of penis
Corpus spongiosum
Skin
Urethra
V
Outer surface of seminiferous tubules is composed of white fibrous connective tissues called as tunica
propria. While inner surface is of cuboidal germinal epithelium. This epithelium is made of spermatogenic
cells which forms sperm by spermatogenesis. Some columnar cells are found in the layer of germinal
epithelium called as Sertoli cells. These provide nutrition to sperm, so they are also called as subtentacular or
sustentacular or nurse cells (these occur in mammals).
Some endocrine cells are found between seminiferous tubules in intertubular space, these are called as interstitial
or Leydig cells. These cells secrete testosterone. The testosterone from Leydig's cells enter the seminiferous
tubules by diffusion under the effect of ABP & promotes spermatogenesis.
Seminiferous Cell of Leydig
Spermatozoa tubules cells
Sertoli
Inhibin : : It is secreted by Sertoli cells in response to excess spermatogenesis. The inhibin gives a
negative feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, this results in suppression of synthesis and
release of FSH (∴ Spermatogenesis decreases).
Anterior pituitary
ICSH/LH FSH
Testis
Leydig's cells Sertoli cells
(RABBIT) (WOMAN)
FEMALE – SEX – ORGANS
A pair of ovaries is the main or primary sex organ of female reproductive system. Both ovaries are located in
abdominal cavity in the ovarian fossa. Each ovary is attached to the posterior layer of broad ligament (Peritoneal
ligament) with the help of mesovarium. It is short fold of peritoneum & it is the route of vessels & nerves to
ovary .
The upper expanded part is called as body or fundus while lower cylindrical part is called as cervix;
Upper part of uterus forms the body while lower part forms cervix.
On internal surface of cervix 2 types of constrictions are found which form the Os-cervix.
The body of uterus communicates with the cervix through opening called internal Os.
The cervix communicates with the vagina through an opening called external Os.
The uterus open into a fibromuscular & non glandular tube like organ called vagina (Copulatory organ).
Types of Uterus :
I. Duplex : - These are the simplest type of uteri. Here both the uteri are completely separated and open
independently into the vagina through two separate openings e.g. Rat.
II. Bipartiate : In these uteri, the lower part of the two uteri are fused and there is a septa in between them,
e.g. Carnivorous mammals.
III. Bicornuate :- The lower parts of the 2 uteri are fused with each other but their partition wall is absent e.g.
Rabbit.
IV. Simplex :- When both the uteri are completely fused with each other to form only one structure. These are
the most developed uteri, e.g. Human.
It is the most developed form of the uterus which is made from the complete fusion of both uterus .
Frenum
Prepuce Clitoris
Vestibule Labium Major
Labium minus External urethral orifice
Vaginal introitus
Opening Bartholin's duct
Fourchette
Perineum
Anus
Primary oocyte
(46, XX)
Ovulation
Outer most layer of ovary is called germinal epithelium while the inner layer called T. albuginea is
made up of White fibrous connective tissue.
The inner part of ovary is called as stroma. it is differentiated into 2 parts, outer peripheral part is cortex
& inner part is called medulla. Stroma consists of follicular cells, connective tissue, blood vessels & lymphatics.
Numerous oogonial are found in cortical region in intrauterine life. In early stage of intrauterine life,
they proliferate by mitosis, after which meiosis starts in them and proceeds upto prophase stage & halts there itself
up to puberty (when the ovulation starts). Now the halted meiosis process restarts at puberty causing primary
oocyte to convert into secondary oocyte Just before ovulation. With this the 1st meiotic division completes & first
polar body is formed . The secondary Oocyte immediately begins the second meiotic division but this division
stops again at metaphase stage. It proceeds further only when a sperm penetrates the oocyte.
Ova develop from oogonia present in the cortex of the ovary. The oogonia are surrounded by other cells
that form a stroma for them. These stromal cells form the ovarian or Graafian follicle that surrounds the
ovum and protects it.
The stages of formation of Graafian follicle are as follows :
(1) Firstly some cells of the stroma become flattened and surround a primary oocyte (which develops from
oogonia). These flattened cells ultimately form the ovarian follicle and are therefore called follicular cells.
Nucleus
Follicular cell
Stroma
(2) The flattened follicular cells now become columnar. Follicles upto this stage of development are called
primordial follicle.
Zona pellucida
Follicular cells
Become columnar
Basement membrane
(3) A membrane called the zona pellucida, now appears between the follicular cells and the oocyte.
Follicular cells
form
Membrana Granulosa
Oocyte
Zona pellucida
(4) After puberty the follicular cells proliferate now to form several layers of cells to form the membrana
granulosa. These cells are now called granulosa cells.
(5) A cavity appears within the membrana granulosa. It is called the antrum. With the appearance of this
cavity, the follicle is formed (follicle means a small sac).
Follicular
cavity
(Antrum)
Theca externa
Theca interna
Membrana
granulosa
Cumulus Oophoricus
Oocyte
Zona pellucida
Discus proligerus
(7) As the follicle expands, the stromal cells surrounding the membrana granulosa become condensed to form
a covering called the theca Interna. The cells of theca interna (Thecal cells) afterwards secrete a hormone
called oestrogen.
(8) Outside the theca interna some fibrous tissue become condensed to form another covering called the theca
externa. The ovarian follicle is now fully formed and is now called the Graafian follicle.
The granulosa cells lying in the close vicinity of the ovum (Secondary oocyte) and zona pellucida, become
elongated to form the corona radiata.
After 13 days of menstrual cycle (on 14th day when cycle is ideally for 28 days) Graafian follicle is ruptured &
egg is released.
After ovulation the ruptured Graafian follicle is called corpus luteum. Soon after ovulation, the granulosa
cells of Graafian follicle proliferate & these cells look yellow due to accumulation of pigment called
Lutein. These cells are called lutein cells.
Before ovulation the follicle was avascular but soon after ovulation blood vessels grow & corpus luteum
becomes filled with blood. Central part filled with blood is called corpus haemorrhagicum. Lutein cells
synthesise the progesterone hormone.
If fertilization occurs in fallopian tube, the corpus luteum then becomes stable for next nine months. If
fertilization does not occur then the corpus luteum starts degenerating after about 9 days of it's formation.
The degeneration is completed in 14 days to form corpus albicans, which gradually disappears.
Progesterone hormone maintains pregnancy and repairs the wall of uterus to make its surface adhesive to
help in implantation.
The total number of follicles in the two ovaries of a normal young adult woman is about four lakhs.
However most of them undergo regression and disappear due to death and are disposed off by the
phagocytes during the reproductive year of the females. This is termed as follicular atresia. This is
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM [13]
Menstrual/bleeding phase
Luteal/secretory/post ovulatory phase
Proliferative/
Preovulatory phase
Ovulation
This is exhibited by primate group of animals. In this cycle the female body prepares itself for a possible
pregnancy. If the pregnancy does not occur then the body aborts all preparation done and restarts the
prepration for pregnancy again in a monthly cyclic manner.
Rising level of oestrogen also provides a positive feed back to the hypothalamus. Due to this, the
hypothalamus releases more of GnRH . This GnRH induces the pituitary to release more of FSH. The rising
FSH levels now cause:
(i) further growth and development ovarian follicle to form Graafian follicle
(ii) even further release of oestrogen from the theca interna of this developing follicle.
As the oestrogen level goes on rising, by the end of 10th day the extreme levels of oestrogen (which
have by then caused maturation of Graafian follicle and growth of endometrium) now give a negative
feed back to the pituitary causing a fall in FSH secretion but also causing a rise in LH secretion. Now
the LH secretion from the pituitary goes on rising. This abrupt rise (on 11th to 13th day) in LH
concentration in blood is called as LH surge. This LH now causes the Graafian follicle to rupture after
partial completion of II meiotic division in oocyte and thus the secondary oocyte is released. The
release of egg (secondary oocyte) which occurs 14 day is called as ovulation.
After ovulation the ruptured Graafian follicle transforms into corpus luteum. The granulosa and theca
cells of the ruptured Graafian follicle (which is now called as corpus luteum) is found only in mammals
and contain a yellow lutein or carotene pigment.
In case of absence of pregnancy this corpus luteum will get degenerated after 14 days of its
formation. The degenerated corpus luteum is called corpus albicans (white body).
Function of corpus luteum :- Stimulated by the rising levels of LH, the corpus luteum secretes
progesterone hormone. The progesterone facilitates the preparation of endometrium for receiving the
embryo and its implantation. Progesterone inhibits the contractions of uterus so that the pregnancy could
be maintained. Progesterone also inhibits development of next new ovarian follicle.
If pregnancy occurs then the corpus luteum persists and secretes progesterone. Progesterone is important
to maintain the pregnancy and it is thus called as the pregnancy homone. By the fourth month of
pregnancy, the placenta has developed completely. This placenta now takes over the job of further
progesterone secretion. Ovary also secretes some amount of relaxin at the time of parturition.
If pregnancy does not occur after ovulation, then as the progesterone level rise, its rising levels inhibits
the release of GnRH from hypothalamus. Due to this FSH, LH secretion by pituitary falls and thereby
progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum (which was due to influence of LH) also now falls.
As the progesterone level drops, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate and transform in corpus albicans
(which can not secrete progesterone). Due to the lack of progesterone : -
(i) The overgrown endometrium now begin to break and separate from the inner uterine wall causing
bleeding.
(ii) The uterine contraction (which was till now inhibited due to presence of progesterone) now start. Thus
the separated endometrium along with blood is now being passed out via vaginal route. This is again the
beginning of next menstrual or bleeding phase.
HYPOTHALAMUS
GnRH
Anterior pituitary
LH/FSH
Ovary
Estrogen
and
progesterone
Uterus
Anterior
Follicular phase Pituitary gland Luteal phase
Mature Corpus
Primoridal Primary follicles Secondary Ovulation Corpus luteum
Ovarlan cycle
(Graafian) albicans
follicles follicle
follicle
Secretory phase
Uterine (menstrual) cycle
Estrogens
Stratum
Basalis
Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 2
Menstrual Preovulatory Ovulation Postovulatory
phase phase phase
t estrus or menstrual cycle. Except primate mammals, the estrus cycle is found in all mammals. Menstrual
cycle is found in primates
On the basis of estrus cycle these mammals are of 2 types :
Anestrus/Diestrus Pre-estrus
Oestrogen
Oestrogen Estrus
Meta estrus
Heat condition
Ovulation
Pre Estrus :
1st step of estrus cycle. In this stage, oogenesis starts in the ovary. In this stage estrogen level is minimum. In
low concentration of estrogen some changes occur in uterus.
(iii) The stratified glandular epithelial layer of uterus known as stratum Basalis now divides actively
to form new stratified epithelial layer known as stratum functionale.
Estrus phase :
In this phase secondary follicle develops in the ovary. Concentration of estrogen is increased. Due to
high concentration of estrogen following changes occur in the uterus.
(i) The diameter of blood vessels increases
(ii) The circulation also increases
(iii) The muscles of uterus divide to cause further thickening of myometrium.
(iv) Cells of stratum functionale enlarge. New connective tissue & mucous cells are developed.
(v) Mammary glands also get enlarged.
