MPA-012

Administrative Theory

Assignment Code: MPA-012/Asst/TMA/2010-11

This Assignment consists of Section – I and Section - II. There are five questions in each
section. You have to answer a total of five questions in about 500 words each, selecting at
least two questions from each section. Each question carries 20 marks.

SECTION – I

Q1. Define administration, organisation and management. Distinction between public

and private administration. 20
Q2. What do you understand by scientific management? Discuss the principle of
scientific management. 20
Q3. Discuss Max Weber’s theory on domination and also characteristic features of
Legal rational bureaucracy. 20
Q4. Bring out differences between human relations and classical approaches. 20
Q5. Discuss the views of Chris Argyris on human personality and its impact on the
working of organisation. 20

SECTION – II
Q6. Discuss the impact of motivational theories of Abraham Maslow and Frederick
Herzberg on organisational process. 20
Q7. What do you understand by learning organisation? Discuss operationalization of
learning organisation. 20
Q8. What is organisation culture? Discuss types of organisation culture. 20
Q9. What do understand by public choice and what are its characteristics features? 20
Q10. Examine the salient features of new public management. 20

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 SOLUTIONS
SECTION – I
Ans. 1
ADMINISTRATION, ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
According to William Schulze Administration is the force, which lays down the object
for which an organisation and its management are to strive and the broad policies under
which they are to operate.

An Organisation is a combination of the necessary human beings, materials, tools,

equipment and working space, appurtenances brought together in systematic and
effective co-relation to accomplish some desired object.

Management is that which leads guides and directs an organisation for the
accomplishment of pre-determined object.

To put the above in simple terms, administration sets the goal, management strives to
attain it and organisation is the machine of the management for the attainment of the
ends determined by the administration.

Some scholars have a different view about the administration and management.
According to Peter Drucker management is associated with the business activity, which
has to show economic performance, whereas administration is associated with the non
business activities like activities of the Government.
The other view is that administration is associated with performing routine things in
known settings in accordance with certain procedures, rules, and regulations. The
Management is associated with performing functions like risk taking, dynamic, creative
and innovative functions.
Some scholars of Public Administration are closely associated with the first view that is,
administration is a determinative function. Management, on other hand is an executive
function that is primarily concerned with carrying out the broad policies laid down by the

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administration. Organisation is the machinery through which coordination is established
between administration and management.

Distinction between public and private administration

According to Simon, the distinction between public and private administration relates
mainly to three points:
• Public administration is bureaucratic whereas private administration is business like;
• Public administration is political where as private administration is non-political; and
• Public administration is characterised by red-tape where as private administration is
free from it.

According to Sir Josiah Stamp, the four principles, which differentiate public from
private administration, are:
• Principle of Uniformity: Common and uniform laws and regulations mostly regulate
public Administration.
• Principle of External Financial Control: the representatives of the people through a
legislative body control Government revenues and heads of expenditure.
• Principle of Ministerial Responsibility: Public administration is accountable to its
political masters and through them to the people.
• Principle of marginal Return: The main objective of a business venture is profit,
however small it may be. However, most of the objectives of public administration can
neither be measured in money terms nor checked by accountancy methods.

The more important distinguishing features of Public Vs Private administration are:

Political Direction: Public administration is political, while private administration is non-

political, public administration takes place in a political context.

Absence of profit motive: The absence of profit motive from the Public administration
is another feature, which distinguishes it from the private administration. The primary

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purpose of governmental organisation is to provide services to the people and promote
social good.

Prestige: Public administrators who serve in the Government enjoy high status and
prestige in comparison to their counterparts in private enterprises especially developing
countries.

Public Gaze: All the actions of public administration are exposed to wide public gaze
because the public closely watches it. This does not happen in private administration.

Service and Cost: Most governments spend more money than their income or
revenues. That is the reason for finding generally a deficit budget that is, expenditure
exceeding income. Conversely, private administration income often exceeds
expenditure without which they cannot survive.

Legal framework: Public administration operates within a legal framework. It is rule

oriented. The responsibilities of public administrators are fixed by a set of constitutional
practices, laws and regulations. Government officials are obliged to act within their legal
powers and not outside the law.

Consistency of treatment: A government official is required by law to maintain a high

degree of consistency in his dealings with the public. He has to observe the principle of
equality of treatment in serving the people. It is a legal obligation to not to discriminate
against any person.

Public accountability: Public accountability is the hallmark of Public administration in a

democracy. Public administration is responsible to the public, though not directly but
indirectly through political executive, legislature, judiciary, etc.

