Dubina2008 Dual High-Strength Steel Eccentrically Braced Frames

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING AND STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2008; 37:1703–1720

Published online 10 July 2008 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/eqe.828
Dual high-strength steel eccentrically braced frames

with removable links
D. Dubina∗, † , A. Stratan and F. Dinu

Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Politehnica University
of Timisoara, str. Ioan Curea nr. 1, 300224 Timisoara, Romania
SUMMARY
Structural damage in buildings designed according to the dissipative design philosophy can be significant,
even under moderate earthquakes. Repair of damaged members is an expensive operation and may affect
building use, which in turn increases the overall economic loss. If damage can be isolated to certain
dissipative members realized to be removable following an earthquake, the repair costs and time of
interruption of building use can be reduced. Dual structural configurations, composed of a rigid subsystem
with removable ductile elements and a flexible subsystem, are shown to be appropriate for the application
of removable dissipative element concept. Eccentrically braced frames with removable links connected to
the beams using flush end-plate bolted connections are investigated as a practical way of implementing
this design concept. High-strength steel is used for members outside links in order to enhance global
seismic performance of the structure by constraining plastic deformations to removable links and reducing
permanent drifts of the structure. Copyright q 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 31 January 2008; Revised 21 April 2008; Accepted 1 May 2008
KEY WORDS: dual configuration; high-strength steel; eccentrically braced frames; removable bolted
links; seismic performance
1. INTRODUCTION
The present paper investigates seismic performance of eccentrically braced frames with removable
links with flush end-plate bolted connections. The objective is to avoid inelastic deformations in
structural elements outside links and to allow easy repair of structural damage experienced during
a seismic event.
∗ Correspondence to: D. Dubina, Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Politehnica University of Timisoara, str. Ioan Curea nr. 1, 300224 Timisoara, Romania.
†
E-mail: dan.dubina@ct.upt.ro
Contract/grant sponsor: Romanian Ministry of Research and Education; contract/grant numbers: CEEX-
MATNANTECH 29/2005, CEEX-ET 1434/2005
Copyright q 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

1704 D. DUBINA, A. STRATAN AND F. DINU
Bolted extended end-plate connections for eccentrically braced frames with link-column connec-
tion configuration were previously investigated experimentally by Ghobarah and Ramadan [1].
Their inelastic performance was found to be similar to fully welded connections. Balut and
Gioncu [2] suggested two replaceable solutions for links in eccentrically braced frames: one
using an I-beam extended end-plate bolted connection and the other consisting of two channels
bolted using high-strength friction-grip bolts to the beam. Recently, Mansour et al. [3] investigated
experimentally replaceable shear links composed of two bolted back-to-back channels. The links
exhibited a ductile behaviour, with stable hysteretic response, but the connections were found to
be critical in the design of removable links.
Links in eccentrically braced frames can be realized as horizontal ones, part of the beam,
or as a vertical segment connecting the beam to the braces. The latter approach is especially
suited for strengthening of existing structures. Ghobarah and Abou Elfath [4] studied seismic
performance of a low-rise non-ductile-reinforced concrete building rehabilitated using eccentric
steel bracing. Authors concluded that seismic performance of non-ductile-reinforced concrete
buildings strengthened with eccentric braces is expected to be higher than that of concentric bracing.
Distribution of eccentric brace over the height of the building was found to have a significant effect
on the characteristics of the developed plastic mechanism under seismic loading. A low-cost shear
panel device (vertical link) for rehabilitation of steel moment-resisting frames was investigated
at the European Laboratory for Structural Assessment (ELSA) by Schmidt et al. [5]. Although
the device was intended to be replaceable (bolted), it was welded in the final test configuration.
Authors showed that rehabilitation solution provided a drastic reduction in displacements and linear
behaviour of the conventional structure, with a minimum of structural changes. D’Aniello et al. [6]
studied experimentally and numerically eccentrically braced frames with detachable vertical links
for seismic upgrading of reinforced concrete buildings. They concluded that bolted connection
of short link represents the key role in determining the system ductility and that considered link
cross-sections showed large overstrength values. Particularly, with reference to the ductility and
overstrength capacity of short links, the results obtained by Dusicka et al. [7] and Okazaki et al.
[8] are mentioned.
2. REMOVABLE LINK CONCEPT
According to modern seismic design codes (e.g. EN 1998 [9], AISC 2005 [10]), design of buildings
is carried out for two limit states: ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state (SLS).
Two earthquake hazard levels are associated with the ULS and SLS and are expressed through
the return period of the seismic event. The seismic event associated with ULS is a rare one
(return period of 475 years in EN 1998), whereas the one associated with SLS is more frequent
(approximately accounted for in EN 1998 by a factor = 0.4–0.5 with respect to the ULS event).
For ordinary occupancy buildings, the fundamental requirement at the ULS is to assure life
safety of people by avoiding local or global collapse of the structure [9]. In the design of dissipative
structures, the behaviour factor q is used to reduce the elastic response spectrum to the design
one. The components that contribute to the value of the behaviour factor q are related to structural
ductility, redundancy and overstrength. Large values of q factor are specified in codes for ductile
structures such as moment-resisting frames or eccentrically braced frames. Structures designed
using large values of behaviour factor q are expected to experience considerable damage under the
design seismic event, making repair of such structures unfeasible technically and economically.
Copyright q 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2008; 37:1703–1720
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
DUAL HSS WITH REMOVABLE LINKS 1705
Figure 1. Bolted link concept.
The primary requirement at the SLS is prevention of damage that may result in the limitation of use
[9]. Acceptance of SLS requirements is accomplished in codes by imposing limits on interstorey
drifts, related to type of non-structural elements (brittle or ductile). Considering that code drift
limits are not related to the structural typology, SLS criteria are not intended to prevent damage
(plastic deformations) of structural elements. While code drift limits at SLS (0.004–0.008 times
the storey height) will most likely prevent inelastic deformations in moment-resisting frames, they
will fail to do so for concentrically and eccentrically braced steel frames. When considerable
structural damage is experienced under a moderate earthquake event, repair of damaged elements is
necessary, which may result in high economic losses due to interruption of use, costs of repair, etc.
A bolted connection between dissipative zone and the rest of the structure would allow replace-
ment of the dissipative elements damaged as a result of a moderate to strong earthquake, reducing
the repair costs. Application of this principle to eccentrically braced frames, where links act as
dissipative zones, is presented in Figure 1. The connection of the link to the beam is realized by
a flush end-plate and high-strength friction-grip bolts. In order to isolate inelastic deformations
in removable dissipative elements only, these elements may be realized using lower yield steel.
Recent research by Dubina et al. [11], suggested that a similar effect can be obtained by using
high-strength steel (HSS) in non-dissipative elements.
For a system containing removable dissipative elements to be efficient, it must fulfil two require-
ments. The first one consists in isolating inelastic deformations to removable elements only,
assuring an easy repair of the damaged structure. Capacity design rules incorporated in modern
design codes can be used in order to attain this objective. The second requirement is related to the
possibility of replacing damaged dissipative elements that can be difficult to realize if the structure
has experienced large permanent deformations.
Several researchers [12–14] investigated seismic performance of dual systems, consisting of
rigid and flexible subsystems. According to these studies, the potential benefits of dual structural
configurations may be summarized as follows:
• Efficient earthquake resistance due to prevention of excessive development of drifts in the
flexible subsystem, and dissipation of seismic energy in the rigid subsystem by plastic defor-
mations.
• Alternative load path to seismic loading provided by the secondary subsystem (the flexible
one) in the case of failure of the primary subsystem (the rigid one).
In order to analyse the factors controlling the two requirements for structures with removable
dissipative elements (isolation of damage and limitation of permanent drifts), it is useful to consider
a simple dual system consisting of two inelastic springs connected in parallel [15] (see Figure 2(a)).
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
F F
Fyf +Fyr Fyf +Fyr
Kf
Fyr +Kf xδyr
Kf , Fyf δ δplr
Fyr Fyr
K
Fyf Fyf
F Kr Kf
Kr , Fyr
δyr δyf δ δpD δpr δ