Meta-Estrus Phase :
All physiological symptoms which develop in this phase are similar to normal pregnancy even in
absence of fertilization, so this phase is known as Pseudo-pregnancy. If fertilization occurs in fallopian
tube then this phase extends upto parturition. If fertilization does not occur then this phase becomes short.
Keratinization occurs in stratum functionale. myometrium is gradually reduced. Blood vessels gradually
constrict. Mammary glands are gradually reduced.
Anestrus/Diestrus phase :
Stratum functionale is destroyed by stratum basalis by phagocytosis. Mammary gland, myometrium & blood
vessels of uterus become completely normal. So it is the inter phase stage of two estrus cycle & is also
known as diestrus phase. In monoestrus animals the anestrus phase is the diestrus phase also.
BBREASTT
Breast also serves as an accessoary reproductive organs in women. Human female possesses a pair of
breasts containing mammary glands. These are situated in the front of the thorax on pectoral muscles.
Each mammary gland has 15-20 tubulo-alveolar lobules contained in its connective tissue. The space
between the lobules is filled with fatty tissue. The lobules contain milk glands in the form of bunches
of grapes, which secrete milk. Numerous small ductules arise from each lobule, combine to form a
lactiferous duct. Such lactiferous ducts open independently in the nipple.
Lactiferous glands
Lactiferous duct
Nipple
Areola
mammae
Fat bodies
Connective tissue
A nipple is pigmented structure which is a elevated knob like structure at the apical part of mammary
glands. The area adjacent to the nipples is also deeply pigmented, which is known as areola mammae.
BBRIEF REVIEWW
Development of secondary sex organ –
Male Female
Wolffian duct or Epididymis or Mullarian duct – Fallopian tube, uterus and vagina
Mesonephric duct Vas deferens (Oviduct)
Seminal
Regression of Mullarian duct vesicle
or Paramesonephric duct
Urogenital sinus–Prostate
Genital tubercle – Penis
Genital tubercle – Clitoris
Puberty –
The age of sexual maturity is called puberty.
Accessory sex character first appear in puberty
Puberty occurs in girls at the age of 11 to 14 year
Puberty occurs in boys at the age of 12-15 year
At puberty, women starts producing ova.
Age of puberty in rabbit – 5-7 months.
BOYS GIRLS
1. Gonadal Enlargement of the testes, Ovarian cycle and ovulation
Spermatogenesis begins begins
2. Accessary Sexual Organ Penis, prostate, seminal vesicles Uterus, vagina, fallopian tube,
and epididymis grow in mass vulva increase in size. Endometrium
shows menstrual changes and
menstruation occurs
Vagina -
• During reproductive life the vagina contains lactobacillus acidophilus or dorderlein's bacilli which
keeps the vaginal pH between 4 to 5 by producing lactic acid from glycogen.
Gametogenesis –
Formation of gametes for sexual reproduction.
• Germ cells in vertebrate gonads are produced by both mitosis and meiosis.
Clupein protein is present only in Man & fishes sperm
Menstrual Cycle –
Cyclic change in the reproductive tract of primate females.
Estrous Cycle –
Gestation period -
• Duration between fertilization and Parturition.
(1) Rabbit = 28 – 32 days.
(2) Man = 270 – 290 days
(3) Rat = 20 – 22 days
Gynaecomastia – Development of breast in the male
• Seminiferous tubules – Rete testis – vasa efferentia – Epididymis – Vasa deferens – Urinogenital Chamber –
Urethra.
• Sterility results if sperms count is < 20 × 106/ml or > 40% sperm are immotile.
• Use of antibiotics, smoking marijuana, alcohol, hot bath, high fever can also cause temporary drop in
sperm count.
Spontaneous ovulator –
Ovulation occurs without any induction.
Vesectomy –
Cutting and tieing vas deferens
Tubectomy (salpingectomy) –
Cutting and ligating fallopian tube.
• Labia majora of female in homologous to scrotal sacs.
• Clitoris in female is homologus to penis.
• Prostatic utricle is homologous to vagina of female.
• Seminal vesicle is homologous to uterus (oviduct).
• Colostrum is the first milk produced after child birth
• In contraceptive pills oestrogen and progesterone are present in variable combination.
Human sperm –
60 µ long, of this 55µ is the length of the tail.
• In menstrual cycle proliferative phase is of 10-12 days and it is under the influence of oestrogen hormone.
• Luteal or secretory phase of menstrual cycle is of 14 days and it is under influence of progesterone hormone &
It is always of fixed duration.
Testicle –
Testis + Epididymis
• Epididymis is 3m long in rabbit while 6 to 8 m long in man.
• Maximum no. of leydig's cells are in the testis of pig.
• Function of epididymis = functional maturity and storage of sperms.
Semen –
• pH = 7.3
GGESTATION PERIODD
The time from fertilization to parturition is termed as gestation-period. Rabbit has gestation-period of 28-
30 days. In one time 4-6 young- ones are born in rabbit (Maximum = 8). The group of young-ones born the
at same time are called Litter. At the time of birth the young ones of rabbit are blind, deaf and uncovered
with fur. They become normal in next 4-5 days. The young-ones of Hare are normal at the time of birth. In
humans actual gestation period is 9 months -7 days.
In human expected date of delivery (EDD) = Ist day of last menstrual cycle plus 9 months + 7 days.
In Rabbit copulation occurs in breeding season which extend from Feb to June.
No specific breeding season is found in human being.
During copulation male ejaculates semen in vagina, this process is called as insemination.
In rabbit ovulation occurs after 12-24 hour of copulation. That means copulation is necessary for ovulation.
Females in which coitus induction is compulsary for ovulation are called as induced or reflex ovulator.
In human female ovulation occurs in presence of FSH & LH. Coitus in not necessary for inducing
ovulation. Such a female is called as spontaneous ovulator.
After copulation oxytocin hormone is secreted from pituitary gland. This hormone promotes the peristalsis
in the fallopian tube.
Due to action of estrogens and progesterone, the endometrium of uterus is prepared for implantation. By
the 6th to 7th day, embryo is implanted into endometrium (most commonly at the fundus).
Female condoms : Hindustan Latex of India and Female Health Company of England have agreed to
introduce female condoms in India. It is made of skinfriendly polyurethane which acts as a clip on the
vagina wall blocking the passage to the womb. These were first marketed in Britain in early 90's and are
being used in the USA, Brazil, South Africa, Zimbabwe, France, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Nepal.
(b) Diaphragms and Cervical caps : These are made of rubber and are fitted in vagina of female and check
the entry of sperms in uterus. These are reusable.
(c) Intrauterine Devices (IUD). These include copper-T and loops which are fitted in the uterus and prevent
the fertilization of the egg or implantation of the embryo. Several types of IUDs are available e.g.,
• Non-medicated IUDs e.g., Lippes loop.
• Copper-releasing IUDs e.g., CUT, Cu7 and multiload 375. These release Cu ions which decrease the sperm
motility.
• Hormone-releasing IUDs whose hormones make the uterus unsuitable for implantation.
But these have certain drawbacks like occasional haemorrhage, chances of infection and spontaneous
expulsion.
3. Natural or Traditional methods. These methods of birth control depend upon the natural rhythms of a
woman. These include following methods
(a) To abstain. It involves refraining from coital activity.
(b) Coitus interruptus. It involves withdrawing penis by male before ejaculation so that semen is not
deposited in the vagina. It is oldest method of voluntary fertility control. This method has certain
limitations:
– some sperms me, be deposited in the vagina
– even before the sexual climax. may develop psychological and physiological problems to both the partners.
(c) Rhythm period. A weak before and a weak after the menstrual phase are supposed to be safe periods for
sexual intercourse. It reduces the chances of pregnancy by about 80 per cent. It is so because :
(i) Ovulation generally occurs on 15th day of the menstrual cycle (range is 13-16th day of the cycle).
(ii) Viability period of ovum is of about two to three days.
(iii) Viability period c;f sperm is of only one day.
The period from 10th to 17th day (both days inclusive of the menstrual cycle is called danger or risk or
fertile period and unprotected sexual intercourse should be avoided during this period. However, rhythm
period is not 100 per cent safe period. Effectiveness of rhythm period can be increased by basal body
temperature or BBT technology.
(d) Lactational amenorrhoea. It has been noticed that during the period of intense lactation after the
parturition, the mother does not undergo menstruation and ovulation so the chances of conception are
nearly nil. It also has no side effects but is effective only upto a maximum period of six months after
parturition.
SPECIAL POINT
• Test tube baby - First test tube baby born in England at 25th July 1978 it was a girl and discovered by Dr.
Steptoet. Edward the name of baby “Louis Joy born”.
• In test tube baby“ invitro fertilization” takes place. Invitro early development upto (32 cell stage). Transfer
of 32 cells stage zygote into the uterus.
• Surrogate mother - When some time uterus of (mother) female used then this female is called. surrogate
mother.
• Hysterectomy - Remove of uterus by the surgery.
• Research for a contraceptive pill for men that works by deforming the sperms in showing positive results.
Its contraceptive effects are reversible.
• 'Injectable contraception is a reversible and long-acting chemical birth control method. It is most common
method of family planning in Indonesia. Injectables contain a synthetic version of progresterone which stops
ovulation from the ovaries for about three months.
• Contraceptive pill, Levonorgestrol, can prevent pregnancy if taken within five days of unprotected sexual
act.
• Contraceptive corn : Scientists have produced a genetically-modified com crop which produces antisperm
antibodies and suggest that a plant-based jelly may be prepared that will not only prevents pregnancy but
also the spraed of STDs. This m ay save the world from over-population.
• Since September, 2003, Beijing (China) has started issuing condom cards to married womenwho can get
condoms free from vending machines.
• Family Planning Progmmme was adopted as a National Programme in 1995 A.D. Now it has been
renamed as Family Welfare Programme.
