Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

A Complete Modeling of Laser-Welded Blanks Formability

Sadok Gaied and Francis Schmit

ArcelorMittal Research Center

Fabrice Pinard
Université de Technologie de Compiègne

Jean-Marc Roelandt
Noble International Ltd.

Abstract

A laser-welded blank (LWB) offers several notable benefits including decreased part weight,
reduced manufacturing costs, increased environmental friendliness, and improved dimensional
consistency. However, in order to take advantage of these benefits, designers need to
overcome the formability of LWBs and be able to accurately predict the LWB forming
characteristics early in the design process. A numerical model to predict the forming limit
diagram of LWBs taking into account the interaction between the weaker and the stronger
materials is presented. We present also a new approach needed to predict the maximum
elongation of the laser seam, for example for advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) based
LWBs. This approach is based on a coupling model taking into account the thermal,
metallurgical, and mechanical phenomena. A comparison of numerical and experimental
results shows a very good agreement. These approaches offer a considerable gain to obtain
the formability limits for all configurations.

Introduction

The automotive designers are constantly searching for innovative means of reducing vehicle
weight and manufacturing costs. This goal is reached through the use of AHSS-based LWBs.
This technology consists in steels of different thicknesses and strength types welded together to
produce a single blank prior to the forming process. However, designers need to overcome the
formability of LWBs and be able to accurately predict unique characteristics related to LWB
forming early in the design process.

In a general manner, the formability of LWBs can be limited by ruptures taking place in base
metal far from the welded seam, or occurring in the vicinity of the laser-welded seam. In the
later circumstance, two different cases have to be considered:

• Fracture in base metal parallel to the the laser seam

• Fracture transverse to the laser seam

This paper presents two innovative approaches developed in order to be able to accurately
predict the fracture parallel and transverse to the aser seam. These models are based on
theoretical and numerical analysis of involved phenomena.
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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Fracture Modes of Laser-Welded Blanks

In the stamping process of automotive components, a crack will occur when the deformation of
the blank exceeds a critical value. In a general manner, the formability of LWBs can be
especially limited by a fracture occurring in the vicinity of the laser-welded seam. Two cases
have to be considered:

Fracture in Base Metal

The fracture occurs in the weaker material, close to the welded seam, in an area not affected by
the welding process. As shown by F. Cayssials and Gaied et al., the fracture is the
consequence of a plastic necking phenomenon and its location is related to a particular stress
conditions due to the interaction of both materials. A special concept of the Forming Limit Curve
(FLC) adapted to tailored blanks and taking into account the interaction between both materials
has been proposed to accurately predict this type of fracture. This model is now well known and
applied in many practical situations.

Crack in weaker material

Figure 1. Fracture in Weaker Material

Fracture in Laser Seam

For particular grade combinations, AHSS or not, and forming conditions, the fracture initiation
can occur in the laser-welded seam with a crack perpendicular to the weld line. In this case, the
formability depends on the weld properties. Actually, no existing model able to determine the
formability limit of the laser seam itself is available. One reason is the high complexity of this
issue related to the metallurgy of the molten zone, a strong influence of steel chemical
composition and welding conditions.

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Crack in weld

Figure 2. Fracture in Weld Seam

Analysis of Fracture Mechanism in Base Metal

Fracture Characterization

The fracture can occurs in the weakest material, next to the welded seam, in an area not
affected by the welding process itself. The fracture is the consequence of the interaction of both
materials.

In a general way, to pass up the fracture in the weakest material, it is necessary that the strain
levels remain below the FLC everywhere in the stamped part. The risk of fracture is determined
by evaluating how close the strain condition is to the FLC. The experimental results in Figure 3
show that the strain levels remain below that the FLC of base metal. However, there is a
necking zone in this metal.

The FLC of the weakest material may not predict the onset of necking of the LWB though the
fracture actually occurs in the weakest material next to the laser seam.

The FLC of LWB cannot be obtained in the same manner as that of a monolithic blank because
of the interaction between weakest and strongest metals.

