Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
By
Erum Rehman
Roll no 1822
Saima Noreen
Roll no 1878
The work reported in this thesis was carried out by us under the supervision of
Assistant professor Abdul-Rauf Bhatti Department of Electrical Engineering GC
University, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Signature…………………..
Name: ………………………
Designation with Stamp……………………….
Co-Supervisor
Signature…………………..
Name: ………………………
Designation with Stamp……………………….
Chairperson
1.1 Background
The electrical power system has traditionally been considered to consist of three
functional zones;
The generation,
Transmission and
Distribution.
The function of the entire system is to transfer energy from the available resources to
the end consumers. In the same moment the energy is converted into electric power in
the generation system, the energy is consumed by the end users.
The extent electric power is typically transferred with the transmission System over long
distances, at high voltage levels, from the generator centers to the load centers. The
distribution systems continue the transfer at lower voltage levels and delivers supply to
individual users. The power system consists of various types of interconnected
components such as e.g.
Overhead lines,
Underground cables,
Transformers
Reactors,
Capacitors,
Disconnectors, and
Circuit breakers.
The system is constantly subjected to random failures of its interconnected
components, caused by e.g.
lightning
Storm
Human interaction
Aging equipment.
Element failures in the distribution systems account for the absolute majority of the
failures that result in an interruption of supply for the end consumers [1]. However, these
are normally relatively localized compared to interruptions in the transmission system.
The cost on the modern society of a large interruption of supply (blackout) in the
transmission system is considerable high. The related costs are significant [2, 3].
Important and vulnerable functions in the society, such as heating, cooling, and water
supply, can only function a few hours after an interruption of supply. Local standby
batteries in e.g. cell phone nodes have a limited capacity, necessary for the
communication during the restoration process.
Local generators can be available for some of the functions in the society, but this
requires a good distribution of fuel to the affected areas. Since an event in the
transmission system can propagate and paralyze. The society and its environment in a
widespread geographical area, the system has been constructed to meet the high
needs of reliability. It is generally designed, operated and planned with the N-1 criterion,
which is a rule according to which the system must be able to withstand the loss of any
single component [4]. Clearly this criterion provides a security margin to unwanted
conditions in the system. Hence, a disturbance in the transmission system does not
necessary lead to consequences for the end users in the system. E.g. only about 10 %
of the component outages in the Swedish transmission system result in an interruption
of supply for end users1. However, in the other 90 % of the outage occurrences, the
margins in the system are reduced and the operating criteria set up by the transmission
system operator may not be fulfilled.
Furthermore, demand for reliable supply of electricity is growing; increasing the need for
a higher level of system reliability. The N-1 criterion may not provide a sufficient level in
the future system and a stronger N-2 criterion is presumably not possible to justify
financially [5]. Instead the N-1 criterion in combination with of a lowest acceptable
quantitative value of system security can be used.
1.2 Project Objectives
The goal of this project is the study, development and computer implementation of
techniques and methods suitable for the assessment of complex power systems. In
order to reach this goal, the main objective with this thesis is to develop an approach for
quantifying the security margin to unwanted conditions in the transmission system. One
application in the project, that is feasible to perform if the main objective is fulfilled, is
the study of high voltage direct current (HVDC) links. The objective is to study models
and methods suitable for quantifying the reliability impact on an increasing number of
high voltages HVDC links incorporated into the transmission system.
The failure rate or forced outage rate is defined as the mean number of failures of a
component per unit exposure time.
Usually exposure time is expressed in years and failure rate is expressed in failures per
year. It must be noted that failure is not only caused by equipment failure but also
switching operation of breakers following short circuit faults. Consider the two simple
substations as shown.
Fig1: When Xfmro1 fails, the input breaker CB1 should operate causing an interruption
of load point Load1 only. Similarly failure of T2 will interrupt load point Load2 only.
Fig2: When Xfmr03 fails, input breaker CB6 will operate causing interruption of both
load points. Similarly failure of T4 will interrupt both load points. If it is not possible or
practical to isolate the failed component, breaker CB6 will remain open until the relevant
component has been repaired or replaced. In this case both load points will remain
disconnected until repairs are done.
– Passive failure:
Can be defined as a component failure mode that does not cause operation of
protection breakers and does not have an impact on the remaining energized system.
