BLUE STAR LTD.

Ghatkoper, Mumbai

Industrial Training Report

On

COLD CHAIN
Under Supervision of
R. Ramanujan
(Manager – Project Manager)
BLUE STAR LTD.

Galgotias College of Engineering And Technology,

Gr.Noida

Submitted by:
ASHIsh kumar singh
b.tech (ei)

IVth year
 Certificate

It is certified that ASHISH KUMAR SINGH done training in

BLUE STAR lTD. Ghatkoper, Mumbai and has presented in the
report for the award of bachelor of technology from Uttar
Pradesh Technical University (UPTU), Lucknow.

The training report embodies the original work and studies

carried out by the student himself and the content do not form
the basis for the award of any degree to the candidate or
anybody else.

Mr. dhirendra kumar Mrs. Nandita pradhan

(Faculty Incharge) Head of Department
Sr. lecturer Electronics and Instrumentation
Electronics and Instrumentation

Date: Date:
 preface

This project gives Rich insight about the various cold chain of
BLUE STAR lTD. Ghatkoper, Mumbai & also about various
facilities provided by the company to its customers.

Moreover this project will also help in learning Practical

Aspects of different functions of Instrumentation Department
which are very necessary to become a good instrument engineer.
 content

 Acknowledgement

 Introduction

 History

 Guiding values and believes

 Milestone

 Corporate Social Responsibility

 Manufacturing Systems

 Manufacturing Equipment
 Assembly and Testing

 Factsheet

 Cold chain

 Refrigerant
 History of Refrigerant

 Classification of refrigerants

 Classification of refrigerants

 Desirable properties of a good refrigerant

 Controlled Atmosphere Storage

 Importance of Controlled Atmosphere

 CA Storage Rooms

 CA Development

 CA Transport

 References
 Acknowledgement

This project report has been made possible through the direct
cooperation of various members of Blue Star ltd. Ghatkoper,
Mumbai family as they help me a lot in one or the other way in
the completion of my project work.

I specially thanks Mr. R. Ramanujam(Manager – Project

manager) at BLUE STAR lTD.. Ghatkoper, Mumbai as under
their guidance I came to know about theoretical aspect of day to
day life in origination.

In the end I would like to give my sincere thanks to Blue

Star ltd. Ghatkoper, Mumbai for providing us excellent tools and
working environment, which led to the successful completion of
my training report on time.
ASHISH KUMAR SINGH

B.TECH (EI)

IVth year
 Introduction

Blue Star is India's largest central air-conditioning company

with an annual turnover of Rs 2556 crores, a network of 29
offices, 5 modern manufacturing facilities, 700 dealers and
around 2600 employees.
It fulfills the air-conditioning needs of a large number of
corporate and commercial customers and has also established
leadership in the field of commercial refrigeration equipment
ranging from water coolers to cold storages. The Company has
also started offering Electrical Contracting and Plumbing & Fire
Fighting Services.
Blue Star has business alliances with world renowned
technology leaders such as Rheem Mfg Co, USA; Hitachi,
Japan; Eaton - Williams, UK; Thales e-Security Ltd., UK; Jeol,
Japan and many others, to offer superior products and solutions
to customers.
The Company has manufacturing facilities at Thane, Dadra,
Bharuch, Himachal and Wada which use state-of-the-art
manufacturing equipment to ensure that the products have
consistent quality and reliability.
Blue Star primarily focuses on the corporate and commercial
markets. These include institutional, industrial and government
organizations as well as commercial establishments such as
showrooms, restaurants, banks, hospitals, theatres, shopping
malls and boutiques. In accordance with the nature of products
and markets, business drivers, and competitive positioning, the
lines of business of Blue Star can be segmented as follows:

Cooling Products
Blue Star offers a wide range of contemporary window and split
airconditioners. The Company also manufactures and markets a
comprehensive range of commercial refrigeration products and
services that cater to the industrial, commercial and hospitality
sectors. These include water coolers, bottled water dispensers,
deep freezers, cold storages, bottle coolers, ice cube machines
and supermarket refrigeration products.

Electro Mechanical Projects and Packaged

Airconditioning Systems
This comprises central and packaged airconditioning as well as
electrical projects and plumbing & fire fighting projects. The
central and packaged airconditioning business involves design,
engineering, manufacturing, installation, commissioning and
support of large central airconditioning plants, packaged
airconditioners and ducted split airconditioners. In addition to
this, Blue Star promotes after-sales service as a business, by
offering several value added services in the areas of upgrades
and enhancements, air management, water management, energy
management and LEED consultancy for Green Buildings.
The Company also executes building electrification contracting
projects and offers expertise in the areas of electrical design and
engineering, supply and installation of entire power systems as
well as liasioning, approvals, commissioning and asset
management.
Blue Star has extended its mechanical contracting offering to
include plumbing and fire fighting projects. With this, Blue Star
has developed capabilities for executing integrated MEP
(Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing) projects.

Professional Electronics and Industrial Systems

For over five decades, the Electronics Division has been the
exclusive distributor in India for many internationally renowned
manufacturers of hi-tech professional electronic equipment and
services, as well as industrial products and systems. The
Company has carved out profitable niches for itself in most of
the specialized markets it operates in, such as such as Industrial
Projects, Industrial Products and Systems, Material Testing
Equipment and Systems (Destructive / Non Destructive), Data
Communication Products & Services, Testing and Measuring
Instruments, Analytical Instruments and Medical Diagnostic
Equipment.
 History

