A COURSE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION By A. K. SAWHNEY M.S (Engg) Professor of Electrical Engineering Thapar Engineering College, PATIALA DHANPAT RAI & SONS EDUCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL PUBLISHERS 1682, Nai Sarak, Delhi-110006 Phone : 265367@AII rights reserved transmitted, jp any form or by any mi by the author. No parts of this publication may bo reproduced, stored in retrieval system, of cans, electronic, mechahical, photocopying, secording, ot 0 herwise, without the prior writen pertnission of the author anJ the publisher By the Same Author 1, A Course in Electrical Machine Design. 2, A Course in Mechanical Measurement First Edition? Second Eaton Reprint \Reprint Reprint Third Edition Repriri Fourth Edition Reprinted ” « Reprint ts and Instrumentation, + 1980 * 1981 (Modified and Enlarged) + 1982 11983 1984 1985 | Compiled by : Smt. Chander Sawhney Price. Bs. al Published by :J.C. Ki ‘Qgmposed by.: Kat Printed at 1D. apué, fae Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Dehi- 10006 (H.0, Jullundus)- can Printing'Secvice, Subhash Park, Shahdara, Delhi-110032, ting Sarvice, Panchsheel Garden, Shahdars, Delbi-t10032/| | Preface to the Fourth Eaition Tie author is pleased to. bring out the Fourth Edition of the book and is thankful to both teachers and students for their affectionate and warm reception to the third editign of the book ‘which has been sold out in a period of less than one year. ‘The present edition reutiny essentially the same subjectmatter. as the third edition. However, the typographical and bfher errors, which had crept in earlier edition, have been corrected. The book is intended as a standard text for students studying for their first degree Electrical, Electronics and Tnstrumentation Engine at Indian Universities and abroad, and tise for those appearing for A.M.LE. section B and other profession! examinations, The book is equally useful for postgraduate students as well as practising engineers involved in the field of Measurements and Instrumentation. ' ‘There have been significant changes in curriculum of almost all the upiversities in recent years. Electrical and Electronic instrumentation is now offered’ as separate paper in many universities. This has been necessitated on account of latest technological advances which put greater emphasis and reliance on Electronic Instrumentation. ‘The contents of the book have been drastically modified, re-arranged and updated to acquaint the reader of modern trends in the field of Measurements and Instrumentation. ‘The book has been divided into two parts. “Part { deals with Measurements and Measuring Instruments and Part If takes care of the Instrumentation. There is an extensive coverage of Flectrical and Electronic Instrumentation in this edition of the book as compared with the earlier ones. The coverage of Instrumentation portion is about 500 pages out of a total of nearly 1200 pages. The subject of Instrumentation has been developed in logical steps. Separate chapters aoe ested to topies ike Generalized Measurement Systems, Transducers, Signal Conditioning, Data Transmission and Telemetry, Display Devices and Recorders, Measurement of Non-electrical , Quantities and Data Acquisition Systems. ‘Also there are additional chapters on static and dynamic characteristics of Measurement Systems. There is an increased. ‘emphasis on digital instruments and jnstrumentation which is constant with the present trends. There are three Appendices ‘in the book. Appendix A deals with Number Systems, Appendix B with Logic gates and Appendix C with conversions from vatious systems of units to S.[. The significant additions to the measurements portion are Transformer ratio bridges (which fre fast replacing the conventional four arm a.c. bridges), spectrum analyzer, vector impedanee meter, vector meter, digital maximum demand indicator and Hall effect multiplier to name a few. ‘The book ‘in fact covers a very wide spectrum of the field of Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation and is a conipleté reference in. itself. ‘Another outstanding feature of the book is the inclusion of over 400 solved problems which im addition to linking the theory with actual applications gives an insight of the industrial practice. ‘Also about 300 unsolved problems (with answers) have been included to give the students practice in solving problems. tio, The author considers the inclusion of problems on Instrumentation (both solved and unl , solved) as a speciality of this book. This isa pioneering effort which is the outcome of euthor's experience of teaching the subject for almost two decades. The book though voluminous, covers two papers, i.e first on Electrical and Electronic ‘Measurements and Instruments and second on Electrical and Electronic Instrumentation.and thus fully justifies its volume. SI units have been uniformly used in the book throughout. ' The author will feel highly obliged to-all the readers for their constructive suggestions and healthy criticism of the book which will go a long way in the improvement of the text. ‘The author is thankful to his wife, Chander, for rendering assistance in the compilation and editing of the work. ‘The author is grateful to his brothers, Ravish and Ajay, for their constant help during the preparation of the text. ‘To author's parents who have been a source of encouragement and guidance. PATIALA 26-9-1982 AK, Sawanay thDEDICATED To Anuradha and Puneet CheContents PART I ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Chapter 1—Mensurements and Measuring Systems 1-8 Measurements. Significance of Measurements Methods of Measurement, Direct Methods. Indirect Methods. Instruments. Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Jostruments, Mechanical Instruments. Electrical Instruments. Blectronic Instruments, Classification of Instruments. Analog and Digital, Modes of Operation. , Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems. Applications of Measurement Systems. Elements of a Generalized Measure- 7 ment System, Chapter 2~ Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems 9-34 Measurement System Performance. Static Calibration. Static Characteristics. Errors in Measurements, True Value. Static Brror, Static Correction, Scale Range aud Scale Span. Error Calibration Curve. Reproducibility and Drift. Repeatability. Noise, Accuracy and Precision. Indications of Precision. Significant Figures. Range of Doubt or Possible Errors and Doubtful Figures, Static Sensitivity. Instrument Efficiency, Index Scale and Index Number. Linearity. Hysteresis. Threshold, Dead Time, Dead Zone, Resolution or Discrimination. Loading Effects. Loading Effects due to Shunt connected Instruments. Loading Effects due to Series connec- ted Instruments. Impedance Matching and Maximum Power Transfer. Dynamic Response Measuring Lag. Standard Signals, Overshoot, Unsol- ved Problems, Chapter 3—Hrrors in Measutements and their Statistical Analysis B64 Limiting Errors (Guaraitee Errors). Relative (Fractional) Limiting Errors, Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors Known Errors. Types of Errors, Gross Errors. Systematic Errors. Instrumental Errors. Bnviron- mental Errors. Observational Errors. Random (Residual) Errors, Central Value. Statistical Treatment of Data. Histogram. Arithmetic Mean. Measure of Dispersion from the Mean. Range. Deviation. Average Devi- ation. Standard Deviation ($.D.), Variance. Normal or Gaussian Curve of Fstors. Precision Index. Probable Error. Average Deviation for the Normal Curve, Standard Deviatian for the Normal Curve. Probable Error of a Finite Number of Readings. Standard Deviation of Mean. Standard Deviation of Standard Deviation. Specifying ODDS. | Specifying Measurement Data, Variance aud Standard Deviations of Combination of Components. Probable Error of Combination of Components. Uncer- tainty Analysis and Treatment of Single Sample Data : Propagation of Uncertainties. Unsolved Probems. Chapter 4—Units, Systems, Dimensions and Standards 65-108 Introduction, Unit. Absolute Units, Fundamental and Derived Units. Dimensions. Dimensions of Mechanical Quantities. Historical Background of System of Units. CGS System of Units: Electromagnetic Units: (xm.‘Chapter 5: @ units), Electrostatic Units (e.s. units), Practical, Units. Dimensional Equations, Dimensions in Electrostatic System. Dimensions in Electromagnetic System Relationship between Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Systems of Units. MAS. System (Giorgi System), Rationalised M.K.S.A. System. SI Units. Base Units of SI. Supplementary Units. Multiplying Prefixes of Units Determination of Absolute Units. Absolute Measurement of Current: Rayleigh’s Current Balance. Absolute Measurement of Resistance : Lorenz Method, Standards and their Classification : International Standards. Primary Standards. Secondary. Standards. Working Standards. Standards for Mass and Length. Atomic Frequency and Time Standards, Temperature Standards. Luminots Intensity Standards, Electrical "Standards. Emf Standards : Primary Standard of Emf. Secondary Standard of Emf Labo- ratory Standards of Em. Higher Voltage Zener Sources and Temperature ‘Béfects, Primary Standards of Resistance. Current Standards. Inc uctance Standards, Capacitance Standards. Unsolved Problems. —Circult Components (Reslstors, Inductors and Capacitors) and their Residues Residues. Resistors. Resistance Materials, Spools (Formers) for Coils Resistance Wires, Ageing. Annealing, Resistance Standards. Resistance Standards for. D.C. Low Resistance Standards. Standard Resistances for ‘AC. Circuits Frequency Errors of Resistors. Methods of Reducing Residual Snductance, Resistance Boxes. Thin Film Resistors. Composition Resistors Shielded Resistors. INDUCTORS Standards of Inductance. Fosmers for Inductance, Coils. Coils of Induc- fance Coils. Standards of Mutual Inductance. Standards of Self-Inductance, Variable Induetances, Inductors for High Frequency Work. Inductors for Low Frequency Work. Frequency Errors in Inductors. CAPACITORS Loss Angle and Power Factor. Distributed Capacitance. Capacitance Standards. Vacuum and Gas-filled Capacitors. Solid Dielectric Capacitors Variable Capacitors. Decade Capacitance Boxes. Frequency Errors in Capacitors. Unsolyed Problems. ‘Chapter 6—Analog (pointer) Instruments Chapter 1 Analog Instruments, Classification of Analog Instrumeats. Principles of Operation. BLECTROMECHANICAL INDICATING INSTRUMENTS Operating Forces. Constructional Details. ‘Types of Supports. Balanciog. Torque/Weight Ratio. Control Systems. Damping Systems Eddy Current Damping Torque of Metal Former. Damping Torque of a Metal Dise. Permanent Magnets, Pointers and Scales. Recording Instruments, Integrat~ ing Instruments, Unsolved Problems. |—Galvanometers Introduction, D’Arsonval Galvanometer, Construction of d’Arsonval Galvanometer, Torque Equation. Dynamic Behaviour of Galvanometers. Equation of Motion. Underdamped Motion of a Galvanometer. Undamped ‘Motion of a Galvanometer. Critically Damped Motion of a Galvanometer. Operational Constants, Relative Damping, » Logarithmic Decrement. Over- 102-122 123-139 Lf 140-191iti) shoot, Overdamped Motion of Galvanometer. Non-dimensional Curves ‘of a Galvanometer Motion. Damping. Sensitivity. Galvanometer Galvanometer Shunts. Ayrton Universal Shunt. Ballistic Galvanometer. Calibration of a Ballistic Galvanometer, Flux Meter. Use of Shunt with Fluuneter Vibration Galvanometers. Duddell’s Oscillograph, Unsolved roblems. ‘Chapter'8— Analog Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters 192~2868 Introduction. Power Loss. ‘Types of Instruments. Errors in Ammeters and Voltmeters. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC) Construction, Torque Equation. Range. Ammeter Sbunts. Arrangement for Temperature Effect Correction. Multi-range Ammeters Voltmeter Multipliers. Effect of Temperature Changes. Multirange dc. Voltmeters. Sensitivity, Voltmeter Sensitivity and Loading Bifects. Errors. Advantages and Disadvantages. COhrimeters, Introduction, Series-type Ohmmeter! Shunt type Ohmmeteis. Mulimeter or Volt-Obm-Milli-amaeter (V.O.M.), Ratiometer. Ratiomet Ohmmeters. Megger. Ducter Ohmmeter. Moving Iron Instruments General Torque Equation Classifica: tion of Moving Iron Instruments. Attraction Typ: Repulsion Type. Reason for Use on both A.C. and D.C. Shape of Scale Long Scale Instruments. Shunt for Moving Iron Instrumeots, Multipliers for Moving Iron Instruments. Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion ‘Types of Instruments, Errors. ‘Advantages and Disadvantages. lectro- dynamometer Electrodynamic) Type lastruments. Operating Principle Construction, Torque Equation. Electrodynamometer Ammeters. Blectto- dynamometer Voltmeters Errors Use on D.C. and A.C. Shape of Scale, ‘Advantages and Disadvantages, Ranges . Use of Blectrodynamometer Type fastruments at High Frequencies. Ferrodynamic Instruments. Construction Operation. Advantages and Disadvantages Electrothermic Instruments. Classification Hot Wire Instruments. ‘Thermoelectric Instruments. Thermal Emf. Principle of Operation. eater Element. Thermo-element, Shape of Scale Connections, Advantages and Disadvantages. Ranges Electro- static Instruments. Force and Torque Equations. Quadrant Electrometer Kelvin Malticellular Voltmeter. Attraction ‘Type Portable Instruments. Attracted Disc Type-Kelvin Absolute Blectrometer. Everett Edgecumbe Voltmeter. Use on both AC. and D.C. Shape of Scale. General Con- siderations Extension of Range of Electrostatic Voltmeters. Errors Advan- tages and Disadvantages. Induction Type Instruments. Principle of Operation, ‘Types of Instruments. Ferraris Type. “Shaded Pole Type. Shape of Scale. ‘Advantages and Disadvantages. Rectifier Instruments. Rectifier Blements. Rectifier Characteristics. Rectifier Voltmeters. Full Wave Rectifier Circuit) Factors Influencing the Performance. Half Wave Rectifier Circuits. Multi- meters, Simpson’s Multimeter. Rectifier Ammeters. Advantages of Rectifier Instruments, Unsolved Problems. Chapter 9—lustruinent ‘Transformers 289-332 Introduction. Use of Instrument Transformers. Ratios. Burden. