WATER TREATMENT PLANT

`
Reverse Osmosis-RO
Demineralization DM Plant.
Presentation
By
V.K.SARAVANAN
Cell No - +91 9629863074
saravananvk1974@gmail.com
SUGAR Lab in charge , MFG Chemist
& (WTP) In charge
Incineration Boiler & Power Plant
&Distillery ENA Plant
Tamil Nadu INDIA
 WATER
v
The purest available from is from water vapour in
atmosphere , as rain , snow or produced by melting of
ice.
q
This water on reaching the ground absorbs different
type of gases atmosphere like Nitrogen, Oxygen and to
a lesser extent carbon dioxide.
Ø
Other gasses like ammonia , oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur etc. Al so dissolves during rain depending
upon the pollution level of the atmosphere.
ü
A part from this , the surface water travels to various
places and catches organic matter , suspended solids
etc.
 Water Quality – Assessment: Potable&
Industrial use
Parameter

Inorganic Nutrient
Toxic &Demand Radioactive
Physical Or Bacteria Biology
Metal Organic elements
Chemical

Total Coli form

Hardness Fluoride Faecal Coli
Calcium Alkalinity form Phytoplankton
Magnesium Nitrate
Zooplankton
Chloride Phosphate
Sulphate

Copper
Chromium BOD
Alpha emitter
Temperature pH Cadmium COD
Beta emitter
Colour Conductivity Zinc Phenols
Odour Lead Oil &
Total Dissolved Solids Mercury Grease
Taste Iron Pesticides
Turbidity Manganese Nitrate
 SOURCES WATER
1. Rivers , lakes and reservoirs
(surface drinking water).
2. Underground water
( shallow well deep well ,springs)
3. Rain water,
4. Sea Water,

5. snow water.
Main Impurities water
1.Suspended (micro size ) sand , dirt , silt.
This contributes turbidity to the raw water.
2.Colloidal – micro size particles (1-100nm)
3. Dissolved from – Alkaline salts and neutral
salt , organic matter.
§
Alkaline salts are mainly bicarbonates
rarely carbonates and hydrates of
calcium , magnesium , and sodium.
§
Neutral salt are sulphates , chloride ,
nitrates of calcium , magnesium , and
sodium .
Water Resource Management
Large water
Supply scheme Sea Water
Rain water
Distillation
Harvesting

Integrated
Water
Resource
Management Water
Brackish
Water Recycle
Distillation & Reuse

Water
Purification
Types of water In Distillery plant

•
DM Water (Boiler use ED
Dilution use) ,
•
Process Water
(Fermentation use )
•
Soft water
Cooling tower ,seal cooling
•
Condensate water.
 Water Consumption

Process Soft DM
water Water Water

Fermentation Cooling
Boiler use
use tower

Domestic Pump Distillation

Use & Sealing Dilution
Office Blower use
 FILTRATION

v
Filtration is the last unit process in pre-treatment of
water.
v
Filtration involves the remove of suspended and colloidal
particles from the water by passing it through a layer or bed of a
porous granular material , such as sand.
v
Suspended solids and flocs formed previously by
Coagulation and flocculation are retained on the filter surface
v
One the pressure drop exceeds the set limit. The filter
bed is cleaned by back washing the media by reversal of flow of
water.
v
The filter is now ready for use.
 Filtration
Feed water Quality & Treated water Quality
v
Filter are normally preceded by a clarifier produced water with.

Suspended solids < 15 – 20 ppm

Turbidity 10 – 15 NTU
Ø
In the absence of clarifier, feed water to a filter should have

Suspended solids < 50 ppm

Turbidity 50 NTU
Ø
feed water should not contain oil & grease and excessive amount of algae.

A Granular media (eg. Sand) filter removes.

suspended solids more or less completely.

Bulk of the colloidal particles if water has been.

coagulated before it enters the filter.

Expected turbidity at the outlet of a .

Gravity sand filter < 1NTU

 FILTRATION
Type of granular media filter
•
Based on Operation.
Pressure filter,
Gravity filter
§
Based on material used inside.
single media / dual media / multi media
q
Pressure filter
Vertical / Horizontal
single media / dual media / multi media
Multigrade filter
Activated carbon filter .
 FILTRATION
... Pressure sand filters& Multigrade filter
q
Inlet water Quality

Suspended solids < 25 – 50 Mg /lit

v
Outlet water Quality

Suspended solids - Nil

Turbidity - < 2 NTU

q
Inlet water Quality

Suspended solids < 50 Mg /lit

v
Outlet water Quality

Suspended solids - Nil

Turbidity - < 5 NTU

Note:

The entire quantity of backwash water may be returned to the clarifier inlet conserve water.
 month
Bell Manhole cover
water 6 mm gasket
Inlet
Air
Release

Raw water
water Raw
inlet ..................................................................................................................
Wash water ..................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................000....
inlet ..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
outlet ......................00000000000000000...........................................................
Filtered Water
..................................................................................................................
.....................
water Outlet Filtered 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
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0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
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0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

00000
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0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000....
era

Drain sump
 FILTRATION
Multigrade sand filter
Internal Arrangement of Multigrade sand filter
Diameter 3600 mm
Height on straight 2500 mm
Maximum treatment flow 145 m3/h
Minimum Treatment flow 145 M3 /h
Filter media MM /HT
Quantity(Kg)
1. Mixed sand 915 15800
2. Fine Silex ⅟4 “ - ⅟16” 100 1700
3.Coarse Silex ⅟2 “ - ⅟4 “ 100 1700
4.Pebbles ¾ “ - ½” 100 1700
5.Pebbles 1” - ¾” 100 1700
6.MnO2 250 3050
 Rate of Filtration

Mulitgrade filter - Velocity Calculation

Q = AV

Q= Flow Rate in M3/Hr 145 M3/Hr ,

A= Area in M2 3600 mm , V = ?

Flow Rate

Velocity = ----------------

Aria

Aria = ¶ d2

0.785 *3.6*3.6= 10.1736

145 M3 / Hr

Velocity = ------------------ = 14 .25M2

10.1736
 Rate of Filtration
Rate of filtration (Loading rate ) is the flow rate of
water applied per unit area of the filter .it is the velocity of
the water approaching face of the filter:,
Q
Va = ------
As
Where Va= face velocity ,m/d = Loading rate
m3/d
Q = flow rate onto filter surface , m3/d
As= surface are of the filter , m2
 Mechanism of Filtration
The theory of filtration basically involves, Transport mechanism , and attachment
mechanism
v
The transport mechanism bring small particles from the bulk solution to the
surface of the media.

a) Gravitational settling ,

b) Diffusion,

c) Interception

d) Hydrodynamics

The are affected by physical characteristics such as size of The filter

medium , filtration rate ,fluid Temperature , size and density of suspended
solids.

As the particles reach the surface of the filter media , an attachment

mechanism is required to retain it . This occurs due to.

e) Electrostatic interaction,

f) Chemical bridging or specific adsorption.