Blue Star was founded in 1943, by Mohan T Advani, an

entrepreneur of exemplary vision and drive. The Company
began as a modest 3-member team engaged in reconditioning of
airconditioners and refrigerators.
Within three years, the Company secured the agency for US-
based Melchoir Armstrong Dessau's airconditioning equipment.
Shortly after, the Company was selected by Worthington, the
US leader in airconditioning, as its India based partner - these
were the first of numerous foreign associations to follow.
An expanding Blue Star then ventured into the manufacture of
ice candy machines and bottle coolers and also began the design
and execution of central airconditioning projects. Then came the
manufacture of water coolers. In 1949, the proprietorship
company set its sights on bigger expansion, took on shareholders
and became Blue Star Engineering Company Private Limited.
The sixties and the early seventies witnessed Blue Star
continuing to expand and thrive. A team of dedicated
professionals aided Mohan T Advani in ever furthering his
vision of a profitable company dedicated to its ideals of
professionalism and success. Employee strength crossed the
1000 mark and the company went public in 1969 to become
Blue Star Limited, as it continues to be called today.
In 1970, the Company took up the all-India distributorship of
Hewlett-Packard products, a business relationship which
continues today and has grown ever stronger through the years.
As the Company's reputation for delivering the goods in the
most challenging of airconditioning projects grew steadily, the
early seventies saw a series of prestigious projects being
entrusted to Blue Star - skyscrapers such as Air India Building,
Express Towers, the Oberoi Hotel in Mumbai, apart from
several others. Revenues touched the Rs. 10-crore mark and
staff strength doubled to exceed 2000.
As its Indian presence reached greater heights, the Company
began building determinedly upon its existing overseas
presence, Blue Star set up a joint venture with Al Shirawi in
Dubai and went on to execute some outstanding projects in
Syria, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. To complement its airconditioning
projects and undertake turnkey industrial projects, an Industrial
Division was set up in 1978.
Always moving with the times and ever on the lookout for
business possibilities, Blue Star next set up a software export
unit at Seepz, Mumbai in 1983. Then came associations with
more global leaders - a collaboration with York International of
USA for central airconditioning equipment and joint ventures
with Motorola and Yokogawa.
In 1984, Ashok M Advani & Suneel M Advani, the sons of
Mohan T Advani, took over the reins of the Company, after
spending nearly 15 years within the Company steadily climbing
up the ladder. A renewed thrust was placed on the company's
core business areas - airconditioning and refrigeration and the
distribution of professional electronics equipment - and the
company emerged a market leader in these focus areas.
The nineties witnessed India entering an era of economic
liberalisation and an upsurge in competition as the dynamic
business scenario attracted the world's most forward-looking
corporations. It was time to re-look at existing business
competencies, re-engineer those that were obsolete and forge
ahead in acquiring new business competencies. Blue Star was
more than equal to the challenge and expansion continued
unabated.
In keeping with this focus, an advanced manufacturing facility
was set up at Dadra in 1997, in technical collaboration with
Rheem, USA, to enhance manufacturing competency. Today it
bears the distinction of being regarded as the best such plant
India-wide. The dealer network was strengthened and expanded
to bring products within easy reach of every customer.
With the advent of the much awaited new millennium in 2000,
the action continued. The software unit was spun off into a
separate company, Blue Star Infotech Ltd., the export of
airconditioning products from the Dadra factory began and
contract manufacturing for local and foreign brands commenced.
A new Corporate Vision was developed - "To deliver a world-
class customer experience". Every employee is determined to
follow this vision and keep their organization a competitive and
forward-looking one.
Blue Star crossed the Rs. 500 crore milestone in 2000 and the
Rs. 600 crore milestone in 2002-03. With the boom in
construction activity and increased infrastructure investments,
the Company leveraged its leadership position to grow
aggressively. In the following three years, the Company nearly
doubled its turnover, clocking Rs 1178 crores in 2005-06.
 Guiding values and believes

 To deliver a world class customer experience.

 Focus on profitable company growth.
 Be a company that is a pleasure to do business with.
 Work in boundary less manner between divisions to
provide the best solution to the customers.
 Win our people’s hearts and minds.
 Place the company’s interest above one’s own.
 Encourage innovation, creativity and experimentation in
what we do.
 Build an extended organization of committed business
partners.
 Be a good corporate citizen.
 Maintain personal integrity.
 Ensure high quality of corporate governance.
 MILESTONES

Year Event

Mohan T Advani establishes Blue Star Engineering

1943
Company as a proprietary firm
1946 Blue Star secures Melchior Armstrong Dessau agency
Worthington selects Blue Star as Indian Partner.
Manufacturing of ice candy machines and bottle
1947
coolers begins. Central airconditioning system design
and execution begins
1948 Manufacture of water coolers commences
1949 Proprietorship converted to Private Limited Companies
1954 Blue Star selected as distributor for Honeywell
1955 GDR Testing machines distributorship begins
Perkin-Elmer tie-up marks the start of the electronics
1957
business. GDR business machines agency commences
1960 Total Income crosses the Rs 1 crore mark
1962 GDR Machine Tools distributorship begins
1964 Total employment crosses 1,000
Techniglas Pvt Ltd set up to manufacture insulation
1965
material
1969 Factory moves from Colaba in Mumbai to Thane
1970 Hewlett- Packard distributorship commences
 First skyscrapers of Mumbai – Air India Building,
1972 Express Towers and Oberoi Hotel set-up – all
airconditioned by Blue Star
Total Income crosses Rs 10 crores. Employment
1972
crosses 2,000
Water Cooler manufacturing license granted to Yusuf
1974
Alghanim, Kuwait
Middle East thrust begins. Joint Venture (JV) with Al
1977
Shirawi in Dubai
1978 Industrial Division commences activity
1980 Bharuch Factory set up
1980-
Major AC and R projects executed in the Middle East
86
1983 International Software Division inaugurated in Seepz
1984 York technology collaboration begins
Manufacture of centrifugal packaged chillers
1985
commences at Thane Plant
1986 Total Income crosses Rs 100 crores
1987 Yokogawa Blue Star JV formed
1987 Gandhinagar factory set up for EPABX systems
Blue Star becomes India’s largest central
1988
airconditioning company
Assembly of personal computers under the brand name
1988
‘Quantum’ begins
1989 JV with Hewlett-Packard and Motorola
1990 Gandhinagar factory closes
1992 Total Income crosses Rs 200 crores
1992 Blue Star exits from Motorola JV
1993 Formation of Arab Malaysian Blue Star JV in Malaysia
1995 Blue Star exits from HP India JV
1997 Dadra Plant inaugurated
Major thrust on dealerisation and brand building
1998
begins
1999 Blue Star exits from Industrial Projects business
International Software business spun off to form Blue
2000
Star Infotech, listed on stock exchanges
2003 Blue Star exits Yokogawa JV
Blue Star sets up new factory at Kala Amb in
2005
Himachal Pradesh
2006 Total Income crosses the Rs 1000 crores mark
2006 Blue Star opts for a 5 for 1 stock split
Blue Star sets up its fifth factory at Wada, Thane
2007
District
Blue Star powers into Building Electrification.
2008 Acquires Naseer Electricals, a leading Electrical
Contractor
2008 Total income crosses Rs. 2000 Crores.
 Corporate Social Responsibility

Blue Star’s Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) philosophy is

built on three pillars namely

 Environment protection
 Energy conservation
 Community development around its facilities.

The Company is highly committed to the cause of protecting the

environment. Energy efficiency of its products remains a corner-
stone of its research and development efforts Air, water and
energy management services as well as LEED (Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design) consultancy for Green
Buildings have been part of its business and practices. The
Company has also been contributing in the technical domain in
the use of eco-friendly refrigerants in its products.