(1) Bicornute (2) Multicornute Q.81 After fertilisation corpus luteum remains for
(3) Unicornute (4) Acornute (1) 8 days (2) 28 days
Q.70 Abnormal conditining when the mammary glands (3) 80 days (4) 280 days
of man become female like is called– Q.82 If both male and female systems are present in
(1) Feminization (2) Gonochorism one individual, the animal is called as :–
(3) Gynacomastism (4) Gynoecism (1) Dioecious (2) Protandrous
Q.71 Bundles of muscles in penis are (3) Unisexual (4) Monoecious
(1) Corpus cavernosa (2) Corpus spongiasum Q.83 Greater maturation of sperms in rabbit takes place
(3) Both (4) None in :–
Q.72 Corpus ablicans is found in ovary it is also found (1) Testes (2) Vasa-efferentia
in– (3) Epididymis (4) Spermatic cord
(1) Liver (2) Pituitary Q.84 The bidder canal help to pass out :–
(3) Kidney (4) None (1) Ova (2) sperms
Q.73 Vivipary is found in– (3) Both (4) None
(1) Frog (2) Lizard Q.85 Which of the following is immortal–
(3) Snake (4) Rabbit (1) Germ cells (2) Pituitary cells
Q.74 Which of following animals do not show parental (3) Brain cells (4) All of these
care over their youngs Q.86 Gestation period is minimum in :–
(1) Mammals (2) Lizards (1) Rabbit (2) Man
(3) Fowl (4) Bat (3) Elephant (4) Mouse
Q.75 Sexual reproduction in larval condition is known Q.87 The testis are abdominal in :–
as–
(1) Elephant (2) shrew
(1) Paedogamy (2) Autogamy
(3) both (4) None
(3) Isogamy (4) Anisogamy
Q.88 Number of prostate glands in rabbit :–
Q.76 Degenerative process of follicles or eggs in ovary
is called :– (1) One (2) Two
(1) Metagenesis (2) Atresia (3) Many (4) None
(3) Regression (4) None Q.89 The expulsion of completely developed foetus
from the uterus is known as :–
Q.77 Progesterons is active during–
(1) Menstrual phase (2) Proliferative phase (1) Ovulation (2) oviposition
(3) Follicular phase (4) Secretory phase (3) Gestation (4) Parturition
Reproductive System [31]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 3 1 3 1 1 3 4 3 4 2 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 4 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 1 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 4 2 1 2 2 2 3 3
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 4 4 3 2 1 4 3 1 4 4 3 4 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 4 1 3 3 4 4 3 1 1 2 3 3 4
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 1 4 2 1 2 2 2 1 3 4 3 1 4 1 4 3 1 2 1 3
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Ans. 4 3 4 1 2 3 1 4 2 3
Reproductive System [34]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 2
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 2 4 4 3 4 4 3 1 1 3 4 1 4 1 3 4 3 3 2
Ques 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 4 2 4 3 3 4 4 1
Ques 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 1 3 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 4 2 1 3 1 1
Ques 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 2 1 4 2 2 1 1 3 3 4 3 3 1 1 1 3 2 2 2
Ques 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 2 4 1 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 2 1 1
Ques 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 2 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 4 2 2 3 2 2 1 4 2 2 4 2
Ques 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 2 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 3
Ques 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 3 4 2 4 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 4 3 2 2 2 3 3
Ques 161 162 163 164 165
Ans. 4 1 1 3 4
Reproductive System [42]
(1) Brain (2) Ovary (1) Testis does not descend into scrotal sac
(3) Liver (4) Eyes (2) Sperm in not found
Q.5 Testosterone is secreted by - [Bihar – 2004] (3) Male hormones are not reactive
(1) Leydig cells (2) Sertoli cells (4) Ovaries are removed
(3) Seminiferous tubule Q.15 The cellular layer that disintegrates and
(4) None of these regenerates again and again in humans is –
Q.6 Most important component of oral [MP PMT 04]
contraceptive is - [Bihar – 2004] (1) Endometrium of uterus
(1) LH (2) GH (2) Cornea of eye
(3) Thyroxine (4) Progesterone (3) Dermis of skin
Q.7 Purpose of tubectomy is to prevent – (4) Endothelium of blood vessels
[Bihar 2004] Q.16 The functional maturation of sperms takes
(1) Fertilization (2) coitus
place in - [MP PMT 05]
(3) Egg formation
(1) Oviduct (2) Epididymis
(4) Embryonic development
(3) Vagina (4) All of these
Q.8 Progesterone is secreted by [UP CPMT – 01]
Q.17 Surgical removal or cutting and ligation of the
(1) Corpus aorta (2) Corpus albicans
ends of oviduct is known as - [MPPMT 06]
(3) Corpus luteum (4) Corpus callosum
(1) tubectomy (2) Oviductomy
Q.9 In the urinogenital organs of rabbit which one
(3) Castration (4) Vasectomy
of following part is present in male but not in
female - [UP CPMT – 05] Q.18 The follicle that ruptures at the time of
(1) Urethra (2) Fallopian tube Ovulation promptly fills with blood, forming
(3) Vagina (4) Vasa deferens [MP PMT 01]
Q.10 Bidder's canal is present in [UP CPMT 06] (1) Corpus haemorrhagicum
(1) Female frog (2) Male frog (2) Corpus luteum
(3) Female rabbit (4) Male rabbit (3) Corpus albicans (4) Corpus callosum
ANSWER-KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 2 2 1 4 1 3 4 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 2 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 1 3 4 4 1 4 4 3 1
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 4 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 3 3 3 3 4 2 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 3
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 2 4 4 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 3 3 4 4 1 3 4 2
Que. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 3 2 1 2 4 1 3 1 2 4 4 2 3 4 4 3 2 2 4 3
Que. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 1 2 1 2 1 3 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 1 2 4 3 2 1 2
Que. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 3 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 1 4 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 4 3 1
Que. 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 2 1 1 3 4 1 3 4 3 4 1 3 1 3 4 4 2 1 3 2
Que. 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 4 2 2 3 4 1 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 3 4 1 3 2 1 2
Que. 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
Ans. 4 4 3 2 2 4 1 2 4 2 1 3 3 2 3 1 3 4 1 1
Que. 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240
Ans. 2 1 1 1 4 2 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 4 4 2 2
Que. 241 242 243 244 245
Ans. 1 1 3 2 4
These questions consist of two statements Q.6 A : In ovarian cycle corpus luteum is exocrine
each, printed as Assertion and Reason. While gland.
answering to choose any one of the following R : It secretes the pheromones.
four responses. Q.7 A : Failure of testes to descend into the scrotum
causes sterility in man.
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are True & the
R : Higher temperature of the abdomen than in
reason is correct explanation of the
the scrotum is suitable for sperm development
Assertion.
Q.8 A : Primary mammalian follicle are called graffian
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are True but follicle.
Reason is not a correct explanation of the R : These were discovered & described by graaf.
Assertion. Q.9 A : Corpus albicans is inactive structure which
(3) If Assertion is True but the Reason is False. found in the ovary.
R : Corpus albicans secretes the progesteron
(4) If both Assertion & Reason are false.
hormone after ovulation.
Q.10 A : Placenta functions as a temporary endocrine
Q.1 A : In post natal life, oocyte development occurs
gland during development of embryo
in mature follicle.
R : Placenta produces pheromones.
R : After ovulation, graafian follicle transforms in
Q.11 A : Menarche starts at the age of puberty.
corpus luteum.
R : After birth oocyte is matured and developed in
Q.2 A : Placenta is combined structure of foetal tissue
Graffian follicle.
& maternal tissue.
Q.12 A : Corpus leuteum present in proliferative phase
R : Placenta formation is completed before 6 week
of menstrual cycle.
Q.3 A : Seminal vesicle is called as accessory sex organ
R : High concentration of present in proliferative
of male.
phase.
R : Seminal vesicle conserve sperm energy &
Q.13 A : Testes are situated in the extra abdominal
provide fuel to sperm.
cavity.
Q.4 A : Testes are retroperitoneal organ in man.
R : Spermatogenesis process required less
R : Peritoneal layer covers the testes on dorsal
temperature as compared to body temperature.
side.
Q.5 A : Cervix contain most weak sphincter muscle in
the body.
R : Cervix open into fallopian by os-external.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 2 3 1 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 2 4 1
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
HISTORY OF EMBRYOLOGY :
(1) Aristotle is known as ''Father of Embryology'' he first studied the development in chick and other
embryos. He gave its description in his book ''Historia Animalia''.
(2) Leeuvenhock (1671) - He observed and described human sperm for the first time.
- According to Hartsoeker and Leeuvenhock there is a small model of developing animals present in the
head of the sperm of that animal. This small model is called homunculus. Both these scientists are called
spermists, and this theory is called '' Theory of spermist ''.
(3) Swammer Dame, Haller, Bonette & Malpighi : - According to these scientists, small model of animal is
always present in the egg. These scientists are called Ovists, and their theory is known as 'Ovists theory'
(4) Schleiden & Schwann : - Both the scientists established the cellular structure of egg and sperm.
(5) Pander : - He described the presence of three germinal layers in chick embryo.
(8) Haeckel : - He gave the details of Recapitulation theory and named it as the bio-genetic law.
- Bio-genetic Law : - According to this each organism during its embryonal development, passes through
all stages, through which its species has evolved or embryo repeats its ancestry. i.e. Ontogeny recapitulates
its Phylogeny.
(9) ''Carl Ernest Von Baer'' : - He is known as the ''father of modern embryology.'' He gave the Baer's Law
which in turn proves the recapitulation theory.
According to this law, during embryonal development, the development of general structures takes place
earlier and specific structures develop at last or later on.
Embryology [60]
Somatoplasm dies but the germplasm is never destroyed, rather it is transferred to the progenies.
(11) Wilhelim : - He studied embryonal development in frog and gave the mosaic theory.
- He said that there are some presumptive areas in the eggs of frog. These areas form specific
structures during embryonal development. This is termed as ''Promorphology .'' and these type of eggs
are termed as the mosaic eggs.
(12) Hand Driesch : - He studied embryonal development is sea-urchin and gave the regulative theory.
- In the eggs of Sea-Urchin presumptive areas are not found i.e. promorphology is not found. So, each
part of the egg is capable of forming the complete embryo. These type of eggs are termed as regulative
eggs.
(13) Hans Driesch : - He studied embryonal development in sea-urchin and gave the regulative theory.
- In the eggs of Sea-Urchin presumptive areas are not found i.e. promorphology is not found. So,
each part of the egg is capable of forming the complete embryo. These type of eggs are termed as
regulative eggs.
They gave the gradient theory to explain the mosaic development in eggs.
According to them, a metabolic gradient is present inside the eggs.
Different parts of the egg have different metabolic rates.
The rate of metabolism is faster at the animal-pole of the egg and is slower at the vegital pole of the
egg.
- These organizers secrete some special chemicals called evocators which induce the formation of
specific structures.
Embryology [61]
As there are two types of gametes, the spermatozoa and ova, gametogenesis can be studied under two
broad headings : spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Spermatogenesis is the formation of spermatozoa,
whereas oogenesis is the formation of ova. Both spermatozoa and ova originate from primordial germ
cells or PGCs, which are extra-gonadal in origin. In humans, the PGCs originate during early embryonic
development from the extra-embryonic mesoderm. Eventually, they migrate to the yolk sac endoderm, and
ultimately, to the gonads of the developing embryo, where they undergo further development. You can
recall that spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes of oogenesis occurs in the
follicles of ovary. Formation of gametes starts at puberty.
SPERMATOGENESIS :
Spermoatogenesis : i.e. formation of sperms. In most of the animals spermatogenesis takes place in testes,
(exception-earthworm). Mammalian testes contain seminiferous tubules and wall of seminiferous tubule is
composed of germinal epithelium. It contains some special types of cells called primordial germ cells and
these cells start spermatogenesis. On the basis of origin, primordial germ cells are extra embryonic
mesodermal. Besides these cells, germinal epithelium contains some large sized cell called sertoli cells.
Occurrence of sertoli cells is the unique feature of mammalian testis. Sertoli cells provide nutrition of
developing sperm i.e. developing sperms are embedded in cytoplasm of sertoli cells and absorb nutrition.
After maturation sperms comes out from sertoli cells and librate in seminiferous tubules.
Liberation of sperms from Sertoli cells is called spermiation.
Mammalian sperms are transferred to vagina of female by the process called insemination.