Experimental Setup

The experimental methods for determining FLCs are well established, from stretching over a
hemispherical punch (Nakazima) or a circular punch with a flat bottom in cup test (Marciniak).

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

FLC of base
metal
Necking zone

Figure 3. An Example of FLC of Base Metal Limits

To determine experimental FLCs to be compared to numerical ones, the Nakazima method was
used. To deform the sample until the fracture an Erichsen machine was used (see Figure 4).
The Nakazima test uses a hemispherical punch. A carrier blank has been used to compensate
the different gauges between the weaker and the stronger metals. To determine the forming
limit in different forming modes, we use various samples with different widths. The length of all
specimens has been equal to 160 mm. A square grid has been applied on all samples by
electrochemical etching. This etching is performed on the sheet side that is not in contact with
the tool, implying it has no influence on the friction conditions during the test. To measure in-
plane principal strains of the specimen after forming with a hemispherical dome punch, the
computer-assisted optical measurement system Automated Strain Analysis and Measurement
Environment (ASAME) was used.

In order to obtain the points of the FLC, the Bragard method was used. For each sample, a 6-
degree polynomial curve is fitted through the values obtained for the major strain.

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Figure 4. Nakazima Test Machine

The maximum value of the curve gives the limit value of the major strain for local necking. The
corresponding value for the minor strain component is taken from the same position as the
maximum of the curve (see Figure 5). This procedure is performed for each sample width used,
so that a set of points describing the FLC is provided.

N e c k in g p o in t d e t e r m in a t io n

0 ,7 0 ,0 6

0 ,6 0 ,0 4

0 ,5 0 ,0 2

0 ,4 0
Strain [-]

0 ,3 -0 ,0 2

0 ,2 -0 ,0 4

0 ,1 -0 ,0 6

0 -0 ,0 8
0 5 10 15 20
-0 ,1 -0 ,1

N o d e p o in t [# ]

Figure 5. Bragard Method

The FLC shows the amount of deformation (strain) a sheet material can resist as function of the
deformation mode, which is a relation between the major and minor strain (see Figure 6). In this
figure, the different main deformation modes are indicated. The minimum of the FLC is normally
at the plane strain path.

To determine the forming limit in different forming modes (deep drawing, plane strain, and
stretching) the width of the sample is varied (see Figure 6).
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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Major Strain

60

50
ε10C : Major strain in plane-strain path

40

30

20

10

0
-50 -30 -10 10 30 50
Minor Strain
Forming Limit Curve

Figure 6. Typical Relationship between Width of Specimens and Strain Path

Two types of steel grades with different mechanical characteristics were chosen for the
experiments (see Table 1). These steels have been selected and welded together in different
thicknesses or same thickness to manufacture LWBs for all configurations: same thickness
specimen, same grade specimen, and different thickness and grade specimen. These steels
are commonly implemented in the automotive industry for car bodies manufacturing.

Table 1. Rheological Characteristics Calculated from the Tensile Test for the Steel
Grades Considered

n-Type Hollomon K-Type Hollomon r-Anisotropic

Mild steel 0.23 650 2.1
HSS 0.149 1200 0.91

In the case of base metal fracture mode, the experimental results show that the fracture occurs
in the weaker material next to the laser seam by a plastic instability process (see Figure 7).
Therefore, in this configuration welded with a usual quality, the weld seam is not a major factor
affecting the LWBs formability. The plastic instability process is directly related to the interaction
between the two materials. The main factors influencing the necking occurrence are a higher
gauge or/and higher-strength difference between the two materials.

The different main deformation modes are indicated. The minimum of the FLC is normally at
the plane strain path (see Figure 6).

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Laser seam

Necking zone

Figure 7. Necking Zone

The experimental results show that LWBs of different thicknesses and grades exhibit different
maximum major strain values in plane strain path compared to weakest material (see Table 2).
A specific LWB FLC model is required to accurately predict the onset of necking.