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Theory, Errors, Characteristics of Current Transformers Causes of Eerors. Reduction of, Errors. Construction ‘of Current Transformers. Clamp on ‘Auimeters. Effect of Secondary Open Circuit. Permanent ‘Magnetization and ore@) its Demagnetization. Current Transformers for High Frequencies, Potential ‘Transformers. Difference between C.T, and P.T, Theory. Errors. Reduc- tion of Exrors. Construction of Potential Transformers. High Voltage Potential Transformers. Capacitive Potential Transformers Characteristics of Potential Transformers. Testing of Instrument Transformers. Current Transformer Testing. Potential Transformer-Testing. Unsolved Problems. ‘Chapter 10—Measurement of Power and Wattmeters 333-370 Power in D.C. Circuits. Power in, A.C. circuits. Electrodynamometer Wattmeters, Construction. Theory. Shape of Scale. Waitmeter Errors. Torsion head Electrodynamometer Wattmeters _ Ferrodynamic Wattmeters. Cambridge Reflecting Wattmeter' Low Power Pactor Wattmeters (Electro~ dynamometer type). Thermocouple Wattmeter (Thermal Watt Converter) Electrostatic Wattmeters. Induction Type Wattmeters. Lipman’ Type Induction Wattmeter. Hall Effect Multiplier, Measurement of Power Using - Instrument Transformers. Power in Poly-Phase Systems. Measurement of Power in Three Phase Circuits. Three Phase Wattmeters. Measurement of Reactive Power. Summation Metering. Unsolved Problems. Chapter 11—Measurement of Energy and Industrial Meteriog 3n—403 General. Motor Meters Braking, Friction. Energy Meters for A.C. Circuits. Single Phase Induction Type Watt-hour Meters. Construction, Theory and Operation. Lag Adjustment Devices. Light Load or Friction Compensation. Creep. Over-Load Compensation. Voltage Compensation. Temperature Compensation, Errors, Adjustments. Polyphase Energy Meters. Two Element Energy Meter. Industrial Metering and Tariffs Maximum Demand Indicators, Measurement of VAh and VAth. VAth Metering. Measurement of VAh. ENERGY METER TESTING Types of Tests, Phantom Loading. Testing Methsds. Meter Testing Gircuits Unsolved Problems. ‘Chapter'12—Measurement of Phase and Frequency 404-423 POWER FACTOR METERS Introduction. Single Phase Blectrodynamometer Power Factor Meter, Three Phase Electfodynamometer Power Factor Meter—Construction. Moving Iron Power Factor. Meters. Rotating Field Power Factor Meter. Alter nating Field Power Factor Meter (Nalder Lipman Type). Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving fron P.F. Meters, FREQUENCY METERS Types of Frequency Meters, Mechanical Resonance Type Frequency Metet (Vibrating Reed Type). Electrical Reasonance Type Frequency Meters. Weston Frequency Meter, Ratiometer Type Frequency Meter, Saturable Core Frequency Meter. SYNCHROSCOr no Synchronizing. Electro-dynamometer (Weston)T¥pe Synchroscope. Moving. Tron Synchroscopes, Pase Sequence Indicators,@) Chapter 13—Mensurement of Resistance 4-484 Classification of Resistances. MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCES * Methods of Measurement of Medium Resistances. Ammeter ‘Voltmeter Method. Substitution Method. Wheatstone Bridge. Sensitivity of Wheat- stone Bridge. Galvanometer Current. Precision Measurement. of Medium Resistances with Wheatstone Bridge, Carey-Foster Slide-wire Bridge. Kelvin Varley Slide, Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge. MEASUREMENT OF LOW RESISTANCES Introduction. Construction of Low Resistances. Methods for Measurement of Low Resistance. Ammeter Voltmeter Method. ; Kelvin Double Bridge. Kelvin Bridge Obmmeter. Unbalanced Kelvin Bridge. MEASUREMENT OF HIGH RESISTANCES Introduction, Difficulties in Measurement of High Resistances: Use of, Guard Cireuit. Methods for Measurement of High Resistance. Direct Deflec- tion Method. Loss of Charge Method. - Megohm Bridge Method. Measure- ment of Insulation Resistance with Power On. Unsolved Problems. ‘Chapter 14—Potentiometers 455-480 D.C. POTENTIOMETERS Introduction. Basic Potentiometer Circuit, Laborktory Type (Crompton’s) Potentiometer, Multiple-Range Potentiometer, Corstructional Details of Potentiometers, Precision Type Potentiometers. Vernier Poteutiometer. Standard Cell Dial. True Zero, Brooks Deflectional Potentiometer. Volt. Ratio Box. Application of D.C. Potentiometers. Protection of Standard Cell and Galvanometer. Self-Balancing Potentiometers, A.C, POTENTIOMETERS Introduction. Standardicing of ACC. Potentiometers and Use of Transfer Instruments. Types of AC. Potentiometers. Drysdale Polar Potentiometer. Gall-Tinsley (co-ordinate type) A.C. Potentiometer. Quadrature Adjustments of Currents, Campbell-Larsen Potentiometer. Applications of A.C. Poten- ‘ tiometers Unsolved Problems, Chapter 15—Pover System Measurements 481-495 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE Necessity of Earth, Hlectrode. Necessity of Measurement of Resistance of Barth Electrode. Factors Affecting Earth Resistance. Methods of Measuring Earth Resistance. . LOCALIZATION OF CABLE FAULTS ‘Types of Faults Methods Used for Localizing Faults. Methods Used. for Localizing Ground and short Circuit Faults. Murray Loop Test. Varley Toop Test. Location of Open Circuit Faults in Cables. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR MEASUREMENT Introduction to Symmetrical Componen.s, Ca‘vulation of Symmetrical Components Measurement of symmetrical Components: Measurementvi) Positive Sequence Component of Current. Measurement of Negative Sequ- ence Component of Current. Measurement of Zero Sequence Component of Current, Measurement of Positive-Sequence Component of Voitnge. Measurement of Negative Sequence Components of Voltage. Measurement ‘of Zero Sequence Component of Voltage. Vector Meter. Unsolved Problems. Chapter 16—A.C. Bridges Introduotion. Sources and Detectors, General Equation for Bridge Balance, General form of an A.C. Bridge. MEASUREMENT OF SELF INDUCTANCE Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge. Maxwell's Inductance—Capacitance Bridge. Hay’s Bridge. Anderson's Bridge. Owen’s Bridge, Measurements of Incremental Inductance. MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE De Sauty's Bridge. Schering Bridge. High Voltage Schering Bridge. ‘Measurement of Relative Permittivity with Schering Bridge. MEASUREMENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE Uses of Mutual Inductance in Bridge Circuits. Mutual Inductance Measured ag Self Inductance. Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge, Campbell's Modification of Heaviside Bridge. Heaviside Campbell Equal Ratio Bridge. Carey Foster Bridge ; Heydweiller Bridge. Campbell's Bridge. MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY Wien’s Bridge. Universal Impedance Bridge. Sources of Hrrore in Bridge Cirevits, Precautions and Techniques used for Reducing Brrors. Stray Bleotromagnetic aad Electrostatic Couplings. Shielding of Bridge Elements. Wagner Earthing Device, Sereened-and-balanced Transformers, Difference and Substitution Methods. Transformer Ratio Bridges Applications and Features of Ratio Transformers, Measurement of Resistance, Measurement ‘of Capacitance, Measurement of Phase Acgle, Transformer Double Ratio Bridges, Measurement of inductance. Measurements of Components in ‘SITU’. Unsolved Problems Chapter 17—High Veltage Measurements and Testing ‘Typos of Tests. Testing Apparatus. High Voltage Transformers. Voltage Control,Voltage Control by Variation of Alternator Fielé Current. Voltage Control “by Resistance Potential Divider. Reactance Voltage Control. Voltage Control by Tapped Transformer, Voltage Control by Variag. Voltage Control by Induction Regulators. Control Gear and Protective Devices. Equipment for Voltage Measurement. Measurement of R.M.S. Values of Voltage. Measurement of Peak Values of Volteges. Measurement of D.C. Voltages. Measurement of Instantaneous Voltage. Low Prequency ELY. Tests. High Voltage D.C. esting. Cockcroft Walton Circuit, High Voltage D.C. Testing of Cables. Equivaience of D.C. and A.C. Test Voltages. Localization of Faults in High Voltage Cables. High Frequency Tests. Surge (Impluse) Testing. Basic Impluse Generator Circuit. Single Stage Impluse Generators, Mult-stage Impulse Generator, Iropulse Testing of Transformers. Testing of insulating Materials. High Voltage Testing of Cables, High Voltage Tests on Porcelain’ Insulators, Testing.of Bleotric | Sireagth of Inoulting Oils. 496-539(vif) Chapter 18—Maguetic Measurement Introduction. Types of Tests. BALLISTIC TESTS Measurement of Flux Density, Measurement of Value of Magnetising Force (H). Magnetic Potentiometer. Testing of Ring Specimens. | Deter Fonation of B-H Curve. Determination of Hysteresis Loop, Testing of Bar Specimens, Permeameters. Hopkinson Permeameler (Bar and Yoke method) Eoling Double Bar Permeameter. Uiovicl Permeameter, Burrows Perma. eaere emaly’s Simplex Permeameter, ‘The National Physical Laboratory Ghagland) form of Permeameter, Measurement of Leakage Factor with Flux Meter ALTERNATING CURRENT MAGNETIC ‘TESTING 5 Iron Loss Curves, Separation of Iron Losses, Methods of Iron Loss * Measurement. Wattmeter Method, Bridge Methods, A.C. Potentiometer Method. Oscillographic Method. Methods of Measurements of Air Gap Flux, ‘Testing of Permanent Magnets. Magnetostriction, Methods used in Modern Instrumentation Systems. Unsolved Problems. Chapter 19—THlanination 10-638 Physics of Light. Light, Electromagnetic Specivwsi, International Lumi- Fouty Curve. Photon, Energy and Power. Intensity. Bflect of Tempera- ture on Radiation. Fuli Radiator or Black Body, Primary Standard. Calibration of Standard Lamps with Primary Standard, Secondary Standards (Ad Substandards, Laboratory Standards. Terms, Definitions and Symbols, Taye of Hluminance (Iilamination), Visual Photometry. Measurements of Limisous Intensity. Photometer Head. Distribution of Luminous Intensity. Determination of Mean Horizontal Luminous Intensity and Polar Curve. Determination of Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity. Calculation with a Distributed Source. Physical Photometry. Photo-emissive Cells. - Photo- multipliers, Photoconductive Transducers. Photoconductive Cells. Photo Hodes. Phototransisiors Noise in Photoconductor Transducers. Photo- Voltaie Cell. Photocells in Physical Photometry. Measurement of Luminance Unsolved Problems. Chapter 20—Blectroni Insruments 639-65. Electronic Voltmeters. Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters. Vacuum Tube Voltmeters (VTVMs). Average reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters, Peak reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters. Triode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters, Balanced Bridge Triode Vacuum Tube Voltmeter, Hlectrometer ‘Type VIVM. Transistor ‘Voltmeters (TVMs). TVM with Cascaded Tran- silors. TVMs Using FET as Input Stage. Chopper Amplifier Type Volteaeter. Balanced Bridge TVM. Differential Voltmeter. AC. Voltage Measurements. RMS. Reading Voltmeter. Current Measurements Using Electronic Instruments. Instruments for Measurement of Power at Higher Frequencies. Chapter 21—Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 65-6 Introduction, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Blectron Gun. Electrostatic Focusing. Electrostatic Deflection. Effect of Beam Transit Time and Fre quency Limitations. Deflection Plates. Screens for CRTs . CRT Graticule. ‘Time Base Generators, Basic CRO Circuits. Observation of Waveforta as CRO. Measurement of Voltages and Currents, Measurements of Phase(vil) and Frequeney (Lissajous Patterns), Special Purpose Oscilloscopes. Multiple Beam Oscilloscopes, Multiple Trace Oscilloscopes. Sampling Oscilloscopes Impulse Waveform Oscilloscopes. Scanning Oscilloscopes. Storage Type Oscilloscope. Accessories of Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes. Calibrators. Probes. Cameras. Electronic Switch. Unsolved Problems, we hapter 22—Instruments for Generation and Analysis of Waveform 671-697 OSCILLATORS Introduction. Classification of Oscillators. Feedback Oscillators, Types of Feedback Oscillators. RC Oscillators. “Wien Bridge Oscillator. Practical Circuit of, Wien Bridge Oscillator. Phase Shift Oscillator, L.C. Oscillators Armstrong Oscillator, Hartley Oscillator. Coipitts Oscillator. Crystal Oscillators. Beat Frequency Oscillator (B.F.O), Negative. Resistance Oscillators. SIGNAL GENERATORS Standard Signal Gengtator. n SQUARE WAVE GENERATORS Types of Circuits. Passive Square Wave Generators, Diode Clipping Circuit, Overdriven Amplifier Circuit. Schmitt Trigger Circuit. Active Square Wave Generators. FUNCTION GENERATORS Introduction. Function Generator. WAVE ANALYZERS Introduction. Mesonant Wave Analyzers, Hetrodyne Wave Analyzer or Wavemeter. | HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYZERS Introduction. Distortion Meters. SPECTRUM ANALYZERS Introduction. Basic Spectrum Analyzer. Spectral Displays. Spectra of Different Signals. pter 23—High Frequency Measurements 698-714 7 Introduction Resonance Methods. Measurement of Inductance Measure- ment of Capacitance. Measurement’ of Effective Resistance. » Resistance Variation Method. Reactance Variation Method, T Networks. Parallel T Network. Bridge T Network. Q Meter. Yector-Impedance Meter, Measurement of Frequency. Unsolved Problems. PART Il ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION yter 24~Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments and Instrumentation Systems 6-347 Dynamic Response. Dynamic Behaviour, ‘Time Domain Analysis, Fre- quency Domain Analysis, Mathematical Models’ of Instrumentation Sys- tems. Linear and Non-Liear Systems :- Linear Time Invariant System. Linear. Time Variant System. Analysis of Linear Systems. Electric Networks,(x) Mecnanical ‘Systems : Mechancial ‘Translational, Systems. Mechancial Mecnanictl ‘Sixtems, Analogous Systems. Thermal Systems. Transfer Fonction, Sinusoidal Transfer