Sertoli cells form 'blood testes barrier' and protect the sperm from immune system of the body. because
antibody may attach on haploid cells and destroy them. (Sperms are haploid and other cells of body are
diploid).
Sertoli cells function as an endocrine gland i.e. secrete three type of hormones :
(i) Antimullerian hormone : function of this hormone is degradation of female gonads in male embryo. (In
male seminal vesicle is the ruminant part of oviduct of female).
(ii) Inhibin hormone : Function of this hormone is to control excess secretion of pituitary gland
to prevent the over-production of sperms.
(iii) Androgen binding protein : Function of this hormone is to concentrate testosterone in seminiferous
tubules because testosterone is must for spermatogenesis in seminiferous tubules.
STEPS OF SPERMATOGENESIS :
Spermatozoa are formed in the wall of the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The various cell-stages in
spermatogenesis are as follows (the number of chromosomes at each stage is given in brackets)
Embryology [62]
Embryology [63]
Structure of sperm :
The spermatozoon has a head, a middle piece and a tail. The head is covered by cap the acrosomic cap,
anterior nuclear cap, or galea capitis. Acrosome is a bag like structure filled with lytic enzymes called
spermlysins. In the anterior part of middle piece neck is present. The neck is narrow : it contains a
proximal & distal centriole (or Basal body). An axial filament begins just behind this centriole, it passes
through the middle piece and extends into the tail. At the point where the middle piece joins the tail, this
axial filament passes through a ring-like structure called the annulus (or ring centriole or zensons ring).
That part of the axial filament which lies in the middle piece, is surrounding by a spiral sheath made up of
mitochondria. (Nebenkern sheath)
Embryology [64]
HEAD
Nucleus forms Head
NECK
Mitochondria form the a heath
of the Midpiece
MIDDLE PIECE
Proximal centriole comes to lie
in the neck
Nuclear part of head of spermatozoa consist of chromatin (mostly DNA) that is extremely condensed. It
contains a basic nature protein called protamin.
The basal body is made up of nine segmented rod like structures each of which is continuous distally with
one coarse fibril of the axial filament.
The axial filament, that passes through the middle piece and most of the tail, is actually composed of
several fibrils arranged. There is a pair of central fibrils, surrounded by nine pairs (doublets) arranged in a
circle around the central pair (9+ 2). This arrangement of one central pair of fibrils surrounded by nine
doublets is covered by nine solid protein (making the arrangement as 9 + 9+ 2).
Structure of sperm
In the proximal tail part it is covered by only two solid protein fibres (therefore arrangement is 2 + 9 + 2), while
end part of tail has no protein covering (therefore arrangement is 9 +2). Immediately outside the fibrils
there is a fibrous health.
Embryology [65]
OOGENESIS :
Fig. 2
Like spermatogenesis oogenesis process also can be divided into three stages :
(A) Multiplication (B) Growth phase (C) Maturation phase
(A) Multiplication phase : In this stage primordial germ cells or ovum mother cells repeatedly divide by
mitosis to form large number of diploid oogonia.
This process completes in embryo stage of female in most higher animals.
(B) Growth phase : Like spermatogenesis, in this process oogonia grow in size and form primary oocytes.
The growth phase is the longest phase oogenesis (except humans). During growth phase size of egg
increases many times.
During growth phase several changes occur in egg and all these changes are classified in 2 sub-stages
– Previtellogenesis
– Vitellogenesis
Previtellogenesis :
During previtellogenesis, changes occur in nucleus and cytoplasm of egg.
Changes in nucleus :
Embryology [66]
• Activity of DNA increases in nucleus, as a result DNA become highly active and rapidly synthesizes
different types of RNA. Increased activity of DNA is called as Gene redundancy/Gene amplification. Due
to all these changes, size of nucleus increases and nucleus becomes vesicular. This vasicular nucleus is called
germinal vesicle .
Changes in cytoplasm :
In cytoplasm, rate of protein synthesis increases. Cytoplasm rapidly synthesises different type of protein and
enzyme. Due to more availability of protein and enzymes, synthesis of new protoplasm takes place and size
of egg increases.
Number of cell organelles increase in cytoplasm, specially endoplasmic reticulum, golgi-body and mitochondria
Mitochondria become very large in number so mitochondrial clouds are found in cytoplasm of egg.
Later on all these 3 cell organelle (golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria) are arranged in the
form of ring around the nucleus, it is called as Balbiani vitelline ring. In the stage golgi body of egg
secretes a membrane around the egg which is it called as vitelline membrane. A space appears in between
plasma membrane of egg and vitelline membrane called as perivitelline space, It is filled with a fluid called
perivitelline fluid.
At the end of previtellongenesis endoplasmic reticulum disappear. Golgi bodies gets converted into corticle
granule. Corticle granules are filled with mucopolysacharide. Large number of change occur in
mitochondria also.
So mitochondria of egg with the help of kinase enzyme make the yolk more viscous and insoluble.
2 types of yolk is found :
Granular yolk occurs in the form of fine granules.
eg. Protostomia animals.
Yolk platelets occur in the form of plate disc like granule.
eg. Deuterostomia animals (higher animals)
Embryology [67]
(C) Maturation phase : Oogenesis (Fig.2) takes place in the ovaries. In contrast to males the initial steps in egg
production occur prior to birth. By the time the foetus is 25 weeks old, all the oogonia that she will ever
produce, are already formed by mitosis. Hundreds of these diploid cells develop into primary oocytes, begin
the first steps of the first meiotic division, proceed up to diakinesis, and them stop any further development. The
oocytes grows much larger and completes the meiosis I, forming a large secondary oocyte and a small polar
body that receives very little amount of cytoplasm but one full set of chromosomes.
In humans (and most vertebrates), the first polar body does not undergo meiosis II, whereas the
secondary oocyte proceeds as far as the metaphase stage of meiosis II. However, it then stops
advancing any further, it awaits the arrival of the spermatozoa for completion of second meiotic
division. Entry of the sperm restarts the cell cycle breaking down MPF (M-phase promoting factor
and turning on the APC (Anaphase promoting complex). Completion of meiosis II converts the
secondary oocyte into a fertilized egg or zygote (and also a second polar body)
Ova are derived from oogonia present in the cortex of ovary. Some important differences between
oogenesis and spermatogenesis are
(i) Whereas one primary spermatocyte gives rise to four spermatozoa, one primary oocyte forms only one
ovum.
(ii) When the primary spermatocyte divides, its cytoplasm is equally distributed between the two secondary
spermatocytes formed. However, when the primary occyte divides, almost all its cytoplasm goes to the
daughter cell which forms the secondary oocyte. The other daughter cell (first polar body), receives half
the chromosomes of the primary oocyte, but almost no cytoplasm.
• The first polar body is, therefore, formed merely to get rid of unwanted chromosomes.
TYPES OF EGGS :
(ii) Mesolecthal Eggs : - In this type of egg, the amount of yolk is moderate i.e medium ,neither more
nor less.
Example : - Eggs of Amphibia, Petromyzon and lung-fishes.
Embryology [68]
Embryology [69]
• Two egg membranes are present here, inner vitelline membrane (primary) and outer chorian (secondary).
• The sperm enters the egg through micropyle because on the head of insect sperm acrosome is absent.
• The Cytoplasm here is found in two parts :
(a) Central cytoplasm : - It is present in a very small amount in the centre of the egg. Egg nucleus is located
in it.
(b) Peripheral Cytoplasm : - It is present in a very small amount along the periphery of the egg.
(II) FROG'S EGG
• Eggs of frog are moderately Telolecithal & Mesolecithal
Frog's Egg
Two types of egg membranes are found in frogs egg :
(i) Vitelline membrane : This is primary egg membrane which is secreted by the ovum around itself.
(ii) Jelly coat : This is tertiary egg membrane, secreted by oviduct. Jelly coat has air bubbles trapped in
it due to which it floats on water. This group of frogs egg is called spawn, Jelly coat is bitter in taste so
enemies do not eat it.
Secondary egg membrane is absent in frog's egg.
Embryology [70]
Chick Egg
• Around the egg, porous shell of CaCO 3 is present which is secreted by the cells of the oviduct.
• In between the vitelline membrane and the shell membrane albumin is filled which is also called the white
of egg. It contains 13% proteins.
• Thick albumin-fibres termed as ''Chalaza'' are present in the albumin part of egg.
Embryology [71]
• Mammalian eggs have very less amount of yolk, so the eggs are oligolecithal and isolecithal or
microlecithal and homolecithal.
(1) Zona Pellucida : - This is a transparent membrane like covering and is a primary membrane secreted
by the ovum/oocyte itself.
(2) Corona radiata : - This is a layer of follicular cells'' and these cells are attached to the surface of
egg through ''hyaluronic acid'' This is a secondary membrane, which is secreted by the ovary. These
eggs don't have tertiary membrane.
Mammalian eggs are approx 0.1 mm in size.
FERTILIZATION :
The process in which union of male and female gametes (formed by gametogenesis) and fusion of
pronuclei of sperm and ovum takes place thus diploid zygote is formed, is called fertilization.
• Fertilization has following processes : - The union of male and female gametes is called Syngamy.
Where as intermixing of their cytoplasm is called plasmogamy. The fusion of pronuclei of sperm and
ovum is called karyogamy. The intermingling of their chromosomes is called amphimixis.
Due to fertilization , a diploid zygote is formed, by the union of two different types of gametes.
SITE OF FERTILIZATION :
(A) INTERNAL FERTILIZATION - Fertilization in the body (i.e., genital organs of animal) is called
internal fertilization. In this type of fertilization, sperms are discharged by male directly into the genital
tract of female after coitus.
- Whole process of fertilization takes place within the body of female. This is the most common
adaptation in terrestrial animals.
Examples : - Aschelminthes, reptiles, birds and mammals.
(B) EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION - External fertilization takes place outside the body of females i.e., in
water.
•
Example : - In most of the invertebrates, some protochordates, amphibian and most of the fishes.
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION :
(a) Self fertilization - This process takes place in the body of single animal i.e., fusion of male and female
gametes produced by male and female organs of the same animal. This is called self-fertilization. This is
possible only in bisexual or hermaphrodite animals.
Examples : - Animals of phylum porifera and most of the species Hydra.
(b) Cross-Fertilization – Fertilization takes place between two (male & female) different animals of same
species.
Embryology [72]
- This process is found in all unisexual animals. These animals are also called dioecious animals
- Cross-fertilization is also found in most of the bisexual or hermaphrodite animals because in these animals
male genital organs develop first. This condition is called protandrous condition. In some of the species
female organs develop first, this condition is called protogynous condition e.g. sponges.
Approach of sperm towards the egg – it is a chance factor, so sperms perform random (directionalless)
movement. To increase the chances of approach of sperm towards egg there are mainly two adaption
(a) Number of sperms is very high : - e.g. In man 20 to 120 million sperms are present per cubic mm of
semen.
- Some special proteins are found on the surface of egg and sperm to help in fertilization.
According of Lillie, chemicals named as ''fertilizins'' are found on the surface of egg. Fertilins are
glycoproteins or acid mucopolysaccharides. According to Ballinsky, an acidic protein named as
Antifertilizin is present on the surface of sperms. ''Fertilin'' proteins are also present on sperm surface.
