Annals o/Tourm Research, Vol. 23, k. 2, pp.

479-492, 1996
Pergamon Elsrv~er Srirnre Ltd. Prmted in Great Britam

RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS

Research Notes

Developing Sustainable Tourism for World Heritage Sites

Anne Drost
Fasken Martineau, Advocates, Canada

Since the adoption in 1972 of the Comention Concerning the Protection (?f
World LVatural and Cultural Heritage, some 450 sites throughout the world
have been formally designated as World Heritage Sites. These sites, by
reason of their special historic, scientific, or esthetic qualities, have univer-
sal value. It is not surprising, therefore, that many sites are favorite tourist
attractions.
By generating revenue and drawing world attention to their importance,
tourism can be a positive force for the preservation of World Heritage.
However, the unprecedented growth of tourism raises a number of concerns
over the environmental and cultural integrity of these destination areas and
has led to a re-examination of tourism development in the light of the
increasingly popular concept of sustainable development. The World
Commission on Environment and Development (1987) broyght interna-
tional attention to the concept of sustainable development, which is defined
as preserving the environment while allowing for cultural, economic, social,
and political development; the present needs must be met with a minimum
negative impact on the environment and culture so as not to compromize
the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Sustainable tourism
development would entail the adoption of planning strategies to mitigate
the negative impact of tourism without sacrificing its benefits.‘I’his research
note examines the relationship betlveen tourism and World Heritage Sites
and explores the mutual benefits to be derived from the development of
sustainable tourism.
The 1972 Conuention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and lVatural
Heritage (or hereafter the “convention”) numbers some 127 countries from
480 RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS

all regions of the world (UNESCO 1972). The general objectives of this
international convention are to enhance worldwide understanding and
appreciation of heritage conservation, to recognize and preserve natural
and cultural properties throughout the world that have outstanding univer-
sal value to all of humanity, and to mobilize national and international
resources. The commitments which countries undertook in signing the
convention include a general recognition of the duty to ensure the identi-
fication, promotion, conservation, and transmission to future generations
of the cultural and natural heritage described in the convention. In order
to ensure that effective measures are taken, each member must “endeavor,
in so far as possible, and as appropriate for each country” to adopt national
conservation policies and comprehensive planning programs, to set up
staffed heritage services, to develop scientific and technical studies, and to
take appropriate legal, administrative and financial measures necessary for
the protection and conservation of cultural and natural heritage (UNESCO
1972: Article 5).
The World Heritage List, the most celebrated feature of the convention,
includes 360 cultural and 100 natural sites in many parts of the world: from
the Great Wall of China to Machu Picchu, Peru; from the Acropolis in
Greece to the historic city of Quebec, Canada. Every year more sites (53
in 1993) are nominated, and from these an average of live are chosen each
year. The compilation of this list is a lengthy process involving input from
countries and international committees and organizations. The ultimate
decision-making authority, as to what will be included, rests with the
Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage. This committee is established under the convention and
is generally known by its short title, the World Heritage Committee. It is
made up of 21 elected representatives from the member countries to the
convention, and attempts are made to ensure an equitable representation
of different regions and cultures. The committee’s role is to identify, on
the basis of nominations submitted by countries, cultural and natural
properties of outstanding value which are to be protected under the conven-
tion, and to list these properties on the World Heritage List. It is aided in
this task by recommendations from the International Council on
Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) with respect to cultural properties, and
the International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with respect to
natural heritage. The criteria upon which the World Heritage Committee
bases its decisions are set out in the convention and in the Committees
Operational Guidelines. Cultural sites should represent a “unique artistic
achievement”, have “exerted great influence”, bear a “unique or excep-
tional testimony to a civilization which has disappeared”, be an “outstand-
ing example of a type of building ensemble which illustrates a significant
stage in history”, or be “tangibly associated with events, ideas, or beliefs of
universal significance”. Natural sites should either be “outstanding
examples of major stages in the earth’s evolutionary history”, represent
“significant ongoing geological processes, biological evolution, and man’s
interaction with his natural environment”; contain “superlative natural
phenomena, formations or features”, or contain “the most important and
significant natural habitats where threatened species of animals or plants
of outstanding value still survive” (Intergovernmental Committee for the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1988: Articles 36
and 24). In addition, the sites must meet criteria of authenticity and
integrity. Authenticity relates to design and materials and whether there
has been reconstruction and the extent of it. Integrity relates more to
natural sites and requires that they be of sufficient size and constitute self-
perpetuating ecosystems.
 RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS 481

