^ ^

(}^^!ipten,'t

1.1. Concept and Historical Perspective

1.1.1. Concept

1.1.2. Historical Perspective

1.2. Terminology and Typology

1.2.1. Temiinology

1.2.2. Typology

1.3. Review of Literature

^ J
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. CONCEPT AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.1.1. Concept

Drug addiction in the recent decades has become the concern of

every individual, community and nation. Mankind no doubt has been
using and abusing drugs right from the beginning of civilisation.
Generally, drugs are used for the treatment of various diseases.
Drugs are administered to patients in required doses and as soon as
they have done their work they are withdrawn. Life saving drugs
sometimes become life-killing drugs, as well as if they are used
habitually for a long period of time. The prolonged use of drugs may
lead to dependence of the body on them and the body can not live
without them. This is called drug addiction.

Drug addiction prevents the individual from realising his or her

potential. In doing so, it acts as an obstacle to social development.
The social and economic costs of drug abuse place an intolerable
strain on the social infrastructures of developed and developing
countries alike. Drug addiction is a unique phenomenon in a number
of aspects which affects the health of the individuals e.g., political
and economic development, the safety of the streets and the stability
of governments.

The problem of drug addiction has interrelated relationship

with the family disorganisation. The quality of parental relationship is
equally vital so far as the contributory factors of drug abuse are
concerned. Parents and siblings clearly constitute the primary
influence on the behaviour of a growing child, but as adolescence
approaches these are felt to recede in favour of peer groups. The
family influence can remain predominant, but only if the family is
strong and united. Links are sometimes made between drug use and
children who have grown up in homes affected by divorce, separation
or bereavement. On the whole, research does not substantiate a
causal effect unless the family unit is qualitatively disfunctional.
Divorce and separation make no difference if the family environment
is one in which there is no violence, where problems are habitually
discussed and parents are concerned about their offsprings.

The ordinary care exercised by the parents may keep children

and youth away from the drugs and, on the other hand, their
carelessness or involvement in drug abuse or alcoholism may also
attract the family members towards drugs, especially when the head
of the family or the elders of the family themselves use drugs or
alcohol. When the familial ties deteriorate such as in divorce, death
of any one of the parents or both, absence of the father from home
for a long time; or if he is polygamous, or when the parents quarrel
become violent with each other; such events mount pressure upon
other members of the family and consequently they remain under
constant psychological and emotional strains, resulting in family
maladjustment, unhealthy environment, disharmony, tension and
selfishness among the members. This is called family disorganisation.
Khan and Unnithan found a relevant relationship between disorganised
family and use of drugs.'

Khan, M.Z. and Unnithan, UP, Association of Socio-Economic

Factors with Drug Use among College Students in an Indian Town,
Bulletin on Narcotics, Vol. XXXVI, No.2, (1979), pp. 61-68.
 Blum also found the importance of family as a crucial source of
children's behaviour and its impact on the use of psychoactive drugs
among members.^

The concept of drugs has been given by different people like

chemists, physicians, psychologists and mediamen in the context of
their own professions. In sociological context, the term drug
addiction denotes any habit forming substance that directly affects
the brain or the nervous system. More precisely, it refers to any
chemical substance that affects physiological functions, mood,
perception or consciousness, and has the potential for misuse and
may prove to be harmful to the user and society. Some people prefer
to use the term to refer to common medicines like aspirin or cough
syrup. Similarly, persons habitually using alcohol, caffeine or
nicotine are hardly considered to be drug abuser in the sociological
context. A scientist may define a drug as a substance which by its
chemical nature affects the structure and function of a living
organism. Medically, drug is a chemical agent which affects live
protoplasm.^

Addiction to a drug is not itself a disease, rather it is a

symptom of on underlying emotional problem. All drugs are harmful
if one is addicted to them. Drug addiction is a social evil and a
serious problem, with frequently tragic consequences, but it is so
linked in the minds of many with the underworld, which is the source

2. Blum, Richard, The Role of Family in the Origin and Prevention of

Drug Risk. India, (1972), p.101.

3. Rishi, D.D., Drugs - The Noose Tightens, PJD Publications, Delhi,

India, (1995), pp.8-9.
of narcotics that their attitude towards crime takes precedence over
their attitude to disease.

It was written by Karl Marx that religion is the opium of the people,
but today we say conversely, opium is the religion of the people/ In spite
of the increasing concern of the international society for the drug abuse and
its effects, its prevention has not been possible and could not reach the
common man. The control of this evil, which threatens the individual and
society throughout the world, is unsuccessful. The problem of drug
addiction is engulfing the human society at an alarming pace and more
people are falling victims in the trap of the drug abuse. The problem of
drug abuse has become a serious human concern as it carries in its ambit
international, regional and national dimensions. It is very important for the
socio-human society to halt and suppress the spread of this scourge because
this problem is spreading accross cultural, trans-ethics and global
dimensions. The problem does not merely affect the individual and family
but it has a social, biological and economic ramifications.

The adverse effects of drug addiction can be perceived in all

societies and none is immune fi"om its negative effects. Many organisations
have been established for controlling this menace. The United Nations
International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP), International Narcotics
Control Board (INCH), World Health Organisation (W^O), International
Labour Organisation (ILO), etc., deserve to be mentioned.*

V.R. Krishna, Narcotic Aggression and Operation Counter - Attach

Mainstream, March 7, (1992), p.11.

The United Nations Program for Controlling the International Problem

of Drugs. The Drugs Committee, Cycle 33, Vienna : 6-\V^ Feb.,
(1989).
 A number of research studies have been undertaken all over the
world to examine various problems related with drug addiction and
drug abuse. In the European and American countries, the studies have
brought within their purview, different dimensions of the problem.
Also in Asia and African countries many scholars have discussed
various aspects of the problem and these studies are still continuing
throughout the world.

Today, the human society faces the problem of drug abuse since
time immemorial and it has taken many dangerous dimensions and has
been aggravated especially with the gradual increase in their
production and trafficking for the last few decades. The major
reasons for its rapid expansion are the processs of globalisation,
liberalisation, colonisation and progress in the field of transport and
communication. Besides development of the scientific technology, the
pharmaceutical industries also aggravated the problem.

The changes in the population structure, traditionally operative

control mechanism, social and ethical values, defective personality
and dissatisfaction of young people are closely associated with the
proliferation of drug abuse in modern society. The recently escalating
large scale abuse in contemporary urban societies is, however, very
much different from what was prevalent in primitive cultures. In the
complex, more advanced, sophisticated and urban contemporary
societies, the drug abuse is taking place on a large scale.* Drug
abuse has invaded the home, the workplace and educational
institutions, affecting individuals of all ages and classes. The damage

6. Schultzes, Richard. E., An Overview of Hallucinogens in the Western

Hemishere in Flesh of the Gods : The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens.
New York, USA, (1972), pp. 3-54.
done to traditional values, life style and national economics is
tremendous.

With growing prosperity, urban anonymity, erosion of social

system and breaking up of family support, coupled with a number of
other factors, lead to the dependence on drugs. The family plays a
major part during rehabilitation, since addiction not only affects the
addict but the family as a whole. It exerts the most profound
influence on the growing child. The family can prove instrumental in
preventing their children from falling pray to this scourge.
Adolescents need warm, loving and caring relationship with their
parents. Lack of love and caring often act as a preparatory ground
for revolting indulgence.