Table 2. Forming Limit in Plane Strain Path

MS (0.8 mm) /HSLA (1.2 mm)

εC Weaker material 0.33
εC LWB 0.21

Because of the complexity of the experimental determination of the FLC, a number of theoretical
calculating models have been set up on the basis of the classical or modified theory of instability
criteria. An alternative solution is to use a numerical model.

Numerical Procedure: Finite-Element Simulation

The conventional Nakazima test was simulated using a simplified modeling approach with shell
elements. It was carried out using Pamstamp software (Explicit). Nakazima test simulation
requires the use of different sample geometries to generate all possible strain paths. The
dimension of each sample is summarized in Figure 6. Each sample represents one specific
strain path on the FLC.

The non-linear stress distribution across the thickness resulting from plasticity requires five
points for numerical integration in the thickness direction.

A carrier blank has been used to compensate the different gauges between the thinner and the
thicker metals (see Figure 8).

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Thicker blank

Thinner blank
Carrier
Blank

Figure 8. Numerical Modeling

For detecting the onset of necking by the strain-rate method, the strain-rate evolution is
analyzed in the treated zone. All elements around the necking zone were treated. In Figure 9
we show the treated zone in weaker material, this zone is located in the vicinity of the heat-
affected zone (HAZ). The element was identified by comparing the major strain ratio of each
element with all neighborhood elements. If the ratio exceeds one and half, the element will be
selected.

Weld line position

Treated
zone
Symmetry
condition

Figure 9. Treated Zone in the Weakest Material

The numerical FLC is built by conjugating the major and minor strains at the time of necking (tn)
in the necking zone for different widths of samples. It presents a very good agreement with
experimental results for both the necking zone and corresponding principal-strains values (see
Figure 10).

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Major
50
Numerical FLC
Experimental FLC 40

30

0
20

10

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
Minor

Figure 10. LWB Forming Limit Curve Mild Steel (0.8 mm)/HSS (1.2 mm)

The results pointed out that the thickness gauge and/or the mechanical difference between the
two materials are the two key factors that will influence the necking occurrence. Thus, a
dedicated FLC concept adapted to the LWBs and taking into account the interaction between
both materials has been proposed. It proved to be able to accurately predict fracture when it
does take place parallel to the laser seam in many practical cases.

Prediction of Maximum Elongation of Laser Seam

Fracture Characterization

Weld seam maximum elongation needs to be taken into consideration when considering a given
geometry, grade selection, and thickness allocation, to avoid fracture in the weld during the
forming operation. In this case, the formability in the direction transverse to the weld line
depends on the weld/assembly properties.

Figure 11. Fracture on the Part

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

In order to avoid the fracture of the weld during the stamping process of the laser blank, it is
necessary that the strain levels remain below the critical elongation everywhere in the laser
seam.

The experimental analysis show that the weld seam fracture analysis needs to take into account
a lot of parameters including temperature/time history during welding, steel chemical
composition, and mechanical characterization for each base metal.

To determine the instability condition in the weld, we need to forecast the mechanical properties
of the molten zone and HAZ (Figure 12). The prediction of the mechanical properties of the
weld will be deduced from the mechanical properties and the ratio of each metallurgic phase.
Finally, the metallurgic phase hardening is related to chemical composition and process
condition including cooling rate.

Mechanical analysis
UE1, Ts1, t1, UE2, Ts2 , t2…
Plastic instability
Thermal strain Fracture criterion Metallurgical strain

Thermo-mechano-metallurgical
constitutive model
UE of TWB
Heat source Phase proportions

Chemical composition
Thermal analysis Metallurgy analysis

P, V… C1, P1, C2, P2 …

Temperature

Figure 12. LWB Behavior: Interrelated Physical Phenomena

Modeling of Laser Welding Process Modeling

The modeling of the welding process is particularly complex and needs to describe the heat
transfer, to know the metallurgy transformations and the temperature dependency of the thermal
and mechanical properties of the materials. Some studies have shown that SYSWELD software
allows a coupled resolution which takes into account the heat conduction equation and the
kinetics of metallurgical transformations.