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2. Simplified model of a generalized dual system.
Provided that the flexible subsystem is not very weak, plastic deformations appear first in the
rigid subsystem. Therefore, an efficient dual system must be realized by combining a rigid and
ductile subsystem, with a flexible subsystem. In order to maximize system performance, plastic
deformations in the flexible subsystem should be avoided. At the limit, when the yield force Fyf
and yield displacement yf are attained in the flexible subsystem, the rigid subsystem experiences
the yield force Fyr and the total displacement yr +plr (see Figure 2(b)). Equating the two
displacements
yf = yr +plr (1)
and considering the relationship between force and deformation
F = k · (2)
it can be shown that
yr +plr yf Fyf K yr
D = = = (3)
yr yr Fyr K yf
The notation D represents the ‘useful’ ductility of the rigid subsystem, for which the flexible
subsystem still responds in the elastic range. It can be observed that there are two factors that
need to be considered in order to obtain a ductile dual system with plastic deformations isolated
in the rigid subsystem alone. The first one is the ratio between the yield strength of the flexible
and rigid subsystems (Fyf /Fyr ), whereas the second one is the ratio between the stiffness of the
rigid subsystem and the one of the flexible subsystem. The larger these two factors are, the larger
the ‘useful’ ductility D of the dual system.
The second objective, of limitation of permanent deformations, is not easily attainable. Although
the dual configuration results in smaller permanent drifts pD in comparison with permanent
deformations of the rigid system alone pr (see Figure 2(c)), they are not eliminated completely
after unloading. However, permanent deformations can be eliminated if the rigid subsystem is
realized to be removable. Once it is replaced after the system experienced inelastic deformations,
the flexible subsystem alone provides the necessary stiffness and strength to the system. If the
flexible subsystem is still in the elastic range, it will return the system to the initial position,
implying zero permanent deformations.
Considering the above, practical implementation of the concept of removable dissipative elements
and dual systems can be obtained by combining eccentrically braced frames with removable links
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
(the rigid subsystem) and moment-resisting frames (flexible subsystem). In what follows, an
experimental investigation on removable links is first presented, followed by a numerical analysis
of seismic performance of frames realized using these concepts.
3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON BOLTED LINKS
3.1. Experimental program