Parents and other elders must develop an understanding with

their youngsters and encourage frank and honest discussions on any
issue which they or their children feel is an integral part of their
growing years. Parents are increasingly viewing education as a
passport for entry into better careers rather than as a system, which
should inculcate independent, balanced and rational thinking that
sometimes encourage drug dependence in children. It is, therefore,
important that families do not send their children to the accelerated
trip of ambition. They should try to understand the peer group and
other relations, which their children keep. More importantly, they
must teach children to be responsible for their own actions and its
consequences and they must provide support and keep the channels of
healthy communication open.' In other words, it can be considered
that the family is the best resource for drug abuse prevention. Drug
abuse is often first identified by the user's family, because many of

7. The Hindu. New Delhi, India, Dec. 15, (1998), p.22.

the first and most serious consequences of drug abuse occur in the
family. The family is also the key to solving a drug problem once it
has begun.

As elsewhere in the world, in Jordan also the problem of drug

abuse has become a matter of serious public concern, especially on
account of its proliferation among the youth in various socio-cultural
and economic milieus. Although there are no definite figures to show
the actual extent of the problem, yet the rising number of drug
addicts, the drug councelling and deaddiction centres, indicate the
increasing magnitude and extent of the problem. Moreover, the
magnitude of the problem of drug abuse can be determined through
some criteria like the demand and supply, figures of addicts and
abusers, types and qualities of drugs that have been curbed, and the
number of persons who have been captured. The deceased King
Hussien had declared 7,000 addiction cases in Jordan whereas this
figure was not declared by the Government.*

Drug problem is a recent development in Jordan as it was not

considered a problem a few decades back. But today, in view of the
increase in the magnitude of its use in different sections of society
and the increase in the seizure of narcotic drugs worth millions of
Dinars, drug addiction has been recognised as a serious problem.
Jordan does not produce addictive substances, but geographically
Jordan has become a transition area for drugs from other areas to the
consumption areas. However, this transition does allow some
quantities of drugs to enter inside the local market, thus to abusers
and aimed people especially hard drugs like heroin which is

8. Directorate of Public Security, The Youth and Drugs (Arabic), Dept.

of Drug Strife, Amman, Jordan, (1995), p.6.
considered the most potent drug because its strong capacity into
addiction.

Generally speaking, we can point out the main factors which

led to the incessant increase of drug abuse in Jordan. As mentioned
earlier the strategic site of Jordan between the production and
consumption countries, as well as, the increase in demand on drugs
in the consumption countries. This definitely leads to increase of the
transition process and their escape in to the market. The main routes
of drug smuggling and factors which led to increase of drug abuse in
Jordan can be demonstrated as follows:

1. Important drug smuggling routes to Jordan are :

(i) The loose northern national borders with Turkey and Syria,
(ii) The open desert borders with Turkey and Syria,
(iii) The official crossing points with Lebanon and Syria,
(iv) The International Queen Aliyah Airport.
2. The drug smuggling routes from Jordan to the consumption
countries are :
(i) The long desert borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan.
(ii) The Al-Aqaba Gulf waters between Jordan and Egypt.
(iii) Through Wadi Araba and Aq-aba Gulf between Israel and
Jordan,
(iv) From Jordan (The International Queen Aliyah Airport) through
the transit passengers or cargo to Europe and America.'

3. The continuous influx of the labour force to Jordan from some

countries suffering from drug addition. The increase of

9. The National Plan Project for Controlling Drugs and Psychotropic

Substances (Arabic). Amman, Jordan, 1999, p.8.
 immigration abroad for business and tourism and study who
bring back this habit with them.

4. As an after effect of the Gulf War between Kuwait and Iraq in

1990, there was influx of migrants from Kuwait to Jordan for
better economic opportunities and employment. These people
brought with them the habit of drug consumption for quite
obvious reasons. This has naturally put lot of pressure on
employment potential and economy in Jordan.

5. The demographic structural breakdown of the Jordanian society

resulting in individualism and permissiveness, as well as, family
disorganisation which eventually led to lack of parental control.

6. The absence of voluntary and educational foundations in

spreading awareness among people about this evil pretended
that the Department of Drug Strife is only responsible for
controlling the problem of drug abuse in the country. The
problem of drug abuse could not remain restricted to a
particular class of our society. It engulfed even the other
sections of society. Reasons for it are many : Extravagant and
plush life, sufficient availability of money, long working hours
and outdoor work of parents, particularly of the mother, lack
of parental control and supervision.

Surprisingly, we find a self contradictory situation in

many societies including Jordan. On the one hand there are
drugs like hashish and kiptagon which are prohibited, while on
the other hand, alcohol is permitted. Keeping in view the fact
that the consequences of using hashish are equally dangerous,
 10

question the laws and systems for combating the problem of

drug abuse as long as such a situation exists.

However, the prevalence of psychoactive drugs in Jordan is

appreciably lower than that in many other countries. The data
presented in this study and many others clearly bring out this
difference. The drug abuse in Jordan may not be exactly a problem of
high magnitude as yet, but it may become one in the days to come.
The present work is a modest attempt to add to the existing body of
information on the drug abuse problems. While focusing on the
interrelationship between family disorganisation due to drug
addiction in urban society in Jordan, it also attempts to look into the
problem from a causational angle.

1.1.2. Historical Perspective

Use of drugs as medicine and for enjoyment is a very old

experience of man. A historical perspective of drugs would enable us
to understand as to how drug came to be adopted by people in
various societies in different parts and epoch of history. Use of drugs
for psychological satisfaction was very common all over the world,
particularly in the Arab World.

Narcotics are thought to be one of the earliest drugs ever

known to mankind, particularly the natural toxicants, such as, poppy
(opium) and hemp or Indian cannabis (hashish), probably discovered
by the early man while looking for food amongst the plants. He later
found them to be satisfying his desires.'"

10. Sweef, Mustafa, The Drugs and Society (Arabic), The Knowledge
World, Al-Safa, N.205, (1996), p.7.
 11

However, these drugs have been abused to induce a feeling of

euphoria, to find an imaginary escape from the feelings of despair,
dejection and anxiety. A man has used opium and cannabis since the
immemorial time to relieve pain and cure disease. The Assyrian physicians
used drugs as early as 4000 B.C. and they were aware of the opium
poppy.'' The ancient Sumerian physician spoke of opium's capacity to
produce delight and satisfaction and used to describe it as Gil which means
a plant of joy. Later, they passed on the knowledge of opium to the
Babylonians and spread its medicinal properties to Persia and Egypt.'^
Many Greek and Roman physicians had also returned to the use of opium
poppy. A Greek Philosopher, Homer, is stated to have made extensive use
of opium as a power to forget the pain and sense of evil. The Greek
physician, Hippocrate, made extensive use of opium as a medicinal herb.'^

Rome inherited the Greek civilisation and spread knowledge of

opium's properties. Their physician, Galenus, prescribed it to reduce pain
and for most of the ailments of his Roman patients. Virgil mentioned that
the poppy seeds were a Roman favourite mixed with food.''' Greek
illustrated the sleeping deity (Hynous) by the poppy flowers and so did the
Romans to their deity (Sohaus).'^ The Egyptian physicians also

11. Al-Badainah, Zyab, The Problem of Drugs in the Modern Age (Arabic).
National Library, Amman, Jordan, (1995), p.ll.

12. Modi, Ishwar and Modi, Shalini, Drugs-Addiction and Prevention.

Rawat Publication, (1997), Jaipur, India, p.13.

13. Roy, Shibani and Rizvi, S.H.M., Nicotine Water to Heroin. SHM, BR
Publishing Corporation, Delhi, India, (1986), p.13.

14. Way, Walter, L., Drug Scene : Help or Hang-up? Prentice Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, (1977), p.6.