Service is restored by repairing or replacing the failed device. Examples are open
circuits and inadvertent opening of breakers.
– Active failure:
Can be defined as a component failure mode that causes the operation of the primary
protection zone around the failed component and can cause the removal of other
energized components and branches from service. The actively failed component is
isolated and the protection breakers are reclosed. This leads to service being restored
to some or all load points.
Fig3: active and passive failures
• Outage state:
The component or unit is not in the in-service state;
that is, it is partially or fully isolated from the system.
• Outage Occurrence
Multiple-outage occurrence with a single initiating event and consisting of a sequence of
outage occurrences which are cost of those happening earlier in the sequence. An
outage occurrence is either forced or scheduled.
Introduction
The electric utility industry is moving toward a deregulated, competitive environment
where utilities must have accurate information about system performance to ensure that
maintenance dollars are spent wisely and that customer expectations are met.
To measure system performance, the electric utility industry has developed several
pleasures of reliability. This reliability includes measures of outage duration, frequency
outages, system availability, and response performance ices of se time. System
reliability is not the same as power needed. His course explains the reliability indices
used to measure distribution system reliability.
2.2.1 Distribution Indices
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the generally
accepted Reliability indices in its’ standard number P1366, “Guide for Electric
Distribution Reliability Indices”. IEEE-P1366 lists several important definitions for
reliability including what are momentary interruptions, momentary interruption events,
and sustained interruptions.
Where Ni is the number of customers and Ui is the annual outage time for location i. In
other words,
SAIDI is measured in units of time, often minutes or hours. It is usually measured over
the course of a year, and according to IEEE Standard 1366-1998 the median value for
North American utilities is approximately 1.50 hours.
Standard values:
CAIDI gives the average outage duration that any given customer would experience.
CAIDI can also be viewed as the average restoration time.
The System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) is commonly used as a
reliability indicator by electric power utilities. SAIFI is the average number of
interruptions that a customer would experience, and is calculated as
Where λi is the failure rate and Ni is the number of customers for location i. In other
words,
SAIFI is measured in units of interruptions per customer. It is usually measured over the
course of a year, and according to IEEE Standard
Where Ni is the number of customers and Ui is the annual outage time (in hours) for
location i. ASAI can be represented in relation to SAIDI (when the annual SAIDI is given
in hours)
CHAPTER 3
POWER STATIONS
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser
and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankin cycle. The greatest
variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources.
Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat
energy into electricity [7]
A thermal power station in Richmond, France
Introductory overview
Commercial electric utility power stations are usually constructed on a large scale and
designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase
electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of
50 Hz or 60 Hz. Large companies or institutions may have their own power plants to
supply heating or electricity to their facilities, especially if steam is created anyway for
other purposes. Steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships, but
are now usually used in large naval ships. Shipboard power plants usually directly
couple the turbine to the ship's propellers through gearboxes. Power plants in such
ships also provide steam to smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply
electricity. Shipboard steam power plants can be either fossil fuel or nuclear. Nuclear
marine propulsion is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels. There have been
perhaps about a dozen turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an
electric generator which powers an electric motor for propulsion.
History
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the
18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first
commercial central electrical generating stations in the Pearl Street Station, New York
and the Holbor Viaduct power station, London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam
engines. The development of the steam turbine allowed larger and more efficient central
generating stations to be built. By 1892 it was considered as an alternative to
[8]
reciprocating engines Turbines offered higher speeds, more compact machinery, and
stable speed regulation allowing for parallel synchronous operation of generators on a
common bus. Turbines entirely replaced reciprocating engines in large central stations
after about 1905. The largest reciprocating engine-generator sets ever built were
completed in 1901 for the Manhattan Elevated Railway. Each of seventeen units
weighed about 500 tons and was rated 6000 kilowatts; a contemporary turbine-set of
[9]
similar rating would have weighed about 20% as much.
Efficiency
Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute
temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require
use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other
working fluids such as mercury have been used in a mercury vapor turbine power plant,
since these can attain higher temperatures than water at lower working pressures.
However, the obvious hazards of toxicity, high cost, and poor heat transfer properties,
have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.