Large-scale administration: Public administration is large-scale administration. It is

said that almost anything under the sun is directly or indirectly under the domain of

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public administration. It is by all means larger than any big private concern in terms of
size., complexity and diversity of activities.

Monopolistic and Essential Services: In the field of public administration, there is

generally a monopoly of the government and it does not generally allow private parties
to compete with it. For example, no person or bodies of persons are allowed to establish
or perform functions related to public services like national security, foreign relations,
law and order, mint and currency, as these are the exclusive fields of the government
and thoroughly important for the community and polity to prosper.

Officials remain Anonymous: In public administration, even the most senior officials
remain anonymous and their identity is not disclosed. This is so because whatever they
do, they do in the name of the government and not in their own name.

Financial meticulousness: Public administration has to be very careful in financial

matters because it is working as custodian of people’s money.

Lower level of Efficiency: Efficiency is said to be the cornerstone of any organisation.

However, due to varied responsibilities, lack of effective control, less accountability,
involvement of a large number of levels and job security of employees, efficiency has
not been there in public organisations to the effect desired. When compared to private
administration, one finds that the degree of efficiency in public organisations is at a
lower level. With profit as the major motive coupled with excessive control and flexibility
in personnel administration the level of efficiency in private organisations is much
higher.

Ans. 2
Scientific Management
F.W. Taylor’s important ideas on scientific management approach are explained in his
writings. In ‘A Piece Rate System’ he propounded three basic principles. (1)
Observation of work through time study (to complete the work and to determine the

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standard rate) for completion of work, (2) differential rate system for completing
piecework and (3) payment to men not to positions. In his article on “Shop Management’
he focused basically on organisation and management of workshop. He dealt about the
need to maintain low production unit costs and payment of high wages, applying
scientific methods of research, standardisation of working conditions, need for training
and cooperative relations between workers and managements.

Taylor’s stay at Midvale Steel Company and his close observation and study of different
operations in different factories, made him to know the defects in their management.
They are: lack of clarity of responsibilities by workers and managements, lack of
standards of work, restricted output because of soldering of work, lack of job clarity
which promotes soldering of work, lack of scientific base for decisions, lack of division of
work, and placement of workers at different jobs without considering their ability, skills,
aptitude and interest.

His work on ‘The Art of Cutting Metals’ is based on extensive research of thousands of
experiments conducted over a period of 26 years. He developed instruments for cutting
of steel, studied motion and time and analysed how workers handle materials, machines
and tools when they perform different works. Taylor felt that there is a best way to do
every work and scientific selection of right men for right job is essential for maximum
production in any organisation.

PRINCIPLES
To overcome the deficiencies in the management Taylor formulated four new principles
/ new duties to be assumed by the management which are known as the principles of
scientific management. They are:
1. The development of a true science of work
2. The scientific selection of workmen and their progressive development
3. Bringing together of science of work and the scientifically selected workers
4. The equal division of work and the responsibility between management and workers

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1. The Development of a True Science of Work
Taylor believed that there is a need to develop science of work. He further believed that
there is one ‘best way’ of doing every job. This can be achieved by systematic study of
any work and replacing the old thumb-rule method by developing a scientific method.
This requires gathering mass of traditional knowledge, recording it, tabulating it and in
many cases finally reducing it to laws rules and even to mathematical formulae. And
later these laws and rules are to be applied to the everyday work of all workmen of the
organisation. The scientific method of work saves worker from unnecessary criticism of
the boss and the management to get maximum work from worker. It also results in
establishing a ‘large daily task’ to be done by the qualified workers under the optimum
conditions.

2. Scientific Selection and Progressive Development of Workmen

To ensure effective performance of the scientifically developed work there is a need to
select the workers on scientific basis. It is the duty of the management to study the
character, the nature and the performance of each worker with a view to finding out his
limitations and possibilities for his development. Taylor believed that every worker has
potentialities for development. Every worker must be systematically and thoroughly
trained. Scientific selection involves selecting a right person for a right job. It is also
necessary to ensure that the employee accepts the new methods, tools and conditions
willingly and enthusiastically. There should be opportunities for advancement to do the
job to the fullest realisation of his normal capabilities.

3. Bringing together of Science of Work and Scientifically Selected Workers

The third principle of the scientific management is bringing of science of work and
scientifically selected and trained workmen together. Taylor says ‘bringing together
advisedly because you may develop all the science that you please and you may
scientifically select and train workmen just as much as you please, but unless some
men bring the science and workmen together all your labour will be lost’. Taylor felt it is
exclusive responsibility of the management to do this job. He believed that workers are

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always willing to cooperate with the management but there is more opposition from the
side of management.