15. Al-Badainah, Zyap, Op. cit., p.12.

 12

prescribed opium as early as the 16"" century B.C. for crying

children.'*

The use of opium in Arabian societies is evident by the writings of

Al-Biruni (973-1051 A.D.). They took over the usage of opium from the
Egyptians. Arab troops and traders brought the knowledge of opium to
Europe and Asia in the lO"" century. They also spread it to Persia, India
and China. The Chinese emperor, Shen Nung, was first who mentioned
cannabis in his writings around 2737 B.C. and prescribed it for use in
various ailments. Another Chinese physician, Hoa-Cho, used cannabis
mixed with wine as a surgical anesthetic.

Indians used herbal concoctions which were prevalent earlier than

Chinese. References to 'Somaras' are mentioned in the Rig-Veda and in
the old Sanskrit. The intoxicating properties of cannabis and its
preparations were probably known to Indians around 2000 years ago.
The Indian people used soma and sura in most of their religious
ceremonies and rituals.'*

The Arabs used the psychotropic substances as a medicine for

almost all diseases. They used to relieve pain of wounded soldiers and
horses and prescribed to diarrhoea patients. They also used it to get
euphoria and pleasure." There are numerous references of the sleep

16. Modi, Ishwar., Report on Assessment of Drug Abuse, Drug Users and
Drug Preventive Services in Aimer, Ministry of Welfare Project, Dept. of
Sociology, Univ. of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India, (1989), p.2.

17. Rishi, D.D., Op. cit., p.2.

18. C. Dwarkanath, Use of Opium and Cannabis in the Traditional System

of Medicine in India. Bulletin on Narcotics 17 (I), (1965), p. 15.

19. Al-Shahwan, Abdullah, Drugs in History (Arabic), The Police

Magazine, No. 4, Amman, Jordan, p.32.
 13

producing properties of cannabis in the Arabian Nights. It is said

that the Arabs were probably the ones who started opium
systematically as a psychoactive substance.^' The Arab poets
described alcohol and its consumptions in the Al-Jahli age. Some of
the most famous poets like Abu-Alhindi, Omer Ibn-Abi Rabeha, Al-
Asha, Abu-Nawas, etc., consumed alcohol throughout their lives and
praised it in their poetry.^^

Cocoa appears to have been in use for the last 5000 years or
so, much before the establishment of the Inca Empire. Cocoa was
considered to be a plant of divine origin by the Incas. Ergot fungus
found on the seeds of a plant known as Morning Glory has also been
used for hundreds of years by the South American-Indians to achieve
religious hallucinations. From the 16"' to the 19"* century, people
marked the beginning of a realisation that intoxicants are harmful to
human beings. In the 19"" century, morphine, heroin and codeine were
discovered and have been considered to be a valuable medicine for
the relief of pain. Amphetamines, Methadone, LSD and other
synthetic narcotics were discovered in the 20*'' century.^^

Jordan, being part and parcel of the Arab World, could never
escape the effects of drugs like other nations. The problem of drug
addiction in Jordan increased due to advancement in different aspects
of modern life. Till the end of the 19*'' century, drug addiction was

20. Funk and Wagnalls, New Encyclopedia. Vol. 8, New York, USA,
p.176.

21. Modi, Ishwar and Modi, Shalini, Op. cit., p. 14.

22. Al-Shabab Magazine (Arabic), Ministry of Youth, Al-Anwar

Publications, No.201, Amman, Jordan, (1997), p.45.

23. Rishi D.D., Op. cit., p.3-5.

 14

not recognised as a serious social problem. For its obvious link with
the socially unacceptable behaviour, most of the societies viewed it
as an ethical and not a social problem. A nation state's reaction to
drug addiction was legal. For its unpleasant effects on society and
the individual himself, they tried to check it simply by awarding
punishments without bothering to consider its real causes and other
factors behind this moral crisis. Some other societies mistook it for
disease and the addict was considered to be a sick person, due to the
physiological effects of drug and his inability to get rid of it.

Jordan remained, till the first four decades of the twentieth

century, free of narcotics and almost free from any addict, except a
few individual cases traceable among the non Jordanian population.
Only in the fifties of the century (1940s) did some varieties of
narcotics, e.g., hashish began to appear on the scene.

In 1948, many Palestinians migrated to Jordan which resulted

in difficult and adverse conditions for the Jordanian society such as
unemployment, poverty and subsequent resort to drugs. The migrants,
especially those who came from the coastal areas of Palestine were
already familiar with the practice of taking drugs. In Jordan too, they
started looking for drugs and obtaining them through any possible
means. They also helped some Jordanians with these drugs and thus
communicated their addiction to them.

Again in 1967, in the wake of the Arab-Israel War, a large

number of Palestinians migrated to Jordan, causing further
deterioration in the situation. Jordan had to experience difficult and
disturbed security conditions as the corruption became more rampant
and the demand and supply of narcotics increased, which led to
 15

further increase in the number of the Jordanian addicts given to the

habit of taking hashish and opium.^^

In the seventies and eighties, when the situation became normal

and peace and stability already restored, there started in Jordan a
new moment era of economic development, education and socio-
cultural change. This was a direct result of the ever increasing
interaction of Jordan with the external world. Jordanian students,
immigrants and tourists were returning to Jordan after many of them
having already mingled up with people of different societies and
cultures. This resulted in the use of a number of other varieties of
narcotics e.g., heroin and cocaine appearing in the Jordanian society,
the demand for the illegal stuff increased.^'

Subsequently, there emerged some new forms of psychological

pills which were easily available and there was a phenomenal rise in
the prices of traditional narcotics, i.e., hashish and opium. Also,
there was a role of the foreign labour in the proliferation of narcotics
in Jordan, because many of them came from those countries where
these drugs were already widespread. This certainly had a great
negative impact on the Jordanian society as far as the spread of
narcotics is concerned. As Jordan had to accept a flood of refugees in
the early nineties in the wake of the Gulf War between Iraq and its
Allies, this too had a great effect and further enhanced the
proliferation of drugs, as there were many addicts among the refugees
who continued taking drugs even in Jordan.

24. Directorate of Public Security, Jordan and its Role in Controlling of

Drugs (Arabic). Dar Al-Nass, Amman, Jordan, (1992), p.14.

25. Al-Qaisi, Hashim, The Drugs (Arabic), The Police Magazine, Amman,
Jordan, 1986, p.36.
 16

Moreover, it is necessary to mention in this context the role

played by 'Peace Treaties' between Israel and the neighbouring Arab
States, including the peace treaty between Jordan and Israel in 1994.
Jordan was also used as a transit destination for narcotics where
these could be kept and stored for limited periods, till these were
taken to other countries for consumption. This facilitated the inland
diversion of some quantity of them and that further created a greater
demand for them in Jordan. It should also be kept in mind that the
desert in the east is a convenient source of drug smuggling to many
of the villages and tribes living in the remote areas of the Arab
States."

To conclude, we can say that Jordan, in the course of its

historical development, witnessed difficult conditions and disturbed
situations that led to the spread and proliferation of narcotics in the
younger generation of the Jordanian society, particularly in urban
areas, in spite of the fact that it is not at all a country producing
narcotics, but merely a transit point from where they are supplied to
some neighbouring countries. There is no denying the fact that the
drug addiction was never confined to the lower classes, rather, it
enveloped the middle and upper classes of the Jordanian society as
well.

1.2. Terminology and Typology

1.2.1.Terminology

Drug is a very wide term and can be used for both medicinal and
non-medicinal purposes. Drug in the context of phrases like drug problem

26. Directorate of Public Security, The Youth and Drugs (Arabic), Dept.
of Drug Strife , Amman, Jordan, (1995), p.6.
 17

or drug abuse is really a shorthand for socially disapproved drug or drugs

which are used in the socially disapproved ways. Park pointed out that
'drug phenomenon' like any other phenomenon can not be explained or
understood outside social and cultural contexts". In order to get
information about the basic terminology, we provided a core understanding
for developing a consensus about patterns of use of mood-altering drugs.