- Both the proteins are specific for a particular species. Antifertilizin present on sperm of a particular
species will react with fertilizin of present on egg of the same species of animals.
- If we place some eggs of sea-urchin in sea-water, this sea water becomes viscous, this is called egg-
water. When some sperms come in contact with this egg water, sperms adhere with each other. It is
called agglutination.
Here the reaction of fertilizin (dissolved in water from egg) and antifertilizin of sperm is observed clearly.
- According to Washerman and Sailing (1989) a specific pair of protein molecules is found on the surface of
mammalian sperm, which can recognize specific carbohydrates and proteins in ZP 3 region of zona
pellucida. The bindin protein of sperm reacts with these molecules to initiate the changes in acrosome. A
specific sugar galactose remains attached with ZP 3 glycoprotein. The sperm fails to recognize the ovum of
its own species, if this sugar is removed from zona pellucida.
- In addition to these glycoproteins, there are some hormones also, which help in fertilization.
The hormones present at the surface of sperm are called androgamones. These are of two types.
Androgamone first & androgamone second.
- Hormones present at the surface of egg are called gyanogamones these are of 2 types.
(a) Gyanogamones I - this hormone neutralizes Androgamone I and activates sperm to move
Enzyme of acrosome (Hyaluronidase and sperm lysins) dissolve the egg membrane. This is called
acrosomal reaction. As a result sperm head make the contact with the plasma membrane of egg, now
inner membrane of acrosome evaginates outside and form rigid tube is called acrosomal filament. Acrosomal
filament provide stimulus to plasma membrane of egg and due to stimulus of sperm, egg is induce for
fertilization. Mammalian sperms do not form this type of filament because mammalian sperms are highly active
and provide stimulus to plasma-membrane of egg without any filament. Mammalian sperms acquire activity at
two places. First-epididymis and second-vagina. Vaginal secretion make the sperm highly active and sperm
acquire capacity of fertilization is called capacitation.
All the response of egg for sperm are collectively called gyanogenesis.
Due to stimulus of sperm, permeability of plasma membrane of egg increases specially for k+ and Ca2+
ions. Function of Ca2+ ions is to inactivate the cytostatic factors in egg. As a result egg is now ready for
cleavage (In egg cytoplasm special type of protein called cytostatic factor are present these factor prevent
the cleavage in unfertilized egg)
Due to stimulus of sperm, H+ – Na+ pump activates and induces the plasma-membrane of egg. Function of
this pump is to continuously influx H+ ions and outflux Na+ ions. As a result concentration of H+ ion
increases in egg cytoplasm and develops an acidic medium. In acidic medium, proteolytic enzyme become
active and liberate the m-RNA from informosome. These m-RNA become active and rapidly synthesize
different types of protein and enzymes. Due to more availability of protein and enzymes metabolic activity
of egg increases.
Response of egg : (1) Due to stimulus of sperm, meiosis-II is induced in human egg by excluding second
polar body becoming mature ovum.
(2) At the point of contact with sperm and plasma-membrane of egg a cone-like structure is formed called
reception cone. After some time reception cone sinks in egg cytoplasm along with sperm (entry of
sperm is a type of phagocytosis). With the entry of sperm all the cortical granules burst and secrete a
membrane around the egg is called fertilization membrane (cortical reaction). It is secreted on inner
surface of primary egg membrane and perivitelline space become more wide and amount of
perivitelline fluid is also increase. Function of perivitelline fluid and fertilization membrane is to
prevent the entry of sperm in egg. so normally only one sperm enter inside the egg (monospermy).
Sometimes more than one sperm enter inside the egg (polypermy). Two types of polyspermy are
found in nature.
Embryology [74]
(2) Physiological polyspermy : In physiological polysermy nucleus of only one sperm fuses with egg
nucleus and rest of the sperm die in egg cytoplasm. Dead sperm are called merocytes. In physiological
polyspermy normal embryo development occurs.
Fate of sperm in egg - In majority of animals, only head and middle piece enter inside the egg and tail is
left outside.
- In mammals, whole sperm enters in the egg.
- In some animals, only head of sperm enters in the egg tail and middle piece remain outside
e.g. Hydra, Neries etc. After entering inside the egg, sperm rotates by 180°. All the structure of sperm
dissolve in egg cytoplasm except sperm nucleus and proximal centriole.
- The centriole of egg itself degenerates at the time of second maturation division. So proximal centriole
of sperm starts division, it divides into 2 daughter centrioles, which migrate towards opposite pole and
start forming spindles.
- The nucleus of sperm absorbs water from egg cytoplasm and becomes enlarged. Now it is called male
pronucleus.
After meiosis – II egg nucleus occur in the form of scattered vesicles then it is called as karyomeres and
after some time ll the karyomeres assembled to form complete nucleus is called female pronucleus.
- Male pronucleus and female pronucleus migrate through definite routes and come close to each other.
These routes are called fertilization path. (It has following parts)
(1) Sperm penetration path - Male pronucleus for some distance, moves at the equator of egg. This is called
sperm penetration path.
(2) Sperm copulation path - Male pronucleus starts migrating towards female pronucleus.
(3) Egg copulation path - Female pronucleus migrates towards male pronucleus. Both the pronuclei come
close to each other.
(4) Cleavage path - Both the pronuclei move together to their final position which is somewhere in animal
pole. At this final position nuclear membrane of both the pronuclei degenerate and chromosomes of male
and female pronuclei form pairs. The mixture of male and female chromosomes is called amphimixis.
- Amphimixis was discovered by O.Hertwig in the eggs of sea – urchin.
- Newport was of all first observed the entry of sperm into the egg.
Significance of Fertilization
1. Oocyte completes its second maturation division on coming in contact with the sperm.
2. Amphimixis process leads to the formation of diploid zygote to restore the normal diploid number of the
chromosomes.
Embryology [75]
4. The paternal and maternal characters are transmitted to the off springs through the process of fertilization.
5. The peripheral changes occurring in the egg prevent the further entry of sperm into the ovum, thus
checking polyspermy.
- The development of embryo without fertilization is called parthenogenesis. The animals which are
formed by unfertilized eggs are called parthenotes.
- The discovery of parthenogenesis was done by Charles Bonet in the eggs of sea-urchins.
Some animals show parthenogenesis by nature e.g. Honey bees, wasps, ants, grass-hoppers, ticks, mites
and sea-urchins. Natural parthenogenesis is of 2 types : -
(i) Haploid parthenogenesis or Arrhenotoky : - In this case eggs are formed by meiosis. Eggs are
haploid, they have the power of fertilization sometimes male animals are developed by unfertilized
eggs. In Honeybees, unfertilized eggs develop into males (drones), and fertilized eggs develop into
queen and soldiers. Thus male honey bees are always haploid and queen with soldiers are always
diploid.
(ii) Diploid parthenogenesis or Thelytoky : - In this case, eggs are formed without meiosis division.
Eggs are diploid they do not have the power of fertilization.
Diploid eggs give rise to female generation only. Male members are absent in these species.
Examples : - Lacerta sexicola armenica (lizard), Caresius aratus gibelio (Fish).
(A) Ameiotic Thelytoky - In this type of parthenogenesis, during oogenesis first meiotic division does not
take place but second meiotic division occurs as usual. In this situation the ovum still remains diploid.
These ova, when reproduce parthenogenetically give rise to diploid off springs. For example,
Trichoniscus, Daphnia, Daphnia pulex etc.
(B) Meiotic thelytoky - If the eggs are formed by normal oogenesis process, but by one or other reasons
the eggs retain their diploid chromosomal number, then the parthenogenesis is called meiotic
thelytoky. It may happen because of autofertilization. Some species of order – Lepidoptera exhibit this
type of parthenogenesis.
- In some animals parthenogenesis alternates with normal sexual reproductive cycle. This is called
cyclic parthenogenesis e.g., Honey bee.
- In some animals, development of animals is always by parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction is
absent in these species. This is called complete parthenogenesis. Males are absent.
Example - Lacerta sexicola armenica (lizard)
Embryology [76]
CLEAVAGE
- In fertilized egg or activated egg, the egg undergoes repeated cell divisions which occur rapidly
producing a multicellular structure without changing its size. All these mitotic cells divisions
collectively called cleavage or segmentation. Due to the process of cleavage, a single celled zygote,
through a successive mitotic cell divisions changes into a complex multicellular structure. Cells
produced as a result of cleavage are termed as blastomeres. The total size of the embryo remains the
same. Though the number of blastomeres as a result of mitotic cell divisions increases, the size of
blastomeres gradually decreases are compared to parent cell. Interphase stage is very short in cleavage.
In interphase only DNA duplication and histone protein synthesis takes place up to some extent. In the
interphase of cleavage only 'S' phase is present, G 1 & G 2 phases are absent. Protein synthesis and RNA
synthesis do not occur during this interphase. Nucleolus is absent in the nucleus of blastomeres. Size of
blastomeres decreases during cleavage. When size of blastomere becomes equal to that of size of
somatic ells, the divisions of cleavage are stopped. Only normal cell division take place. Cleavage can
be observed till onset of gastrula stage. After gastrulation, cleavage is completely checked. Nucleous
appears first in gastrula stage. The consumption of oxygen is increased during cleavage.
CLEAVAGE PLANE :
• The traveling path of cleavage furrow in fertilized egg is called cleavage plane. Different animal eggs
show different cleavage planes : -
Vertical Plane
Meridianal Plane
Equatorial Plane
Transverse Plane
Vegetal Pole Vegetal Pole (V P)
[Cleavage Plane]
Embryology [77]
(a) Radial Cleavage - In this pattern, cleavage furrows are straight and form right angle with each other. In
this case I, II cleavages are meridianal, which are at right angle to each other. III cleavage is equatorial In
this way 8-celled octate is formed. In radial cleavage, 4 blastomeres of upper tier and 4 blastomers of lower
tier are on sampe plane i.e, Blastomeres are arrangement in radial symmetry in the beginning.
(b) Biradial Cleavage - In this pattern, first two cleavages are meridianal and at right angle to each other all
III cleavage is vertical. In 8-celled stage 4 blastomeres of central zone are bigger and 4 blastomeres of
peripheral region are smaller.
Examples : - In the eggs of Ctenophora.
(c) Bitareal Cleavage - In this patterhn, first two cleavages are meridianal in same plane and III Cleavage is
transverse. i.e., embryo shows bilateral symmetry in 8-celled stage. The blastomeres of one side are
smaller and blastomeres of other side are larger.
Examples : - In the eggs tunicata, cephalochordata, amphibian and amphioxus.
(d) Spiral Cleavage - The cleavage furrow passes obliquely. In this pattern 4 blastomeres of lower tier rotate
clockwise or anticlock wise. If this rotation is clockwise, then it is called dextral spiral cleavage e.g. In
Mollusca. If this rotation of lower tier blastomeres is anti-clockwise, then pattern is called sinistral spiral
cleavage, e.g. In helminthes and annelida.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLEAVAGE :
On the basis of fate of blastomeres : -
A. Determinate Cleavage - In this pattern of cleavage, the fate of blastomeres is fixed, determined i.e. each
blastomere forms a particular portion of embryo. If (by certain reason) any blastomere is damaged or
destroyed, then the part of embryo (which would have development from that blastomere) will be absent
e.g., Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca and Some chordates like amphibian & ascidians.