The design of experience and numerical response surface are used to estimate the weld pool
geometry. Figure 13 shows a comparison of numerical and experimental weld pool geometry of
both molten zone and HAZ.

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

Numerical molten Experimental molten

zone zone
Numerical
Experimental
HAZ
HAZ

Figure 13. 2D Cross Section of the Weld; Comparison of Numerical and Experimental
Weld Pool Geometry

Another key point of a coupled modeling is the accuracy of the phase transformation prediction.
It is known that phase transformations in steel influence the weld seams ductility. A finite-
element model treated phase transformation in conjunction with thermal analysis. The analysis
takes into account metallurgical transformations dependent thermal gradient and the
Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT).

Figures 14(a) and (b) show two examples of phases transformations during the laser welding
process. It can be pointed out that in the case of AHSS grades the laser seam is a fully
martensite structure.

1,2 1,2
Ferrite
Bainite
1 1
Martensite
0,8 Austenite
0,8 Ferrite
% phase

Martensite
% phase

0,6
0,6 Austenite
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0
0
Time (s) 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

(a) Mild steel (b) AHSS

Figure 14. Prediction of Phases Transformations during Welding

The prediction of the mechanical properties of the weld is done from the mechanical properties
of each metallurgic phase, by applying a simple mixture rule.

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

In the specific case of a fully martensite structure, the constitutive law is strongly dependant of
the average carbon content. Figure 15 gives an example of stress-strain curve determined from
the modeling.

Weld behaviour

1400
1200
Stress (M pa)

1000

800

600

400
200
0
0 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008 0,01 0,012 0,014 0,016 0,018
Strain (%)

Figure 15. Example of Weld Seam Behavior in the Case of AHSS Laser Welding

If we assume that the weld fracture occurs in a ductile manner, that can be obtained with the
current commercial AHSS grades (see Figure 16), the analysis of flow localization process and
strain hardening is applied to develop a prediction of instability process for the laser weld seam.

Ductile fracture

Figure 16. Example of Fracture Morphology in a Welded Seam

Experimental Validation with the ArcelorMittal/Noble Dedicated Welding Process

In order to check the accuracy of the modeling, a series of mechanical tests have been
performed on three AHSS combinations. The specimen geometry is shown in Figure 17.

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

18
Experimental results Difference ± 1%
16
Model prediction
14

12

10
UE (%)

0
E

Figure 17. Comparison of Measured Ultimate Elongation with Predictions Based on New
Model for a Full Range of AHSS-Based LWB Assemblies

Various configurations of assembly have been tested, with a large variety of thickness gauges,
and with various steel grades such as dual phase (DP) 600, DP 780, DP 980, TRIP 700, TRIP
800, Multiphase 1000, all obtained using the ArcelorMittal/Noble dedicated welding process.
The results obtained are gathered in Figure 17. They show clearly the very good accuracy of
the modeling.

We can also point out the good maximum elongation obtained in most cases, what opens a
large range of applications for the considered steel combinations when these materials are
properly welded using the dedicated process.

Conclusions

AHSS-based LWBs offer several notable benefits including decreased part weight and reduced
manufacturing costs. However, it is important to accurately predict the formability during the
deep-drawing process.

To ensure the feasibily of stamped parts made of LWBs, modeling has been developed for the
prediction of fractures in weaker metal parallel to the weld seam or transverse to the butt laser-
welded assembly. To predict the LWB formability, we need to take into account two fracture
models: the maximum elongation of the butt laser-welded assembly and the FLC in the
interaction zone close to the laser seam. We have shown that these models are
complementary. Experimental results show excellent agreement between experiments and
both models predictions.

With the full range of AHSS grades and the dedicated process developed within ArcelorMittal,
these models allow to properly design high-performance AHSS-based LWB solutions, especially
dedicated to crash worthiness improvement and lightening of body in white.

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Sheet Metal Welding Conference XIII Livonia, MI May 14-16, 2008

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