Drug

For a layman, a drug is something which a doctor prescribes for

treatment of a disease. Some times the term is used to refer to common
medicines like aspirin or cough syrup. From a sociological viewpoint, a
drug denotes any habit-forming substance that directly affects the nervous
system. More precisely, it refers to any chemical substance that affects
physiological functions, mood, perception, or consciousness; has the
potential for misuse; and may be harmful to the user or to the society. In
medical sense, a drug is any substance prescribed by a physician or
manufactured especially for the purpose of relieving pain or for treating a
chronic disease.^' Fuqua has pointed out that drug in its broader sense
may be defined as any compound that affects the functioning of the
organism.^" However, the definition of drug is determined by the

27. Park, Peter and M.M. Wasy, Culture and Politics of Drugs. India,
(1986), p.285.

28. Kornblum, William and Julian, Joseph, Social Problem, Prentice Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA, (1977), p. 125.

29. S. Sanyal, Drug Abuse - Its Threat to the Society,Social Defence. Vol.
XXVII, Jan., New Delhi, India, (1989), p.15.

30. Fuqa, Paul, Drug Abuse : Investigation and Control. India, (1978),
p.21.
 18

context in which it is used. Above all, the use of psychoactive drugs

affect the user's life as well as society.

Drug Misuse

Some times some people do not use drugs in the way they are
supposed to be taken. Two examples are, taking sleeping pills more
frequently or in higher dose than prescribed in order to sleep longer,
and using analgesics more than indicated for headache or bodyache in
the hope of getting faster and better relief.^'

Drug Abuse

The WHO has defined drug abuse as, "persistent or sporadic

excessive drug use, inconsistent or unrelated to acceptable medical
practice."^^

Drug abuse can be defined also as the use of unacceptable

drugs, and excessive or inappropriate use of acceptable drugs, in
such a way that physical, psychological, or social harm can result.^^
The drug user himself may define drug abuse as a pattern of use
which has been associated with a number of issues ranging from
problems with the law or family members. In the pre-Islamic era in
Arabian society alcohol was used moderately to relieve tention and
kind of romantic and was generally accepted, but with the emergence
of Islam, alcohol has been prohibited. In some parts of Arabian

31. Stimmel, Barry, The Facts about Drug Use. The Haworth Medical
Press Inc., London, (1974), p.22.

32. WHO Technical Report Series. No. 407, Expert Committee on Drug
Dependence, 16"" Report, Geneva, (1969), p.6.

33. Kornablum, William and Julian, Joseph, Op. cit., p.125.

 19

peninsula alcohol is socially prohibited, irrespective of the legal

conditions which allow it.

Drug Addict

A drug addict is that person who has become habitual to use

the habit-forming narcotic drug and has become dangerous to the
society and public security, or he is that person who lost the power
of self control due to his habit of addiction.^" Drug addicts have been
classified into two categories, the first category consists of those
addicts who use drug for genuine purpose like disease, and the
second category is of those addicts who use drug just for its effects
without medical recommendation.^^ However, drug addicts may be :

(i) Experimental addicts,

(ii) Causal or occasional addicts,
(iii) Regular addicts and,
(iv) Compulsive addicts.

Drug Habituation

Habituation is the result of continued casual use and can be

characterised as the need to take a drug of given times to avoid the
anxiety associated with not taking it. At this stage, the intervals
between addicts are long enough to prevent dependency. Habituation
does not usually progress to dependency or addiction.^*

34. Clinard, Marshall, B., Sociology of Deviant Behaviour, Holt Rinehart

and Winston Inc., New York, USA, (1964), p.291.

35. Reddy, Narayan, K.S., The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and

Toxicology. Shaguna Devi, Hyderabad, India, (1982), p.443.

36. Stimmel, Barry, Op. cit., p.22.

 20

The difference between habituation and addiction is very

evident, where the former habit affects the individual himself. On the
other hand, the consequences of drug habituation rely upon the
individual personality, while, the effects of the latter on both the
individual himself as well as the society. The consequences of drug
addiction rely upon the individual personality as well as the social
environment of the addict.^' Drug habituation is common with
cannabis, caffeine, tobacco and others.

Drug Addiction

The use of a substance may not amount to addiction unless

such a use is of such a type or level that it is difficult or painful for
the addict to withdraw or stop it. Though difficult, but it has been
distinguished between drug addiction and drug habit, the latter
characterises a state of intoxication proved by the repeated and the
voluntary use of drugs.^* But the term, drug addiction as defined by
the WHO is, "A state of periodic or chronic intoxication detrimental
to the individual and to society, produced by the repeated
consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic)." There may be four
main characteristics drawn from the above definition:

(a) An over-powering desire or need (compulsion) to continue

taking the drug and to obtain it by any means;
(b) A tendency to increase the dose;
(c) A psychic (psychological) and sometimes a physical dependence
on the effects of the drug and;

37. Ahuja, R., Sociology of Youth Sub-Culture, Rawat Publication. Jaipur,

India, (1982), p.10.

38. Cancrini, L. et al., Drug Addiction Among Young People : A Study of

Typology and its Relevance to Treatment Programme. Bulletin on
Narcotics, Vol, XXXVII, No. 2-3, April-Sept, India, (1985), pp.125-133.
 21

(d) An effect detrimental to the individual and to the society.

Addiction is such a use of a substance which is harmful but at

the same time the addict feels difficult to stop it. Mac Farland
pointed out that addiction can be defined in relation to the impact the
drug has on the behaviour of a person. She observed that addiction is
a bio-psycho-social process and defines addiction as the compulsive
use of a substance with loss of control and continued use of that
substance in spite of negative consequences.^" Drugs with the
greatest addictive potential are heroin, morphine, cocaine and others.

Drug Dependence

Drug dependence is a term introduced by the WHO in 1964 for

describing the process of abuse of drugs. It was intended to replace
the term drug addiction and drug habituation."*' The distinction
between the three terms is by and large reflected by the surrounding
circumstances. However, the terms are not only interrelated but are
also overlapping and interdependent on each other.

The WHO has defined the term drug dependence as, "A state,
psychic and sometimes also physical, resulting from the interaction
between a living organism and a drug, characterised by behavioural
and other responses that always include a compulsion to experience
its psychic effects, and sometimes to avoid discomforts in its

39. Expert Committee on Addiction - Producing Drugs, Report 7, WHO

Technical Report Service, No. 116, (1957), p.122.

40. Farland Mac, R., Coping with the Substance Abuse. India, (1987),
p.14.

41 Gossop, M. and Grant, M., Preventing and Controlling Drug Abuse,

Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, (1990), pp.19-21
 22

absence."*^ The drug dependence is of two types : physical and

psychological dependence.

Physical Dependence

Physical dependence usually follows habituation to a substance

with high potential for dependency and is reached when the body has
adapted to a drug and can not function normally without it. Physical
dependence is associated with many medications and is usually
characterised by increasing tolerance to one or more effects of the
drug/^ It manifests as an intensive physiological disturbance called the
'withdrawal syndrome.'*"* Not all drugs produce physical dependence,
only the hard drugs such as heroin, barbiturates, cocaine, etc., can
produce physical dependence and it can be also dangerous to the
society.

Psychological Dependence

Psychological dependence is not much difficult than physical

dependence. Some experts prefer not to distinguish between the two
terms and consider them much interrelated. Psychological dependence
occurs when a user needs a drug for the feeling of well being that it
produces and when the drug is central to the user's emotions and
activities that it is difficult to stop using it."*^

42. Expert Committee on Drug Dependence Report. WHO Technical Report

Series, No. 273, (1964), p.9.

43. Stimmel, Barry, Op. cit., pp.23-24.

44. Stephen, H, Glenn etal., Substance Dependence in Link William, E.

Supra note 6, p.73.