An experimental program was carried out to determine cyclic performance of bolted links and to
check the feasibility of the removable link solution [16]. Link, beam and brace cross-sections of
the experimental model were determined by designing an eccentrically braced frame with three
bays in each principal direction and five storeys (see Figure 1). Span dimensions were 5 m, whereas
storey height was 3.5 m, except the first one, equal to 4 m. The eccentrically braced frame was
designed according to EN 1993 [17] and EN 1998 (1994) [9]. Dead load on the floors amounted to
4.75 kN/m2 , exterior cladding was considered to be 1.70 kN/m2 , whereas live load was 3.0 kN/m2 .
Seismic design parameters were 0.35g peak ground acceleration, stiff soil conditions (class A),
a behaviour factor q = 5.5 and interstorey drift limitation of 0.006 of the storey height. A short
link (e = 400 mm) whose behaviour is governed by shear only was considered. Capacity design
according to EN 1998 governed dimensioning of non-dissipative members. HEB260 S355 columns,
IPE330 S355 beams in the outer bays, IPE240 S235 links and beams in the middle bay and RHS
120×120×(7.1−12.5) S235 were obtained.
In the experimental model, the removable link was fabricated from IPE240 profile of S235 grade
steel, whereas the rest of the elements were from S355 grade steel. Four nominal link lengths were
considered (e0 = 400, 500, 600 and 700 mm) to study the influence of moment to shear force ratio.
The nominal length of the link e0 was used as a basis for specimen notation (see Table I). However,
due to stiffeners added at the brace to beam connection in order to prevent damage outside link,
the length of the link was effectively reduced by 100 mm (Figure 3(a)). This latter link length
was denoted by e and was used in all subsequent calculations related to link length. All links
were classified as short ones according to AISC 2005 [10]. Another parameter considered was the
spacing of web stiffeners, provided to prevent web buckling and to improve rotation capacity of
the link. Two limit values of stiffener spacing were considered according AISC 2005 [10]: ‘close’
spacing—30tw −h/5, specified for a rotation capacity 0.08 rad, and ‘rare’ spacing—52tw −h/5,
specified for 0.02 rad rotation capacity. For each combination of link length and stiffener spacing,
three specimens were tested: one monotonically and two cyclically, following the complete ECCS
1985 [18] procedure. Bolts were preloaded to 100% of the full preload value for friction-grip bolts
in the case of the monotonically loaded (m) and the first of the cyclically loaded (c1) specimens and
50% for the second cyclically loaded specimen (c2). A total of 24 specimens were thus obtained.
Experimental set-up is shown in Figure 3(b).
The yield force Vy and displacement Dy were determined from the force–displacement curve
of the monotonic specimen with rare stiffeners, according to [18], as the intersection of the initial
stiffness line and the tangent to the shear force–link displacement curve having 10% of the initial
stiffness. Yield displacement was used to apply cyclic loading to the specimens of the same length.
The cyclic tests consisted of four cycles in the elastic range (±0.25Dy , ±0.5Dy , ±0.75Dy and
±1.0Dy ), followed by groups of three cycles at amplitudes multiple of 2Dy (3×±2Dy , 3×±4Dy ,
3×±6Dy , etc.). The loading was applied quasi-statically in displacement control.
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
Table I. Overview of experimental program on removable links.

Nominal link length (mm) e0 = 700 e0 = 600 e0 = 500 e0 = 400
Link length (mm) e = 600 e = 500 e = 400 e = 300
Stiffeners Rare Close Rare Close Rare Close Rare Close
Monotonic loading LL7-m LH7-m LL6-m LH6-m LL5-m LH5-m LL4-m LH4-m
(100% bolt preload)
Cyclic loading LL7-c1 LH7-c1 LL6-c1 LH6-c1 LL5-c1 LH5-c1 LL4-c1 LH4-c1
(100% bolt preload)
Cyclic loading LL7-c2 LH7-c2 LL6-c2 LH6-c2 LL5-c2 LH5-c2 LL4-c2 LH4-c2
(50% bolt preload)
support
actuator
e0 e link
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Notations of links’ lengths (a) and experimental set-up for removable bolted links (b).
Previous experimental research by Dubina et al. [19] on extended end-plate beam–column joints
in moment-resisting frames showed a series of problems that undermined their cyclic performance:
(1) fillet welds are inappropriate in the case of cyclic loading; (2) full-penetration 1/2V weld with
the root at the exterior part of the beam cross-section promotes fragile ruptures, due to cracks
initiated at weld root; (3) weld-access hole acts as a stress concentrator, causing brittle ruptures
of the beam flange. Welding details used for the link to end-plate connection were chosen so as
to prevent the causes of poor performance mentioned above. Thus, link flange was welded to the
end-plate with a full-penetration 1/2V weld, realized from the exterior part of the cross-section
(weld root at the interior); the weld-access hole was eliminated completely, and reinforcing fillet
weld was applied at the interior part of the flanges and on the web.
3.2. Design of connections