Energy Conservation goes beyond using efficient products. A

huge amount of energy is wasted nationally due to sheer
ignorance and lack of awareness. Blue Star helps deserving
institutions such as hospitals and colleges to save power by
conducting free walk-through energy audits. The Company has
conducted several such audits with energy recommendations for
Jai Hind College, St Xavier’s College, Nirmala Niketan College
of Social Work, National Association for the Blind (NAB),
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), JJ School of
Architecture and Dilkhush Special School, amongst others.  

In its efforts towards community development around the

Company’s facilities, the Company has initiated and sponsored a
study in the villages around its Wada Plant to understand the
immediate needs. Vocational training and health emerged as
pressing needs in this underdeveloped region. Blue Star has
sponsored the vocational training courses offered by an NGO,
KSWA in Wada. This centre was set up to support a vocational
training initiative for school and college dropouts to make them
employable contributing members of their families and
communities. Regular visits by the Company’s employees have
aided in technical support to KSWA for conducting the courses.
 Manufacturing Systems

The factories make extensive use of IT to enhance productivity

and product development capabilities.
All our factories are ISO 9001: 2000 certified
BAAN ERP implemented in 3 factories and Himachal under
implementation

Manufacturing Facilities
Blue Star has five modern state-of-the-art manufacturing
facilities located at Thane, Bharuch, Dadra, Himachal and
Wada. Extensive product testing facilities enable the
development of high quality products manufactured at the
factories.

Blue Star Factories

Thane

Factory Facts:
1st factory of Blue Star established in 1960 situated in
Maharashtra near the commercial capital Mumbai.
Area: 7500 sq.mt
Manpower: 250
The plant's processes are all integrated through BaaN ERP.
Modern softwares like Pro-E are used for designing products.
Also, customized software has been developed for selection of
AHU's and Chillers. All modern manufacturing concepts have
been incorporated notable among them being visual
management of the factory, Just In Time, kaizen, 5S, Kanban,
TPM, PPM and Pokayoke.

Wada

Factory Facts:
Started in 2007
Area: 24000 sq.mts
Manpower: 100
Wada facility is the most recent plant set up by the Company,
situated around 60 km from Thane, near Mumbai. With a plot
size of around 36 acres, this facility is planned to eventually be
Blue Star’s biggest manufacturing facility. Modern
manufacturing systems are being deployed with the focus on
quality systems through programmes like Lean Manufacturing,
Six Sigma, TPM and Kaizen.

Bharuch

Factory Facts:
Blue Star's second factory started in 1980 in Gujarat, which is
400 kms north of Mumbai
Area: 13500 sq.mt
Manpower: 320
Dadra

Factory Facts:
Started in: 1997 Situated in Dadra and Nagar Haveli, a Union
Territory situated 200 kms away from Mumbai and having its
capital at Silvassa.
Area: 12000 sq.mt
Manpower: 300
Dadra plant is regarded by industry experts as one of the best
manufacturing facilities in the country for airconditioning
products. It's been built in technical collaboration with Rheem
USA.
Himachal

Factory Facts:
Started in 2005
This factory is 300 kms North West of North Delhi.
Area: 14,000 sq.mts
Manpower: 100
This factory has been set-up in the sylvan settings of Kala-amb
in Himachal Pradesh. The industrial zone of Baddi has seen a
proliferation of manufacturing setups in the recent past, thanks
to the benevolent tax concessions granted by the Government.
 Manufacturing Equipment

System Tubing
3-axis CNC copper tube-bending machines from Japan fabricate
wrinkle-free system tubing to exact dimensions for a perfect
stress-free fit. Special purpose machines carry out operations
like end closing, flaring and forming for good joint formation.
Prime quality copper tubes sourced globally help in optimum
product performance.

Sheet Metal Fabrication

A high degree of repetitive accuracy in sheet metal fabrication is
achieved by using specialized equipment, CNC metal forming
machines. The raw material used is prime quality, corrosion-
resistant, galvanized steel for enhanced life of the product. The
equipment used for processing the steel includes CNC machines
such as an Amada turret punch press, a LVD / Amada hydraulic
press-break. All these allow for high quality cabinet fabrication
within tight tolerances.
PUF Insulation
We fabricate CFC-free PUF insulated panels by using the latest
equipment from Cannon. This enables us to achieve a uniform
and constant density of insulation for air handling units, telecom
shelters and cold storage panels. We supply panels of up to 6
meters in length and 25 mm to 125 mm in PUF thickness. Our
PUF insulation expertise finds use in a wide range of
applications such as Air Handling Units, water coolers, deep
freezers, reach-in coolers and mortuary chambers.

Heat Exchangers
Experienced engineers create heat exchanger designs using high
precision design software, which are then validated in our test
labs. We also make sure that our designs are energy efficient for
optimum heat transfer.
Shell and Tube: We have shell and tube exchangers using
specially enhanced surface copper tubes and shell design as per
Blue Star or TEMA standards. We use Heat Transfer Research
Inc. (HTRI design software for these heat exchangers).
Fin and Tube: Our sophisticated coil shops have some of the
most advanced machines from USA, Japan and Korea. The Burr
Oak coil line produces energy efficient DX heat exchangers.
These have plain or enhanced split fins with grooved copper
tubes for maximum heat transfer efficiency. We source plain and
inner grooved copper tubes with coated aluminum fin stock of
international quality from leading manufacturers to fit our
specifications.
Plate Type: Blue Star products also incorporate stainless steel
plate heat exchangers for specialized process applications.

Brazing
The brazing process is carried out in an inert atmosphere to
avoid oxidation and the resultant impurities from contaminating
the refrigerant system. Specially selected brazing equipment and
fixtures are used to produce high quality brazing. The joints are
pressure-tested to check weld strength and leakage. The coils are
then tested for fine leaks with ultra-sensitive electronic leak
detectors. An automated coil brazing line from Korea ensures
consistent quality brazing and leak proof joints.