45. Kornblum, William and Julian, Joseph, Op. cit., p. 126.

 23

Psychological dependence is sometimes called psychic

dependence which refers to a craving or strong psychological need
for pleasurable mental effects produced by a drug. For instance,
tobacco, alcohol, etc., produce psychological dependence.

Tolerance

Tolerance is the physiological adaptation to the effects of a drug,

in other words, the ability of an organism, to become used to increasing
amounts of a substance. The addict needs larger amounts of the drug to
obtain the same effect i.e., there is a need to increase the dose in order
to obtain the original effect.^^ The reason behind it is that the body
learns to destroy the drug more quickly and partly because the brain
cells become more accustomed to the drug concerned.^*

Cross tolerance phenomenon follows the process of tolerance, that

is, the tolerance develops for another drug or from the same category of
drug to which one is addicted, for example, barbiturates produce a cross
tolerance to alcohol.^' Therefore, progressively overdoses once requires to
obtain the desired effects.

Withdrawal

Withdrawal symptoms (Takreasa) or abstinence syndromes happen

when a drug addict abruptly stops taking the drugs, and that's why the

46. Fuqa, Paul, Drug Abuse Op. cit., p.7.

47. Parikh, J.C. and Krishna, K.S., Drug Addiction : A Psycho-Socio

Study of Youth. Friends Publication, Delhi, India, (1992), p.47.

48. Barrymore, Richard, Drugs - The Worries. The Threats. The Facts.
Wolfe, London, (1975), p.22.

49. Stiramel, Barry, Op. cit., p.24.

 24

addicts take the drug regularly - to avoid these symptoms. The reason is
that, the regular use of a drug affects the body functioning which gets
tuned to that drug, and abstinence from its use immediately results in
these symptoms. The usual withdrawal symptoms are diarrhoea,
vomiting, sleeplessness, etc.

Detoxification

Detoxification is that process by which the daily dose of a

dependence - producing substance is slowly administered, e.g., Valium
for alcohol and methadone for heroin.^'

Relapse

Relapse is defined as returning to a former state. When a

recovering individual relapses, he/she returns to the desired state."

1.X2. Typology
The categories of drugs are too numerous for enumeration. Of
these, drugs like tobacco and caffeine are socially acceptable, therefore,
these drugs have not been considered drugs in the current study. The
size of drug abusing population is increasing in every country and every
time new drugs and patterns of abuse emerge, this number gets larger
and larger. Broadly speaking, drugs and their effects on body can be
grouped into three main categories:

1. Depressants 2. Stimulants 3. Hallucinogens

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid.

52. Campbell, Drusilla and Graham, Marilyn, Drugs and Alcohol in the
Workplace. Library of Congress Cataloging Publication Data, UK,
(1988), p.6.
 25

1. Depressants (CNS)

Depressants are drugs which dull the consciousness and relieve

anxiety or pain. These drugs can be classified into: opium and its
derivatives, barbiturates, sedatives tranquilizers like methadone and
alcohol.

(i) Opium

Opium is a product of poppy plant known as Papaver somniferum,

and is extracted from its unriped capsules. Opium is collected from the
poppy heads as mild exudes from the cuts and changes into a light
coloured spongy gum and with time it becomes hard and dark brown.
It can be consumed by smoking through bubble bubble (Argila or Hukka)
and a chilam. Opium poppy grows extensively in Europe, India, Turkey
and cultivated in the Golden Triangle which includes Burma, Thailand
and Laos as well as the Golden Crescent which includes Pakistan,
Afghanistan and Iran.

Opium grows in temperate climate. Medically, opium is used to

relieve pain, or as a pain-killer and anti-diarrhoeal. It is abused by
smoking, inhalation and swallowing in the liquid form. Opium intake
produces effects like euphoria, dizziness, constipation, respiratory
depression, loss of appetite, etc.^* Opium occupies the second degree in
the Arabian countries in terms of usage." It causes habituation, as the

53. Andelman, S.L., The New Home Medical Encyclopedia.Vol. 3, JP, p. 598.

54. Prashant, Saroj, Drug Abuse and Society. Ashish Publishing House,
New Delhi, India, (1993), pp. 23-24.

55. Directorate of Public Security, The Youth and Drugs (Arabic), Dept.
of Drug Strife, Amman, Jordan, (1990), p. 11.
 26

addict would come back to use it even after a long gap of time.
Abrupt withdrawal of opium leads to severe withdrawal symptoms
like, sneezing, sweating, headache, vomiting, etc. Three main drugs
have been derived from opium these are, morphine, heroin, and
codeine.

(a) Morphine

Morphine is isolated from crude opium which was discovered in

1804 by a German scientist, called Serturner. It is a white crystalline
powder, bitter in taste, odourless and soluble in water and alcohol.

Morphine is medically used to kill pain, suppress severe

diarrhoea, cough, etc. It is used orally, or by injection. Withdrawal
symptoms includes watering of eyes, sweating, drowziness, goose
flesh, etc. Regular use can develop tolerance, the addict needs to
increase the dose to produce the desired euphoria, analgesic and
sedative effects. Morphine produces psychological dependence.'*

(b) Heroin (Tragic Magic)

Heroin was synthesised from morphine in 1874 by a British

chemist called Alder Wright, and was popularised in 1890 by a
German scientist called Henrich Dreser.*' It was described as a

56. Khwifi, Eimad, The Drugs (The Deterioration). Damascus, Syria,

(1993), p. 47.

57. B.R. Sharma, Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation and Trials.

Allahabad, India, (1990), p. 599.

58. Bucknell and Ghodse, On Misuse of Drugs. London, (1986), p. 35.

59. Fuqua, Paul, Op. cit., p. 43.

 27

powerful analgesic and pain killer, and was used for treatment of
cough, chest and lung ailments. Heroin is available in powder or
tablet form, and is of white crystalline appearance. It is swallowed,
smoked, sniffed and injected. The latter is the most common method.
Brown sugar or smack is one of the types of heroin. It is considered
to be the most seductive drug due to its ability to cause tremendous
physical and psychological dependence."* The invention of the
hypodermic syringe in 1845 in the USA, eventually led to the
administration of heroin and other drugs, ultimately spreading AIDS
through unsterilized needles. Heroin is known as the army disease.

The effects of heroin are euphoria, loss of appetite, tranquillity,

impairment of night vision, menstrual irregularity in women, etc.
Tolerance develops rapidly, and the addict uses higher doses to
maintain the same affect, the abuser has to use ever increasing doses.
Heroin is a highly habits forming and addictive drug and even
rehabilitation programmes need more attention and patience. The
symptoms of heroin addiction include yawning, dilated pupils,
sweating, etc. Heroin peak symptoms generally occur within 72 hours
after the last d o s e . "

(c) Codeine

Codeine is the third derivative of opium. It is less effective as

an analgesic than heroin and morphine and was discovered in 1932.

60. Menon, Beena, Op. cit., p. 23.

61. Prashant, Saroj, Op. cit., p. 26

62. K. Kumar, Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act. 1985,

Lucknow, India, (1988).
 28

Codeine is isolated from crude opium. It is an odourless, white

crystalline powder, soluble in water and alcohol.* Codeine is used
for cough, to moderate pain, headache, etc., and is freely available in
the market and has highly toxic and habit forming drug. It is available
also as tablets, syrup and for injection. It produces euphoria, reduced
libido, respiratory impairment, restlessness, etc.

Codeine can be taken instead of heroin and morphine in case of

unavailability of the latter. Psychological dependence may occur
when it is taken freqnently, but physical dependence is not very
common. The withdrawal symptoms are nearly similar to morphine,
i.e., watering of eyes, yawning, sweating, insomnia, vomiting, nausea,
etc."