Bolted connection between the link element and the beam is located in a zone of high stresses.
There are two possible strategies for connection design. The first one is to provide a sufficient
overstrength of the connection over the link shear resistance. The second one is to assure a ductile
behaviour of the bolted connection itself. The former strategy was followed in this case, as it
facilitates replacement of damaged link elements.
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
Capacity design of the connection involves assessment of yield strength of the dissipative
element (link plastic shear resistance) and its overstrength, accounting for strain hardening and
the possibility of the actual yield strength of link material larger than the nominal one. Previous
experimental research by Kasai and Popov [20] indicated link ultimate shear resistance about 1.5
times the plastic shear resistance. Commentaries to AISC 2005 [10] mention overstrength factors
between 1.2 and 2.0 based on past experimental investigations. A relatively conservative estimation
of maximum shear force was adopted in this study by adopting an overall overstrength factor equal
to 1.75:
√
Vmax = 1.75· Vy = 1.75·(h −2·tf )·tw · f y / 3 (4)
Maximum moment for connection design was determined as follows:
Mmax = Vmax ·e/2 (5)
Design of connections to the forces determined according to Equations (4) and (5) was based
on EN 1993 [17]. M20 grade 10.9 high-strength bolts were used. In order to prevent excessive
deformations of the end-plate, a 25 mm thick plate was chosen so as to provide a mode 3 (bolts
in tension) failure mode of the equivalent T-stub. A linear distribution of bolt forces was then
assumed, and the bolts checked for tension, shear, combined tension and shear resistance. Demand
to capacity ratio for combined tension and shear ranged from 0.7 for the LH4 and LL4 specimens
to 0.98 for the LH7 and LL7 specimens. Additionally, connection slip resistance was checked.
3.3. Behaviour of specimens

The instrumentation consisted of the actuator load cell and a series of displacement transducers
used to measure both absolute and relative displacements. Response of removable link elements
was characterized by shear force V –shear distortion angle . For classical links, the distortion is
determined as the difference between end displacements DT divided by the link length [21]. With
the notations from Figure 4, is expressed as follows:
= DT /e (6)
Assuming that the edges of the panel bounding the link remain straight after deformation, the
same angle may be determined from the deformations of the diagonals (DD1 and DD2)
d+
d
DD
π D1
2
d+D
γ
+γ
a
d 2
-γ1
a
π
DT
e e
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. Deformation of a classical link (a), idealization of the panel zone (b) and its deformation (c).
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
(see Figure 5):

√
a 2 +e2 ·(DD2−DD1)
= (7)
2·a ·e
Values of angle determined according to relationships (6) and (7) have close values in the case
of classical links. However, in the case of removable bolted links, the behaviour of the link is
more complex and angle determined from relationships (6) and (7) will be different. Total link
deformation is given by the sum of (1) shear distortion of the link panel—, (2) rotation in the two
connections M = S +J , and (3) slip in the connections, characterized by an equivalent rotation
AL = (DALS + DALJ )/e, and can be expressed as follows:
T = +M +AL (8)
It can be directly obtained from the total displacement DT :
T = DT /e (9)
θ
DALS
γΤ
γL
θ γ
DALJ
γ
θ L
γ
DT
θ
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Deformation of a bolted link (a) and its idealization (b).
Table II. Yield and maximum forces evaluated from nominal and measured characteristics.
Wpl Wplw ∗
Wpl Vy My 1.6My /Vy Vmax Mmax
Specimen (cm)3 (cm3 ) (cm)3 (kN) (kNm) (mm) (kN) (kNm)
Nominal LH7, LL7 366.6 75.29 291.31 185.4 86.2 743 278.1 83.4
LH6, LL6 366.6 75.29 291.31 185.4 86.2 743 278.1 69.5
LH5, LL5 366.6 75.29 291.31 185.4 86.2 743 278.1 55.6
LH4, LL4 366.6 75.29 291.31 185.4 86.2 743 278.1 41.7
Measured LH7, LL7 366.6 75.43 291.2 266.7 103.5 621 400.1 120.0
LH6, LL6 366.6 75.43 291.2 266.7 103.5 621 400.1 100.0
LH5, LL5 366.6 75.43 291.2 266.7 103.5 621 400.1 80.0
LH4, LL4 366.6 75.43 291.2 266.7 103.5 621 400.1 60.0
Note: Mmax determined according to Equation (5).
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
400 400
200 200
V, kN
V, kN
0 0
–200 –200
–400 –400
–0.2 –0.1 0 0.1 0.2 –0.2 –0.1 0 0.1 0.2
γ , rad γ , rad
T T
Figure 6. Force–total deformation relationship V –T for specimens LL7-c1 and LH7-c1.
Instrumentation permitted both direct determination of characteristic deformations according to (9),