4. Division of Work and Responsibility between Worker and Management

Traditionally the worker bears the entire responsibility of the work and the management
has lesser responsibility. But Taylor emphasised on equal responsibility between worker
and management. This division creates understanding and mutual dependence
between them. This results in elimination of conflict and mistrust between the worker
and management. Taylor thinks that scientific management can be justly and truthfully
characterised as management in which harmony is the rule rather than discord.

Ans. 4
THE HUMAN RELATIONS VS. THE CLASSICAL APPROACHES
While the human relations writers, like the Scientific Management theorists,
acknowledge the importance of ‘management’ in production, they differ from them in
their basic approach to the organisation which they characterise as a social system
consisting of individuals, informal groups and inter-group relationships, in addition to the
formal structure. The Human Relations theory is called the ‘neo-classical theory’
because it accepts efficiency and productivity as the legitimate values of organisation,
although it relies on a different set of techniques to achieve these values. Both the
classical and human relations theories are alike in their objectives but differ in the
approaches adopted to accomplish those objectives. The human relationists seek to
maximise the values of efficiency and productivity by eliminating dehumanisation
approach of the classical approach. The human relations theory differs from the
classical theory in the following respects:

• The classical theory focuses on structure, order, the formal organisation, economic
factors and rationality. The human relations theory identifies the informal group as a
major explanation of the behaviour in the organisation.

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• The classical theory emphasises the formal organisation structure consisting of jobs
and job descriptions as spelled out in charts and manuals. In contrast, the human
relations theory is concerned with the informal organisation, i.e., the social relationships
of individual workers within the organisation.

• The classical theory takes the atomistic view of man and considers workers as various
cogs in a machine. On the contrary, the human relations theory considers workers
essentially as social beings who react to management, organisation and work itself as
members of groups rather than as individuals.

• In determining worker’s motivation economic rewards and physical conditions of work

are regarded as important factors by the classical theorists. In contrast to this, the
social-psychological rewards and group sanctions are considered by the human-
relationists as important motivators to work.

• The classical theory emphasises the authoritarian style of supervision, while the
human relations theory lays emphasis on democratic type of supervision.

The preceding discussion clearly shows that the classical approach and human
relations approach have taken two views of organisations. If classical theory has
undere, phasised the importance of people, the human relations theory. Neither of the
approaches is wholly right, although each is partially right. In reality, an organisation is
both a formal structure and informal relations among employees. These two aspects of
an organisation are not contradictory but allied to each other. Informal organisations do
exist in all formal organisations and are not always harmful; they may facilitate
teamwork and collaboration. The human relations theorists state that if the aims of
management are in line with group norms, harmony and high productivity have a better
chance. But, if the aims and methods of management are in conflict with that of group,
management aims are likely to suffer. Therefore, it would be in the broader interests of
management to recognise the informal social system and its dynamics and develop

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harmony between the formal and informal organisation to enhance effectiveness and
promote efficiency.

SECTION – II

Ans. 8 Organisation Culture and Types

Organisation Culture defined:
According to Pacanowsky and O’Donnell “A culture is not something an organisation
has; a culture is something an organisation. Thus organisation culture is described as:
• A concept created and resides in the minds of people.
• A submerged part of organisational iceberg.
• Pervasive, yet somewhat intangible.
• The personality of organisation - its overall orientation, values its unwritten codes and
norms.
• Cannot be discovered and verified, rather only inferred, conjured and interpreted and
defined.
Campbell et al (1970); describe five-characteristics which tap the essence of
organisation culture:
• Individual autonomy - includes individual responsibility, independence, and
opportunities for exercising individual initiative.
• Structure - degree of formalisation, centralisation, and direct supervision.
• Reward orientation-factors of reward, promotion-achievement orientation, and
emphasis upon profits and sales.
• Consideration - warmth and support provided by superiors.
• Conflict-degree of conflict present in interpersonal relationships between peers, as well
as the willingness to be honest and open about interpersonal differences.