 Disinfection

Disinfection is destruction of pathogenic

bacteria , virus, germs and other organisms present in
water it can be achieved by
a.Gaseous chlorine,
b. Chlorine compounds such hypo-chlorites ,
bleaching agent and chlorine dioxide,
c.Ozone ,
d.Ulter – violet radiation ,
e.Hydrogen peroxide,
f.Heating
g.Combination of the above.
 Pre-treatment
Chlorination
Chlorine is a biocide ( kills bacterial)
chlorine defuses through cell walls & breaks bonds in enzymes, DNA
,RNA, causing cell death.
Chlorine gas is rapidly hydrolyzed in water according to the following
reaction.
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
Hypochlorous acid
Further react according to the following reaction.
HOCl H+ + OCl -
Hypochlorous acid
The biocidal ability of the chlorine species is greatly diminished
as pH increases.
Sodium Hypo Chlorite.
Sodium hypo chlorite are dissolved in water to obtain a chlorine
residual. Further react according to the following reaction.
 Continued...
NaOCl + H2O Na+ + OCl - + H2O

OCl - + H+ HOCl-
Terminology:
Free chlorine( Free residual chlorite) The amount of
Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion
Combined chlorine( residual chlorine) chlorine combined with
ammonia to from mono and dichloramines.
Chlorine demand-The amount of chlorine that is consumed by the
oxidizable constituents in the water equal to the amount of chlorine
added minus the free and combined chlorine remaining after a specified
period of the time.
Break point of chlorination. Addition of chlorine until the chlorine demand
has been satisfied and any addition of chlorine results in the free or
combined residual.
 Continued...
HOCl + NH3 NH2Cl + H2O

Hypochlorous acid Ammonia monochloramine water HOCl

+ NH2Cl NH Cl2 + H2O

monochloramine Dichloramin

HOCl + NHCl2 N Cl2 + H2O

Dichloramin Trichloramine

Dechlorination chemical:

SO2 + H2O H2SO3 H++ H SO3 2H++SO32-

Sodium sulfite.

Na2SO3 2Na+ +SO32-

Na2S2 O5 + H2O 2Na+ + 2H+ + 2 SO32-

Free chlorine removal: Sulfits:

SO32- + HOCl SO32- + HCl

SO32- + OCl- SO32- + HCl


Chloramines Removal
NH2Cl + SO32- + H2O
NHCl2 + 2 SO32- + 3H2O
NCl2 + 3 SO32- + 3H2O
Continued....
SO42- + NH4+ +Cl-
2SO42- + NH4+ +2Cl- + H+
3SO42- + NH4+ +3Cl- + 2H+

Activated carbon Filter:

Activated carbon filters used for removal of free chlorine from
water , also for removal of organic matter .
Normally the carbon filter are place downstream of multigrade
filter. If the raw water is already filtered ,they can be used as a first
unit.
 Activated carbon filter

Activated carbon used as media provides a large pore surface area

which be the process of adsorption ,helps in removal organic molecules.

The large surface area also helps in a catalytic action in removal of

chlorine (present as Hypochlorous acid )in the water.

The activated carbon needs to be regularly backwashed by reversal

flow so as to keep the surface of the carbon particles clean.

Chlorine removal

2Cl2 + 2H2O + C CO2 + 4HCl

HOCl + C CO + HCl

OCl- + C CO + Cl-

Note:

Inspect the filter media once a year. Open the top cover and observe the carbon
bet.
 Reverse Osmosis Membrane Description

Barrier Layer of the Aromatic Polyamide membrane.

O O
H2 O
NH
N NH
NH

O
Free Amine
O
Carboxylate OH

Since the development of RO, UF, Practical unit

operation in the late 1950 ‘S and early 1960,s the scope application
has been continually expending.
Reverse Osmosis
Membrane Description
Reverse Osmosis Membrane Description
Reverse Osmosis Membrane Description
 Principle of Reverse Osmosis
•
Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis
.

Concentrated Dilute solution Concentrated Dilute solution

Solution
Solution
Water diffuses through a semi
permeable Membrane toward region
of higher concentration to equalize
solution strength. Ultimate height Applied Pressure in excess of osmotic
difference between columns is Reverses water flow direction. Hence the
“osmotic “ pressure.
“Reverse Osmosis”.
Reverse Osmosis Performance & Design
Calculations
•
In order to accurately measure the
performance of an RO system you need the following
operation parameters at a minimum:
1. Feed pressure
2. Permeate pressure
3. Concentrate pressure
4. Feed conductivity
5. Permeate conductivity
6. Feed flow
7. Permeate flow
8. Temperature
 Salt Rejection %
Continued...
Conductivity Feed water - Conductivity of Permeate water
Salt Rejection= ------------------------------------------------------------------------ * 100
Conductivity Feed water
The higher the salt rejection, the better the system is performing. A low
salt rejection can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement.
Salt Passage %
This is simply the inverse of salt rejection described in the
previous equation. This is the amount of salt sex pressed as a percentage that
are passing through the RO system. The lower the salt passage , the better
the system is performing. A high salt passage can mean that the membranes
require cleaning or replacement.
Salt Passage % = (1- Salt Rejection%)
 % Recovery :
Permeate Flow Rate (gpm)

% Recovery = ------------------------------------------- * 100

Feed Flow Rate (gpm)

Industrial RO systems typically run anywhere from 50% to 85% recovery

depending the feed water characteristics and other design considerations.
•
Concentration Factor:

The concentration factor is related to the RO

system recovery and is an important equation for RO system design. The more
water you recover as permeate (the higher the % recovery), the more
concentrated salts and contaminants you collect in the concentrate stream. This can
lead to higher potential for scaling on the surface of the RO membrane when the
concentration factor is the system design and feed water composition.

Concentration Factor = (1 / (1--‐Recovery %)

 Mass Balance
•
Mass Balance
A Mass Balance equation is used to help determine if your flow and
quality instrumentation is reading properly or requires calibration.

You will need to collect the following data from an RO system to perform a
Mass Balance calculation:

1. Feed Flow (gpm)

2. Permeate Flow (gpm)

3. Concentrate Flow (gpm)

4. Feed Conductivity (μS)

5. Permeate Conductivity (μS)

6. Concentrate Conductivity (μS)

(Feed flow1 x Feed Conductivity) = (Permeate Flow x Permeate

Conductivity) + (Concentrate Flow*Concentrate Conductivity)
•
1 Feed Flow equals Permeate Flow + Concentrate Flow .
 Continued....
For example, if you collected the following data from an RO :

1.Permeate Flow 5 gpm ,2.Feed Conductivity 500 μS

3.Permeate Conductivity 10 μS, 4.Concentrate Flow 2 gpm
Concentrate Conductivity 1200 μS
Then the Mass Balance Equation would be:
(7 x 500) = (5 x 10) + (2*1200)
3,500 � 2,450
Difference 3500- 2450
Then find the difference: = --------------- *100 = ----------------- *100
Sum 3500 + 240
= 18%
Important RO Formula:
Trans Membrane pressure:

Continued...
Feed Pre + Reject Pre – Permeate Pre
TMP= --------------------------------------------------
2
Permeated TDS
Salt Passage =----------------------- , salt Rejection = ( 1- Salt passage) * 100
Feed TDS
Reject TDS 1
Concentration Factor = --------------- Reject TDS= Feed TDS * ------
Feed TDS 1- R
 RO SYSTEM DESIGN
Lime,
Al2(SO4)3
Cationic
Or
polymer
Fe2(SO4)3
Cl2
Raw Activated
Multi Grade
water Clarifier Carbon
Sand Filter
Filter

High RO
Antiscalntan pH
Pressure
Pump HCL SMBS
SDI
Cartridge
Filter
0.05mic

Cartridge RO
Filter Chemical
RO Cleaning tank
RO 0.05mic
Permeate
Reject
 SDI- Silt Density Index
•
RO feed water corresponds to a SDI value of the about < 4 and cane be considered as
sufficiently low to control colloidal and particulate fouling.