Powder Coating Plant

The state-of-the-art powder coating plant covers a wide range of
very specialized process equipment, and is fully automated. A
water-softening unit treats the raw water before it is utilized in
the automatic hot spray pre-treatment system. It provides an
even distribution of chemicals, controlled by an auto dosing
mechanism that maintains the chemical bath composition with
the help of electronic sensors. After a final mineral water rinse,
the components pass through a dry-off oven under dust-free
conditions to remove all traces of moisture.
The components are then transferred into the powder painting
booth for coating, where temperature, humidity and dust levels
are controlled. The powder painting equipment, supplied by
Nordson, USA, is equipped with automatic electromechanical
oscillators, for even powder deposition.
Desiccant dry air-with a dew point of minus 40 0 C - helps avoid
any moisture contamination of the powder. A 'smart spray'
mechanism senses the conveyor movement and component
geometry to adjust powder flow.
Polyester powder - ideally suited for out door applications -
provides the maximum protection against UV deterioration and
corrosion.
The components finally pass through a temperature-regulated
curing oven to achieve desired gloss and surface hardness.
An accelerated life-test result of 1,000 hours in a salt spray
chamber confirms the process capability of this world-class
paint shop.
 Assembly and Testing

The final product is assembled sequentially on conveyors, with

in-built quality checks during assembly operations. Pneumatic
tools permit torque-controlled rigidity, and specially coated
corrosion-resistant hardware provides firm locking.
Each machine is then electronically tested for leaks and run-
tested for performance and electrical safety parameters before
packaging.

Test Facility

Substantial investments have been made in setting up

sophisticated test laboratories. All the test labs comply with
international standards and boast of state-of-the-art
instrumentation systems.
We also believe in constantly upgrading product design and
manufacturing technologies to produce cost effective
customized solutions. This ensures that demands on reliability,
flexibility and process capability are constantly met, keeping
customer needs in mind, focus is also kept on creative design,
innovation and frequent up gradation of products.
FCU & AHU Test Lab Specification
 Cooling Capacity : 0.5 TR to 4 TR (FCU) / 4 – 15 TR
(AHU)
 Air flow measurement : 150 to 1600 CFM (FCU) / 1600
to 2000 CFM (AHU)
 Water flow : 1 to 30 USGPM / 8 to 45 USGPM
 Water temp : 5 to 25 C (AHU & FCU)
 Performance testing : Indoor temperature 15 deg. C to 55
Deg. C and Relative Humidity 20% to 90%
 Measurement of capacity from Air side and Water side.
Compliance Standards:

 ARI 440, 2005 : Performance rating of Room Fan Coils

 ASHRAE 33-2000 : Method of testing forced circulation
Air Cooling and Air Heating Coils
 ASHRAE 79-1984 : Method of testing for rating Room
Fan-Coil Air Conditioner
 ASHRAE 41.2-1987 : Standard Methods for Laboratory
Airflow Measurement
 AHSRAE 41.1-1986 : Standard Measurement Guide,
Section on Temperature Measurements
Reliability Test Lab
Test facilities available:

Environmental Test

 High temperature chamber (50°C to 250°C)

 Low temperature bath (-20°C to 40°C)
 Low temperature chamber (-5°C to 25°C)
 UV chamber (Day light wave length)
 Salt spray chamber (5%NaCl and 95%Water, temp : 35°C,
Duration : 1000Hours)
 Rain shower test facility (25mm/min with adjustable
nozzle)

Endurance Test

 Electrical ON/OFF cycling.(Can vary cycle time and count

number of cycles)
 Pneumatic ON/OFF cycling.(Can vary cycle time and count
number of cycles)

Vibration Test Facility

 Transportation vibration simulation (Variable frequency

20Hz to 50Hz)
 Capable of test UUT weight 400Kg
Electrical Test Equipments

 IR meter (500VDC)
 HV tester
 Lock rotor tester (Monitor and stores V/A/W/Temperature
of UUT)
 Digital Current/Voltage/power meter (For single and three
phase UUT)
 Oscilloscope
 Digital multimeter

Chiller Test Lab Specification

 Water Cooled Chillers: Cooling Capacity 40 TR to 200
TR
 Air Cooled Chillers: Cooling Capacity of 25 TR to 200
TR
 Ambient Conditions: 35 deg. C to 55 Deg. C
 Water flow measurement: Cooler upto 600 USGPM
 Water flow measurement: Condenser upto 800 USGPM
 Water side pressure drop through Cooler and Condenser
upto 2 Kg/cm2
Compliance Standards:

 ASHRAE 30-78: Method of testing liquid chilling

packages
 ARI 550/590: Water Chilling Packages using the vapor
compression cycle
 Factsheet

Total Income Growth: Rs. 2556.11 Cr

Operating Profit Excluding Non-operating income:
Rs.
299.16 Cr
Profit Before Tax: Rs. 276.62 Cr
Profit After Tax: Rs. 211.49 Cr
Shareholders' Funds: Rs. 491.68 Cr
Borrowings: Rs. 8.93 Cr
Capital Employed: Rs. 500.61 Cr
 Cold chain

A cold chain is a temperature-controlled supply chain. An

unbroken cold chain is an uninterrupted series of storage and
distribution activities which maintain a given temperature range.
It is used to help extend and ensure the shelf life of products
such as fresh agricultural produce, frozen food, photographic
film, chemicals and pharmaceutical drugs.
Cold chains are
common in the food
and pharmaceutical
industries and also
some chemical
shipments. One
common temperature
range for a cold chain
in pharmaceutical
industries is 2 to
8 °C.but the specific
temperature (and time
at temperature)
tolerances depend on
the actual product
being shipped.
 Refrigerant

A refrigerant is a medium of heat transfer through phase change

such as evaporation at low temperature and pressure, of course
with some exception where the sensible energy transfer occurs.
So a refrigerant may be defined as any substance that absorb
heat either by expansion or vaporization and reject it through
condensation in condenser .

Usages
Refrigerants Application
R-12 Domestic refrigerants, freezer
R-12, R-22, R-502 Small retail supermarkets
R-11, R-12, R-144, R-502 Air-conditioning
R-22, ammonia Industrial
R-12, R-502 Transport
CO2 Automobile
Propane Refrigerators
 History of Refrigerant

