Memorial University of Newfoundland

Department of Physics and Physical Oceanography

Physics 3900 Laboratory
The Diffraction Grating

Objectives
To set up a diffraction-grating spectrometer for accurate measurements of wavelength; to
use the spectrometer to study the emission spectra of Hg, Na, H, and D.

Apparatus
Spectrometer table
diffraction grating
prism
Hg, He, Ne discharge tubes and power supply
Na lamp and power supply
bubble level

Theory
Detailed treatments of the theory of the diffraction grating can be found in any standard
optics text.1 When parallel light is normally incident on a diffraction grating, one can derive
the familiar “grating equation”:
nλ = a sin θn , [1]

where λ is the wavelength of the diffracted light, θn is the angle of diffraction relative to the
grating normal, a is the grating constant (i.e., the spacing between lines on the grating) and n
is the diffraction order. This equation is derived in the far-field, or Fraunhofer approximation
which assumes that all diffracted rays for a given λ are parallel. Since the light rays from
the source are normally incident on the grating surface the angular deviations corresponding
to +n and −n are equal.
A more general approach, in which normal incidence is not assumed, leads to

θn + θn0
!
i
 
nλ = a sin cos . [2]
2 cos θn

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 The angles θn , θn0 , and i are shown in Fig 1, where SO is an incident ray from the source
(S), OC is an undeviated ray corresponding to n = 0, and ON is the normal to the grating
(GG0 ). OD and OD0 are diffracted rays corresponding to order |n| and wavelength λ, whose
angular deviations (θn , θn0 ) are no longer equal.

D
G
N

S θn
i
O θ ’n C

G’
D’

Figure 1: Derivation of the grating equation

The correction factor cos (i/ cos θn ) is close to 1 if i is small. Even then, though, it is a
good idea to measure both θn and θn0 , and to use their average in the grating equation.

Experiment
Before the grating spectrometer is used, it is necessary to perform a number of adjustment
steps. The first is to ensure that the spectrometer table is level and that the lines of the
grating are parallel to the rotation axis of the table. The second is to focus the collimator
and telescope so that the light at the grating is parallel (plane waves). The third step is to
align the spectrometer table so that the grating is accurately perpendicular to the incoming
light beam.
The leveling of the spectrometer table and the focusing of the collimator should be carried
out as described in Appendix A. Then the grating should be accurately aligned perpendicular
to the incoming light beam using the following procedure. Note the vernier reading with
the undispersed image centered on the crosshair with the telescope in the straight-through
position, and the grating removed. Rotate the telescope through 90◦ and clamp it in position.
Mount the diffraction grating at the center of the spectrometer table. Rotate the grating so
that it reflects the undispersed light toward the telescope. Rotate the table by precisely 45◦
so that the grating is normal to the collimator axis. Clamp the main vernier scale. Unclamp

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the telescope and rotate it by precisely 90◦ back to the straight through position (T0 in Fig.
2). Check that the image is again centered on the crosshairs and record the vernier reading
as the main point of reference corresponding to θ0 = θ00 = i = 0. Use the Hg green line to
measure the diffraction angles θ1 and θ10 : these angles correspond to telescope positions T
and T 0 in Fig. 2. If the two angles differ by more than a few minutes of arc, the procedure
should be repeated.

C G

To

T’

Figure 2: Spectrometer Optics

The accuracy of your wavelength measurements depends on your having an accurate value
of the grating constant a. In the case of high quality gratings, an accurate determination of a
is made at the time of manufacture. In this experiment plastic replica gratings are used; the
value of a marked on the grating can only be taken as approximate. Determine the grating
constant a from your average value of θ for the Hg green line (5461 Å). Repeat using the
second order deviations, θ2 and θ20 . Do this for one grating marked 15,000 lines per inch and
one marked 25,000 lines per inch.
Armed with a good measurement of the grating constant, determine the wavelengths of
the other lines in the Hg spectrum by measuring θ1 and θ10 . Repeat the measurements using
the second order lines.
Using the 15,000 lines per inch grating, determine the wavelengths of some lines in the
sodium spectrum, in both first and second order. The bright yellow doublet should be clearly
resolved if the slit width is small enough. (Why does the slit width matter?) Use the second
order spectrum to make a careful determination of the doublet separation. (Why second
order?) Try the 25,000 lines per inch grating and comment on how the line spacing affects
your observations.

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 Replace the sodium lamp with a hydrogen discharge tube and find the wavelengths of
the four brightest lines in the hydrogen spectrum. The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
predicts that these wavelengths should form a series given by
!
1 1 1
= RH 2
− 2 [5]
λ nf ni

where RH is the Rydberg constant, ni is the quantum number for the initial energy level, and
nf is the quantum number for the final energy level. Show that the four visible lines in the
Hydrogen spectrum form a series with a common nf and thus determine RH for Hydrogen.
Repeat this measurement for Deuterium and compare the values for the Rydberg constant
found in the two cases. Comment on your result. It may be helpful to consider how reduced
mass enters into the energy for a hydrogen electron in a Bohr orbit.