Function. Order of a System. TIME DOMAIN RESPONSE} Introduction, Zero Order System, First Order Systems. Thermal Syste xo First Order Differential Equation. Response of a First General cyotems to Unit Step Input, Ramp Response of a Order rior System, Impulse Response of a First Order System. Time Response of a Second Order System, Time Domain Specifications; Rap Response of a Second Order System, Impulse Response of a Second Order vstem. FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS Introduction, Frequency xcesponse of a First Ordor System. Frequency Response of a Second Order System, Frequency Respors> Curves Unsolved Problems. Chapter 25—Transdacers Introduction, Primary and Secondary Transducers, Classification of Detector- Transducer Stage Devices. Mechancial Devices as Primary Detectors Mechanical Springs : Flat Spiral Spring, Torion Bus of Shafts. Proving Rings, Spring Flexture. Pivots. Pressure Sensitive Primary Devices. Bourdon Tubes, Diaphragms. Bellows. Temperature Detectors Hydro- pneumatic Deyices Electric Transducers. ‘Advantages of Electrical Trans- ducers, Classification of Electrical Transducers, Primary and Secondary Transducers. Primary Transducers. Secondary Transducers, Active and Passive Transducers. Active ‘Transducers. Passive Transducers. Analog and Digital Transducers : Analog Transducers. Digital ‘Transducers. Etec trical Phenomena Used in Transducers. Resistive Transducers. Potentio- meters : Loading Effect. Power Rating ‘of Potentiometers. Linearity and Sensitivity. Construction of Potentiometers. Helipots. Types of Potentio- avers and their Characteristics. Strain Gauges : Theory of Strain Gauges. Types of Strain Gauges. Resistance Wire Strain Gauges. Unbonded Strain Gauges. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gruges. Foil Strain Gauges. Sembeonduetor Strain Gatiges. Resistance Thermometers : Linear ‘Approxi= mation, Quadratic Approximation, —‘Thermistors : Construction. Resis- tance Temperature ‘Characteristics of Thermistors. Applications of Ther mistors. Variable Inductance Type Transducers, Inductive Transducers ‘Working on Principle of Variation ‘of Selflnductance, Transducers Work- ing on Principle of Change in Self-Inductance with Number of turns. Trans- ducers Working on the Principle ‘of Change in Self-Inductance with Change in Geometric Configuration, Transducers Working on the Principle of Change -in Self-Inductance with Change in Permeability Variable Reluctance Type Traducers. Differential Output, Inductive Transducers Working of Principle of Variation of Matual- Inductace. \Inductive ‘Transducers Working on the Principle of Production of Eddy Carrents Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). ‘Advantages of LVDTs. Diadvantages of LVDTs, Use of LVDTs. Rotary “ariable Differential- Transformer (RVDT). Synchros. Capacitive Transducers. Ti-asducers Using Ghange in Area of Plates. Transducers Using Change in Ditance ‘Between Plates. Differential Arrangement. Variation of Dielectric Constant for ‘Measurement of Displacement. Variation of ‘Dielectric Constant for Measure- ‘146-825@) ment of Liquid Level. Frequency Response of Capacitive ‘Transducers ‘Advaatages of Capacitive Transducers. Disadvantages of Capacitive Trans ducers. Uses of Capacitive Transducers. Piezo-electric Transducers. Modes of Operation of Piezovclectric Crystals’ Properties of Piezovelectrio Crystal Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric Transducer. Loading fect and Fre quency Response. Impulse Response of Piezo-clectric, Cystals. Uses, of - Pieno-lectrio Materials and Transducrs. Optical transducers, Hall effect Transducers. Ionization Transducers. Digital Transducer. Shaft Encoder. Unsolved Problems. bnpter 26—Signal Conditioning Signal Conditioning. Tastrumentation Amplifiers. A.C. Amplifiers. Direct Coupled Amplifers Chopped and Modulated D.C. Amplifiers. Operational ‘Ampligess. Operational Amplifier Specifications. Operational Amplifier Circuits in Tostromentation, Inverter. Adder. Subtractor. Multiplier and Divider, Integrator. Differentiator.. Attenuated Feedback. Ideal Rectifier Logarithmic Converter. Buffer Amplifier. Differential Amplifier. Use of Operational Amplifier with Capacitive Displacement Transducers, Charge Amplifiers. Amplitude Modulation. Amplitude Demodulation, Ampli- tude Modulation and Demodulation Circuits For Measurement. Systems. Input Modulator. Demodulator. Filters. Types of Filters: Low Fass Filters, Bandpass Filters. Band Rejection (band stop) Filters, Filters With Casended Sections, LC Filters. ~Input Circuits. Current Sensitive Circuits. Ballast Cirouit, Bridge Circuits. Wheatstone Bridge. Null Type Bridge. Deflection Type Bridge, Voltage Sensitive Bridge, Current sensitive Bridge, ACC. Bridges: A.C. Bridges using PostrPull Transducers. A.C. Bridges th PushePall Inductive ‘Transducers. Inductive Transducers Blumlein Bridge. Capacitive Transducers Blumlein Bridge. Integration and Differen~ tiation, Low pass RC Filter as an Integrator. High Pass RC Filter as Diferentiator. -Analog/Digital/Analog Conversion Techniques. Resolution nd quantization, Aperture Time, Sampling, General Considerations, of AyD and DIA” Conversion. Digitalto-analog (D/A) Conversion. D/A Converter. Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion Technique iometti A/D Converter. Voltage to time ‘A/D Converter (Ramp type). Frequency Converter (integrating type). ‘Dual Slops Integration A/D Con- verter. Unsolved Problems. 2 826-890 hapter 27—Data Tranomlseion and Telemetry 291-908 Introduction. Methods of Data Transmission. Telemetry. General Tele- metrag System, Blectrical Telemeteriag Systems. D.C. Telemetry Syatems : Voltage Telemetering Systems, Current Telemetering Systems. Position Telemetering System, A.C. Telemetry Systems. Modulation: Amplitude Modulation (A.M.), Frequency Modulation (FM). Phase Modulation. Pulse Telometering Systems. Analog Pulse Telemetry: Pulse Amplitude Modulation ‘System (PAM). Pulse Frequency System. Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM). Pulse Position Modulation (PPM), Digttal Telemetry (Pulse Code Modulation: PCM), ‘Transmission Channels and Media : Wire Line Channels, Radio Channels. Microwave Channels. Power Line Carrier Channels, Multiplexing in Telemetering Systems: Time Division “Multiplexing. ‘napter 28—Diaplny Dorlees avd Recorders . 