Until concerns about depletion of the ozone layer arose in the

1980s, the most widely used refrigerants were the halomethanes,
R-12 and R-22, with R-12 being more common in automotive
air conditioning and small refrigerators, and R-22 being used for
residential and light commercial air conditioning, refrigerators,
and freezers. Some very early systems used R-11 because its
relatively high boiling point allows low-pressure systems to be
constructed, reducing the mechanical strength required for
components. New production of R-12 ceased in the United
States in 1995, and R-22 is to be phased out by 2020. R-134a
and certain blends are now replacing chlorinated compounds.
One popular 50/50 blend of R-32 and R-125 now being
increasingly substituted for R-22 is R-410A, often marketed
under the trade name Puron. Another popular blend of R-32, R-
125, and R-134a with a higher critical temperature, and lower
GWP than R-410A is R-407C. While the R-22 and other ozone
depleting refrigerants are being phased out, they still have value
and can be easily sold.
Following the ban on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as
substitute refrigerants such as fluorocarbons (FCs) and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have also come under criticism.
They are currently subject to prohibition discussions on account
of their harmful effect on the climate. In 1997, FCs and HFCs
were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework
Convention on Climate Change. In 2006, the EU adopted a
Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases, which makes
stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the
intention of reducing their emissions. The provisions do not
affect climate-neutral natural refrigerants.
Early mechanical refrigeration systems employed sulfur dioxide
gas or anhydrous ammonia, with small home refrigerators
primarily using the former. Being toxic, sulfur dioxide rapidly
disappeared from the market with the introduction of CFCs.
Ammonia (R717) has been used in industrial refrigeration plants
for more than 130 years and is deemed to be environment-
friendly, economical, and energy-efficient. The natural
refrigerant carbon dioxide (R744) has a similarly long tradition
in refrigeration technology.
Occasionally, one may encounter older machines which used
other transitional refrigerants such as methyl formate,
chloromethane, or dichloromethane (called carrene in the trade).
Perhaps the most common of these to still retain a charge are the
methyl formate Monitor Top refrigerators produced by General
Electric.
Use of highly purified propane as a refrigerant is gaining favor,
especially in systems designed for R-22. Moreover, propane is
non-toxic. An odorant, such as ethyl mercaptan, can be added in
trace amounts to alert persons of system leaks.
 Classification of refrigerants

1.) Based on working principle:

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their
manner of absorption or extraction of heat from the substances
to be refrigerated:
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase
change (typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or
'sensible heat', the quantity of heat being the specific heat
capacity x the temperature change. They are air, calcium
chloride brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar
nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2 refrigerants is to
receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and
convey this lower temperature to the area to be air-conditioned.
Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed
vapors of liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These
solutions function by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable
vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their
heat of solution.
2.) Based on chemical compound
a.) Halocarbon compounds: Halocarbon compounds contains
one or more no. of halogens, chlorine, fluorine, and bromine
commercial name GENETRON, ISOTRON and ARETRON.
These have wide range of boiling point and presence of Florence
make it toxic.

e.g.

R-11-----CCl3F R-12-----CCl2F2
R-13-----CClF3 R-21-----CHCl2F

b.) Azeotropes: Azeotropes is mixture different refrigerant

which can not be separated under pressure and temperature and
they have fixed thermodynamic properties.

e.g.

R-500 is mixture of 73.8% of R-12 and 26.2% of R-152.

c.) Hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon are used as refrigerant for
commercial and industrial application.
Have desirable thermodynamic properties. Highly inflammable.

e.g.

R-50 Methane R-170 Ethane

R-230 Propane R-600 Butane
d.) Inorganic:
used before hydrocarbon
e.g.
R-717 NH3 R-744 CO2
R-718 H2O R-729 AIR
R-764 SO2
e.) Unsaturated O.C.:
Ethylene and Proplyene based O.C
e.g.
R-1120 C2HCl3 R-1130 C2H2Cl2
R-1150 C 2H 4 R-1270 C3H6

3.) based on safety:

a.) Toxicity classification

Refrigerants are divided into two groups according to toxicity:

 Class A signifies refrigerants for which toxicity has not

been identified at concentrations less than or equal to 400
ppm;
 Class B signifies refrigerants for which there is evidence of
toxicity at concentrations below 400 ppm.
b.) Flammability classification
Refrigerants are divided into three groups according to
flammability: 

 Class 1 indicates refrigerants that do not show flame

propagation when tested in air at 21°C and 101 kPa;
 Class 2 indicates refrigerants having a lower flammability
limit of more than 0.10 kg/m3 at 21°C and 101 kPa and a
heat of combustion of less than 19 kJ/kg;
 Class 3 indicates refrigerants that are highly flammable as
defined by a lower flammability limit of less than or equal
to 0.10 kg/m3 at 21°C and 101 kPa or a heat of combustion
greater than or equal to 19 kJ/kg.
c.) Mixtures

Mixtures, whether zeotropic or azeotropic, with flammability

and/or toxicity characteristics which may change as the
composition changes during fractionation, shall be assigned a
safety group classification based on the worst case of
fractionation.
e.g. R404A is classified A1

Desirable properties of a good refrigerant

a.) Thermodynamics:
1. Boiling point : Boiling point should be less at NTP,
otherwise vacuum on low pressure side.
2. Freezing point: Freezing point should be evaporator
temperature.
3. Evaporating Pressure: Evaporating Pressure should be
slightly above atmosphere pressure at required evaporator
temperature to avoid leakage.
4. Condensing pressure: Condensing pressure should be low
to avoid robust construction.
5. Latent heat of vaporization: Latent heat of vaporization
should be high, since evaporation of reference refrigerating
effect. So, high latent heat reduces mass of refrigerant.
6. Critical temperature and pressure: above condensing
temperature, for easy condensation of vapour.
In order to have large range of energy transfer (isothermal) else,
there would be excessive power consumption.
7. Compression Ratio: Compression Ratio should be as small
as possible otherwise leakage of refrigerants occurs.
8. Coefficient of performance: Coefficient of performance
gives running cost so COP increases cost decreases.
9. Conductivity: Conductivity should be very large so size of
condenser and evaporator is small.
10. Specific heat: Specific heat should be as small as possible.

b.) Chemical properties:

1. Chemical stability and inertness: Refrigerant should stable,
not form higher boiling point liquid or solid due to
Polymerization.
R-12 decomposes at 550oc
CO2 decomposes at 1000oc
SO2 decomposes at 1650oc
Refrigerant should be inert. It should not react.
2. Action on rubber or plastic: In several places in
refrigeration system where rubber and plastic are employed,
They should not effected by refrigerant.
3. Flammability: Liquid with flash point under 294.2k are
regarded as highly flammable. Best refrigerant co 2 and poor
ethane.
4. Effect of refrigerant on oil: The refrigerant should not react
with the lubricating oil otherwise leads to different lubrication
action due to either thickening or thinning of fluid.

5. Effect of refrigerants on commodity: The commodity kept

in the conditioned space should not be affected. If the refrigerant
is directly used for it’s chilling.
R-12 does not effect the commodity
R-717 spoils the commodity
6. Toxicity: A toxic refrigerant in one which in injurious to
human being if subjected to a given span of time.