SDI- Analysis Equipment; Formula

T1 100

SDI T = 1 - ----- - -----

Tf T

T= Total elapsed flow time

Toggle or Ball
(usually 15 min see note)
value
T1 = Initial time required
to 500 ml sample
Pressure regulator
T f = Time require to collect

500 ml of sample after

Pressure gauge
test time T See usually 15 min

Filter holder
RO Scale inhibitor & Scale Calculations

Scale Inhibitor (Antiscalants)cane used to

control carbonate scaling , sulphate scaling and calcium fluoride
scaling .
There different type of scale inhibitors.
1. Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP),
2.Organophosphonates,
3. Polyacrylates.
** Polymeric organic scale inhibitors are more effective than SHMP
Scale Calculation :
waters with TDS < 10,000 Mg / L Concentrate steam.
Langelier saturation index (LSI) used to express the scaling
potential for calcium carbonate.
 Continued....
•
Calcium Sulfate Scale

For the determination of the calcium sulphate scaling potential .a complete feed water
analysis is required.

Calculation ;

calculate the ionic strength of the concentrate stream (Ic) following the procedure

Ic= If= ------

1-Y

Calculate the ion product (IPc) for CaSO4 in the concentrate stream.

1 1 m( Ca2+)f = Feed mol/ L

IPc = m( Ca2+)f ----- m (SO42-)f -------

1-Y 1-Y m (SO42-)f = Feed mol/ L

 Continued....
•
The following date are needed to calculate the LSI of the concentrate stream
(LSI)

Ca f = calcium concentration in the feed as CaCO3 mg /l ,

TDS f = Total dissolved solids in the feed , mg /l ,

Alk f = Alkalinity in feed as CaCO3 mg /l ,

pH f = pH of the feed solution ,

T = Temperature of the feed solution,

Y = Recovery of the RO system , expressed as a decimal.

Calculation :

1. calculate the calcium concentration in the concentrate stream , Cac as CaCO3

in mg /l

Ca c = Ca f = ------ ---------- eq -- (1)

1-Y
 Continued....
2. calculate the TDS in the concentrate stream , TDS C in mg /l

TDS c = TDS f = ------ ---------- eq -- (2)

1-Y

3. calculate the Alkalinity in the concentrate stream Alkc as CaCO3 , in mg /l

Alk c = Alk f = ------ ---------- eq -- (3)

1-Y

4. Calculate pH at which the concentrate Stream is saturated with CaCO3 (pH s) as follows.

pHs= pHc –pHs ------------ eq –(4)

The conditions for CaCO3 Scale control are:

LSI C < 0 when no antiscalant is added.

LSIC ≤ 1 when 20 mg/l sodium hexemetaphosphate is the concentrate stream

LSI C >1 Possible with polymeric organic scale inhibitors . For the maximum and required
dosages, please refer to the scale inhibitor mfg
 Continued....
Silica Scale prevention :

supersaturated silicic acid can further polymerize to from insoluble colloidal silica or
silica gel , which can cause membrane scaling .

The scaling potential of soluble silica in the absence of trivalent metal cations can be
calculate.

1. SiO2 Concentration,

2.Temperature

3.pH

4.Total Alkalinity

The SiO2 Concentration in the concentrate stream is calculated from SiO2 .

SiO2C – SiO2 = ------

1- Y

Where

SiO2C = Silica concentration in concentrate as SiO2 mg/l

SiO2f = Silica concentration in feed as SiO2 mg/l

RO Plant Performance & Normalization
The performance of an RO / NF system is influenced
by the feed water composition , feed pressure , temperate and
recovery . For example a feed temperature drop 4°c will cause a
permeate flow decrease of about 10%. This however is a normal
phenemenon.
The measured permeate flow and salt passage have to
be normalized.
∆Ps
Pf - ---- - PpS - ∏fc s
2 T c Fs
Qs= ------------------------------ * ----------- - Q0
∆Ps T c F0
Pf o - ---- - Pp0 - ∏fc0

2
 Continued....
Pf = Feed pressure ,
∆P / 2 = One haft device pressure drop,
Pp = Produce Pressure,
∏ fc = Osmotic pressure of the feed, concentrate
mixture.
Tc F = Temperature ,
Q = Product flow,
Subscript S = Standard condition,
Subscript O = Operating condition,
The temperature correction factor follows the formula.

TCF = Exp 2640 * 1 /298 – 1 / (273 + T) : T > 25 °C

 Cleaning chemical for Membrane
Foul ant Cleaning chemical Comments
Inorganic salt
CaCO3, 0.2 % Hydrochloric acid, Best,
CaSO4 0.5 % Phosphoric acid , OK
BaSO4 2.0 % Citric acid. OK
Metal Oxides 0.5 % Phosphoric acid, Good
Iron 1.0 % Sodium Hydro sulfite. Good
Inorganic 0.1 % Sodium Hydroxide, Good
Colloids 0.025 % Dodecylsulfate, Good
salt 0.1 % Sodium Hydroxide 30 °C. Good
0.1 % Sodium Hydroxide 30 °C.
1.0 % Sodium Ethylene demine tetra acetic Best
Bio films acid EDTA and 0.1 % Sodium Hydroxide 30 °C
(When bio films contains Inorganic scaling) Best

0.025 % Dodecylsulfate, NaOH 30 °C Best

Organics 0.1 % Tri sodium Phosphate, 1.0 % EDTA Best
0.1 % Sodium Hydroxide 30 °C. OK
Silica 1.0 % EDTA OK
 Continued....
RO chemical cleaning programme.
Best on the above analytical result , we have cleaned the RO
membrane. During chemical cleaning feed pressure should be
maintained less than 0.2kg /cm2 & temperature 25° c to 50° c

Descriptions Chemical composition Duration

Organic fouling 1.0% + STPP 1.0 % + EDTA 1.0 % 90 Days
once
Removal of silica Citric acid 2.0% + ABF 2.0% 15 Days
scales once
Removal of Hard 33 % Strength of HCl at 0.2% 15 Days
Scales once

Bacteria & Alga NaOH 0.1% + EDTA 0.1% 15 Days

once
Metaleoxide Phosphoric acid or Na2 S2 O4 60 Days
scales once
 Continued....
Descriptions Chemical composition
Sulfate scales 0.1 % NaOH + 1.0 % EDTA pH -12 Tem 30° C

Carbonate Scales 0.2 % HCl (or) 2.0 % Citric acid

0.5 % Phosphoric acid ( or) 1.0 % Na2 S2 O4
Iron Fouling 0.1% Na2 S2 O4 (or) 2.0 % Citric acid or H3 PO4
Organic Fouling NaOH 0.1% pH-12.0 Tem -30° C Then 0.2 % HCl pH-2, Tem
-45° C (or)
NaOH 0.1% , 0.025 % Na-DDS pH-12.0 Tem -30°C Then 0.2 %
HCl pH-2, Tem -45° C (or ) NaOH 0.1% , 0.1% Na-EDTA, pH-
12.0 Tem -30° Then 0.2 % HCl pH-2, Tem -45° C
Bio fouling NaOH 0.1% pH-12.0 Tem -30° C ( or) NaOH 0.1% , 0.025 %
Na-DDS pH-12.0 Tem -30°C (or ) NaOH 0.1% , 0.1% Na-EDTA,
pH-12.0 Tem -30° T
RO Cleaning chemical preparation
•
RO Chemical cleaning tank capacity
•
To be Chemical % calculation
•
Again one hr chemical circulation given,
•
Again 30 min chemical choking,
•
Again one hr chemical circulation given,
•
RO Water 1hr flushing.
Example :
sercon cc3 1.52 in 379 lit of RO Water.
1.52
----- = 0.004 kg per lit
379
Same procure II stage membrane to be chemical cleaning.
 Probing
If one pressure vessel shows a signification
higher permeate concentration then the other vessel of the same
stage , then this vessel should be probed . The procedure allows
locating a problem within a pressure vessel while online with out
unloading elements .probing involves the insertion of a plastic
tube into full length of the permeate tube in order to measure
permeate conductivity at different locations inside the pressure
vessel.
Concentrate
Feed

TDS
Evaluation of residual concentration of solids
rejectFeed silica = 45 ppm , Recovery = 70%, Reject Silica =?
Calculate concentration factor and than reject silica .