909-96 Introduction, Blectrical Indicating Instruments. Digital Instruments. > ‘Advantager of Digital Instruments, Digital Verous Analog Instruments,Gl) Electronic. Counters: RS Flip-Flop. T and RST Flip-Plops. Decade Counter, Digital Display Methods. Digital Display Units. Sogmental Displays : Seven Segmental Display: Fourteen Segmental Display. Dot Matrices: A 3x5 Dot Matrix. Dot Matrix Utilizing 27 Dots. A 5X7 Dot Matrix. Rear Projection Display. Nixie Tube. Light Emitting Diode LED). Liquid Crystal Diodes (LCD), Nixie Tube. Segmental Gas Dis- charge Displays. Decade Counting Assemblier (DCAs). Display Systems, Decimal Decoders: Diode. TTL Logic. BCD to 7-Segment Converter. BCD-to-Dot Matrix Converter, Resolution in Digital Meters. Seasitivity of Digital Meters. Accuracy Specification for Digital Meters, DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER Messurement of Frequency : Principle of Operation. Basic Circuit... Time bate, Start and Stop Gate. Circuit for Measurement of Frequency. Simplified Composite Circuit of a Digital Frequency Meter. High Frequency Meesurements. Period Measurement, Ratio and Multiple Ratio Measure- meats. Time Interval Measurement, "Universal Counter Timer. DIGITAL VOLTMETERS (DYMs) Introduction, Types of DVMs, Ramp type Digital Voltmeter. Integrating type Digital Voltmeter. Potentiometric type Digital Voltmeter, Other ‘Types of Measurements with a DVM. RECORDERS Necessity of Recorders. Recording Requirements. Analog Recorders. Graphic Recorders. Strip Chart Recorders. ‘Types of Strip Chart Recorders Galvanometer Type Recorders. Null type Recorders, Potentiometric Recorders. Single Point Recorders. Multipoint Recorders. X-Y Recorders. Ultraviolet Recorders: Principle of Operation. Recorder Galvanometers. Applications. Magnetic Tape Recorders. Advantages of Magnetic Tape Recorders. Basio Components of a Tape Recorder. Principle of Tape Recorders. Methods of Recording, Direct Recording : Advantages of Direct Recording, Disadvantages of Direct Recording, Frequency Modulated (FM) Recording: Advantages of FM Recording. Disadvantages of FM Recording. Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) Recording : Advantages of PDM Recording, Disadvantages of POM” Resording, Digital "Tape Recorders. Chapter 29—Messurement of Nou-Electrical Quantities 962—1047 MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISPLACEMENT Linear Displacement Transducers, MEASUREMENT OF ROTARY DISPLACEMENT Rotary Displacement Transducers. STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN Strain Gauge Circutts. Ballast Circuit. Wheastone Bridges : Null Typo Wheatstone Bridge. Deffection type Whatstone Bridges. Gauges Sensitivity. Temperature Compensation, Temperature Compensation and Cancellation Techniques : Adjacent Arm Compensating Gauge, Strain Gauge Calibration Load Cells, Tensile-Compressive Cells, Rosettes. Strain Gauge Circuitry. Uses of Strain Gauges.‘ Gail) MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE Introduction. Types of Pressure Measurement Devices. Measurement of Pressure Using Electrical Transducers as Secondary Transducers. Force Summing Devices. Secondary Transducers, MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURE (Vacuum Measurements) Vacuum Gauges. Thermocouple Vacuum Gauges. . Pirani Gauges. Joni- zation Type Vacuum Gauge. MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE Torque Transducers. Strain Gauge Torque Meters. Inductive Torque Trans ducers. Digital Methods. Magneto-strictive Transducers. MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR VELOCITY Klectromagnetic Transducers. Moving Magnet Type. Moving Coil Type Velocity Transducer. MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR VELOCITY Introduction. Electrical Tachometers, Electromagnetic Tachometer Gene rators. Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tachogenerator. Digital Methods. Photo- electric Tachometer. Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance Tachometer. Stroboscope and Stroboscopic Methods. Strobotron. Shaft Speed Measure- ments. Advantages and Disadvantages of Stroboscopic Methods, MEASUREMENT OF VIBRATIONS Necessity for Measurement of Vibrations. Nature of Vibrations. Quantities involved in Vibration Measurements. Seismic Transducer. ‘Types of Accele- rometers. Potentiometric Type Accelerometer. LVDT Accelerometers. Piczo-electric Accelerometers. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE Temperature Measuring Devices. Electrical Resistance Thermometer. Plati- num Resistance Thermometer. Measurement of Resistance of Thermometers, Salient Features of Resistance Wire Thermometers. Semi-conductor Thermo- meters. Thermistors. Characteristics of Thermistors, Measurement of Temperature with Thermistors, Salient Features of Thermistors. Thermocouples. Thermocouple Construction. Measurement of Thermocouple Output. Compensating Girevits.' Reference junction Compensation. Lead Compensation, Advan- tages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples, Quart Crystal Thermometer ion Pyrometers. Principles Used for Radiation Temperature Measur- ine Devices, Radiation Receiving Elements. Total Radiation Pyrometers Infrared Pyrometer. Optical Pyrometers. MEASUREMENT OF FLOW Rate of Flow. Turbine Meters. Electromagnetic Flow Meters, Hot Wire Anemometers, Flow Meter Using Thermistors. Electrical Methods : Resis- tive Method. Inductive Methods. Capacitive’ Metbods. Measurement of Liquit Level with Gamma Rays. Ultrasonic’ Methods. Measurement ofGait) Liquid Level Using Float. MEASUREMENT OF THICKNESS Electrical Methods. Inductive Methods, Capacitive Method. Measurement of Thickness Using Ultrasonic Vibrations, Nuclear Radiation Method, MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY Humidity, Hygrometers, MEASUREMENT OF SOUND USING HYGROMETERS Microphones. Types of Microphones. CAEMICAL SENSORS Measurement of pH Values, Measurement of Thermal Conductivity. NUCLEAR INSTRUMENTATION Measurement of Radiations. Introduction. ‘Typés-of -Radiations, Geiger Miller Tube, Ionization. Chamber Scintillation Counters. So! fonization Sensing Elements. Detection of Neutrons. Unsolved Pro! ‘bupter 38—Data— Acquisition Systems 1068—1056 Instrumentation Systems. Types of Instrumentation Systems. Co; of an Analog Data-Acquisition System, Components of a Digita’ Dat Acquisition System. Uses of Data Acquisition Systems, Use of Recurdere in Digital Systems. Digital Recording Systems : Ioput Condit -niag Equip. ment. Digitliser. Multiplexer. Progratame Pinboard, Lineariser. Digital Clock. Limit Detectors. Output Devices. Mini computers and Micro- Processors. Apperdix A 1057-1069 NUMBER SYSTEMS lumber Systems, “Decimal Number Systeu. A General Number System, Binary Number System. "Binary to Decima! Conversion, Decimal to Biasry Conversion. Arithmetic Processes in a Rinary System ? Addition. Biuary Subtraction. “Multiplication of Binary Numbers, mn of Binary Numbers. Binary Coded Deciusal Systems (BCD). The §—4~2--1 Code, Qther BCD Codes Gray Cote, Conversion from Binary to Gray Code, Gray Code to Binary Convession, Appendix 1070-1073 LOGIC GATES Introduction. Gate. OR Gate. Truth Table. Logic Conversion, AND Gate. NOT Gate. NOR Gate. NAND Gate. Appendix C 1076—1915 ponents QePART I ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS1 Measurements and Measurement Systems 1'1, Measurements : TThe measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude, js unknown) and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values. In order that the results of the measurement are meaningful, there are two basic requirements (i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted, ‘and (if) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable. 1°2, Significance of Measurements ‘The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a parallel progress in measurement techniques, It can be safely said that the quickest way to assess nation’s progress in eagete and Technology isto examine the type of measurements that are being made and the way in Winch the data is acquired by measurements and is processed, "The reasons for this are abvious. As Science and Technology move ahead, new phenonens and relationships are discovered and these advances make new types of measurements imporative. New and reves are not of any practical utility unless they are backed by actual measurement The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of-a hypothesis but also add to its understanding. This maeriteia an waending chain which leads to new discoveries that require more, new and sophisticated Theasurement techniques, Hence modem Science and Technology are associated with, sophisticated measurimof measurement while elementary Scieuce and Technology require only ordinary methods ‘of measurement. “There are two major functions of all branches of engineering : ‘yy Design of equipment and processes, and (1i) Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and: processes. Both these functions require measurements. This is because proper and economical design, operation and maintenance, require a feedback ‘of information. This information is supplied by making suitable measurements. 13. Methods of Measurement ‘The methods of measurement may be broadly classified into two categories. 131, Direct Methods. In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the meisuran’) is directly compared against @ standard. The result is expressed as a ‘numerical number and a unit. ‘The standard, in fact, is a physical embodiment ofa unit. Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time, : Suppose we want to measure the length ofa bar. The unit of length is metre. A bar is so many times long because that many ‘units on our standard have the same length as the bar. A human being can make direct length comparisons with a preciseness ‘of about 0°25 mm. Therefore, o account of human factors it is not possible to make very accurate measurements. ‘The direct method for measurement ‘of length can be ‘utilized with a good degree of accuracy ‘but when it comes to measurement of mass, the problem becomes much more intricate, It is just not possible for huma? beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass,2 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 1°92, Indie Methods. Measurement by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors. They are also less sensitive, Hence direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used. In engineering applications Measurement Systems are used. These measurement systems use indirect methods for measurement purposes. ‘A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to be measured in an analogous form.) The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end devices'which present the results of the measurement. 14, Instrument Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or variable. The.instroment serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the man to determine the value of an unknown quantity which his unaided human faculties cannot measure. An instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable, 1'5. Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instroments ‘The first instruments were mechanical in nature and the principles on which these instruments worked are even in vogue today. The earliest scientific instruments used the same three essential elements as our modern instruments do. These elements are : (®) a detector, (ii) an intermediate transfer device, and (ii!) an indicator, recorder or a storage device. ‘The history of development of instruments encompasses ti ({) mechanical instruments, (i) electrical instruments and (if) electroni 1'3'1, Mechanicsl Instroments, These instrumente are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But they suffer from a vory major disadvantage. . They: are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. This ts due to the fact that these instruments have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass presents inertia problems apd hence. these instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic,measurements. Thus it would be virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz voltage by a mechanical method, but it is relatively easy to. measure a slowly varying pressure. Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that most of them art a potential source of noise and cause pollution of silence. 1'5'2, Electrical Instramenta, Etectricat methods. of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods, I is ‘unfortunate that en electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device. . This mechanicat movernent has some inertia. and therefore these instruments have a limited time (and hence, frequency): response. For: example, some electrical recorders can give full scale response in 0'2 8, the majority of industrial recorders have responses of O'S to 24s. Some galvanometers can follow 50 Hz variations, but even these are too slow for present day requirements of fast measurement. 1'5'3. Electronic Instraments. These days most of the scientific and industrial measurements require very fast responses. ‘The mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot cope up with these requirements. ‘The necessity to step up respons tine and also the detection of dynamic. changes in certain parameters,. which require .the .monitoring time of the order of ms and many a times, us, have led to the design of taday’s electronic’ instruments and their associated circuitry. These instruments require vacuum tubes or semi-conductor devices.. Recent practice is to use semi-gondugtor devices as they have many advantages over their vacuum tube counterparts. Since in electronic devices, the only movement involved is that of electrons, the response time is extremely small on ee phases of instruments, viz, : instruments,MEASUREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS 3 account of very stall inertia of electrons, For example, a C.R.O. is capable ‘of following dynamic and transient changes of the order of a few ns (10-® s), Electronically controlled power supplies are used to provide stable voltages for studies in the field of chemical reactions and nuclear instrumentation. Electronic instruments are steadily becoming More reliable on account of improvements in design and manufacturing processes of semi-conductor devices. Another advantage of using electronic devices is that very weak signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers, The foremost importance of the electronic instruments is the power amplification provided by the electronic amplifiers. Additional power may be fed into the system to