C.) Physical properties:

1. Smell: A refrigerant having smelling property, so that leakage
can be detected.
2. Viscosity: It should be as small as possible, so that the
pressure drop in system be small.
3. Dielectrical strength: Important factor for hermetic
compressor wherein rotor is subjected to vapour form
evaporator, so insulation should not affected due to refrigerant
vapor.
d.) Safety criteria:
1. Toxicity
2. Flammability
3. Action on food
4. Formation of explosive compound

e.) Economic criteria:

1. Cost of refrigerant
2. Storage and handling
3. Personal preferences
4. Availability and supply
 CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE
STORAGE

Controlled atmosphere storage is a system for holding produce

in an atmosphere that differs substantially from normal air in
respect to CO2 and O2 levels. Controlled atmosphere storage
refers to the constant monitoring and adjustment of the
CO2 and O2 levels within gas tight stores or containers.
The gas mixture will constantly change due to metabolic activity
of the respiring fruits and vegetables in the store and leakage of
gases through doors and walls. The gases are therefore
measured periodically and adjusted to the predetermined
level by the introduction of fresh air or nitrogen or
passing the store atmosphere through a chemical to
remove CO2 .

There are different types of controlled atmosphere storage

depending mainly on the method or degree of control of the
gases. Some researchers prefer to use the terms ”static
controlled atmosphere storage” and “flushed controlled
atmosphere storage” to define the two most commonly
used systems. “Static” is where the product
generates the atmosphere and “flushed” is where the
atmosphere is supplied from a flowing gas stream,
which purges the store continuously. Systems may be
designed which utilize flushing initially to reduce the O 2 content
then either injecting CO2 or allowing it to build up
through respiration, and then maintenance of this atmosphere
by ventilation and scrubbing.

Importance of Controlled Atmosphere

CA storage has been the subject of an enormous
number of biochemical, physiological and technological
studies, in spite of which it is still not known precisely why it
works. The actual effects that varying the levels of O 2 and CO2
in the atmosphere have on crops varies with such factors as:
a. The species of crop
b. The cultivars of crop
c. The concentration of the gases in the store
d. The crop temperature
e. The state of maturity of the crop at harvest
f. The degree of ripeness of the climacteric fruit
g. The growing conditions before harvest
h. The presence of ethylene in the store

There are also interactive effects of the two gases, so

that the effects of the CO2 and O2 in extending the storage life
of a crop may be increased when they are combined. The
practical advantages of storage under CA can be summarized as
follows:
 1. A considerable decrease in respiration rate, with a
reduction in climacteric maximum, accompanied by an
expansion of both pre-climacteric and post-climacteric periods
2. A reduction in the effect of ethylene on metabolism due to
the interaction of O2 with ethylene, with a consequent delay of
appearance of senescence symptoms
3. An extension in storage life, which can even be
doubled, in as much as the over ripening is delayed
4. The preservation of an excellent firmness of flesh, due to
effect of CO2 concentration on the enzymes acting on cellular
membranes
5. A high turgidity is achieved, such that fruits are more
juicy and crisp
6. A smaller loss of acidity, sugars and vitamin C, so that
the nutritional and sensory quality is higher
7. A limited degradation of chlorophyll, with a consequent
higher stability of colour.
8. Some physiological alterations, such as chill injuries,
spot, decay, browning, water core and scald are prevented, or
greatly limited
9. Moulds can be reduced, in particular under low O 2, high
CO2 atmospheres
10. A longer shelf life in the post storage trading, which can
even be trebled thanks to the protraction of the effects on
respiration and on the other metabolic activities.
Fruits and Vegetables Storage under CA
The storability of fruits and vegetables is strictly related to their
respiration rate, which is an expression of metabolic activity.
Aerobic respiration requires O2, and results in CO2 and heat
release. More than 95% of the energy released is lost
as heat. The temperature decrease, in particular if helped
by modification of the atmosphere leads to a reduction in
respiration rate, and therefore to an increase in storage life in
fruits with climacteric respiration. Selection of the most
suitable atmosphere depends on cultivars, stage of
maturity, environmental and cultivation parameters. No one
atmosphere is best for all produce, specific recommendations
and cautions must be determined for each crop over
the range of storage temperature and periods.

Some examples of CA atmospheres can be seen in Table 1 and

2.

*contents in table 1
1. In avocado, CA reduces chilling injury and delays softening.
2. Pre-cooling is necessary.
3. Kiwi is damaged by high CO2, and low O2. Small
amounts of ethylene must be eliminated for a long storage
life.
4. Pre-cooling is necessary, also rapid attainment of a Ca is
useful.
5. Different varieties behave differently in CA storage; some
varieties are susceptible to internal breakdown.

Species Temper. RH (%) O2(%) CO2(%) Time

°C
Avocado1 7/12 90 2-3 3- 10 2 months

Cherry2 0 95 3- 10 10- 12 30 days

Kiwi3 0 98 2 4-5 7 months

Nectarine4 -0.5/0 95 2 5 50 days

Species Temper. RH (%) O2(%) CO2(%) Time

°C
Peach4 -0.5/0 95 2 4-5 40 days

Plum5 0 95 2 5 45 days

Table 1. Controlled atmosphere conditions for some fruit species (from Gormley,
T.R., 1985)
 Species Temper. O2 (%) CO2 (%) Time
°C
Asparagus 1-4 10-16 10-14 10-15 days
Artichokes 0- 1 2-4 2-3 20-25 days
Broccoli 0 2-3 5- 10 10 days
Cabbage 0 2-3 4-5 3-4 months
Cauliflower 0 3-4 5-7 40-50 days
Cucumber 12 1-4 0 20 days
Garlic -1 3 5 7 months
Green beans 7 3-4 4-5 10 days
Leeks 0 2-4 5- 10 5 months
Onions 0 1-2 0-1 9 months
Tomatoes 2 3-4 2-3 30-40 days

Table 2. Controlled atmosphere conditions for some vegetable species (from

Gormley, T.R., 1985)

Atmosphere Conditioning
The reduction of O2 level inside the storage rooms can be
biologically achieved by means of fruit respiration, or by O 2
burning, or by replacing air by feeding nitrogen. In first case, the
reduction in O2 down to a steady state level takes place within
15-25 days, with a slow and progressive decrease thereof.
When a non-biological system is used, O 2 can be
reduced to levels of 6-8% within 24 h and the subsequent
lowering to the desired levels for storage can take place via
respiration.
The reduction in O2 level can be rapid only if the fruits have
reached a temperature lower than 5°C. However, waiting for
some days for the fruit to be cooled is better, in order not to
cause asphyxia, with browning developing at the surface, or
inside the first layers of fruit flesh, or hollows being formed
inside the tissues of the core.
Fast cooling, in order to enable the storage room to
be rapidly scaled, is only possible by hydrocooling.
Otherwise it is essential to transfer the product from room to
room.
The fastest reduction in O2 level in the atmosphere is obtained
by using nitrogen generators (by now, a widely used system), or
by feeding liquid N2 Lowering O2 down to steady state
controlled atmosphere levels by means of non-biological
techniques is disadvantageous from a financial standpoint, due
to the high consumption of fuel or of nitrogen. Nitrogen
generators selectively separate air to produce an enriched
nitrogen system.
Nitrogen separation from the compressed air supply