1 1 1

Concentration factor : ----- = -------- = ---- = 3.33

1-R 1- 0.70 0.3

Reject silica

Concentration factor = ------------------

Feed silica

Reject silica

3.33 = ---------------

45 Reject silica = 45 * 3.33 = 149.85

***The rate of dosing is determined by following equation:

main flow (m3 / h) * dosing PPM

Dosing flow = -------------------------------------------

10 * Solution concentration %
Demineralization DM Plant
NaOC
Raw l
Water MGF ACF
tank

pH Process
Dosing Water
tank
DM Soft SOF
Water Water
tank tank

SBA
MB
Degassing SAC
Tower
 Introduction of Resin
•
INTRODUCTION OF RESIN ;
Synthetic resin exchange material based on coal
and phenolic resins were first introduced for industrial use during
the 1930”s a five years later resin consisting of polystyrene with
sulphonate group of from cations exchangers or amine group of
from anion exchangers were developed .These two kinds of resin
are still the most commonly used resin today.
A Strong acidic sulphonated
Polystyrene Cations exchange resin

CH=CH

SAC Strong acid cations resin

 
SO3 H+
 DVP-Divinyl Benzene SAC

CH - CH2 – CH - CH2 – CH - CH2

SO3 H SO3 H

SO3 H
CH - CH2 – CH - CH2 – CH - CH2 -
CH

SO3 H SO3
H - CH2 - CH
CH - CH2 – CH - CH2 – CH
SO3 H SO3 H

SO3 H
 Continued...
Cations Chemical Reaction :
R C6 H5 – SO3- Na + + HCl R C6H5 – SO3- H + + NaCl

Positive
S.NO ion
Positive ion Formula MW
1 Aluminum Al 3+ 27
2 Ammonium NH4+ 18
3 Calcium Ca 2+ 40.1
4 Copper Cu2+ 63.5
5 Hydrogen H+ 1
6 Ferric Ion Fe 2+ 55.8
7 Ferrous Ion Fe 2+ 55.8
8 Magnesium Mg 2+ 24.3
9 Manganese Mn 2+ 54.9
10 Potassium K+ 39.1
11 Sodium Na+ 23
Comparison between conventional and demineralizers Plant

Resin
 Continued...
Total Load ( TDS ) * OBR ( Output between Regeneration )

Resin Quantity = --------------------------------------------------------------------

Resin Exchange capacity

***SAC Resin Exchange capacity = 55.0

  270 * 600

Resin Quantity = ---------------- = 2946 Lit Resin Recoverable

55

Resin Exchange capacity * Resin Quantity

OBR (Out but Regeneration)= -----------------------------------------------------

Total Load ( TDS )  

55 * 2946

OBR (Out but Regeneration)= ---------------- = 600 M3

270

***Strong acid cations bed.( SAC) OBR (out but Regeneration)

deepen by Raw water TDS

Example: 1 Continued...
Raw Water TDS = 400 PPM
Resin Quantity = 2946 lit
OBR =?
55 * 2946
OBR (Out but Regeneration)= ---------------- = 405 M3
400
SAC Regeneration chemical calculation:
1.Hydrochloric Acid 29 % to 33% Available.

Resin Quantity * 0.08

Hydro Caloric Acid Required = ---------------------------------
100
2945 * 8 Grm
Hydro Choric Acid Required = ---------------------- = 235.6 100% H Cl
100
235.6
Hydro Choric Acid Available 29 to 33 %= ---------- =785.33 30% HCl
0.30
785.33
Hydro Choric Acid Specific gravity = ---------- = 685.87 30% HCl Kg
1.140
 Continued...
688.00

1 Can 40 Kg = ----------- = 17 can used

40

Change in Structure of Resin with increasing pH

Resin is efficiently regenerated in dilute acid and operates in basic ,

neutral weakly acidic solution of pH - 4 higher. at very low pH The resin acts as on anion
exchanger. shows the zwitterionic form of the resin as a function of pH .

CH2COOH CH2COOH CH2COO- CH2COO-

| | / /

R-CH2 NH + R-CH2 NH+ R-CH2 NH+ R-CH2 N

| | \ \

CH2COOH CH2COO- CH2COO- CH2COO-

pH=2.21 pH=3.99 pH=7.41 pH= 10.30

 Continued...
Cost Calculation

SAC Acid Regeneration acid consumption = 688 kg

OBR ( Out but Regeneration ) = 600 MM

688

@ = ------- = 1.141 kg

600

Hydro Chloric Acid unit Rate @ 4.50 Rs = 1.141 * 4.50 = 5.1Acid consumption = 688 *
4.50 =3096 .00 Rs

Neutral Alcohol per day production = 61500 lit /Extraday

3096.000

One M3 DM Water generation HCl cost = ------------- = 5.16 one M 3 dm water

3096.00

one liter ENA production HCl cost = --------------- = 0.05 p

3096.00

But DM Water per Day consumption 300 M3 = ------------ = 0.03 Ps

123000
 Degassing Tower
v
The bottom tray distributes the draft of low pressure air from the blower entering the bottom
of the tower going upwards.
v
the backing breaks up the water flowing down presenting a greater surface area for the
updraft of air.
v
the carbon dioxide in water thus “ scrubbed” from the water and leaves along with the
air from the top of the tower to the atmosphere.

N2
CO2 O2 CO2 O2 O2
CO2 N2 N2 O2
N2 N2
CO2 N2 N2 N2
CO CO
CO2 2 CO2 2 O2
O2 CO2 CO2 N2
O2
N2 CO2 O2 O2 N2
N2
N2 N2
H2CO3 CO2 + H2O
Initially Later Later

Carbonic acid Carbon dioxide Water

 Degassing Tower
With out Degassifier tower
1. Mixed bed anionic resin load
is increased due to CO2
gassed.
2. It affected to reduce OBR value
so it is increased cost
production of DM water.
3. Resin life time may be reduce
due to fouling of volatile
gases.
4 To increase the regeneration
frequency so it generated to the
additional effluent.
With Degassifier tower
CO2 is removed so anionic load is
reduced.
OBR value is not affected and
additional cost of production is
avoided.
It is not affected to the resin.
To avoid the further effluent
generation.
 Strong base Anion(SBA)
R R

CH2 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2

N+ OH
N+OH-
CH3 CH3
CH3
OH CH2
TYPE-1 CH2 TYPE-2

Strong Base Anion Resin

Chemical form
 Strong Base Anion Regeneration
Hydroxide Cycle

R R

+ NaO + NaHSiO
H 3
CH2 CH3
CH2 CH3
N+ HSiO N+ HO-
3
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3
 Continued...
Chemical When used in a two stage de ionising
S.NO ANAION formula
plant , upstream of mixed bed unit ,
1 Chromate CrO4 -2
INDIAN FFIP will protect the strong
2 Sulfate SO4 -2
base anion exchanger in the latter unit
3 Phosphate HPO4 -2
4 against organic fouling . At same time
Thiocyanate CNS -
5 Nitrate NO3- NO3 - it will assist in the production of final

6 Nitrite NO2- treated water with a low residual of

7 Bromide Br - organic matter and silica.

8 Chloride Cl- Safety: Acid and alkali solution are

corrosive and should be handled in a
9 Cyanide CN- manner that will prevent eye and skin
10 Bicarbonate HCO3- contact. If any oxidising agents are used ,
necessary safety precautions should be
11 Bisilicate HSiO3- observed to avoid accidents and damage
12 Hydroxide OH- to the resin
 SBA Resin Continued...