B. Indeterminate Cleavage - In this type of cleavage, the fate of blastomeres is not definite. All the blastomeres
form all the parts of embryo. If some blastomeres are lost, no loss is observed in this embryo. If in the early
stages of cleavage, the embryo is cut into small pieces, then each piece of embryo will develop into a complex
embryo, and all the embryos are identical. So identical twins are monozygous. This is the basis of embryo
cloning.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLEAVAGE :
On the basis of amount of Yolk : -
A scientist named Balfour gave a law. According to him, rate of cleavage is inversely proportional to
amount of yolk present in the egg. The yolk present in egg, disturbs the rate of cleavage. The rate of
cleavage is slow in that part of egg, in which amount of yolk is more, and the rate of cleavage is faster in
the portion of egg in which yolk is in lesser amount. Mostly cleavage is of 2 types : -
A. Complete or holoblastic : - When cleavage furrow passes through the egg completely. As a result of this
the whole egg divides. Holoblastic cleavage is found in all the eggs except megalecithal eggs. The whole
egg divides into blastomeres. No part of egg remains undivided. It is of 2 types : -
Embryology [78]
(b) Superficial meroblastic cleavage – In insect egg, central cytoplasm shows free central division, due
to which so many nuclei are formed. All these nuclei migrates towards peripheral cytoplasm.
Cleavage occurs only in peripheral region. As a result of this, a superficial layer of blastomeres is
formed around the yolk. This type of cleavage is also called superficial meroblastic cleavage.
Example - In centrolecithal eggs.
Significance of Cleavage -
1. There is no change in shape and size developing embryo till blastula stage comes. Till then it remains
just like undivided egg in shape.
2. As a result of cleavage, unicellular zygote changes into multicelluar structure.
Embryology [79]
Fig. (5)
Fertilization is the union of two opposite types of gametes, spermatozoa and ova. The semen is a mixture
of spermatozoa and accessory fluids. Once deposited with in the vagina, the spermatozoa proceed on their
journey into and through the uterus and on up into the oviducts. Although spermatozoa can swim several
millimeters each second, their trip through the uterus and to the oviducts requires on increase in their
motility.
On the first hand, ejaculation of semen in the vagina triggers motility of spermatozoa. This is aided further
by muscular contraction of the walls of the uterus and the oviducts. An additional increase in sperm
motility occurs due to activation of the sperm by the viscous liquid secreted from the secreted cells of the
epithelial lining of oviduct mucosa. This phenomenon of sperm activation in mammals is known
capacitation. It takes about 5-6 hours for capacitation.
Before fusion of a spermatozoan with the egg, the spermatozoa are to penetrate a few barriers, the egg
membranes, which cover the egg. The activated spermatozoa undergo acrosomal reaction and release
varies chemicals, like hyaluronidase that acts on the ground substances of follicle cells, corona
penetrating enzyme that dissolves corona radiata, and zona lysine which perforates the zona
pellucida. All these chemicals are contained in the acrosome, located at the tip of the sperm head, and are
collectively termed sperm lysins. An average human ejaculate of 3-4 ml of semen contains 80-100 million
spermatozoa. Out of these, only one will succeed in entering the egg and fertilizing it. Fertilisation of egg
with only one spermatozoan is known as monospermy.
While the ovarian follicle is growing, the oogonium within it undergoes maturation. The oogonium enlarges to
form a primary oocyte. The primary oocyte undergoes the first meiotic division to shed off the first polar body
and becomes a secondary oocyte (fig. 5.2A). At the time of ovulation, the second meiotic division is in progress
and a spindle has formed for separation of the second polar body (fig. 5.2B)
Embryology [80]
Secondary oocyte
Spindle of second
Meiotic division A 23 23
First polar body First polar body
Female pronucleum
A B
Each chromosome
B Duplicates itself
Embryology [81]
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 7
Embryology [82]
(b) The remaining cell of the inner cell mass become columnar (fig. 8D). These are called are called epiblast and form
the second germ layer, the ectoderm. The embryo is now in the form of a disc having two layers.
(c) A space appears between the ectoderm (below) and the trophoblast (above). This is the amniotic cavity
(fig. 8C), filled by amniotic fluid, or liquor animal. The roof of his cavity is formed by amniogenic cells
(cells of Rauber) derived from the trophoblast, while its floor is formed by the ectoderm.
(d) Flattened cells arising from the endoderm, spread and line the inside of the blastocystic cavity. In this way,
a cavity, lined on all sides by cells of endodermal origin, is formed. This cavity is called the primary yolk
sac (fig. 8D)
(e) The cells of the trophoblast give origin to a mass of cells called the extra-embryonic mesoderm (or primary
mesoderm). These cells come to lie between the trophoblast and the flattened endodermal cells lining the
yolk sac, thus separating them from each other. These cells also separate the wall of the amniotic cavity
from the trophoblast (fig. 9A).
This mesoderm is called extra-embryonic because it lies out side the embryonic disc. It does not give rise
to any tissues of the embryo itself.
Endoderm
Amniogenic cells
Trophoblast
Amniotic cavity
Cavity of blastocyst
Cavity of blastocyst
Fig. 8
(f) Small cavities appear in the extra-embryonic mesoderm. Gradually these join together to from larger spaces
and, ultimately, on large space is formed. This cavity is called the extra-embryonic coelom (fig. 9B), it will be
seen that the extra-embryonic coelom does not extend into that part of the extra-embryonic mesoderm which
attaches the wall of the amniotic cavity to the trophoblast. The development embryo, along with the amniotic
cavity and the yolk sac, is now suspended in the extra-embryonic coelom, and is attached to the wall of the
Embryology [83]
Fig. 9
(g) Formation of chorion and amnion : At this stage, two very important membranes are formed. One is
formed by the parietal extra-embryonic mesoderm (on the inside) and the overlaying trophoblast
(on the outside) this is called the chorian (fig. 9B). The other is the amnion which is constituted by the
amniogenic cells forming the wall of the amniotic cavity (excluding the extodermal floor). These cells are
derived from the trophoblast. We have already seen that the amnion is covered by the unsplit extra-
embryonic mesoderm, and that the connecting stalk is attached to it.
(h) With the appearance of the extra-embryonic mesoderm, and later of the extra-embryonic coelom, the yolk
sac becomes much smaller than before and is now called the secondary yolk sac. This alteration in size is
accompanied by a change in the nature of the lining cells. They are no longer flattended but become
cubical (fig. 9B).
(i) At this stage, the embryo proper is a circular disc composed of two layers of cells : the upper layer
(towards amniotic cavity) is the ectoderm, the cells of which are columnar, while the lower layer (towards
yolk sac) is the endoderm, made up of cubical cells (fig. 10)
Eead end
Cubical endodermA
Prochordal plate
Fig.10
(j) At one circular area a near the margin of the disc, the cubical cells of the endoderm become columnar.
This area is called the prochordal plate. The appearance of the prochordal plate determines the central
axis of the embryo (i.e. enables us to divide it into right and left halves), and also enables us to
distinguish its head and tail ends (fig. 10)
(k) Soon after the formation of the prochordal plate some of the ectodermal cells lying along the central axis,
near the tail end of the disc, begin to proliferate, and form an elevation that bulges into the amniotic cavity.
This elevation is called the primitive streak (fig. 11). The primitive streak is at first a rounded or oval
swelling primitive streak later forms the Henson's node.
Embryology [84]
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Fig. 11
(i) The cells that proliferate in the region of the primitive streak pass sideways, pushing themselves between
the ectoderm and endoderm (fig. 11). These cells from the intra-embryonic mesoderm (or secondary
mesoderm) which is the third germ layer.
Notochord
The notochord is a midline structure, that develops from mesoderm in dorsal region.
The notochord is present in all animals that belong to the phylum Chordata. In some of them e.g.
Amphioxus, it persists into adult life and forms the central axis of the body. In others, including man, it
appears in the embryo but only small remainants of it remain in the adult. Notochord elongates
considerably, and lies in the midine, in the position to be position to be later occupied by the vertebral
column. However, the notochord does not give rise to the vertebral column.
Neurulation : i.e formation of neural tube. After neurulation there occur three type of ectoderm.
(i) Somatic ectoderm (ii) Neural tube ectoderm (iii) Neural crest ectoderm.
Anterior part of neural tube differentiate brain and rest of the neural tube differentiate in spinal cord so
central nervous system is formed by neural tube.
TERATOGENY :
During the first 3 months of pregnancy the basic structure of baby is formed. This involves cell division,
cell migration, and differentiation of cells into the many types found in the body. During this period, the
developing baby called foetus is very sensitive to anything that interferes with developmental steps. Eg.
Virus infection of mother by rubella (German measles) virus or pexposure to certain chemicals may cause
malformation in the developing embryo. Such agents are called teratogens (Monster Forming agents).
1. Morula - As a result of segmentation or cleavage activities, unicellular zygote changes into a solid ball
like multicellular structure. In the later stage of cleavage, clusters of sticky, cohering, protruding (otuside)
blastomeres are produced, which look like mulberry. This stage is termed as morula stage.
2. Blastulation - Cleavage continues in solid ball like morula and new formed blastomeres start rearranging
themselves. Cell-aggregation starts in blastomeres, due to the movement of these blastomeres a cavity
appears in the embryo, it is called as blastocoel. This cavity is schizogenous cavity in origin i.e. it is
formed by the separation of cells. Cell aggregation is also known as cohesion. Blastomeres arrange
Embryology [85]
Types of blastula
The shape of blastula depends on so many factors e.g. size of eggs, amount of yolk, distribution of yolk in
the eggs, frequency of cleavage and number of cleavage divisions. According to these factors, we can
classify blastula of different animals in different categories.
Embryology [86]
(d) Superficial blastula or periblastula - In centrolecithal eggs, cleavage occurs only in peripheral region.
The layer of blastomeres surrounds the centrally situated yolk. Blastocoel is absent in this type of blastula.
In place of blastocoel, subgerminal cavity is found.
[Periblastula]
(e) Blastocyst - blastula or Eutherian & Metahterian mammals is called blastocyst, because blastula is in the
form of a cyst.
[Blastocyst]
Embryology [87]
SPECIAL POINT :
1. The growth phase is the longest phase during male gametogenesis. But in human oogenesis, maturation
phase is longest.
2. The acrosome of sperm are produced by golgibodies.
3. The smallest sperm is of crocodile and its size of 0.02 mm & largest sperm is of Discoglossus (2 mm)
4. 74 days are required to complete the cycle of spermatogenesis in human being.
5. In 1 ml of semen, 20 to 120 millions of sperms are present in human being.
6. Deficiency in the number of sperms result in sterility which is known as oligospermia.
7. Absence of sperms in semen is known as azoospermia .
8. Formation of yolk in oogenesis takes place in the growth phase.
9. Largest egg is of Ostrich (16 cm long with its shell).
10. Although normal number of sperm are present in semen but if these are completely non motile. The
condition is known as necrospermia.