Nitrogen generator systems using membrane separators

 CA Storage Rooms
A gas tight room is an obvious prerequisite for achieving a good
controlled atmosphere. Thus it is necessary to make room walls
gas -tight. In order to ensure that the walls were gas tight to CA
storage they were lined with sheets of galvanized steel.
Doors may be mounted on a sliding rail, as pictured to the left.
Or, they may be mounted to open vertically on overhead rails, as
pictured to the right.

The bottoms and tops of the steel sheets were embedded in

mastic (a kind of mortar composed of finely ground limestone,
sand, litherage and linseed oil) and, where sheets abutted on the
walls and ceiling, a coating of mastic was also applied. Modern
controlled atmospheres stores are made from metal-faced
insulated panels (usually polyurethane foam) , which are
fitted together with gas tight-patented locking devices. The
joints between panels are usually taped with gas tight tape or
painted with flexible plastic paint to ensure that they are gas
tight.
Major areas of the store where leaks can occur are the doors.
Having rubber gaskets around the perimeter, which correspond
to another rubber gasket around the doorjamb or frame so that
when the door is closed the two meet to seal the door, usually
seal these.
Sealed CA rooms go through many pressure changes during the
storage season. There is a danger of damaging the walls or
ceiling of the rooms if proper measures are not taken to absorb
the pressure changes. Pressure/vacuum relief valve is a simple
solution to the problem. With this valve mounted externally to a
4" pipe penetrating one wall of the room, a non-threatening
pressure level can be kept in the room. Where there is a pressure
difference between the store air and the outside air there can be
a difficulty in retaining the store in completely gas tight
condition. Stores are therefore fitted with pressure release
valves, but these can make the maintenance of the precise gas
level difficult, especially the O2 level in the ultra low O2 store.
Pressure release valve is pictured to the left, expansion bag is pictured to right

An expansion bag may be fitted to the store to overcome this

problem of pressure differences. The bags are gas tight
and partially inflated and are placed outside the store
with the bag inside the store. If the store air volume
increases then this will automatically further inflate the
bag and when the pressure in the store is reduced then air will
flow from the bag to the store. The inlet of the expansion
bag should be situated before the cooling coils of the
refrigeration unit in order to ensure the air from expansion bag is
cooled before being returned to the store. With an increasing
need for Ultra-low Oxygen (ULO) storage of fruit, the use of air
bags is growing in popularity. The air bag can be used
in conjunction with a balance/cascading air line on a series of
CA rooms to help absorb pressure changes without changing the
oxygen content of the rooms.
Temperature Control
The main way of preserving fruits and vegetables in storage or
during long distance transport is by refrigeration, and
controlled atmospheres are considered a supplement to
increase or enhance the effect of refrigeration. CA
storage is only successful when applied at low
temperatures. Standard refrigeration units are therefore
integral components of CA stores. Temperature control
is achieved by having pipes containing a refrigerant
inside the store. Ammonia or chlorofluorocarbons are
common refrigerants. These pipes pass out of the store; the
liquid is cooled and passed over the cooled pipes. All
temperature measurement systems depend fundamentally on the
quality of the measuring sensor. In commercial practice for CA
stores the store temperature is initially reduced to 0
°C for a week or so whatever the subsequent storage
temperature will be. Also, CA stores are normally designed to a
capacity, which can be filled in 1 day, so fruit are loaded
directly into store and cooled the same day.

Humidity Control
Most fruits and vegetables, which are kept in CA
storage, require a high relative humidity, generally the
closer to saturation the better, so long as moisture
does not condense on the crop. The amount of heat absorbed
by the cooling coils of the refrigeration unit is related to the
temperature of the refrigerant they contain and the
surface area of the coils. If the refrigerant temperature is
low compared to the store air temperature then water will
condense on the evaporator. This removal of moisture from the
store air reduces its relative humidity, which results in the
stored crop losing moisture by evapo-transpiration. In
order to reduce crop desiccation the refrigerant temperature
should be kept close to the store air temperature.
A whole range of humidifying devices can also be used to
replace the moisture in the air, which has been condensed out
on the cooling coils of refrigeration units.These include spinning
disc humidifiers where water is forced at high velocity onto a
rapidly spinning disc.
A technique, which retains high humidity within the store, is via
secondary cooling so that the cooling coils do not come
into direct contact with the store air. Ice blank cooling
is also a method of secondary cooling where the refrigerant
pipes are immersed in a tank of water so that the water is frozen.
The ice is then used to cool water and the water is converted to a
fine mist, which is used to cool and humidify the store air.

Gas Control
The atmosphere in a modern CA store is constantly analysed for
CO2 and O2 levels using an infrared gas analyser to measure the
gas content in the store constantly. They need to be
calibrated with mixtures of known volume of gases.
Portable dual gas analyzer capable of measuring oxygen (0-
25%) and carbon dioxide (0- 10%) and ethylene analyzer.
There are also ethylene analyzers that continuously measure
ethylene concentration in the store. In storage rooms where
low ethylene is essential, checks can be made that the ventilation
and ethylene removal systems are operating correctly. The
minimum resolution of 0.2 ppm makes this instrument very
useful for most products and for theultra ethylene sensitive
products such as Kiwi Fruit, a reading on this machine will
indicate severe storage atmosphere problems.
There are many gas control systems in CA rooms. Carbon
dioxide and oxygen sensors are located in the store
atmosphere, and send a low voltage signal back to the controller
which may be mounted outside the store. This eliminates the
need for sample tubing or pumps, and gives continuous real time
readings. Gas control systems can extend from 6 to 62 rooms. It
provides individual settings in each room, for any gas and
temperature storage regime.
Gas control systems

Two miniature display/controllers, one each for oxygen and

carbon dioxide, make up the CA store controller. It features
the following control functions: control output for
store ventilation when oxygen is low; control output for
nitrogen purge when oxygen is high, or if selected, when
carbon dioxide is high; control output for scrubbers
when carbon dioxide is high; and an optional control output
for adding CO2 when carbon dioxide is low.