A strongly basic CH- CH2 – CH - CH2- CH- CH2

quaternary
ammonium anion
exchange resin
CH2 NR3+ OH-
CH- CH2 – CH - CH2- CH- CH2 - CH
CH2 NR3+ OH-

CH2 NR3+ OH-

CH- CH2 – CH - CH2- CH- CH2 - CH

CH2 NR3+ OH-

CH2 NR3+ OH- CH2 NR3+ OH-
 Continued...
A corresponding list for amine based anion exchangers is:

OH- ≈ F- < HCO3- < Cl- < Br- < NO3- < HSO4- < PO43- < CrO42- < SO42-

Suppose a resin has greater affinity for ion B than for ion A. If the resin contains ion A and
ion B is dissolved in the water passing through it, then the following exchange takes place,
the reaction proceeding to the right (R represents the resin):

AR + Bn± ! BR + An±
•
When the resin exchange capacity nears exhaustion, it will mostly be in the BR
form . A mass action relationship applies where the bracketed entities represent
concentrations:

[AR][B]

--------- = Q

[BR][A]
•
Q is the equilibrium quotient, and is a constant specific for the pair of ions and
type of resin. This expression indicates that if a concentrated solution containing ion A is
now passed through the exhausted bed, the resin will regenerate into the AR form ready
for re-use, whilst ion B will be eluted into the water. All large scale applications for ion
exchange resins involved such exhaustion and regeneration cycles.
 Continued...
SBA Regeneration chemical calculation:

1.Castic soda flakes 95 % Available. Technical

Resin Quantity * 0.08
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) = ---------------------------------
100
3710 * 8 Grm
(NaOH) Required = ---------------------- = 296.80 100% NaOH
100
296.80
NaOH Available 95 %= ---------- =312.42 in 95 % NaOH
0.95
Cost Calculation
SBA Regeneration NaOH consumption = 312.42 kg
OBR ( Out but Regeneration ) = 600 M3
312.42
@ = ------- = 0.5207kg
600
Castic soda flakes unit Rate @ 50 .00 Rs = 0.5207 * 50.00= 26.34 Rs
NaOH consumption =312.42 * 50.00 =15621. 05 Rs
Extra Neutral Alcohol per day production = 61500 lit /day
15621.05
One M3 DM Water generation NaOH cost = ------------- = 26.04 one M 3 dm water
600
 Continued...
15621.04

one liter ENA production NaOH cost = --------------- = 0.25 psi

61500

15621.04

But DM Water per Day consumption 300 M3 = ------------ = 0.12 Ps

123000

Calculating Ca

A step-by-step method is used for determining the approximate amount of resin needed to remove heavy metal ions from
aqueous systems.1. Determine total volume of solution to be treated to remove heavy metals.

Example: 10 liters

2. Calculate the average molecular weight of metals to be exchanged.

£ MW 1. Cu+2 = 63.55

--------- = average MW 2. Cd+2 = 112.41

n 3. Cr+3 = 52.0

Example: Using Cu+2, Cd+2, Cr+3; --------------

227.9/3=76 grams/mol 227.96

 Continued...
3.Calculate the total weight of the metals. Usually, metals are measured in parts per million (ppm). In aqueous
solutions, ppm can be assumed to be mg / liter.

Example:

Cu+2 = 3 ppm ,Cd+2 = 5 ppm ,Cr+3 = 2 ppm

10 ppm or 10 mg / liter

10 mg / liter x 10 liters = 100 mg

4. Convert the weight determined in step 3 to equivalence. Equivalence = weight in grams/equivalent weight,
where equivalent weight molecular

weight/average valence.

100

Example: ------------------ = 2.63 meq

76 g/ Mol

---------------

2 eq / mol

5. The wet capacity of resin is 0.40 meq /ml . Knowing this, the volume of resin needed can be calculated.

2.63 meq

Example: ------------------ = 6.58 ml

0.40 meq /ml

 High Pressure Boiler
a l
mical m ic
h e
r C t
a te en
r W a t m
il e r e
Bo T
 High Pressure Boilers
Pressure Range:

45 Kg/cm2 To 87 Kg / cm2

Critical needs :

** High quality make of water ,

External pre- treatment through demineralization and mechanical deaeration.

** High purity steam to the turbine.

** No excess hydrate alkalinity.

** Precise control of total system water treatment.

Steam cycle:

** Begins at the boiler thermal energy in superheated steam

is converted to mechanical energy in the propulsion turbine

** Steam is then converted in to condensate in the main condenser.

** condensate is combined with demineralization make up water

and is pumped as feed water through heaters to a thermal

deaerator and than returning to the boiler.

High Pressure Boilers
 High Pressure Boilers,
Cycle chemistry

– Treatment control throughout the steam cycle

HP and LP Similarities

• Both need pre-treatment providing good quality makeup water and

oxygen removal.

– Critical to high pressure.

• Both use an internal treatment.

• Both use an oxygen scavenger/reducing agent.

• Both use an after-boiler steam treatment program.

 HP AND LP Differences
High pressure :-

– Makeup water is very pure and corrosive

• Low level of dissolved solids

– Based on coordination of phosphate and pH so that no free caustic exists

– Lower chemical treatment levels

– Lower tolerances for variations in chemical levels and TDS

– Production of high purity steam

Low pressure :-

– Based on phosphate precipitation

– Lower heat transfer rates and boiler water conditions

are such that adequate rinsing of internal tube surfaces

prevents high localized caustic concentrations and gouging

N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
History of Coordinated Phosphate pH Control

– Excess hydrate alkalinity led to metal damage in the form of caustic

v
Shore side high pressure systems experienced failures from localized caustic
concentrations in 1930’s and 1940’s

embrittlement (cracking) or gouging

New boiler water treatment was developed using the alkalinity derived from
phosphate alone, eliminating sodium hydroxide

– The sodium to phosphate ratio determines the pH of the water (3:1)

v
– Ratio of trisodium to monosodium or disodium phosphate is adjusted

to desired pH and phosphate levels can be attained without creating

free caustic (3:1)