(ii) Barbiturates

Barbiturates depress the central nervous system. They are the

most common examples of sedative - hypnotic drugs. Barbiturates are
derived from barbituric acid. These drugs are produced by chemical
synthesis, and can be taken orally, and in liquid form, and are also
available in the form of powders, syrups, capsules and tablets. They
are generally white, bitter, odourless powder soluble in water. Their
prolonged use cause severe physical and psychological dependence. It
is believed that barbiturate addiction is more dangerous and more
resistant to treatment and cure than heroin addiction.*^

63. Kitzinger, A. and Hill, P., Drug Abuse - A Source Book and Guide for
Teachers, Univ. of California, Dept. of Education, (1967), pp. 47-50.

64. Kornblum, Willian and Julian, Joseph., Op.cit., pp. 138-139.

65. Menon, Beena, Op. cit., 1989, p. 24.

 29

Barbiturates are used medically as a relief from anxiety and

tension and produce effects like low blood pressure, unconsciousness,
impair judgement, mild euphoria, etc. Repeated use induces tolerance,
so that a higher level of barbitarate is required to produce a given
level of intoxication. According to Dr. Wikler, barbiturates impair
the ability of the individual and suppress patterns of behaviour which
are developed in relation to the active gratificaiton of both primary
and secondary needs. The withdrawal symptoms can be highly
dangerous, therefore, the withdrawal should be under medical
supervision.

(iii) Methadone

Methadone is a depressant, produced through chemical

synthesis known as physeptone. It is a white crystalline powder
soluble in water and alcohol. Medically, it is used in the substitution
treatment of morphine and heroin addiction. It is taken orally and by
injection. The possible effects are similar to that of heroin which
include sweating, menstrual irregularity in women, impairment of
night vision, etc. Overdose can lead to both physical and
psychological dependence. The main withdrawal symptoms are less
severe than heroin symptoms. Tolerance develops with regular use
and high doses.^*

(iv) Sedatives and Tranquilzers

Other categories of depressants are sedatives and tranquilizers.

Medically, they are used as sleeping pills to calm down anxiety, relax
excitement and make the user less nervous. Overdose of sedatives and

66. Andelman, S.L., The New Home Medical Encyclopedia, Vol. 2, p. 401
 30

tranquilizers produces severe intoxication, coma, impaired thinking

and perception, etc. Use of these drugs are found among most of the
people particularly among the students during examination days to
bring down anxiety, such as the use of methaqualone tablets, Valium,
doriden, iibrium, etc. The withdrawal symptoms are similar to those
resulting from barbiturate symptoms." These drugs cause only
psychological dependence.

(v) Alcohol

Alcohol is a drug, like all other drugs, just as much as heroin. It

is primarily a continuous depressant of the central nervous system.
Alcohol can be used and abused. Alcoholism is a progressive disease
because it gets worse with the passage of time and becomes chronic
because once contracted, it hardly goes away. In the psychological sense
they serve the same general function as other drugs, and provide an
escape from reality. If the alcoholic continues to drink, his tolerance
will at some point decrease markedly, causing serious personality
changes and deterioration of health. High alcohol consumption disrupts
motor coordination, balanced speech, damage the liver and brain,
disturbs the social family and working life of the addict. The major
symptoms of alcohol use are loss of control, sweating, loss of appetite,
convulsions, sleeplessness which may also sometimes lead to death.
Increasing consumption of alcohol leads to both physical and
psychological dependence.^*

67. Rishi, D.D., Op. cit., pp. 30-31.

68. Campbell, Drusilla and Graham, Marilyn, Op. cit., pp. 4-5.
 31

2. Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs which stimulate the central nervous system

and are available under the name of 'pep-pills' in the drug market.
Stimulants are drugs known for their ability to increase a feeling of self-
confidence, alertness, euphoria, decreased appetite, etc. Some of the
dangerous stimulants are cocaine, amphetamines, khat, paan, etc., others
are caffeine such as coffee, tea and cola drinks, nicotine in tobacco, etc.
Notwithstanding these drugs are stimulants, but they are used widely
and are acceptable by the society.

(!) Cocaine

Cocaine is a drug derived from the leaves of the coco plant,

discovered in 1860 by Albert Niemann. It grows in South America
(Bolivia, Peru and Columbia) and is used generally by the affluent
people, only as it is expensive. Cocaine is a white crystalline powder in
pure form, bitter and soluble in water and alcohol.*' Coke, snow, dust
and crack are forms of cocaine and highly used as they are cheaper than
cocaine itself.

It was used medically in throat surgery and as an anaesthetic for

eyes. Dr. Sigmund Freud used coca in the treatment of various medical
and psychological disorders.™ It can be abused by inhalation, sniffing
and by injection. Cocaine users experience increased energy, deep sleep,
depression, talkativeness, apathy, pupils get dilated, and overdose leads

69. Ghosh, S.K., The Traffic in Narcotics and Drug Addiction. Ashish
Publishing House, New Delhi, India, (1987), pp. 43-44.

70. Yablonsky, Lewis, Criminology Crime and Criminality. Harper and

Row Publication Inc., New York, USA, (1990), pp. 277-278.
 32

to death.'' Cocaine causes physical dependence on prolonged use, but

certainly causes psychological dependence.

The main withdrawal symptoms are restlessness, psychic

depression, hunger upon awakening, etc. Tolerance has not been
conclusively demonstrated, therefore, larger doses for longer duration
are needed to be high.

(ii) Amphetamines

Amphetamines are very strong stimulants of the central

nervous system. Commonly known as pep-pills and in Arab countries
called 'Al-Kongo', synthesised in 1927.'^ It is widely abused by
professional athletes to reduce fatigue and to get good performance.
Amphetamine is administrated by inhalation, orally and by injection.

In some cases, an overdose of amphetamine can cause coma, brain

hemorrhage, increasing wakefulness, insomnia, anxiety, tension, high blood
pressure and even death. Chronic intoxication of amphetamine leads to
tolerance. Many people become addicted to it through medical use, which
may lead to epilepsy, obesity, abnormally low blood pressure, etc.
Withdrawal symptoms are characterised by extreme fatigue, disturbed
sleep, deep depression, etc. Amphetamines are considered to produce
physical dependence, because larger and larger doses are needed to achieve
the desired effect, as well as psychological dependence."

71. Al-Shdifat, Mahmood, The Drugs - The Stupor and Ebb (Arabic), Dar
Al-Afaq, Amman, Jordan, (1996), p. 7.

72. Marin, Peter and Cohen, Allan, Y., Understanding Drug Use : An
Adult's Guide to Drugs and The Young, Harper and Row Publishers
Inc., New York, USA, (1971), p. 95.

73. Prashant, Saroj, Op. cit., p. 30.

 33

(iii) Khat

Khat is the drug which is capable of producing stimulation. It

grows basically in Yemen, Ethiopia and Somalia. It is similar to
amphetamine. These countries do not consider khat as addictive
substance, irrespective of the fact that Arab League has included khat
in the list of drug as an addictive stimulant. It is used only orally.
The method is called chewing (Takhzeen). It was used for certain
diseases. Khat does not produce physical dependence, but psychological
dependence has been reported when abusers have been taking it for a
very long period of time, and the user can give it up under severe
social control and cultural factors. High doses produce euphoria,
activeness, strengthening of senses, etc.