11. Smallest egg in birds is of humming bird.
12. Due to high mortality rate in lower animals, the production of egg is more.
13. Sequence of egg production is as follows.
Mammals < Aves < Reptiles < Amphibian < Pisces.
14. Cat and rabbit both are induced ovulator.
15. The life span of eggs in female reproductive organs in human being is 48 hrs.
16. The nucleus of egg is known as germinal vesicle.
17. At the age of 45-50 yrs. In female the ovulation process will stop which is known as menopause.
18. The spermiation (release of sperms from sertoli cells) in all sertoli cells occurs simultaneously.
19. Cortical granules are absent in rat.
20. Mosaic type of cleavage is found in the parasite Echinococcus granulosus.
Special features of some animals :
(a) Sperms of some animals are not having flagella :
eg. (1) Ascaris - sperm is amoeboid
(2) Cray fish - star shaped, tail less sperm
(3) In crab and lobuster the sperm are tail less and have three sharp process.
(b) Biflagellated sperm :
eg. In toad fish (Opsansus) head of many sperms unite together and form sperm boats
In Gastropods, the sperms are hexaflagellated.
Smallest sperm – Crocodile (0.02 mm)
Largest sperm – Discoglossus (2 mm) in chordates and Drosophila in entire animal kingdom.
Shape of head part of sperms :
(i) Spherical – eg Teleostei
Embryology [88]
Embryology [89]
UTERUS
BLASTOCYST
FERTILIZATION
OVUM
INITIAL STAGE
OF
IMPLANTATION
Initially the oocyte after its release from ovary, comes into fallopian tube where the process of fertilization
is completed, Just after fertilization, embryonic development starts and a blastocyst is formed after
cleavage and morulation. In human being, the blastocyst gets attached with the uterine endomdetrium in
Embryology [90]
Types of Implantation
On the basis of the position of attachment in the uterus, implantation is of three types -
1. Central or Superficial implantation - In this type the blastocyst attaches superficially with the wall of
uterus, and remains suspended in the lumen of the uterus. This type of implantation occurs in lower
chordates, e.g. cow, pig, dog etc.
2. Interstitial implantation – The blastocyst is buries deeply inside the wall of uterus and covered by
endometrial tissues lying under epithelium. This type of implantation occurs in human being.
3. Eccentric implantation – It occur in rat, squirrel etc. In this type of implantation , the blastocyst settles in
the flods of epithelium of uterus. After some time it is completely surrounded by these folds.
Embryology [91]
7 WEEK EMBRYO
8 WEEK FOETUS
9 WEEK FOETUS
10 WEEK FOETUS
Embryology [92]
1. Amnion - It is formed by the layer of amniogenic cells present around the amniotic cavity and the extra
embryonic mesoderm. Extra embryonic mesoderm layer surrounds the amnion. The connecting stalk is also
attached with it. With a gradual increase in size the amnion covers the embryo from all sides. After about
eight weeks of fertilization, amnion is completely incorporated into connecting stalk, which finally forms
the umbilical cord. Embryo, in this stage, is called as foetus remains hanging in amniotic fluid.
2. Chorion - It is formed by the extra embryonic parietal layer of mesoderm and the cell of trophoblast. After
implantation of blastocyst, the trophoblast gives out several figner like processes, the chorionic villi which
get embedded into uterine endometrium Mesoderm also contributes in the formation of these villi. After a
period of four these villi disappear from all parts except the connecting stalk where they grow rapidly and
participate in the formation of placenta.
Embryology [93]
PLACENTA
The eggs of viviparous animals are unable to develop into their embryos outside the uterus independently.
This is because of the very little or negligible amount of yolk present in these eggs, which can not fulfill
the nutritional and other physiological demands of a developing embryo. Here the embryo depends upon
maternal tissues for shelter, nutrition, respiration etc. These animals therefore, have developed adaptation,
respiratory and other physiological requirements from mother's body.
Placenta is found in all viviparous (exept sub-class-prototheria; oviparous) animals.
Structure of Placenta
Placenta is not a simple membrane. It is made up of the tissues from two different sources –
Maternal tissue - These include uterine epithelium, connective tissues and blood capillaries.
Embryonic tissue - These include extra embryonic membranes (mainly chorion). Yolk sac and allantois
may also take part in placenta formation. Embryonic connective tissues and blood capillaries are also
constituents of it.
On the basis of extra embryonic membranes, the placenta is of three types.
1. Yolk sac placenta - It is formed by yolk sac and uterine epithelium. For example, Elasmobrancs (Sharks),
Mustelus etc.
2. Choria-vitelline placenta - It is formed by chorion and yolk sac combinely. Hence it is called as
choriovitelline placenta. For example, Didelphis, Macropus and other metatherian mammals.
3. Chorio-allantoic placenta - This type of placenta is formed by embryonic chorion and allantoic
membranes. It is also referred to as a true placenta. It is found in eutherian mammals.
Chorio- allantoic placenta in mammals.
1. In this type of placenta, allantoic mesodern and the mesoderm of umbilical cord jointly form the blood
vessels of umbilical cord. The endodermal part of the allantois remains as a very small cavity.
2. To obtain nutrition from maternal blood several finger like processes or villi are formed by chorion which
penetrate deeply into the crypts of uterus. Initially the villi are scattered over the whole surface of chorion
but later they become restricted in the deciduas besalis region. The chorionic villi on the remaining surface
Embryology [94]
DECIDUA BASALIS
CHORIONIC VILLI DECIDUA BASALIS
CHORION
DECIDUA CAPSULARIS
DECIDUA
UTERINE LUMEN CAPSULARIS
DECIDUA
CHORIONFRONDOSUM PARIETALIS
UTERINE LUMEN
CHORION
Subdivisions of decidua
Classification of Placenta
On the basis of different characters, the placenta are classified in following manner –
1. On the basis intimacy
After implantation, the wall of uterus is called as deciduas, instead of endometrium. The part of
deciduas, where placenta is formed is called deciduas basalis whereas, the part separating the embryo
Embryology [95]
Embryology [96]
4. Trophoblast/Chorion
5. Chorionic connective tissue Foetal layes
6. Endothelium of embryonic blood vessels
The transportation of various materials takes place by diffusion through these six layers the intimacy
between maternal and embryonic tissues in different mammals is determined by the presence or absence of
these layers in placenta. Therefore, on the basis of presence or absence of the above layers, the placenta is
of five types.
Embryology [97]
The placenta of human mainly secretes two steroid hormones like estradiol and progesterone, and two protein
hormones like human chorional gonadotropin HCG and human placental somatomammotropin HCS
large amount of –HCG, hormone is secreted, during early pregnancy, from the placenta. Because of this reason
its quantity increases in the urine of pregnant lady. On the basis of this fact, pregnancy test is performed. The
above hormones are also held responsible for keeping the corpus luteum active, protection of embryo,
prevention of abortion and growth of mammary glands.
Functions of placenta
10. If a female takes some harmful chemicals, liquor, drugs etc. during pregnancy, these may cross the
placenta and on reaching into foetus may cause deformity during organogenesis. (eg. Thallidomide)
11. Placenta itself secretes some hormones like progesterone, estrogen, lactogen, HCG, HCS etc.
12. Progesterone, maintains and supports the foetus during the whole pregnancy period. At the time of
parturition, relaxin is secreted by placenta which lubricates and widens the birth canal to facilitate child
birth.
Embryology [98]
Embryology [99]
Body weight
increases. ECM and ECF production is also 300
included in it.
200
(11) Reserve cells : These are undifferentiated cells which
divides and replace differentiated cells. eg. regular RBC 100
formation by reserve cells of bone marrow.
0
(12) Growth curve : In case of animals weight is taken as a
criteria of growth. When weight is plotted against time 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (days)
we get grwoth curves it have three phases-
Growth curve of a 500-kg animal
(a) Lag phase - slow but progressive growth.
(b) Log or exponential phase - rapid growth.
(c) Stationary phase - almost no growth.
(13) Hormonal control of growth :
Many growth factors are known to be important–
(a) FGF - Fibrolbast growth factors – limb development in chick.
(b) IGF - Insulin like growth factor - In mammal growth.
(c) GH - Growth hormone and its inhibitor somatostatin.
(d) Sex hormones.
(14) Cells must receives signals through growth factors or other proteins for division and survival. In absenceof
these signals internal death programme is activated and cells commit sucide by Apoptosis.
REGENERATION
1. There occurs regular replacement of cells in multicellular organisms. Skin and inner lining of intestine is
also regulatory replaced.
2. At the place of wound healing new cells are added. This repair also occurs regularly in animals if injury
occurs.
3. This ability of fuly developed organism is replace lost parts by growth or remodelling os somatic tissue is
called as regeneration.
4. Regeneration is also a developmental process that involves growth, morphogenesis and differentiation in
post embryonic life.
Embryology [100]
AGEING : SENESCENCE
(1) It is observed after certain stage cells and organism as whole shows decline in vigor, rate of physiological
functions. Entropy overcomes then biological control.
(2) Ageing is time-related deterioration of physiological functions necessary for
(3) Science of ageing is Gerontology.
(4) Maximum life span : Maximum age reached by the member of any species. In human it is about 121 yrs.
(shirechlyo lzumi of Japan)
(5) Average lifwe span : The average number of years survived by most of the members of a species.
(6) Life expectancy : The number of years an individual can expect to live. (56 yrs. in India) It increases with
the improvement in sanitation, discovery of antibiotics and medical care.
Embryology [101]
Theories of Ageing
Ageing is a deteriation of body physiology also gradually loose efficiency this is called as senescene in
animals.
These are two main gruop of theories
(A) Programmed theories it includes :
(a) Endocrine theory
(b) Programmed senescence theory
(c) Immunological theory
(B) Damage or error theories :
(a) Living theory (b) Free radicals theory
(c) Cross linking theory (d) Wear and tear theroy
(e) Error catastroph theory (f) Somatic mutation theory
(A) Programmed theory : It includes all those distrubing mechanism which are result of a biological time
table.
(a) Endocrine theory : According to it biological clock acts through hormones. GH, sex harmones, melatonia,
thymosin reduces with age. Dehydroepiandros terone (DHEA) a weak male harmone from adrenal gland
also reduces.
(b) Programmed senescence theory : According to it certain genes switch on the process of ageing.
Research shows that B and T cell lymphocytes have receptors for self antigens.
(c) Immunological theory : It states gradual reduction in immunity due to degeneration of thymus.
(B) Damage and Error theories :
(a) Living theory : According to it regular metabolism bring ageing. Rate of oxygen basal metabolism
reduces life.
(b) Free radicals theory : Free radical is a molecule with an unpaired highly reactive electron. These are
produced in metabolism. It damages various biomolecules proteins, DNA and mitochondria. These also
triggers cancer, atherosclerosis, cataract and neurodegeneration.
(c) Cross linking theory : Accumulation of cross-linked proteins damages tissues. In non enzymatic
glycosylation or glycation glucose joins to protein and leads to protein interwinding. AGES Advanced
glycosylation and products makes the tissue tough and deteriate them, stiffening of arteries, eye
coludness, nerve and kidney function reduces. Diabetes have also some relation to such deterioration.