There are several definitions of organisational culture (Sergiovanni and Corbally, 1984)
define culture in the following words.
1. “Culture governs what is worth for a particular group and how group members should
think, feel and behave. The stuff of culture includes customs and traditions, historical

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accounts be they mythical or actual, tacit understandings, habits, norms and
expectations, common meanings associated with fixed objects and established rites,
shared assumptions, and inter-subjective meanings.”.
2. Based on various definitions proposed by various management theorists Schein
(1985) arrives at six meanings ascribed to organisation culture. They are noted below.
a) The dominant values which are espoused by the organisation (or by the dominant
members of the organisation).
b) The philosophy that guides the decisions and policies of an organisation.
c) Observed behavioural regularities in the interactions, language and rituals of the
organisational members.
d) The norms that evolve over a period of time in working groups.
e) The rules of the game (“the ropes”) one must learn in order to survive and be
accepted in the organisation.
f) The feeling and climate that pervades and gets conveyed in the day-to-day
functioning of the organisation.

Types of Organisation Cultures

There are four different types of organisation cultures. They are presented below:

Rational Culture
Rational cultures focus on tasks and strategically planned organisation
objectives/performance, productivity and efficiency. Employees need goal-relevant
competencies and skills; and they influence organisational decision-making processes.
Organisations which face competitive environment such as those dealing with consumer
products, Banking and financial services, etc. often have a ‘rational culture.’

Developmental Culture
Development cultures have innovative environments with a futuristic orientation and
emphasise growth and development of people, ideas and society. Organisations
encourage people to be creative, develop multiple perspectives and to take risks in all

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job situations. Creative advertising firms, software organisations and Research &
Development departments are more conducive for nurturing developmental cultures.

Consensual Culture
These are highly team-oriented cultures. Members are open, spontaneous, and informal
and build and maintain effective relationships. Supportive and Participative leadership is
required for managing this culture. Achievement of objectives in a set time limit is
perceived as less important then to maintain a stable and harmonious system.
Organisations such as small sized project teams, workshops, and educational
institutions often have this culture.

Hierarchical Culture
This culture has a static and non-changing environment, where tasks are achieved
through established rules, procedures and standard operating techniques. The leaders
follow bureaucratic, cautious and rule-bound approach and exert greater power and
influence. Risk-taking is not encouraged in this culture.

Ans. 10 NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE: SALIENT FEATURES

New Public Management (NPM) has emerged as a management tool for achieving
developmental goals. Despite its focus on roll back of state, there persists a growing
concern about the government’s crucial role in creating a sound environment for its
citizens. Public administration, no doubt is slow moving, cautious as compared to
management. But the ‘publicness’ aspect in it should not be sidelined. Managerial
orientation as applicable to the public domain has to support government and citizens.
What is needed is public service orientation, decentralisation and networking of public
agencies. No doubt, there is clear evidence of greater exchanges between public and
private sectors and a desire to bring reforms in the structure, functions and work culture
of government organisations.

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In the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management (CAPAM)
Conference held in Canada in 1994, the need for strengthening the civil society,
especially in the developing countries was emphasised. ‘Empowering’ the citizens also
assumes crucial significance. The focus, it was reiterated, is at the grassroots where
people are striving hard to create democratic space for themselves.

New Public Management Perspective has subjected to critical questioning the size, role
and structure of public sector. Concepts such as efficiency of state vs. market,
managerial orientation in governmental activities, contracting out and privatisation
started gaining prominence in many countries. NPM intendeds to promote a new
thinking that:
• the present changing scenario requires government reforms;
• there is a need for change in the mindset of government from mere execution of tasks
to performance orientation; and
• public organisations need to be risk-taking, mission-oriented and service-oriented.

The core characteristics of NPM perspective include:

• Productivity: gaining more services from lesser revenues
• Marketisation: replacing traditional bureaucratic structures, mechanisms and
processes with market strategies
• Service orientation: keeping the needs of customers as a priority
• Decentralisation: transferring service delivery responsibilities to lower levels
• Policy-administration dichotomy:making a distinction between policy and execution

In addition, it has certain distinct characteristics as follows:

1. An emphasis on managerial skills to complement policy-making skills
2. Disaggregation of large public organisations into separate self-contained units having
their own goals, plans and requisite autonomy.
3. Adoption of private sector managerial practices by public sector
4. Setting explicit measurable performance standards for public organisations

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5. Controlling the performance of public organisation by pre-determined output
measures
6. Preference for private ownership, contracting out and competition in public service
provision.
7. Promoting competition both among public sector organisations as well as public and
private sectors.
8. Strengthening of strategic capacities at the centre.
9. Making services more responsive to the needs of the customer and ensuring value
for money.
10. Steering role of government rather than a direct provider of goods and services
11. Use of information technology to facilitate better service delivery.

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