Appendix A — Spectrometer Setup

E1
L
K
B
E2 E3

L’ V

Figure 3: Specrometer setup

The slit S of the collimator in Fig. 3 should be located in the focal plane of the lens L0
so that only parallel rays emerge from it. The telescope can be rotated about the axis of
the base K, and its angular position can be read from the vernier V . The telescope must be

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adjusted so that parallel rays collected by L are brought to focus on a glass plate at x which
must, in turn, be located in the focal plane of the eye lens e. The spectrometer table B is
independently rotatable about the axis of K and is provided with 3 levelling screws Ei . The
entire instrument rests on a thick aluminum plate which is also equipped with 3 levelling
screws.

Preliminary Adjustments
Use a bubble indicator to level the baseplate, the collimator, and the telescope, and to
perform the initial levelling adjustment on the spectrometer table, B.

Focusing of Collimator and Telescope — Schuster’s Method.

Adjust the eye-lens draw tube so that the cross-hair is vertically oriented and sharply fo-
cussed. Reposition the prism, and locate the refracted image of the green Hg line. Note that
as the spectrometer table is slowly rotated towards larger angles of incidence, the deviation
angle for the refracted light eventually passes through a minimum. Rotate the prism past
this position by about 10◦ , and focus the collimator to obtain the sharpest image of the
green line. Rotate the spectrometer table back towards smaller angles of incidence until the
image appears in the same position as before and focus the telescope. Repeat the process
until no further improvement can be achieved in the sharpness of the image. (Can you think
of an alternate method to check that the light emerging from the collimator is parallel?)

Accurate Levelling of the Spectrometer Table.

Use the Hg discharge to fully illuminate the collimator slit. Rotate the telescope to the
straight-through position so that the slit image is centered in its field of view. Swing the
telescope in the direction for easiest viewing and clamp it at 90◦ to the straight-through
position.
Place the prism on the spectrometer table so that either of its polished faces can be
rotated into position to reflect light from the collimator into the telescope. Rotate the
spectrometer table so that one of the reflected images is visible through the telescope, and
note its vertical position in the field of view. Rotate the spectrometer table to bring the
corresponding image from the other prism surface into view. If the two images do not appear
at the same height in the field of view, then the prism table is not accurately perpendicular
to the rotation axis of the instrument. Rotate the spectrometer table back and forth to view

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the two images in turn, and use the levelling screws Ei to remove any difference between
their heights. When the grating is positioned on the table, it may be necessary to adjust
the position of the grating in its holder to ensure that spectral lines at large angles remain
centered in the telescope.

Appendix B — General Grating Equation

The geometry for the derivation of the grating equation is shown in Fig. 1. If normal
incidence is not assumed, the conditions for diffraction are described by two equations:

nλ = a [sin (θn − i) + sin i] , [B1a]

nλ = a [sin (θn0 + i) − sin i] . [B1b]

The angles θn , θn0 , and i are shown in Fig 1, where SO is an incident ray from the source
(S), OC is an undeviated ray corresponding to n = 0, and ON is the normal to the grating
(GG0 ). OD and OD0 are diffracted rays corresponding to order |n| and wavelength λ, whose
angular deviations (θn , θn0 ) are no longer equal.
Elimination of nλ/a from Eqs. [B1a] and [B1b] yields

sin θn0 − sin θn

tan(i) = . [B2]
2 − (cos θn0 + cos θn )

For small i, θn ≈ θn0 and this equation reduces to

cos θn
i= δθn , [B3]
2 − 2 cos θn

where δθn = (θn0 − θn ). By adding Eqs. [B1a] and [B2b], and making use of Eq. [B3], we
obtain the following, which explicitly demonstrates the errors resulting from using Eq. [1]
with i 6= 0 :

2nλ = a [sin (θn − i) + sin (θn0 + i)]

0 0 −θ +2i
   
θn +θn θn n
= 2a sin 2
cos 2
0
   
θn +θn i
nλ = a sin 2
cos cos θn
. [B4]

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 The correction factor cos (i/ cos θn ) is close to 1 if i is small. Even then, though, it is a
good idea to measure both θn and θn0 , and to use their average in the grating equation.

References
1. E. Hecht and A. Zajac, Optics, (Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1974).

2. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, (CRC Press, any edition).

3. D.W. Preston and E.R. Deitz, The Art of Experimental Physics, (Wiley, New York,
1991), pp. 94-105 and 105-110.