– As trisodium phosphate hydrolyzes in the water it produces a hydroxyl ion (OH)

which controls the pH level

– Monosodium or disodium phosphate do not produce OH

v
– Use of two different phosphates prevented complete program control

at times
 High Pressure Boiler Phosphate Treatment

Utilizes disodium orthophosphate and caustic so that no

“free caustic” is generated in the boiler water
– Sodium to phosphate ratio is approximately 2.75:1 and provides
margin of safety for good control of the program
– Went into effect in the power industry in the 1960’s and has been
highly successful
Na2HPO4 + NaOH Na3PO4 + H2O
Disodium ortho Sodium Trisodium ortho Water

phosphate Hydroxide phosphate

 Steam Components

Pre-Boiler
Boiler
-
First stage heater
- Propulsion boiler with
-
Deaerator
Superheaters and desuperheaters
-
Feed Pump - Steam drum purification
-
Feed water Heater
-
Economizer
-
Evaporators
After Boiler
-Turbines
-Main condenser
-Condensate pump
-Air ejector condenser
-Steam line
-pressure reducing stations
-Heat exchangers
-Condenser return lines
 Deaerator
Function :-
– Thermally removes dissolved gases in feed water
** Dissolved gases are extracted by steam heating and raising the
temperature to a level where they come out of solution
** Spray nozzles atomize distillate and condensate into a steam space
raising its temperature which liberates dissolved gases
• Problems :-
– Spray nozzle malfunction and dissolved gases will not be effectively
removed
• Detect by steam space/water space - pressure/temperature
conditions
– Vent malfunction - valve in vent line should be open far enough to allow
full removal of gases without permitting excessive quantities of steam or slugs
of water to escape
* Gases must be vented to the atmosphere
•
Deaerator Removes Dissolved Oxygen
v
Spray type deaerator is a
component of the pre-boiler
system
v
Steam heats and removes
oxygen from droplets that are in
a spray pattern
v
Dissolved oxygen is removed
to less than 0.007 ppm or 7 ppb
v
Steam space temperature
and water space temperature
difference should not be more
than 1°C or 2°F
 Dissolved Gases
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the two most aggressive gases in
distilled seawater
– Combination of both is more damaging than the two
gases acting independently
– Enters the boiler through the makeup feed system
v
Water at 10°C or 50°F at atmospheric pressure usually
contains between 8-10 ppm of dissolved oxygen
v
As water is heated its ability to hold dissolved
gases in solution decreases

v
Oxygen is re-absorbed after cooling and standing in an open
storage tank
v
Dissolved oxygen is very harmful
 Solubility of Oxygen in
Water

Oxygen
Content
Ml per lit

Temperature in Degrees °c Boiling Point

 Deaerator Storage Section
v
A good place to continuously inject oxygen
scavenger and neutralizing amine.
– Chemicals can also be injected to feed pump
suction.
v
Increasing chemical feed to offset deaerator mechanical
or operational problems is not a good idea.
– Copper alloy parts of the low pressure end of the cycle
may be damaged by oxygen since the
overfeed can result in increased decomposition to

ammonia
 Economizer
v
Function

– Decreases stack temperature and increases

system efficiency by absorbing heat from the stack gases and adds this
heat as sensible heat to the feed water
v
Problems
– Venerable to dissolved oxygen attack from the
water side if improper lay-up
Source of iron transport to the boiler
– Prone to acid attack (combustion end products)
from the fire side
 Boiler Water-Side Internals
v
Deposit accumulations

– Caustic cracking or caustic corrosion

Excess hydroxide alkalinity
– Metal oxides such as iron and copper
v
Copper from heat exchangers transported to the boiler due to
low pH and /or ammonia
v
Copper on boiler tubes cause overheating and galvanic corrosion
– Overheating due to barrier of normal heat transfer
v
Oxygen pitting
– Occurs primarily during boiler lay-up or incidental or temporary
shutdown due to the ingress of oxygen.
– Pay close attention to proper lay-up procedures
during these times
 Boiler Water-Side Internals
v
Prime places for iron and copper deposit
accumulations
– Horizontal or gently sloping boiler tubes
– Boiler tubes of high heat flux
Ø
Metal oxide deposits provide an ideal
place to concentrate dissolved solids
Ø
“Free” caustic alkalinity in the bulk boiler
water will concentrate in the deposits and cause
caustic gouging on the metal surface under the
deposit Boiler
Ø
Volatile components of the treatment evolve
Continued..
from the boiler into the steam which proceeds
through the internal steam drum purification
equipment and into the super heaters and other
parts of the steam/condensate
 Superheater
Ø
Vertical design
– Inlet and outlet headers at the bottom
v
Horizontal design
– Headers at the sides of the boiler
v
Either configuration insures good
drainage
– Lowers the amount of deposit accumulation on
the steam side
 Continued..
v
Function
– Converts saturated steam to
superheated steam thereby increasing the total
amount of work available in the steam
Steam from the steam drum is routed back
into the boiler where the combustion process
adds the heat required to superheat the steam to
the desired system temperature level
Design temperature superheated steam is
required to extract maximum efficiency from system
turbine
 Continued..
v
Problems on the steam side

– Deposits insulate the metal from cooling effects of the

incoming saturated steam and lead to overheating of the metal on
the fireside causing failure of super heater tubes
– Silica from shore water makeup vaporizes with steam
and deposits on tubes
– Boiler water carryover with saturated steam causes
internal sodium solids deposits
– Iron oxide build-up indicates an iron-steam reaction
– Oxygen corrosion during poor layup practice

– Fatigue due to vibration and mechanical conditions –

not chemical
 Continued..
v
Problems on the fire side
– Tube temperatures are very high and are prone to
slag type deposits
– Slag deposits will alter the gas paths and may lead
to exceptionally high localized temperatures in the
superheater
 Steam Turbine
v
Function

– Rotating machinery that efficiently converts heat energy to mechanical

energy to turn a generator that makes electrical energy
– Pressure and temperature are reduced in the Process , hence high
pressure and low pressure sections
– Steam purity and proper boiler water chemical and mechanical control
are important
***Monitor by conductivity
v
Problems
– Silica from shore water makeup vaporizes with the steam and deposits
on turbine blades
– As boiler pressures and temperatures increase, turbine materials
designed to handle these thermal conditions are more susceptible to attack
Caustic and chloride
 Steam Condensers
v
Function
– Changes steam into a hot water as condensate
by transferring steam’s thermal energy to the process fluid
while the steam converts to condensate
v
Problems
– Seawater in-leakage
• Detected by condensate line salinity alarm
• Loss of boiler water alkalinity relates to condenser seawater
in leakage and boiler water becomes increasingly contaminated
– Ammonia concentration in air removal
sections
• Steam jet condenser drains should be discharged overboard
– Damage is more critical than in low pressure
 Continued..
v
Main and auxiliary condensers

– Leaks can cause scale and alkalinity reduction in the boiler water from
hydrolysis of magnesium chloride and other seawater contaminants
Leaks start slowly
– As contamination increases it is essential to locate and repair the leak

Cold process fluid

Steam

Condensed steam
Warm process fluid (Condensate)
 Continued..
v
Detection by salinity meter
– Set to alarm at a predetermined conductivity level
v
Visual and audible alarm
– First indication of leakage
v
Salinity meters installed at or near potential
problem areas
– Main condenser
– Auxiliary condenser
– Evaporator
– Evaporator condenser
– Distilled water tank
– First stage heater
– Drain cooler
Ammonia in the Steam Condenser
v
Hydrazine is used as an oxygen scavenger in the preboiler
system
v
Hydrazine volatilizes out of the boiler with the steam and
breaks down in passing through the superheater
– Above 204°C (400°F) decomposes forming nitrogen and
ammonia
– 3N2H4 → 4NH3 + N2
v
When steam condenses in the condenser, gaseous
ammonia dissolves in the condensate
v
Ammonia when combined with oxygen and carbon
dioxide becomes aggressive to copper alloy materials
– Ammonia by itself is not harmful
 Continued..
v
Ammonia can concentrate
– In the air removal sections of the condenser
– In the condenser drains of the steam jet air ejector
system where copper tube materials are dissolved
v
Air ejector drains should be discharged
overboard rather than being reused
– Eliminates the chance of transporting copper or copper
oxides to the boiler where they can precipitate and cause
severe localized corrosion
 Controlling Ammonia
v
Do not reuse air ejector drains