Scrubbers
The composition of the gas mixture inside the storage rooms
undergoes continuous change as a function of the metabolic
activity of the stored product and scrubbers are
necessary to absorb excess CO2 . Scrubbers are generally
classified according to the absorbent material: Ca(OH) 2 ,
NaOH, H2O, zeolites, activated charcoals. They are
classified according to the mode of absorption (i.e.
chemical or physical), or to the mode of air passage
through the absorbing agent. Scrubbers using activated
charcoal are currently the most popular. Gas removal
with this type of equipment is based on the fixing of
CO2 in a particular way, and releasing it again on contact with
atmospheric air, even at room temperature.
Scrubbers use advanced electronic PLC control and a panel
mounted Carbon Dioxide Analyzer to constantly monitor the
status of the carbon beds. Through careful monitoring of CO 2
levels, the scrubber switches cycles only when needed, keeping
the cycles to a minimum and efficiency to a maximum. By
filtering in the scrub air and the fresh purge air, carbon life is
also kept to a maximum.
 Scrubber:

The unit consists of an activated

carbon filter chamber, a low
-pressure ventilator, an air-
transport system, a control unit,
and a buffer or lung system.
Carbon dioxide and
Oxygen Damage
CA storage have also adverse effects, at O 2 levels below 1%, in
the absence of CO2 , anaerobic conditions can prevail with the
consequent formation of alcohol and physiological changes.
Also high CO2 and low O2 may cause abnormality in
metabolism. The level of CO2, which can cause damage to fruit
and vegetables, varies between cultivars of the same crop.
Variability in plant material prevents precise controlof
intercellular atmosphere; recommendations can be designed
only to avoid complete anaerobic conditions and a harmful level
of CO2 in the centre of the permeable individual fruit and
vegetable.
Some examples of CA injury can be seen in Table 3.
 Crop and CO2 CO2 injury O2 O2 injury
cultivars injury symptoms injury symptoms
level level
Apple, >3% Internal <1% Alcoholic
red browning taste
delicious
Apple, Fuji >5% CO2 injury <2% Alcoholic
taint
Apple, Gala >1.5% CO2 injury <1.5% Ribbon scald
Apricot >5% Loss of <1% Off-flavour
flavour
Banana >7% Green fruit <1% Brown skin,
softening discoloration

Cabbage >10% Discoloration <25% Off-flavour

of inner
leaves
Green >7% Off-flavour <55% Off-flavour
beans
Cherry >30% Brown, <1% Skin pitting,
discoloration Off-flavour
Mango >10% softening <2% Skin
discoloration
Table 3. Examples of CA injury (from Thompson A.K, 1998)

CA DEVELOPMENT
The direction suggested by studies carried out in the past as to
the most suitable gas composition has change progressively on
the basis of the new experiences gained, on the development of
new support equipment, and of new structural technologies.
From atmospheres where O2 and CO2, generated by fruit
respiration, were in equilibrium (O2 11- 16%; CO2 5- 10%), the
studies have progressively turned to atmospheres with limited
concentrations of O2 and CO2, accomplished by means of air
cleaners (O2 2-3%; CO2 2-5%). More recently, lower O 2 and
CO2 levels (respectively 1- 1.5% and 0-1%) were investigated.
This concept of the progressive reduction of O 2 and CO2 in the
atmosphere, in order to limit the respiratory activity and thus
more or less extend the storage life of the product, led to the
adoption of the so-called ULO (Ultra low oxygen) system.
The advantages of ULO are particularly evident when the
temperature and O2 concentration are simultaneously quickly
reduced in the atmosphere inside the storage rooms.
This is called RCA, rapid controlled atmosphere. High
CO2 treatment (10-15% for 10- 15 days) and initial O 2 stress
have also been proposed to enhance the effects of CA storage.
Further developmental proposals for CA modification
are dynamics CAs, in which O 2 and CO2 levels are
changed during storage according to previously programmed
patterns, or as a function of physiological parameters of stored
fruit, or with an intermittent enrichment with high-dosage CO 2
for a few days.

CA TRANSPORT
A large and increasing amount of fresh fruit and
vegetables is transported by sea freight (reefer) containers.
Controlling the levels of some of the gases in reefer containers
has been used for many years to increase the marketable life of
fresh produce. CA containers have some mechanism for
measuring the changes in gases and adjusting them to a
pre-set level. The degree of control over the gases in container
is affected by how gas tight the container is, some early systems
had a leakage rate of 5m3 /h or more, but current systems can be
below 1m3 . The systems used to generate the atmosphere in the
containers falls into three categories:
1. The gases that are required to control the atmosphere are
carried with the container in either a liquid or solid form
2. Membrane technology is used to generate the gases by
separation
3. The gases are generated in the container and recycled
with pressure absorption technology and swing absorption
technology

The first method involves injecting nitrogen into the container to

reduce the level of O2with often some enhancement of CO2.The
gases are carried in the compressed liquid form in steel cylinders
at the front of the container, with access from the outside.
In containers, which use membrane technology, the CO 2 is
generated by the respiration of the crop and nitrogen is injected
to reduce the O2 level. The nitrogen is produced by passing the
air through fine porous tubes, made from polyamides, at a
pressure of about 5-6 bar. These will divert most of the oxygen
through the tube walls leaving mainly nitrogen, which is
injected, into the store.

The containers use ventilation to control O2 levels and a

patented molecular sieve to control CO 2 . The molecular sieve
will also absorb ethylene and has two distinct circuits which
are switched at predetermined intervals so that while one circuit
is absorbing, the other is being generated. The regeneration of
the molecular sieve beds can be achieved when they are
warmed to 100 °C to drive off the CO 2 and ethylene. This
system of regeneration is referred to as temperature swing where
the gases are absorbed at low temperature and released at high
temperature. Regeneration can also be achieved by reducing the
pressure around the molecular sieve, which is called pressure
swing. A computer controls all the level of gas, temperature
and humidity within the container, which is an integral
part of the container. It monitors the levels of oxygen from a
paramagnetic analyser and the CO2 from an infrared gas
analyser and adjusts the levels to those, which have been preset
in the computer.

REFERENCES
Thompson, A.K. 1998. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit
and Vegetables, CAB International, UK.
Gormley, T.R., 1985, Chilled Foods, the State of the Art,
Elsevier App. Sc i. , London, New York.
Proudlove R.K, 1989, The Science and Technology of Foods,
Forbes Publications, England.
Storage Control Systems Inc. Web page,
www.storagecontrol.com