and indirect one according to (8), using the component deformations. A satisfactory correlation
was observed between the two methods.
Strength characteristics obtained from nominal and measured geometry and strength are
presented in Table II. Different flanges and web yield strengths were taken into account in
determining the link plastic moment: My = Wpl,w · f y,w + Wpl∗ · f y,f .
Measured mechanical characteristics of steel showed higher increase in plastic shear force in
comparison with plastic moment, which caused a decrease in the 1.6My /Vy limit. Even so, the
links are classified as short. At the same time, maximum shear force and moment used for connec-
tion design are considerably higher than the initial estimates based on nominal characteristics.
Connection strength was checked using estimates of maximum forces determined from measured
geometrical and mechanical characteristics, considering a partial safety factor Mb = 1.0 for the
connection. Results indicated that the connection should have responded in the elastic range,
though with little reserve for the longer LL7 and LH7 specimens. However, at large displacements,
both bolt failures and end-plate deformations were observed during the tests. Two types of bolt
failures were observed: (1) by thread stripping, which results in a ductile response (dominant in
this experimental program) and (2) by fracture in bolt shank, which results in a brittle response.
Bolted connections had important contributions to the overall link response and in general did
not show an elastic response. Connection suffered important degradations at the LL7 and LH7
specimens and caused a pronounced pinching effect with a reduced energy dissipation capacity
(see Figure 6). Element degradation started by bending of the end-plate and bolt thread stripping,
followed by local buckling of link flanges and web. Closer stiffener spacing had as main effect
isolation of local flange and web buckling in outer web panels. Failure was attained by complete
degradation in bolt threads.
Smaller length of LL6 and LH6 specimens reduced the damage to connections and the pinching
behaviour. Failure was attained by complete damage to bolts (see Figure 7(a)), but also by web
cracking after repeated plastic web buckling in the case of LL6-c2 specimen, with rare stiffeners.
Starting with LL5 and LH5 specimens, connections were characterized by a more stable response,
plastic web buckling being more important and preceding the one of the flanges. Failure of LL5-c1
and LL5-c2 specimens, with rare stiffeners, was attained by tearing of the web on three edges, at
the cracks initiated in the base metal at the web-stiffener and web-end-plate welds. Closer stiffener
spacing in the case of LH5-c1 and LH5-c2 specimens reduced web tearing due to severe and
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Failure by connection degradation at the LH6-c2 specimen (a) and plastic web
buckling at the LL4-c1 specimen (b).
400 400
200 200
V, kN
V, kN
0 0
web
–200 breathing –200
–400 –400
–0.2 –0.1 0 0.1 0.2 –0.2 –0.1 0 0.1 0.2
γ , rad γ , rad
T T
Figure 8. Force–total deformation relationship V –T for specimens LL4-c1 and LH4-c1.
Table III. Yield Vy and maximum Vmax shear forces.
Parameter Specimen LL7 LL6 LL5 LL4 LH7 LH6 LH5 LH4
Vyth , kN 266.7∗
Vy , kN m 228.0 209.0 189.5 191.0 201.6 217.8 198.2 201.5
c1 234.8 218.3 245.0 174.4 227.4 212.9 229.6 236.6
c2 216.5 216.9 175.4 223.7 211.1 222.2 231.5 249.0
th , kN
Vmax 400.1†
Vmax , kN m 304.9 333.3 348.1 388.3 270.1 307.5 352.5 420.6
c1 296.9 308.4 343.3 360.9 305.2 318.5 364.1 400.6
c2 289.6 313.9 355.7 362.5 301.6 324.4 364.0 402.9
Note: Average of positive and negative values presented for specimens c1 and c2.
∗ Plastic shear resistance based on measured geometry and yield strength.
† V th = 1.5V th .
max y
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
repeated buckling (but did not eliminate it completely) and failure was attained by damage of the
connection.
Response of specimens from the LL4 and LH4 series was dominated by web shear. Connection
had a quasi-elastic response. Flange buckling was observed only after important web buckling.
Hysteretic response was characterized by ‘full’ cycles with high energy dissipation capacity (see
Figure 8). Owing to higher web slenderness of the LL4-c1 and LL4-c2 specimens, web buckling
was marked, and plastic web ‘breathing’ was observed, as web buckling wave was changing
direction at reversals of load direction (Figure 8). Repeated buckling lead to web tearing along
the diagonals (see Figure 7(b)). Close spacing of stiffeners at the LH4-c1 and LH4-c2 specimens
prevented this phenomenon, failure initiating through web tearing along the stiffener weld, which
extended on three edges of the web.
3.4. Comparative analysis of results

Elastic response of links was characterized by the total initial stiffness K T , determined from
V –T relationship, as well as shear stiffness of the web K , stiffness of connections K J and K S ,
determined from M–J and M–S relationships (Table III). Initial shear stiffness of the link (K ) was
in good correlation with the theoretical one (K th = G · As ), and not influenced much by the different
considered test parameters. There was an important scatter in experimental values of connection
rotational stiffness. Full preloading increased the stiffness of connection by approximately 50%.
Upper connection was more flexible in comparison with the lower connection. Unsymmetrical
distribution of moments and lack of fit at the upper connection may be attributed to this behaviour.
Reduction in total initial stiffness of the bolted link in comparison with the classical solution
is important, as a result of both the semi-rigid end-plate and slip in the connection. Therefore,
either explicit modelling of the semi-rigid connection behaviour or consideration of equivalent link
stiffness is necessary for global analysis of frames with bolted links.
Connection slip was defined when relative displacement between the end plates of a connection
exceeded 0.15 mm, according to C133/82 [26]. According to this criterion, with the exception of
the first tested LL7-m, all other specimens experienced slip during the test. Connection slip was
larger in the case of cyclic loading and partial preload of bolts.
Yield force determined from V –DT relationship was not influenced by the test parameters and
was controlled by shear response of the web. Lower experimental values (see Table III) are partially
explained by the procedure used to determine yield force, according to [18], which underestimates
it for high initial stiffness. On the other hand, experimental maximum force presents an increase
from the longer to the shorter links (effect of connection strength) and is higher for closer stiffeners
(prevention of web plastic buckling).
The maximum moment determined from Equation (5) was lower than the theoretical one used
to design the connections. Poor performance of connections could be explained by the fact that
vertical displacement in the experimental set-up was constrained, which generated supplementary
tension in the connections at large displacements. Following the experimental observations in this
study, in order to reduce damage in bolted connections it is recommended to limit the length of
bolted links to e0.8· My /Vy , which corresponds to links LL4 and LH4.
Ultimate link displacement DTu , representing the stable hysteretic response is presented in
Table IV. Cyclic loading reduced by 40–70% plastic deformation capacity, with maximum reduction
for short links. Ultimate displacements were slightly lower in the case of short links in comparison
with longer ones. However, in terms of deformations (Tu ), rotation capacity is larger in the case
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
Table IV. Ultimate displacement DTu and corresponding deformation Tu .
Specimen LL7 LL6 LL5 LL4 LH7 LH6 LH5 LH4