– Drains should be discharged overboard rather than being reused

– Eliminates the chance of transporting copper or copper

oxides to the boiler where they can precipitate and cause

severe localized corrosion

v
Vent deaerator to atmosphere

– Do not vent to first stage heater or another part of the

condensate system
v
Detected by simple field test

– Maximum concentration 0.5 ppm in condensate

– In the presence of o oxygen the ammonia level must be kept at a minimu

Minimize copper pickup from condensate system by

maintaining low levels of oxygen and ammonim

 water Quality

r e
su
es e m ts
r
P ys os t i
h - S p
ig e
H eam d D
S t a n
al e
S c
 Feed water quality
v
Use good quality Demineralization makeup water (DM)
ü
– pH 8.5 to 9.2 @ 25ºC
ü
– Conductivity <10 μS/cm
ü
– Reserve feed water < 10 μS/cm conductivity
ü
– Condensate and drain returns < 3 μS/cm
ü
– Residual Silica 0.001 T0 0.02
ü
– Total iron <0.010 ppm or < 0.1 ppb*
ü
– Total copper <0.005 ppm or <5 ppb*
ü
– Total hardness < Nil *
ü
– Dissolved oxygen from deaerator <0.001ppm or 7 ppb*
 Deposits
v
Deposits are an accumulation of
suspended solids that can come from
many different sources
v
Scale from calcium and magnesium
v
Oxides generated within the boiler
– Iron and copper corrosion products
v
Scale and oxides originating outside the
boiler but transported into the boiler from the
feed water
v
Copper is a major component of condensate
system heat exchangers
v
Metal
– Improper acid cleaning
– Overfeed of strong reducing agent
– Erosion in condensate or pre-boiler
v
Oxide
– Corrosion product from alloys in the system
v
Low pH and/or ammonia leaches copper out of
heat exchangers and it is transported to the boiler
– Copper deposits coat the boiler tubes causing

overheating and galvanic corrosion

 Corrosion in HP System
v
Oxygen corrosion
– Dissolved oxygen in condensate and feedwater
v
Copper corrosion from ammonia
– Copper plating of boiler tubes leads to premature boiler tube
failure
v
Gouging corrosion
– From excessive free caustic
v
General low pH corrosion
– Not common in high-pressure
v
Improper lay-up
 “Gouging” Corrosion
v
Excessive concentrations of free caustic or hydroxide alkalinity
can lead to metal loss or “gouging” corrosion
– Water film at the hot tube surface especially beneath
deposits contains highly concentrated sodium hydroxide
– Destroys protective magnetite film
– Wasting away of metals from alkali attack
– Slow tube failure
v
Can lead to caustic cracking or caustic embrittlement
– Found at grain boundaries
 Caustic Corrosion Reactions
Fe3O4 + 4NaOH +2NaFeO2 + Na2FeO2 + 2H2O
Megnetite + Caustic → Soluble iron salts removing protective
Oxide
Fe° + 2NaOH Na2FeO2 + 2H+
Iron metal + Caustic →Gouge + Soluble iron salt + Hydrogen

Anodic reaction
“ H2O caustic gouging“ of
Fe Fe2+- +
2 OH
-

base of metal OH
+ 2 e- Fe(OH)2 OH-
+
H+

+
Cathodic reaction 2 e - + 2H H2
2e
With dissolved oxygen :
4 e- + O2 + 2 H2O 4 OH-
 Hydrogen Damage Corrosion
Most commonly associated with excessive deposition on tube surfaces coupled with a low pH
boiler water excursion where the water chemistry is upset

– Low pH contaminants can concentrate in the deposit

– Under-deposit corrosion releases atomic hydrogen which

migrates into the tube wall metal

v
Seen by intergranular micro-cracking

Corrosion From Improper Lay-up

Mostly due to oxygen

– Insufficient oxygen scavenger reserve

– Improper water levels

No header tank

– Not using deoxygenated feedwater

– Inability to fill boiler completely

Corrosion by oxygen
General corrosion in water-tube boiler
– Low boiler water pH
 Phosphate Hideout
v
Sodium phosphate can precipitate under certain boiler
water conditions
v
Fast loss of soluble phosphate residual during normal
steaming
– Dissolved phosphate precipitates on high heat transfer surfaces such
as water wall and main generating tubes
v
High phosphate residual reappears when boiler is shut
down or operated at low steaming
– Precipitated phosphate re-dissolves
v
Delicate balance between phosphate and pH is upset
creating deposits causing localized overheating and tube
failure
v
Frequently an indication that the boiler is dirty and should be cleaned
 Carryover
Ø
Steam contamination from excessive solids in the boiler
Ø
Mechanical carryover

– Droplets in steam leaving the boiler

– Affected principally by the design of the baffles and drum internals in the steam drum which are
able to remove about 99.9% of the boiler water from the steam

– The remaining 0.1% boiler water in the steam is not sufficient to lead

to problems

– Affected by any contaminant in the boiler water that can cause

foaming

• Excessively high dissolves or suspended solids

• Excessively high alkalinity

• Oil

– Inability of water level control system during rough seas

Ø
Vaporized carryover

– Vaporized silica carried over with the steam from a boiler drum
 Causes
CausesofofCarryover
Carryover
Ø
High total dissolved solids or suspended solids
Ø
Design of baffles and drum internals that separate
droplets of water from steam
Ø
Boiler liquid levels too high
Ø
Sudden changes in boiler load
Ø
Operational problems
Carryover
• Massive carryover is relatively rare in high
pressure boilers
• Leads to deposits on the steam side of the
superheater and insulates the metal from being
properly cooled
– Overheating failures
• Leads to deposits on turbines
 Detecting and Combating Carryover
ü
Drop in superheat temperature is a direct indication of carryover
ü
Inspection tank will have visual oil floating on top of the water
ü
Stop the source of contamination
ü
Minimize the firing rate of the boiler
ü
Blow down surface and bottom
BLOW DOWN
ü
Excessive solids concentrations in the boiler can cause carryover, foaming
and priming
ü
Limiting dissolved solids in the boiler water is set mainly for minimizing
carryover
ü
Controlled by periodic checks of total dissolved solids by conductivity
ü
Conductivity is the best indication of the concentrations of all ionized
dissolved materials
 pH Booster - Morpholine
O The pH of Morpholine solution is as follows
H2C CH2
Mg / l 87 8.7 0.87
H2C CH2
pH 9.7 9.2 8.7
NH

in aqueous solution , morpholine ionizes as follows.