The philosophy underlying the convention has implications with respect

to tourism. Designated sites are to be open to visitors so that international
and national heritage identities may be strengthened in the public mind.
UNESCO and the convention member countries are encouraged to
promote the World Heritage Sites situated within their countries and to
make them publicly accessible. Although it is difficult to document a direct
correlation between World Heritage designation and tourism, as many sites
were already popular tourist spots prior to receiving their “World Heritage”
status, it appears that designation does increase visibility through public
information generated by the World Heritage Committee, the host State
and the private sector (Cook 1990). A s such, designation is regarded very
favorably by countries as a means of attracting more tourists and is a highly
sought-after prize. “The coveted UNESCO designation of World Heritage
Site is used for national agrandissement and commercial advantage within the
international competition for tourists, more often than it is a celebration
of an international identity.” (Ashworth and Turnbridge 1990).
The obligation to promote World Heritage Sites is complemented by an
obligation to protect these Sites. These obligations to promote and protect
cannot always be reconciled as the former tends to threaten the latter. As
indicated in the title of the convention, there is strong support for the
argument that protection must take priority over promotion. The conven-
tion affords additional protection by listing Heritage Sites in Danger,
thereby recognizing an urgent need for major intervention to be followed
by a mobilization of funds and technical assistance from other signatories
to the convention. Unfortunately, given economic realities, very few sites
are listed, and only the very serious cases will be dealt with. As of December
1994, 17 sites appear on the list including the historic city of Dubrovnik
following the successive bombing attacks on it in 1991 and 1992, the old
city of Jerusalem, Timbuktu in Mali, and the Everglades National Park in
the United States. This approach, of recognizing sites in danger, is criti-
cized as reactionary rather than preventative. The problems have already
taken hold and efforts to deal with them may be too little and too late.
This has led UNESCO to amend the operational guidelines to provide for
a process of ongoing monitoring of sites. In this proactive manner, efforts
are taken to prevent damage before it becomes irreversible.
The increasing recognition of sustainable development has resulted in
tourism being viewed as an activity which could be developed in conformity
with the objectives of this concept (Butler 1991). The 1982 Joint
Declaration of the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and the United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP) ex p resses the goal of sustainable
tourism:

Th e protection, enhancement, and improvement of the various

components of man’s environment are among the fundamental
conditions for the harmonious development of tourism. Similarly,
rational management of tourism may contribute to a large extent
to protecting and developing the physical environment and the
cultural heritage, as well as improving the quality of life.

A number of methods have been suggested, and in some cases have

already been implemented, to attempt to increase the likelihood that
tourism will contribute to sustainable development. The two approaches to
developing sustainable tourism, namely education and regulation, can be
described as the “carrot” and “stick” approaches. Both approaches are
necessary and complementary. If inculcating sustainable behavior through
education is to be effective, it must be supported, at least in the short term,
482 RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS

by regulations. Similarly, if regulations are imposed, they should be accom-

panied by education so that people understand and accept the rules and
restrictions being imposed.
Educating and raising people’s awareness of the physical and sociocul-
tural environment are fundamental to achieving sustainable development.
Ultimately, people must act responsibly and regulate their own behavior to
bring about lasting change. Since the early 197Os, many international
conferences have been organized around educational concerns to reduce the
negative impact of tourism. In 1976, a Charter of Cultural Tourism was
adopted by ICOMOS with 18 international organizations as signatories.
Although this charter has no binding legal effect, it serves to focus atten-
tion on the need for education in order to preserve natural and monumen-
tal heritage:

[The signatories to this charter] express the wish that states, by

the means of their administrative structures, shall adopt all appro-
priate measures to facilitate the information and training of
persons traveling for tourist purposes inside and out of their
country of origin. Conscious of the acute need which prevails now
to change the attitude of the public at large towards the phenom-
ena, [the signatories] express the wish that from school age onward
children and adolescents be educated to understand and respect
monuments, the sites, and the cultural heritage and that all
written, spoken or visual information media should express to the
public the elements of the problem thereby efftcaciously contribut-
ing to effective universal understanding.

One method of raising public awareness to problems that can be caused

through insensitive tourism is achieved through the distribution of codes of
“tourist ethics” which are targeted directly at tourists at the point of depar-
ture or arrival. A number of these codes have been adopted by international
organizations and are made available to government and tourism agencies.
In 1985, WTO adopted a Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code which
contains several articles outlining environmental and sociocultural concerns
in tourism. However, these codes of ethics have no binding effect and
tourists can easily disregard them if and when they ever receive them.
Notwithstanding, these codes are useful reminders to tourists who, in
general, may be willing to respect such guidelines and may only be acting
out of ignorance. Tourist codes should, therefore, be made more available
and, to ensure wider circulation, they could, for example, be handed out by
airline companies to all their passengers.
Education is equally necessary for the host population and government.
As mentioned above, the World Heritage Site designation is often sought
after in order to attract tourists. The perceived economic benefits of large
numbers of tourists could result in a general reluctance to reduce or control
visits for fear of losing revenues. This may not prove to be problematic in
the short term, but the cumulative changes could ultimately reduce tourist
numbers because the site is no longer attractive. Indeed, if a site no longer
meets the required standards of a World Heritage Site, it may potentially
be withdrawn from the list following a decision of the World Heritage
Committee. This power to remove a site from the list is a last option and
is very rarely exercised. In the history of the convention, it has only been
used once.
Through education programs, proper site management could be taught
and education programs should, therefore, be a part of the designation
process of World Heritage Sites. Ongoing monitoring, when implemented,
 RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS 483