Cost of electricity
The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of
cost of fuel, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling and
disposal. Indirect, social or environmental costs such as the economic value of
environmental impacts, or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle
and plant decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal
stations in utility practice, but may form part of an environmental impact assessment.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Large amounts of water are required.
2. Great difficulties experienced in coal handling and disposal of ash.
3. Takes long time to be erected and put into action.
4. Maintenance and operating costs are high.
5. With increase in pressure and temperature, the cost of plant increases.
6. Troubles from smoke and heat from the plant.
The wind is a clean and plentiful source of energy. The Canadian Wind Energy
Association (CanWEA) believes that wind energy could potentially supply up to 20% of
Canada's electricity requirements. Wind turbines used to generate electricity come in a
wide variety of sizes. Large wind turbines, which are usually installed in clusters called
windfarms, can generate large amounts of electricity. Large wind turbines may even
produce hundreds of megawatts (MW) of electricity - enough to power hundreds of
homes. Small wind turbines, (see Figure 1), which are generally defined as producing
no more than 100 kW of electricity, are designed to be installed at homes, farms and
small businesses either as a source of backup electricity, or to offset use of utility power
and reduce electricity bills. Very small wind turbines (20-500 watt units) are used to
charge batteries for sailboats and other recreational uses
A small wind energy system could prove to be a practical and economical source of
electricity for your home or farm if some or all of the following are true:
Wind Availability
The turbine
The hub and blades of the wind power unit, or aero generator, are called the turbine (or
rotor). Behind the turbine in the nacelle (engine house) is the rest of the electrical
equipment and machinery (see sketch with cross-section). The nacelle is mounted on a
tower in order to allow the wind to flow freely through the turbine, and because the
speed of the wind increases considerably with the height above ground.
In the vast majority of wind power turbines the nacelle contains a yawing gear system,
which ensures that the turbine automatically faces into the wind. The blades slow the
wind down and recover part of its kinetic energy. The turbine on the wind power turbines
at Horns Rev 1 (Horns Reef Offshore Wind Park 1) is 80 meters in diameter with a
slewing area or sweep of 5,024 sq.m, in other words the size of a football pitch.
Exploiting the wind
As the wind blows, it creates a pressure difference in front of and behind the blades,
causing the blades – and the turbine axle or shaft – to rotate. The turbine axle drives a
generator, which generates electricity. The generator is located in the housing on the top
of the tower, and the electricity is transmitted to the power grid via cables. The principle
of a wind power turbine is remarkably similar to an old-fashioned bicycle dynamo.
The generator
The shaft of the turbine is connected to a generator located inside the wind power
turbine’s engine house.
Between the turbine and the generator there is normally a gear, which converts the
turbine’s low speed of, for example 6-16 revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) to the
generator’s 1,500 r.p.m. The generator produces electricity, which is distributed through
the national grid.
Wind power and the grid
When there is only a slight or no wind, the wind power turbines are ”on hold”, poised
and ready to go. When the wind gets up sufficient speed, approximately 4 m/s,
production starts automatically. At 12-14 m/s the wind power turbine produces its full
output. In powerful winds, when the wind speed exceeds 25 m/s or so, the aerodynamic
stresses are so great that the wind power turbines automatically stop in order not to
cause unnecessary wear and tear.
1. Spinner
2. Blade
3. Blade bearing
4. Hub
5. Main bearing
6. Main shaft
7. Transmission case
8.Brakedisc
9.Clutch
10.Servicecrane
11.Generator
12.Windgauge(transducer)
13.Gearbox
14.Crowngear
15.Tower(mast)
16.Machinebed
17.Nacelle(enginehouse)casing
18.Oilfilter
19.Generatorfan
20. Oil cooler
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER STATION
ADVANTAGES:
1. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficient
2. Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause green house gases or othe
pollutants.
3. Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land.
This means that the land below can still be used. This is especially the case in agricultural areas a
farming can still continu
4. Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscap
5. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can
Businesses can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force. This
means that wind turbines do not produce the same amount of electricity all the time.
There will be times when they produce no electricity at all.
2. Many people feel that the countryside should be left untouched, without these large
structures being built. The landscape should left in its natural form for everyone to enjoy.
3. Wind turbines are noisy. Each one can generate the same level of noise as a family
car travelling at 70 mph.