Withdrawal symptoms usually occur within a few hours, these

symptoms include lack of concentration, laziness, weakness, loss of
appetite, excessive urination, because of lots of water consumption
during khat consumption.'^

3. HalluciDogens

Hallucinogens are both natural and synthetic and their use affect
the mind, causing distortion in physical and mental reactions. They are
known as psychedlics. The main effects of hallucinogens are, increased
pulse and heart rate, increased blood pressure and temperature, they
cause cold, nausea, irregular breathing, etc. Among the various
hallucinogens, there is herbal cannabis and its derivatives, LSD,
phencyclidine inhalants, peyote, psilocybin, mescaline, etc. We will
concentrate on the use and abuse of herbal cannabis, LSD, phencyclidine
and inhalants in the following discussion because its effects and the

74. Khwifi, Eimad, Op. cit., p. 62.

 34

social context of its use are similar to those of other hallucinogenic

drugs.

(i) Herbal Cannabis

The source of herbal cannabis is Cannabis plant. Cannabis

grows wild in many parts of the world including unconclusively,
America, Africa, Europe, South East Asia, etc." It is believed that
cannabis is one of the oldest psychoactive plants known to man. It
was used for the treatment of malaria, headache, constipation, etc.
Cannabis can be used in the form of fruits, seeds, leaves and
flowering tops. Overdose of cannabis causes increase in heart beat,
pulse rate, reddening of eyes, disordered behaviour, etc.

Cannabis is administrated either by smoking or by injection.^*

Prolonged use of cannabis induces tolerance, hence a need to increase
the doses to get the first results and effects. Both physical and
psychological dependence may result from prolonged use.

Withdrawal symptoms range from loss of weight, shivering,

raised body temperature, restlessness, sleep disturbances, etc.
Cannabis has other names in different countries, for example, it is
called kif in North Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), hashish or
alkaif in some Arab countries like Syria, Lebanon and Jordan. Bhang
or ganja in India and marijuana America and some parts of Europe.

75. Dosik, Drothy and Gradno, Denial, The Drugs - Factors and Figures.
The Jordanian Book Centre, Amman, Jordan, (1987), p. 123.

76. Paul, C. Madan, Drugs, Youth and Society, Madhu Deep Publications,
New Delhi, India, (1996), pp. 7-8.
 35

The main derivatives of cannabis may be classified into marijuana,

hashish, charas, ganja and bhang.^^

(a) Marijuana

Marijuana is the most commonly used drug and the most

controversial too. Its a substance that comes from the leaves and
flowering tops of the Indian hemp plant or Cannabis sativa. It was
isolated by Israeli chemist called Ramphel Mechoulam. It is classified
as a mild hallucinogen which grows in tropical as well as temperate
climate. Like alcohol, marijuana is a social drug, one that is often
used in social gatherings because it is thought to enhance interaction.
Other names of marijuana are pot, grass and smoke. The most
common method of administration is smoking in cigarettes called
sticks and joints or in pipes. Also it is taken orally. Although
marijuana remains an illegal drug, it is used quite commonly, because
it is relatively harmless.^* Marijuana is sometimes used to reduce eye
pressure and in treatment of cancer patients. However, its prolonged
use can induce apathy, poor judgement, it affects mood and
behaviour, diminished drive, etc. The drug is not physically addictive
but its user can become psychologically dependent.^'

(b) Hashish

Hashish is dark tarry resin which comes from the hemp plant
(Cannabis sativa) and is prepared from the flowering tops. The most

77. Chopra R.N. and Chopra I.N., Drug Addiction with Special Reference
to India. CSIR, New Delhi, India, (1965), p. 12.

78. Yablonsky, Lewis, Op. cit., pp. 262-270.

79. Lather, Singh, Drug Abuse among Students. Arun Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd., Chandigarh, India, (1993), pp. 31-32.
 36

common method of administration is smoking. It is very widespread

ail over the world (America, Africa, Europe and South East Asia). In
Arab countries, hashish occupies the second position among drugs in
terms of production, trafficking, smuggling and abusing.*" Also,
hashish is stronger than marijuana. Its hemp was used in the clothes
and rope industry. Actual physical dependence is very low while
psychological dependence is high and depends on the abuser himself.
The effects of the drug are hallucinations, increase of heart beats and
of body temperature, goose flesh, drowziness, dialated pupils, etc.*'

(c) Charas, Ganja and Bhang

These types of drugs are very popular, specially in India. They

are obtained from the dried leaves and flowers of hemp plant
{Cannabis plant). Charas is dried and then compressed into many
sizes and shapes, cakes, etc. Ganja can be administered by smoking
along with tobacco and it is more potent than bhang. The latter drug
is made from the cannabis leaves and is less potent than charas and
ganja. Bhang is consumed in many Hindu religious ceremonies
particularly at Holi, the festival of colours. Hindu monks and
sanyasis are frequent consumers of charas, ganja and bhang.*^

(ii) LSD

LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide), discovered accidentally by

Dr. Albert Hoffman, a Swiss chemist in 1943, is one of the most

80. Directorate of Public Security, Op. cit., (1995), p. 11.

81. Khwifi, Eimad, Op. cit., p. 59.

82. Menon, Beena, Op. cit., 1989, p. 19.

 37

dangerous and potent drugs of the modern times. It is a synthetic

drug derived from argot fungus and is available in the form of a white
powder or colourless liquid or tablets and is odourless and soluble in
water. For the addicts it is known as trips. It is used orally, inhaled
or injected. Medically, LSD is used to contract the uterus after
childbirth and to treat migraine headaches.*^

The effects of LSD are largely psychological and has a

profound impact on the addict's personality. The drug does not cause
physical dependence even after the user has stopped using it, but he
may have flashbacks.** Tolerance develops rapidly to the use and its
subjective effects of LSD. This drug causes severe damage to the
central nervous system, withdrawal from reality hallucinations, false
sensory perceptions, suicidal tendency, changes in the area of
cognitive functioning or ordinary thinking, visual images, etc. The
withdrawal symptoms may include loss of appetite, nervousness,
sleeplessness, anxiety, etc.**

(iii) PCP

PCP (Phencyclidine), angel dust or angel mist is a potent

hallucinogenic anaesthetic agent produced through chemical
synthesis. It has other names among abusers like crystal, hog, pit and
rocket fuel. It is a white, crystalline, odourless powder. It is found in
the form of liquid, pills or tablets. The favoured method of
administration among users of PCP is smoking mixed with marijuana
or tobacco leaves. It is also used orally, sniffing and by injecting. It

83. Yablonsky, Lewis, Op. cit., pp. 270-273.

84. Andelman, S.L., Op. cit., p. 746.

85. Prashant, Saroj, Op. cit., p. 33.

 38

was used in veterinary medicine as an immobilising drug. Other

effects are intoxication, disorientation, hallucination, extreme
agitation, loss of motor control, convulsions, skin rash, etc. It does
not cause physical dependence, but psychological dependence is high
when taken for a very long periods of time.

(iv) Inhalants

Inhalants are volatile substances or organic solvents. They are

hallucinogenic drugs. The most common of these are gasoline, glue,
kerosene, cigarette lighter fluid, etc. Since they are quite cheap and
available in abundance, we find it very widespread among
adolescents. However, it is very difficult to prevent it as its users are
mostly in industry and construction. It is used through inhalation. For
better results the users cover their heads and faces with plastic bags
to get more concentration of the fumes for inhalation. Inhalants do
not cause physical dependence but a regular and prolonged use can
cause serious psychological dependence. The main effects of
inhalants include impaired judgement, pain in joints, disturbed vision,
brain cell damage, etc. Its addiction is widespread and forms a
serious problem in many Arab countries and Jordan is one of them.*'^

1.3. Review of Literature

A large number of studies have been undertaken throughout the

world on drug addiction. All studies have shown serious concern
about the problem of drug addiction. Most of these studies have
pointed out the increasing involvement of population in drug abuse.