DTu , mm m 93.0 136.6 144.2 118.4 140.8 138.8 137.9 125.9
c1 58.1 64.4 42.3 30.4 68.4 71.7 58.6 37.8
c2 55.4 66.3 62.5 33.5 65.5 68.2 72.8 37.6
Tu m 0.155 0.273 0.360 0.395 0.235 0.278 0.345 0.420
c1 0.097 0.129 0.106 0.101 0.114 0.143 0.147 0.126
c2 0.092 0.133 0.156 0.112 0.109 0.136 0.182 0.125
Note: Minimum of positive and negative values presented for c1 and c2 specimens.
of shorter links, with the exception of LL4 and LH4 specimens. With the exception of longer
links with rare stiffeners (LL7), specimens showed a stable deformation capacity of at least 0.1
rad, with a number of 16–22 cycles in the plastic range. Bolt preloading did not affect rotation
capacity, whereas closer spacing of stiffeners improved link deformation capacity.
The behaviour of long specimens was much influenced by the response of the bolted connec-
tion, characterized by a gradual reduction in strength due to bolt thread stripping and a pinching
cyclic response. The latter effect reduced the energy dissipated in the group of cycles of constant
amplitude. Full bolt preloading reduced partially this effect. Response of short specimens was
controlled by the shear of the link web, characterized by important hardening and energy dissi-
pation capacity, but a more rapid degradation in strength after web tearing. Stiffener spacing
had maximum importance for short links. Their effect was to limit plastic local buckling of the
web, increasing the maximum force and deformation capacity, and providing a more stable cyclic
response. However, after the attainment of ultimate deformation, failure of LH4 specimens was
more rapid in comparison with LL4 specimens.
Distribution of ductility demands between end-plate and link web resulted in improved overall
deformation capacity in comparison with ‘pure’ failure modes, determined by concentration of
plastic deformations in connection or web alone. This effect is characteristic of intermediate length
specimens LL6-LL5 and LH6-LH5. However, it may be difficult to control this response in practice,
due to variability of mechanical steel characteristics.
Experimental tests demonstrated excellent plastic deformation capacities under cyclic loading
and ductile failure modes (ultimate shear deformation of 0.11–0.13 rad). In order to limit damage to
the connections, shorter links are recommended. There are several sources of link deformation: shear
deformation, bending deformation, end-plate rotation and progressive slip in bolted connection.
The most convenient way to account for these effects is by considering equivalent link stiffness.
The average stiffness of bolted links was of the order of 25% of the theoretical shear deformation
of a conventional continuous link.
4. EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE OF ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES

WITH REMOVABLE LINKS
4.1. Design and modelling

In order to assess seismic performance of eccentrically braced frames with removable links, a
medium rise structure was investigated as a case study. The building has three bays in each principal
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9. Structural layout: (a) plan view; (b) elevation of B and R

structures; and (c) elevation of R46 structure.
direction of 6 m each, and 8 storeys (see Figure 9). All storeys are 3.5 m, except the first one,
which equals 4.5 m. The design was carried out according to EN 1993 [17], EN 1998 (2004) [9]
and P100-1/2006 [22] (Romanian seismic design code, aligned to EN 1998). A 4 kN/m2 dead load
on the typical floor and 3.5 kN/m2 for the roof were considered, whereas the live load amounted
to 2.0 kN/m2 . The building location was considered as Bucharest, characterized by 0.24g design
peak ground acceleration and soft soil conditions with control period TC = 1.6 s. A behaviour factor
q = 6 and interstorey drift limitation of 0.008 of the storey height were considered in design.
Columns were fixed at the base and rigid connections were assumed between all members.
In assessing the potential benefits of using HSS, different steel grades were used for members.
The reference structure, denoted as B, used mild carbon steel (grade S235) for all members, except
the central columns of the first two storeys, which are HSS steel (grade S460), see Figure 9(b). A
conventional link (i.e. part of the beam) was used in the B structure. In order to assess the influence
of bolted link characteristics, a new structure (denoted by R) was considered. Experimental results
showed that for very short links the flush end-plate connection remained essentially elastic. For
these links the strength was governed by the shear strength of the link, and the cyclic response was
not affected by strength and stiffness degradation in the connection like for longer links. For the
numerical investigation, very short links were used, with e = 400 mm, characterized by negligible
influence of connection on cyclic response of the removable link. Therefore, only the stiffness of the
removable link was considered to be affected by the flexibility of the bolted link-beam connection.
Based on experimental tests, an equivalent stiffness of 0.25 of the theoretical shear stiffness of
continuous links was considered for bolted links. In order to reduce inelastic deformations in
members outside links, higher steel grade was used in these members. This structure was denoted
by R46, and used S460 steel grade in beams and columns of the moment-resisting bays, see
Figure 9(c). The period of the fundamental mode of vibration of the B structure amounted to 1.05 s,
whereas for the R and R46 structures it was 1.13 s. It can be observed that while stiffness of bolted
links was only 25% of the stiffness of conventional links, overall frame stiffness of frames with
bolted links (R and R46) reduced by only about 10% with respect to the frame with conventional
links (B). This can be explained by the fact for eccentrically braced frames with short links, axial
stiffness of columns, braces and beams contribute significantly to global frame stiffness.
Inelastic analysis of the frames was realized using Drain-3dx computer program. Beams, columns
and braces were modelled with fibre hinge beam–column elements, with plastic hinges located
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
10
Spectral Acceleration, m/s2