Embryology [102]
DEATH
It is a final breakdown of body’s vital function. There are many causes of death.
(a) Heart, liver lungs, Kidney becomes weak and metabolic disorders finally lead to death.
(b) Immune system reduces functioning and reduced resistance makes the body pro to various disease.
Embryology [103]
Q.8 Sertoli cells are found in the- Q.16 The cells formed as a result of second maturation
division in spermatogenesis-
(1) Frog's testis (2) Rabbit's testis
(1) Polocytes (2) Spermatocytes
(3) Cockroach's testis (4) Liver of frog (3) Spermatids (4) Sperm
Embryology [104]
Embryology [105]
(1) After entry of sperm before completion of (2) 100 ova and 200 sperms
fertilization (3) 200 ova and 50 sperms
(2) After completion of fertilization (4) 100 ova and 100 sperms
(3) Before entry of sperm Q.46 How many sperms and ova are produced from 25
(4) Without any relation of sperm entry primary spermatocytes and 25 primary oocytes ?
(1) 100 sperms and 100 ova
Q.39 Polar bodies are-
(2) 100 sperms and 25 ova
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid
(3) 100 sperms and 30 ova
(3) Triploid (4) Polyploid
(4) 50 sperms and 25 ova
Q.40 Secondary oocyte is formed
Q.47 A freshly laid unfertilized egg of hen contains
(1) Before ovum maturation
(1) One cell (2) A million cells
(2) After mitosis of germinal cells
(3) 1000 cells (4) 100 cells
(3) After fertilization
Q.48 Human eggs are (on the basis of amount of yolk)
(4) Before fertilization
(1) Alecithal (2) Telolecithal
Q.41 On fertilization of egg nucleus with sperm nucleus
(3) Mesolecithal (4) Macrolecithal.
(1) Second maturation is completed
Q.49 Freshly released human egg has
(2) Embryo is formed
(1) Two Y-chromosome
(3) First polar body is formed
(2) One X-chromosome
(4) First maturation is completed
(3) Two X-Chromosomes
Q.42 In oogenesis, divisions are mitotic except during
the formation of (4) One X-chromosome and one Y-chromosome
Q.50 What kind of eggs would be present in Elephant
(1) Ogonia (2) Primary oocytes
(1) Microlecithal and isolecithal
(3) First polar body (4) Second polar body
(2) Microlecithal and telolecithal
Q.43 Minute cells separating from ova are
(3) Mesolecithal and homolecithal
(1) Primary oogonia
(4) Macrolecithal and centrolecithal
(2) Polar bodies
Q.51 Megalecithal eggs occur in
(3) Secondary oogonia
(1) Frog (2) Mammals
(4) Primary spermatogonia
(3) Birds (4) Cockroach
Embryology [106]
Embryology [108]
Embryology [112]
Embryology [114]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Que . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 4 4 3 1 1 3 3 4 2 2 4
Que . 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 1 3 1 4 3 1 3 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 2 1 1 4
Que . 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 3 2 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 3 3 4 4 2 1 1 3 1
Que . 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 3 2 4 4 1 3 2 4 2 1 4 2 2 3 1 4 3 3 4
Que . 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 2 4 4 4 3 2 4 4 2 1 4 4 3 4 2 2 1 3 3
Que . 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 4 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 4 1 1 3 1 2 4 2 4 3 1 2
Que . 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 4 4 4 2 4 1 3 3 1
Que . 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Ans. 1 3 3 1 3 2 2 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 3 4 4 2 4
Que . 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
Ans. 3 1 4 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 4 1 2 2 1 3 3 4 4
Que . 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Ans. 4 4 3 3 4 1 4 4 1 3 2 2 4 3 3 1 2 1 3 4
Que . 201 202 203
Ans. 1 3 2
Embryology [115]
(1) Only animal hemisphere region forms embryo (3) Oligolecithal (4) Mesolecithal
(2) Both the sites form embryo Q.15 The group which originate from mesoderm –
(3) Embryo is not formed from any region (1) Thyroid, Pancrease, Kidney
(4) Animal hemisphere deficient region forms the (2) Heart, Spleen, Gonad
embryo (3) Pineal body, Stomodium, Proctodaeom
Q.6 Sequential and regular conversion of zygote into (4) Nervous system, Epidermis, Internal ear
an animal is known as- Q.16 Chromosomes in primary sex cell –
(1) Transformation (2) Genetic characters (1) Haploid (2) Diploid
(3) Embryonic induction (4) Stimulation (3) Similar to sperm (4) Similar to ovum
Q.7 Body cavity is found between – Q.17 In which animal parthenogenesis is common–
(1) Ectoderm & endoderm (1) Rats (2) Hens
(2) Ectoderm & mesonephros (3) Aphids (4) Monkeys
(3) Ectoderm & body wall Q.18 Meroblastic cleavage takes place in–
(4) Body wall & mesoderm (1) Spiral cleavage (2) Equal cleavage
Q.8 Polar bodies are formed in – (3) Complete cleavage (4) Partial cleavage
(1) Oogenesis (2) Spermatogenesis Q.19 In which blastula is called as blastocyst –
(3) Gametogenesis (4) Spermiogenesis (1) Frog (2) Fish
Q.9 The release of the egg from the ovary is called (3) Bird (4) Eutherian
as –
Q.20 5th cleavage results in the formation of–
(1) Oogenesis (2) Ovulation
(1) 16– cells (2) 48– cells
(3) Oviposition (4) Ovo-viviparity (3) 64– cells (4) 32–cells
Embryology [116]
(3) Behind the nucleus (4) On the tail part (1) 100 (2) 400
(1) Hyaluronidase (2) Pepsin Q.34 100 primary oocyte will form how many egg –
Q.29 What is present in the vegetal pole of the frog's (2) It will change into youngone soon
egg – (3) It will begin to divide
(1) Pigment (2) Gray crescent (4) It will die
(3) Yolk (4) Germinal cup Q.39 External fertilization occurs in–
Q.30 The name of the small cell separates from the (1) Lizard (2) Bird
ovum during maturation is – (3) Rat (4) Frog
(1) Primordial germinal cell Q.40 Development of embryo from unfertilized egg is
(2) Polocyte called as–
(3) Secondary germinal cell (1) Parthenogenesis (2) Apogamy
(4) Primary spermatocyte (3) Pseudogamy (4) Parthenocarpy
Embryology [117]
(3) Reptile (4) Mammals (Platypus) Q.78 How many sperms are produced from first
spermatocyte-
Q.68 Hyaluronic acid is present in –
(1) 4 (2) 2
(1) Human sperm
(3) 1 (4) 8
(2) Ovary
Q.79 Which chemical attracts sperms towards egg-
(3) Ovum of the female
(1) Fertilizin (2) Antifertilizin
(4) A type of protein of blood
(3) Agglutinin (4) Thromobin
Q.69 The human sperm releases a substance to
Q.80 Grey crescent is the area-
dissolve egg membrane, called–
(1) At the point of entry of sperm into ovum
(1) Hyaluronidase (2) Hyaluronic acid
(2) Just opposite to the site of entry of sperm into
(3) Fertilizin (4) Antifertilizin ovum
Q.70 Polar bodies are found during – (3) At the animal pole
(1) Oogenesis (2) Spermatogenesis (4) At the vegetal pole
(3) Spermeogenesis (4) None of these Q.81 If mammalian ovum fails to get fertilized, which
Q.71 Insect's eggs are - one of the following is unlikely-
(1) Microlecithal and centrolecithal (1) Corpus luteum will disintegrate
(2) Megalecithal and isolecithal (2) Progesteron secretion rapidly declines
(3) Megalecithal and centrolecithal (3) Estrogen secretion further decreases
(4) Megalecithal and telocithal (4) Primary follicle starts developing
Embryology [119]
Q.83 Sertoli cells are regulated by the pituitary hor- (1) Higher levels of cortisone
mone known as- (2) Lower levels of blood testosterone
(1) LH (2) FSH (3) Lower level of adrenaline/noradrenalin in its
(3) GH (4) Prolactin blood
(4) Higher level of thyroxin
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 2 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 1 1 1 4 2 4 3 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 3 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 4 2 3 4 3 3 4 1 4 1 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 1 3 3 1 2 1 3 1 1 3 4 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85
Ans. 4 1 2 4 2
Embryology [120]
Embryology [121]
Embryology [123]
Embryology [124]
Embryology [125]
Embryology [126]
[MP PMT 2002] Q.116 The cell division that takes place in a zygote is
(1) Mammals known as : [JKCMEE 2007]
(2) Reptiles, Birds & Insects (1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis
(3) Insects only (4) Fishes (3) Cleavage (4) Differentiation
Q.107 Arrchenteron cavity is found in : Q.117 What is true for cleavage?
[MP PMT 2002] [CBSE 2002; RPMT 2007]
(1) In Blastula (2) In Gastrula (1) Size of cell increases
(3) In Morula (4) In planula (2) Size of embryo increases
Q.108 Microlecithal eggs with very small amount of (3) Size of cell decreases
food reserve are found in : [MP PMT 2002] (4) Size of embryo decreases
(1) Frog (2) Insects Q.118 In insects, cleavage is :
(3) Man (4) Fish
[RPMT 2002; AFMC 2006; JCECE 2007]
Q.109 Mammalian placenta originates from :
(1) Equal holoblastic
[MP PMT 2007]
(2) Meroblastic disoidal
(1) Allantois and chorion
(3) Unequal holoblastic
(2) Yolksac
(4) Meroblastic superficial
(3) Allantois (4) Amnion
Q.119 Differentiation of organs and tissues in a
Q.110 The eggs of reptiles and birds contain a large
developing organism is associated with :
amount of yolk. We refer to such eggs as :
[CPMT 2009] [CBSE 2007]
(1) Alecithal (2) Oligolecithal (1) Lethal mutations
(3) Mesolecithal (4) Telolecithal (2) Deletion of genes
Q.111 Human egg is : [Karnataka CET 2008] (3) Developmental mutations
(1) Alecithal (2) Centrolecithal (4) Differential expression of genes
(3) Telolecithal (4) Megalecithal Q.120 The brain is evolved from embryonic :
Q.112 Eggs having yolk in centre and cytoplasm in a [MH-CET 2003; Orissa JEE 2010]
peripheral region are called : [Pb. PMT 2007] (1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm
(1) Isolecithal (2) Telolecithal (3) Endoderm (4) Archenteron
(3) Microlecithal (4) Centrolecithal
Embryology [127]
Embryology [128]
Embryology [129]
ANSWER-KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 1 2 3 4 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 1 2 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 3 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 2 2 4 4 3 2 2 1 4 3 3 2 3 3 4 1 3 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 3 4 4 4 3
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 4 2 3 3 1 1 4 1 4 1 3 4 1 2 4 1 2 3 4 2
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 2 4 3 4 1 2 2 3 1 4 1 4 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 1
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 3 4 4 1 3 4 4 2 4 1 2 1 3 1 1 3 1 4 3 2
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Ans. 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 4 2 3
Embryology [130]
Embryology [131]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 3
Embryology [132]
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
Embryology [133]
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