4. Many people see large wind turbines as unsightly structures and not pleasant or
interesting to look at. They disfigure the countryside and are generally ugly.
5. When wind turbines are being manufactured some pollution is produced. Therefore
wind power does produce some pollution.
6. Large wind farms are needed to provide entire communities with enough electricity.
For example, the largest single turbine available today can only provide enough
electricity for 475 homes, when running at full capacity. How many would be needed for
a town of 100 000 people?
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s, and the
354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world and is
located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Sol nova
Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (100 MW), both in
Spain. The 97 MW Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant in Canada, is the world’s largest
photovoltaic plant
Applications
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted
directly into electricity using photovoltaic’s (PV), or indirectly with concentrated solar
power (CSP), which normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used
to provide power, and other technologies, such as the sterling engine dishes which use
a sterling cycle engine to power a generator. Photovoltaic were initially used to power
small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell
to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array.
Figure 1
Solar troughs are the most widely developed
Photovoltaic
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current
using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Frits in the
1880s.[12] In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using
silver solenoid in place of copper oxide. [13] Although the prototype selenium cells
converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens
and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery. [14] Following the
work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl
Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. [15] These early solar cells cost
286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%. [16]
Space-based solar power is a theoretical design for the collection of solar power in
space, for use on Earth. SBSP differs from the usual method of solar power collection in
that the solar panels used to collect the energy would reside on a satellite in orbit, often
referred to as a solar power satellite (SPS), rather than on Earth's surface. In space,
collection of the Sun's energy is unaffected by the day/night cycle, weather, seasons, or
the filtering effect of Earth's atmospheric gases. Average solar energy per unit area
outside Earth's atmosphere is on the order of ten times that available on Earth's
surface.
Advantages:
Solar energy is free of pollution.
The plant requires little maintenance or help after setup.
It is economical.
When it is connected to the grid, solar energy can overtake the highest
cost electricity at peak demand and can also reduce grid loading, apart from
getting rid of the need for local battery power in darkness.
Disadvantages:
It is available only by day and not when the sky is cloudy, thereby reducing
the chances of it being totally reliable and requiring storage facilities.
It needs a backup power plant to be kept hot and to replace solar power
stations as they stop producing energy.
Keeping backup plants hot includes an energy cost which includes coal
burning.
Places located at high altitudes or those that are often cloudy are not
targets for solar power use.
It can only be used to power transport vehicles by converting energy into
another form of energy and recurring an energy penalty.
Solar cell technologies produce DC power which needs to be converted to
AC power, incurring an energy penalty.
Solar energy can be used to generate electricity using photovoltaic solar cells
and concentrated solar power, apart from other means. You can use solar power
in the house for domestic use.
CHAPTER 4
BUS BAR SCHEMES AND SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION
Station Arrangement
Because of its high elasticity and reliability, the breaker and a half arrangement is
commonly used in nuclear power stations to improve the reliability of power flow at
the switchyard. During the normal operation, all disconnectors and breakers are
closed [24].
Two buses are energized together for redundancy purposes. Two power
sources are connected to the arrangement, assuming one generator has the capacity to
provide enough power to both loads in case that the other generator or the incoming
line experiences a fault. When the breaker experiences a fault, first, two closest
breakers trigger to clear the fault. Second, adjacent disconnectors open to isolate the
faulted breaker. Third, those two open breakers re-close to restore the power flow.
The substation, therefore, reconfigures with faulted component isolated, to transfer
power from generators to loads. The standard procedure of clearing a fault [25] is
present as follows
• Component experiences a fault
• Breakers react to clear the fault
• Disconnectors open to isolate the fault
• Power restores to as many loads as possible
The most salient feature of the breaker and a half arrangement emerges during faulted
conditions and maintenance. A single bus fault does not interrupt the service to both
loads. Maintenance on a single breaker does not interrupt the service. And in case of a
line fault, only the faulted outgoing line is taken out of service without interrupting
service on the other healthy outgoing line. The redundancy of such breaker
arrangement ensures the continuity of the power flow out of the switchyard. Other
merits such as easy expansion and applicable to all voltage levels also make the
breaker and a half arrangement a strong candidate for the substation topology where
reliability and operational flexibility are of importance. There are, however, some that
point out that the relay protection of such arrangement is complicated and the
additional cost of introducing more breakers into the system increases [24], [26]. The
detailed description of the protection scheme of a breaker and a half arrangement is
not included in the report. It is, however, assumed that the arrangement counts with
conventional protective schemes all perfectly functioning in case of fault clearance. A
simplified breaker and a half arrangement is discussed in the following section.