provide an increased power output beyoad that of the input. This has been only possible through the use of electronic amplifiers, which have no important mechanical counterpart. This is particularly important where the data presentation devices use stylus type recorders, galvanometers, cathode ray oscilloscopes and magnetic tape recorders. It is a fact that hydraulic and pneumatic systems may be used for power amplification of signals. However, their use is limited to slow acting control applications like servo-systems, chemical processes and power systems. Electronic instruments find extensive use in detection of electro- magnetically produced signals such as radio, video, and microwave, Electrical and electronic instruments are particularly useful in the intermediate signal modifying stage. Electronic instruments are light compact and have a high degree of reliability. Their power consumption is very low. Communications is a field which is entirely dependent upon the electronic instruments and associated apparatus. Space commutiications, especially, makes use of air borne transmitters and receivers and job of interpreting the signals is left entirely to the electronic instruments. Electronic instruments make it possible to build analog and digital computers without which the modern developments in science and technology are virtually impossible. Computers require a very fast time response and it is only possible with use of electronic instruments, (6. Classification of Instruments ‘There are many ways in which instruments can be classified, Broadly, instruments are classified into two categories : (1) Absolute Instruments, and (2) Secondary Instruments, 1, Absolute Instruments, These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurements in terms of physical constants of the instrument. The examples of this class of instruments are Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance, 2. Secondary Instruments, Theso instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument, These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument. Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of the quantity under measure- ment. Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly used. Absolute instruments are seldom used except in standards institutions while secondary instruments find usage almost in every sphere of measurement. A voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge are typical examples of secondary instruments. 17. Analog and Digital Modes of Operation. Secondary instruments work in two modes : (i) Analog . mode, and (ji) Digital mode. Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take on an infinity of values in any given range are called analog signals. The devices which produce these signals-are called analog. devices, Jn contrast, ‘the signals which vary in discrete steps and thus tai up only finite different values in a given range are called digital signals, The devices that produce such signals are called digital devices.4 Q BLECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Let us elaborate further on Digital and Analog instruments and systems. In an_ analogue system the funtion varies continuously. A typical example of 4g variation is shown in Fig. 1’. On the other hand the digital Values are digerete and vary in equal steps. Each digital umber is a fixed sum of equal steps which is defined by the number, In ord@y.to convert an analog quantity into a digital number, the vertical displacements. must be divided into equal parts, For example in Fig, 11, the vertical quantities are divided into 10 equal parts and each part has a length of 1 unit, When dealing with digital numbers, a quantity between 0 to 05 130 while a quantity between 0'S to 1'5 is I anda quantity between 1°5 to 2's 2. For example a point A on the analogue curve is 5°5 from the origin but in digital system Dependent variable = it would be read as 5. From A to Bis 6 and from Bto Cis 1. te apparently seems that if we adopt digital system, the errors involved will be considerable. But if we divide each of the 10 steps into 10 equal parts, we get 100 steps instead of 10. ‘And if these 100 steps are further divided into 10 parts each, 8 234567 89 10 ‘ve will have 1000 steps. This gives much better accuracy in Independent variable —> we witing analogue quantities into digital numbers. We can pg, yt, Representation of go on subdividing further and furthertill the desired accuracy 4 Be oesaved. But it should be kept in mind that a djgital number is still a sum of equal units Ina digital system, magnitudes lying within one of these steps lose their identity and are all defined by the same number, For example, if we have ten steps, numbers lying between 2°5 to 3'S i.e, 26, 2°7, 28, 2°9, 30, 3'1, 3°2, 3°3, 3°4, would all be read as 3, From the above discussion we conclude that the difference between analog and digital information is that the analog output is’ a continuous function while the digital output is a discrete umber of units, The last digit of any digital number is rounded to +:0°5 of the last digit. It should also be marked that the magnitude of the digital quantity is measured only at the instant the reading fstaken, One reading persists till another reading is taken (unlike the analogue quantity which js a continuoys function). ‘The majority of present day instruments are analogue type. The itaportance of, digital instra- ments is inereasing, mainly because of the increasing use of digital computers in both data reduction and automatic control systems. Since digital computer works only with digital signals, avy information supplied to it must be in digital form. ‘The computer's output is also in. digital form. ‘Thus working with a digital computer at cither the input or the output, we must use digital signals. However, most of our present day measurement and control apparatus produces signals of analog — nature, it is thus necessary to have both Analog — to Digital (A/D) Converters at the input to the computer and Digital to Analog (D/A) Converters at the output of the computer. 1°8. Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems ‘There is another way io which instruments or measurement systems may be classified. This casino x ‘based upon the functions they perform, The three main functions are explained low : 4, Indicating Function, Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for supplying information concerning the Vatiable quantity under measurement. Most of the time this information js obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In this way the instrument per- forms a fanction which is commonly known as indicating fonction. For example, the defection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the automobile at that moment, A pressure gauge is used for indicating pressure. 2, Recording Function, In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the value ofthe quantity under measurement against time or against some other variable, Thus the