Tetrahydro-1 4 oxazine or Morpholine

O-(C2H4)-NH + H2O O- (C2H4)-NH2OH

O-(C2H4)-NH + H2O O- (C2H4)-NH2 + OH

 Dosing Calculation
Main flow m3/hr * Dosing PPM

Flow rate = -------------------------------------------

10 * Solution concentration
Blow down calculation :-
Blow down TDS S
COC = -------------------- , Blow down = BD = --------
Feed TDS T-S
COC – Cycles of concentration , S = TDS In feed water
1 T= Maximum allowable
Blow down in % = ----- * 100 TDS in blow down
C water
 Boiler Water parameter
Boiler
S.No Parameter Unit Feed Blow down Steam Retain
water water condensat condensat
e e
1 pH 8.5 to 9.0 9.5 to 10.5 8.5 to 9.2 8.5 to 9.2
2 Conductivity μs >10 150 10 10
3 Total 5 100 5 5
dissolved PPM
solids
4 Total PPM Nil Nil Nil Nil
Hardness
5 Silica PPM 0.02 5 0.02 0.02

6 P-Alkalinity PPM - 20 - -

7 M-Alkalinity PPM - 25 - -
 Boiler Lay up Procedures
Type of Procedure
shutdown
SHORT OUTAGES Maintain the same Hydrazine and Ammonia
4 Days Or less . Unit not concentration as present during normal operation
drained Establish 0.3 to 0.6Kg/ cm2 Nitrogen cap on the
steam drum
SHORT OUTAGES Drain and open only those section require repair
4 Days or less. Unit is Isolate remainder of the unit under 0.3 to 0.6 bar
Drained Nitrogen pressure where possible. Maintain the
same nitrogen and Ammonia concentration for water
remaining in the cycle.
LONG OUTAGES Fill the boiler with polish water having 200 ppm of
Longer than 4 Days up Hydrazine and 10 ppm of Ammonia to maintain pH-
to15 Days . Unit is 10.00 Establish nitrogen cap of 0.3 to 0.6 Kg/cm2 G
drained over the steam drum .
LONG OUTAGES Dry storage of boiler with nitrogen alone is preferred
More then 15 days –unit procedure . Nitrogen cap of 0.3 to 0.6Kg/cm2G to be
is drained maintained on the steam drum. Installed silica gel
 Type of Cooling Tower
Cooling Tower

Natural Draft Mechanical Draft

Design cooling tower

is such that cold air of Forced Draft Induced Draft
the bottom of tower Air is bushed in Air is pulled
push the warmer air the Tower with a fan from cooling tower
at the side by a at the top
out form top
 Cooling Tower Efficiency Calculations

Ø
Cooling Tower Approach:

The difference between the Cold Water Temperature (Cooling Tower Outlet)
And ambient Wet Bulb Temperature is called as Cooling Tower Approach.
Approach = Cold Water Temperature – Wet Bulb Temperature
Ø
Cooling Tower approach is the better indicator for the performance .
Ø
Cooling Tower Range:
The difference between the Hot Water Temperature (Cooling Tower Inlet)
Temperature and Cold water (Cooling Tower Outlet) temperature is called Cooling Tower
Range.
Range = Hot Water Temperature – Cold Water Temperature .
(Reference: Perry’s Chemical Engineers Hand Book )
Range = Hot Water Temperature – Cold Water
Temperature
Continued..
Cooling water inlet

R
Hot water
A Temperate
N
G
E Cold water
Temperate
Cooling Water Outlet
A
P
P
R Wet Bulb
O Temperate
A
C
H
 Cooling Tower Efficiency Calculation:
The calculation of cooling tower efficiency involves the Range
and approach of the cooling Tower. Cooling tower efficiency is limited by
the ambient wet bulb temperature. In ideal case the cold water
temperature will be equal to the wet bulb temperature. This is practically
not possible to achieve. This
requires very large tower and results in huge evaporation and wind age
or drift loss resulting in a practically not viable solution. In practice the
cooling tower efficiency will be in between 70 to 75%.
Cooling Tower Efficiency =
(Hot Water Temperature – Cold water Temperature) x 100/
(Hot Water Temperature – Wet bulb temperature)
Or Simply
Cooling Tower Efficiency = Range/ (Range + Approach) x 100

In summer the ambient air wet bulb temperature raises when compared
to winter thus limiting the cooling tower efficiency.
 CONTINUED..
Ø
Other Cooling Tower Calculations:

This includes determination of cycle of concentration, Evaporation loss, Drift or Wind age
Loss, Blow down water requirement Make up water requirement.
Ø
Cycle of Concentration:

Cycle of concentration is a dimensionless number. It is a ratio between parameter in

Cooling Water to the parameter in Makeup water. It can be calculated from any the following
formulae.
v
COC= Silica in Cooling Water / Silica in Makeup Water
v
COC = Ca Hardness in Cooling Water/ Ca Hardness in Makeup water
v
COC = Conductivity of Cooling Water / Conductivity of Makeup water

v
The cycle of concentration normally varies from 3.0 to 7.0 depending on the
Process Design. It is advisable to keep the Cycle of concentration as high as possible to
reduce the makeup water requirement of the cooling tower. At the same time higher cycle
of concentration increases the dissolved solids concentration in circulating cooling water
which results in scaling and fouling of process heat transfer equipments.
Ø
Draw off or Blow down:

As the cooling water circulates the cooling tower part of water evaporates thereby
increasing the total dissolved solids in the remaining water. To control the Cycle of Concentration blow
down is given. Blow down in the is the function of Cycle of concentration. Blow down can be calculated
from the formula:
Ø
B = E/ (COC-1)
Ø
B = Blow Down (m3/hr)
Ø
E = Evaporation Loss (m3/hr)
Ø
COC = Cycle of Concentration. Varies from 3.0 to 7.0 depending upon Manufactures Guidelines
Ø
Evaporation Loss Calculation:
Ø
Evaporation Loss in cooling tower is calculated by the following empirical equation.

E = 0.00085 x R x 1.8 x C E = Evaporation Loss (m3/hr) R= Range C = Circulating Cooling

Water (m3/hr) (Reference: Perry’s Chemical Engineers Hand Book )

Alternatively, The Evaporation loss can be calculated from the heat
balance across the cooling tower. The amount of heat to be removed
from Circulating water according to
Q = m Cp DT is C x Cp x R . The amount of heat removed by
evaporative cooling is Q = m x Hv is E x HV On Equating these
two, we get
E = C x R x Cp / HV
E = Evaporation Loss in m3/hr C= Cycle of Concentration,
R= Range in °C ,Cp = Specific Heat = 4.184 kJ /kg/ °C
HV = Latent heat of vaporization = 2260 kJ / kg
Wind age or Drift Loss Calculation:
Drift loss of the cooling tower is normally provided by the cooling
tower manufacturer based on the Process design. If it is not available
it may be assumed as
For Natural Draft Cooling Tower D = 0.3 to 1.0 * C /100
For Induced Draft Cooling Tower D = 0.1 to 0.3 * C /100
For Cooling Tower with Drift Eliminator D = 0.01* C /100
 Cooling Tower Mass Balance – Make up water:
Air E

D Heat
Exchanger
M
Air
M=E+D+B

B
C: Circulating Water ,

E: Evaporation loss

D:Drift loss or win dage ,

B :Blow down ,

M: Make up water
•
Cooling tower mass balance gives an idea about make up water requirement. Cooling
Tower Make up has to substitute the water losses resulting from Evaporation, Windage
and Blow down.
•
M=E+D+B
•
M = Make up water Requirement in m3/hr
•
B = Blow Down in m3/hr
•
E = Evaporation Loss in m3/hr
•
D = Drift Loss in m3/hr
 Waste Distillery Plant waste as fuel
What is Spent wash?
All spirits go through at least two
procedures -fermentation and distillation.
Fermentations where all alcohol is created,
distillations where the alcohol is separated
and removed. In order for fermentation to
occur, two things are needed
•
YEAST + SUGAR (molasses) =
ALCOHOL + CO2
•
Spent wash is a brown liquid-waste that is
generated as a by-product during the
distillation of fermented molasses
•
A typical distillery generates 8 to 15 litres
of spent wash per litre of alcohol