Figure4.2: single line diagram of double breaker arrangement
Double breaker arrangement is yet another solution that offers high reliability of a
substation. Similar to the breaker and a half, double breaker arrangement offers high
7 operational flexibility during faulted conditions or maintenance [24], [26].
The simplest layout of a breaker and a half arrangement contains two diameters
connecting two buses, and each diameter consists of three circuit breakers and two
lines for the power flowing in and out of the substation, as shown in figure 2.3. In this
figure, LA and LB represent incoming lines, while La and Lb represent outgoing lines
of the switchyard.
In this arrangement, for instance in the upper diameter, the middle breaker 2, (denoted
CB2 in Fig. 4.3) is installed to clear the fault on either LA or La, and thus forms a
breaker and half arrangement, i.e. each line is protected by one side breaker and half
of a middle breaker. During the normal operation, all breakers are closed and both
buses are energized, so that the power from the generator side of LA and LB feeds to
the loads, La and Lb.
In this arrangement, each incoming and outgoing line is protected by two dedicated
circuit breakers located on both sides of the line, and thus the arrangement is named
double breaker arrangement. With the additional breaker per diameter, any circuit
breaker can fail, and affect only one diameter. During the normal operation, all
breakers are closed and both buses are energized, so that the power from the
generator side of LA and LB feeds to the loads, La and Lb.
Here the results of our project are shown in tabular form and graphical
form in sequence wise with respect to
Graphical representation:
Results from comparison of bus bar scheme
From above all results we conclude the bus scheme reliability priorities are
as:
a. Ring bus bar scheme.
b. Double bus double breaker scheme.
c. One and a half breaker scheme.
5.2 results and comparison for power stations in bus bar schemes
Graphical representation:
Conclusion from comparison of power stations
From above all results we conclude the power stations reliability priorities are as:
1. Wind power station.
2. Hydel power station.
3. Solar power station
References
[1] R. Billiton and R.N. Allan. Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems.
Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1994. ISBN 0-306-45259-6.
[2] Kommissionen Om elf¨ors¨orjningens s˚arbarhet. S¨aker elf¨ors¨orjning,
SOU 1984:69. Technical report, Industridepartementet, 1984. (In Swedish).
[3] G. Wacker and R. Billinton. Customer cost of electric service
interruptions.Proceedings of the IEEE, 77(6):919–930, June 1989.
[4] Nordel (association of transmission system grid owners in the Nordic countries).
Nordic Grid Code. 2007. Available at: http://www.nordel.org.
[5] W. Li. Risk assessments of power systems. IEEE Press, 2005. ISBN0-471-63168-X.
[6]Commission Electro technique International International Electro technical
Commission
Международная Электротехническая Комиссия
[7]Electricity [8]http://books.google.com/books?
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[9] Maury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented
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[10]"EnergySources:Solar".DepartmentofEnergy.
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[13] ""Magic Plates, Tap Sun For Power", June 1931, Popular Science".
Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?
id=9CcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41&dq=Popular+Science+1931+plane&hl=en&ei
=us8FTe-8L4HAnAf-
46nlDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDcQ6AEwBA#
v=onepage&q=Popular%20Science%201931%20plane&f=true. Retrieved
2011-04-19.
[17]Carr (1976), p. 85
[18] Wind + sun join forces at Washington power plant Retrieved 31 January
2008
[19] "The Combined Power Plant: the first stage in providing 100% power from
renewable energy". Solar Server. January 2008.
http://www.solarserver.de/solarmagazin/anlagejanuar2008_e.html. Retrieved
2008-10-10.
[20] MSU-CSET Participation Archive with notation in the Murray Ledger & Times
[22]www.geogise.com/alternative-energy- sources/solar-power-generation.php
[23] Power System Protection, Vol. 1 Principles and Components, The Institution
[25] SUBREL User’s Guide, ABB Power T&D Company Inc. Power System