8
0
0 1 2 3 4
T, s
Figure 10. Elastic response spectra of semiartificial records and P100-1/2006 elastic spectrum.
at the element ends. Nominal steel characteristics were used. Elastic–perfectly plastic behaviour was
assumed for these members, without strength and stiffness degradation. Buckling of braces was not
considered explicitly in the model due to limitations of the inelastic beam–column element available
in Drain-3dx. However, compression force demand in braces was checked against buckling strength
of braces, computed according to EN 1993 [17] provisions using nominal material characteristics
and a buckling length equal to 0.8 times the clear length of the brace, corresponding to braces
welded directly to the column and beam, see Figure 1 (no gusset plates).
The inelastic shear link element model was based on the one proposed by Ricles and Popov [23].
As the original model consisted of four linear branches, it was adapted to the trilinear envelope
curve available in Drain-3dx. It consists of an initial elastic response up to yield force, followed
by a strain hardening range with a stiffness of 4% from the initial one up to a force 1.4 times the
yield one, with a strain hardening behaviour afterwards at 0.2% of the initial stiffness.
4.2. Ground motion records

A set of seven ground motions were used. Spectral characteristics of the ground motions were
modified by scaling Fourier amplitudes to match the target elastic spectrum from P100-1/2006
[22], see Figure 10. This results in a group of semiartificial records representative to the seismic
source affecting the building site and soft soil conditions in Bucharest. The procedure was based
on the SIMQKE-1 program [24].
4.3. Analysis procedure and results

In order to assess structural performance, nonlinear static and dynamic analyses were performed.
Three performance levels were considered: SLS, ULS and collapse prevention (CPLS) limit state.
Intensity of earthquake action at the ULS was equal to the design one (intensity factor = 1.0).
Ground motion intensity at the SLS was reduced to = 0.5 (according to = 0.5 in EN 1998
[17]), whereas for the CPLS limit state it was increased to = 1.5 (according to FEMA 356 [25]).
The attainment of an interstorey drift limit of 0.008 times the storey height was considered as
the acceptance criterion at the SLS. Based on experimental results and FEMA 356 provisions,
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
0.6
B
0.4 R
R46
V/W
1st yield link
0.2 1st yield ≠ link

θu
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
δ/H
Figure 11. Pushover curves (normalized base shear vs normalized top