should include periodic educational workshops and a sharing of experiences

among countries regarding their respective approaches to controlling the
negative impact of tourism. Clearly, education can have far-reaching effects
and develop enlightened and non-destructive tourism. It is through a
general raising of awareness of environmental and cultural issues that
concepts such as “eco-tourism” and “cultural tourism” have been developed
and are growing in popularity. These concepts involve tourism that directly,
or indirectly, promotes conservation and supports sustainable economic,
natural and cultural development. However, not all tourists will be reached
through educational initiatives and even the environmentally and cultur-
ally sympathetic tourist can cause damage.
To enforce the objectives sought in the education of tourists and to apply
the “stick” where needed, regulations must be adopted to control tourism
development and mitigate its detrimental effects. Article 5 of the World
Heritage Convention obliges member countries to adopt general policies
which aim at giving the cultural and natural heritage a role in the life of
the community and to integrate protection of that heritage into a compre-
hensive planning program. In the past, the World Heritage Committee was
not rigorous in assuring that bylaws supporting such planning programs
were put into force. Presently, the committee requires that a planning
program is in place before authorizing the designation of sites. The devel-
opment of continuous monitoring will help to encourage compliance with
the legislation. The planning program should include restrictive regulations
covering the site and appropriate plans to accommodate tourist traffic
without unduly altering the nature of the site. It should also include a
description of a buffer zone so that not only the site will be protected but
the surrounding area will be zoned so as to avoid incompatible develop-
ment.
To conclude, although it is recognized that mass tourism has serious
damaging effects on physical and cultural environments, this should not be
an inevitable and unavoidable result. The development of tourism at a level
and in a manner that the respective environments are capable of sustain-
ing, would allow for tourism without sacrificing the attractions upon which
it subsists, and enable future generations the opportunities to benefit from
their heritage. To achieve the goal of sustainable tourist development,
there are a number of issues that must be addressed and resolved. More
work must be done with respect to developing effective models for deter-
mining the appropriate number of visitors which sites may sustain and
assessing the physical and cultural impact of tourism on sites and on host
communities. In the future, there will probably be more quotas imposed
and entrance fees to reduce or control the numbers of tourists to various
sites. UNESCO and ICOMOS are presently attempting to set up programs
for ongoing monitoring of sites to prevent, rather than react to, damage.
This is an enormous undertaking and, given financial and technical
restraints, will involve cooperation among countries and international
organizations to be implemented successfully. One of the primary goals in
creating the World Heritage List was to attract visitors to different areas
in the world and, thereby, encourage greater understanding and sharing of
experiences among people. Although World Heritage Sites sites are
increasingly threatened by human intervention, their preservation may
depend upon the development of a harmonious relationship with tourism.
Initiating positive changes in tourist practices and behavior will largely rely
on effective education and regulations. 0 0

Anne Drost: Fasken Martineau, Advocates, 800 Place Victoria PO Box 242, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada H4Z lE9. email jdehalla@martineau-walker.com
484 RESEARCH NOTES AND REPORTS

REFERENCES
Ashworth, G. E. and J. E. Turnbridge
1990 The Tourist - Historic City. London: Belhaven.
Butler, Richard
1991 Tourism, Environment, and Sustainable Development. Environmental
Conservation (18): 201.
Cook, Richard J.
1990 The World Heritage Convention and Implications for Sensitive Tourism
Development. Ecotourism and Resource Conservation: @refauth:ICOMOS
1976 Charter of Cultural Tourism. Paris: ICOMOS.
Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage
Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention. Paris: ICOMOS.
Mathieson, Alister, and Geoffrey Wall
1982 Tourism - Economic, Physical and Social Impacts . London: Longman.
UNESCO
1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural
Heritage. Paris: UNESCO.
World Commission on Environment and Development
1987 Our Common Future. New York: Oxford University Press.

Submitted 27 August 1994

Resubmitted 24 May 1995
Accepted 30 May 1995 0160-7383 (95) 00078-X

A Perspective from Canada on Heritage and Tourism

Ronald G. Seale
Government of the Northwest Territories, Canada

The purpose of this special issue of the Annals is to examine the links
between cultural heritage and tourism. This research note will touch upon
such topics as heritage tourism and community benefits to be derived from
heritage tourism, while exploring perspectives of heritage that differ cultur-
ally one from another.
In much of the world, cultural tourism is linked closely to built heritage
- from great religious monuments to evocative vernacular architecture.
For many traditional societies around the world, however, the place of built
heritage is relatively minor. This is particularly true in hunting and gather-
ing societies in which oral traditions continue to be of great importance.
Members of these societies feel equally strongly about their heritage as do
urban dwellers of countries such as France or India. However, the heritage
of these traditional societies is marked less by great cathedrals of brick and
stone, than by stories, songs, and dances handed down from generation to
generation.
If this more all-encompassing view of heritage is accepted then one is
inevitably driven to a discussion of the natural world and its place in
cultural heritage. This, in turn, leads to definitional problems for heritage
professionals working within Western societies that have nurtured the rise
of major heritage industries during the past century. Those heritage indus-
tries, like so many other fields of endeavor in the Western world, have long
been dominated by specialists. The historical/cultural field has been
dominated by historians, architects, and art historians. Thanks to the