86. Yablonsky, Lewis, Op. cit., pp. 272-275.

87. Al-Shdifat, Mahmood, Op. cit., p. 13.

 39

Almost all studies have concentrated on the important role of family,

and still, as a strong unit which plays vital role in shaping attitudes
and behaviour of its members. More and more researches are being
undertaken to investigate its different aspects and various patterns,
particularly, the influence of family and home environment as
variables, on the behaviour of the members. In Jordan, research on
drug abuse is comparatively a new field. Few such studies are
available in Jordan but none of these studies concentrate on the role
of family in drug addiction.

Surprisingly, the current study is the second research for a

Ph.D. degree in Sociology. The first Ph.D. thesis on 'Drugs, their
mental effects and their illegal trading in Jordan - A comparative
study of Jordanian and foreign labour force', was submitted in 1995
by Al-Sa'ad. Besides this there are some projects and M.A. degrees
in social science covering some aspects of drug and drug addiction in
the country.

Al-Saad conducted a comprehensive survey of all residents of

Jordanian centers for rehabilitation. The study included 540 residents
from 8 Arab nationalities, consisting of 270 persons consuming
drugs. Half of them were Jordanians and the other half consisted of 6
Arab nationalities of which 74 per cent were Egyptians, 20.7 per cent
Syrians, and the rest 5.2 per cent represented 4 Arab nationalities.
While the number of the sample of those who deal with drug trading,
included 270 persons, half of them were Jordanians and the other half
included 5 other Arab nationalities, 75.6 per cent of them were
Egyptians, 20.7 per cent were Syrians while the other three Arab
nationalities from 3.7 per cent.
 40

He found that 24.4 per cent among the Jordanian sample were
taking drugs because of the peer group pressure and 28.1 per cent
among the non Jordanian were taking drugs for the same reason.
However, he also found that the percentage of hashish addicts was as
high as 43 per cent among the Jordanian sample, while 56.4 per cent
among the other nationalities. Thus, hashish was the most favourite
to them.**

Sweef et al., conducted a survey of the secondary schools in

Cairo with 5,530 respondents. They found that the use of stimulants
was the beginning of addiction at an age of sixteen years and 90.7 per
cent in the sample studied experienced hashish, and the percentage of
opium addicts was only 7.4 per cent. Another study, conducted by the
same scholars of 3,686 males of industrial schools in Cairo, they
reported that 5.6 per cent consumed tranquilizers, 5.6 per cent
amphetamines, 92.1 per cent hashish, and 7.2 per cent opium.*'

Al-Kurdi et al., found in their study in Qatar that 27.5 per cent of
the respondents were illiterate, 5.5 per cent just nominally literate and
reported that the most prevalent drugs were hashish and heroin. 83 per cent
addicts had this habit from their friends and 9 per cent by one of the family
members.'"

88. Al-Saad, Saleh, Drugs: their Mental Effects and their Illegal Trading in
Jordan - A Comparative Study of Jordanian and Foreign Labour Force
(Arabic), Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Amman, Jordan, (1993), p. 621.

89. Sweef, Mustafa et al., The Drugs and Youth in Egypt (Arabic), (1987),
p. 66.

90. Al-Kurdi, Mahmood et al., The Problem of Drug Abuse, Empirical

Study (Arabic), Qatar University Publication, Part 1, Qatar, 1990, pp.
28-54.
 41

A study by Chopra and Chopra revealed that 1,511 opium smokers

were registered in the entire country of India. In a survey which
covered 1,132 student population of Calcutta University given by
Bannerjee, it was found that amphetamines were used by 11.4 per cent.

Wadud (1981) studied drug abuse among youth in Pakistan. He

studied 360 addicts and found that the addicts ranged between 10-24
years of age. Some of them were using more than one drug. Hashish was
the most prevalent with 84 per cent, opium 31.1 per cent and
barbiturates 6.7 per cent. In terms of causes, he found that friend's
pressure, family problems and unemployment were the major factors for
drug abuse.'^

Adityanjee reported that there is a trend of an alarming increase

in heroin abuse in New Delhi.''' Al-Shwawrah (1997) studied 50
randomly selected addicts admitted in Capital Drug Department in
Amman, Jordan. It was found that 20 per cent of the sample studied
started taking drug during their stay in prisons and 38 per cent practiced

91. Chopra, R.N. and Chopra, l.C, Op. cit.

92. Bannerjee, R.N., Prevalence of Habit Forming Drug and Smoking

among College Students - A Survey. Ind. Med. Jr., (1963), 57: 193.

93. Wadud, Kyam, The Drug Abuse among Youth. WHO, Geneva, (1981),
pp. 22-28.

94. Adityanjee, Mohan, D. and Saxena, S., Heroin Dependence - The New
Delhi Experience, Ind. Jr. Psychiatry, India, (1984), pp. 312-316.
 42

prostitution.'' Al-Sammary (1993) found 70 per cent of the sample

studied had abused cocaine and 55 per cent heroin.

Mohan et al., (1980) in a study of 1,536 families of rural area

of Punjab in India, reported that prevalent rate of alcohol users was
58.3 per cent in males and only 1.5 per cent among females." Nasir
(1984) in his study of 425 respondents in the Emirates, found that the
majority of addicts come from big size family wherein the average
size of each family was 8 members and reported that 18 per cent of
the sample studied, suffered from family disorganisation. 98

Reginald et al., conducted a survey of three countries and have

surveyed 1,875 subjects. The sample was distributed as follows :
Mexico 967, Canada 430 and India 478 subjects. He concluded that
the use of cannabis is prevalent in all three countries and the
percentage of non student users is less than the students. Miller et
al., conducted a survey of five universities in America, with a sample
size of 4171 respondents. They concluded that 37.8 per cent of the

95. Al-Shwawrah, Eimad, The Drugs and its Effects on Crime (Arabic),
Directorate of Public Security, Amman, Jordan, (1997), pp. 30-32.

96. Al-Sammari, Adli, The Sociological Changes for Drug Addict

(Arabic), The Universal Knowledge Dar Al-Sikandria, Egypt,
(1993), pp. 354-360.

97. Mohan, D., et al., Patterns of Alcohol Consumption of Rural Punjab

Males, India, Jr. Ind. Med. Asso., (1980), pp. 702-711.

98. Thabit, Nasir, The Drug and the Phenomenon of Volatile Substances
Inhalation. Al-Salasel, AI-Kuwait, (1984), pp. 70-71.

99. G.S. Reginald et al.. Drug Use among Non Students in Three
Countries, pp. 124-127.
 43

. 1 . • 100
student consumed cannabis.
Dube, Kumar and Gupta, conveyed a survey of medical students
in New Delhi, India in 1977 and found that 23 per cent used drugs.'*"
The US News and World Report stated in 1975, that out of 137 youth
selected at random only 29 did not use any drugs; of the rest, 4 used
only one, 31 used less than 10 and 36 more than 10 drugs.'"^

The aforesaid review of literature displays that there are some

short comings in the studies made so far on the basis of coverage and
interpretation. These are given below:

1. Studies have concentrated on the magnitude of the problems of

drug addiction, more emphasis has not been given on family
profile.

2. Some of the studies have highlighted only social problems

related to drug addiction and they have ignored the family as
the main cause of addiction.

3. Some studies have not given any explanation about the

importance of family as social institution in upbringing the
generations.

Consequently, the present study is an attempt to minimise these

gaps, revealing the problems, suggesting solutions and exploring the
prospect of drug eradication through family organisation.

100. J.D. Miller et al., National Survey on Drug Abuse : Main Finding 1982
(Rockville Maryland, National Institute on Drug Abuse), Govt.
Printing Office,USA, (1983), p. 7.

101. National Seminar on Drug Abuse. New Delhi, India, 29-30 Sept.,
(1986).

102. Parikh, C.J. and Krishna, S.K., Op. cit., pp. 38-42.