displacement) for the B, R and R46 structures.
acceptance criteria at the ULS and CPLS were considered as attainment of plastic deformations
in links of u = 0.11 rad and u = 0.14 rad, respectively.
Pushover curves for the B, R and R46 structures are shown in Figure 11. In comparison with
the conventional structure B, the ones using removable links (R and R46) are characterized by
slightly reduced initial stiffness. However, base shear force at the first yield in links is similar for
the three structures, implying similar design strength under seismic action. Global capacity of the
R structure (with removable links) is reduced in comparison with the B structure, but the R46
structure, which uses removable links and HSS in moment-resisting bays, is characterized by a
larger global strength. Another advantage of HSS (R46 structure) is that elements outside links
yield under larger lateral displacements than the B and R structure, implying that the R46 structure
can survive earthquakes of larger intensity with damage in removable elements only. ULS criteria
are the deformation capacity u of the member. In all cases, the critical elements were links.
Results of the incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) are synthetically presented in Figure 12
in terms of maximum transient interstorey drift ratio (IDR) and maximum permanent IDR. The
conventional structure (B) performs slightly better than the structures with removable links (R
and R46). However, it can be observed that all three structures (B, R and R46) have adequate
performance at the SLS ( = 0.5), ULS ( = 1.0) and CPLS ( = 1.5) limit states. There are no
substantial differences between the two structures with removable links (R and R46) in terms of
maximum IDR (at SLS) and maximum plastic deformation demands (at ULS and CPLS), see
Figure 12(a). The benefit of HSS for the structure with removable links (R46) is clearly identified
in Figure 12(b), giving the lowest values of permanent drifts up to intensity factors of = 1.0–1.2.
Low permanent drifts allow easier replacement of damaged removable links.
None of the braces buckled at the SLS and ULS limit states in any of the frames. At the CPLS
limit state, braces did not buckle for the R and R46 frames. However, in the case of frame B,
braces located at the first two storeys buckled for some accelerograms for ground motion intensities
larger than = 1.3. This fact does not affect the conclusions regarding the relative performance of
the three structures. Moreover, frames with bolted links (R and R46) proved their advantage over
frame with conventional links (B) also from this point of view.
As it was presented earlier, structures designed using the dissipative approach, may experience
structural damage even under moderate (SLS) earthquake. This can be seen in Figure 13, where
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
2 2
1.5 1.5
λ 1 1
λ
B
R
R46
0.5 SLS 0.5 B
ULS R
CPLS R46
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
(a) Max. trans. IDR, rad (b) Max. perm. IDR, rad
Figure 12. IDA curves: maximum (a) and permanent (b) drift vs acceleration
multiplier, average of all records.
B, λ=0.5 R, λ=0.5 R46, λ=0.5
θmax=0.026
θmax=0.034 θmax=0.034
Figure 13. Plastic deformation demands in members at SLS ( = 0.5) for the B, R
and R46 structures, average of all records.
Table V. Plastic deformation demands in members at SLS ( = 0.5), ULS ( = 1.0) and CPLS ( = 1.5)
for the B, R and R46 structures, average of all records.
Links Beams Columns
B R R46 B R R46 B R R46
SLS 0.027 0.036 0.036 0.002 0.003 — — 0.001 —
ULS 0.068 0.092 0.092 0.010 0.014 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.002
CPLS 0.105 0.139 0.145 0.017 0.022 0.014 0.011 0.014 0.008
plastic deformation demands in members are represented. Plastic deformations in links (ranging
between 0.026 and 0.034 rad) indicate a moderate damage to the structures at SLS. Plastic
deformations in elements outside links (beams, columns, and braces) are negligible for the B and
R structures, and are completely avoided for the R46 structure. Maximum plastic deformation
demands in members at SLS, ULS and CPLS are presented in Table V. The behaviour of the
structures with removable links is improved when HSS is used in the moment-resisting bays, this
DOI: 10.1002/eqe
structure showing lower plastic deformation demands in elements outside links. Smaller plastic
deformations are directly related to smaller permanent drifts.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Structural systems with removable dissipative elements are convenient when repair of structural
damage following an earthquake is considered. The main requirements related to an efficient system
with removable dissipative elements are: (1) isolation of plastic deformations in removable dissipa-
tive elements and (2) limitation of permanent deformations. Considering these requirements, dual
configurations, realized by a combination of a rigid subsystem (with removable ductile elements)
and a flexible subsystem, were shown to represent a convenient arrangement. Eccentrically braced
frames with removable links combined with moment-resisting frames were considered as a practical
application.
Seismic performance of removable links with flush end-plate connections was investigated exper-
imentally, proving the technological feasibility of the solution. Performance of short removable
links and possibility to be easily replaced makes them attractive for dual eccentrically braced
frames. Very short links, which assure an elastic behaviour of the connection, are preferred due to
their easier replacement. Concentration of damage in the removable link (performing like passive
energy dissipation devices) may be accomplished by the capacity design principles, including
fabrication of the link from a steel with lower yield strength in comparison with rest of the structure.
Experimental investigation indicated a significant reduction in stiffness of bolted links in compar-
ison with conventional links. Structures with removable links showed larger interstorey drift and
inelastic deformation demands than structures with conventional links. However, seismic perfor-
mance was adequate under serviceability, ultimate and collapse prevention limit states. Dual steel
structures in which HSS is used in moment-resisting bays of eccentrically braced frames with
removable links are characterized by reduced inelastic deformation demands in members outside
links and lower permanent interstorey drifts. In these conditions, the dissipative behaviour of struc-
tures can be better controlled by design. Moreover, interventions for repair of the structure affected
by a moderate to strong earthquake are limited to replacing the bolted links.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The support of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Education through the CEEX-MATNANTECH
grant 29/2005 ‘Structural Systems and Advanced Technologies for Structures from High-Performance
Steels for Buildings Located in High Seismicity Areas—STOPRISC’ and CEEX-ET grant 1434/2005
‘Dual steel structures with removable dissipative elements for buildings located in seismic areas’ is
gratefully acknowledged.
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EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING AND STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2008; 37:1703–1720

Dual high-strength steel eccentrically braced frames

D. Dubina∗, † , A. Stratan and F. Dinu

Received 31 January 2008; Revised 21 April 2008; Accepted 1 May 2008

Copyright q 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

2. REMOVABLE LINK CONCEPT

Figure 1. Bolted link concept.

δyr δyf δ δpD δpr δ

Figure 2. Simplified model of a generalized dual system.

3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON BOLTED LINKS

3.1. Experimental program

Table I. Overview of experimental program on removable links.

3.2. Design of connections

3.3. Behaviour of specimens

(a) (b) (c)

(see Figure 5):

T = +M +AL (8)

It can be directly obtained from the total displacement DT :

Figure 5. Deformation of a bolted link (a) and its idealization (b).

Instrumentation permitted both direct determination of characteristic deformations according to (9),

Table III. Yield Vy and maximum Vmax shear forces.

3.4. Comparative analysis of results

Table IV. Ultimate displacement DTu and corresponding deformation Tu .

Specimen LL7 LL6 LL5 LL4 LH7 LH6 LH5 LH4

4. EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE OF ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAMES

4.1. Design and modelling

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9. Structural layout: (a) plan view; (b) elevation of B and R

Spectral Acceleration, m/s2

4.2. Ground motion records

4.3. Analysis procedure and results

0.2 1st yield ≠ link

Figure 11. Pushover curves (normalized base shear vs normalized top

B, λ=0.5 R, λ=0.5 R46, λ=0.5

S-ar putea să vă placă și

T = +M +AL (8)