Composites 101

Workshop

R.A. (Dick) Lofland – Richard Lofland and Associates

Carroll Grant – Aerospace Composites Consulting
Workshop will be conducted as a “101”
overview of the composites industry
…..Presentation material has been developed
for people who know very little about the
composites industry

Workshop intent is to provide attendees with a

basic understanding of “composites”

Workshop will focus on “aerospace”

composites as this is experience base of the
instructors
• Composites Industry Overview (Carroll Grant)
……history and industry segments
……materials and design basics

• Aerospace Composites Processes

……basic processes (Dick Lofland)
……automated Processes (Carroll Grant)

• Inspection of Composite Parts (Dick Lofland)

..….two primary processes

• Questions & Comments

• A special thanks to Dave Dickson of Boeing

1
2
 What are composites?
• A “composite” is a material form made of at least two materials
– Visually distinct: you can see the fiber and resin areas
• The Advanced Composites that we use for Aerospace typically have a
“matrix” (e.g. an epoxy or BMI resin) and a “reinforcement” (can be
carbon fiber, fiberglass, Kevlar, etc.)
• Two main classes of advanced composites: thermoset and
thermoplastic.
– Thermoset – cross-linking of the resin molecules is not reversible.
– Thermoplastic – possible to re-heat and melt the resin
• Other types: ceramic matrix, metal matrix
• Materials are very unique in their properties and applications
• Many processes involved in creating high-quality parts
– Attention to detail very important - must get each step right!

3
 What’s an “Advanced Composite”?
• Advanced Composites are typically thought of as those with fiber
volumes (or fiber fractions) greater than 50%
– Qty of fiber / total composite laminate including fiber & resin
• Typical aerospace Advanced Composites have fiber volumes of
around 55%
• Materials used and manufacturing processes deliver these types of
parts.

Usually Not
787- Advanced Composite Advanced Composite
4
Boeing illustration Dickson photo
 Advantages of Composites
• High strength/weight
• Low CTE
• Excellent in fatigue
747 – 1% composite: 1M fasteners
properties
• Won’t corrode
• Can tailor laminate to loads
• Can enable very significant
part count reductions 787 – 50% composite: < 10K fasteners

5
Boeing Photos
Sampling of Composite Products

Boeing 7871
BMW i32 Windmill Blades3

Various Sporting Goods5

Blackbird Guitar4 BMW/Oracle
America’s Cup Yacht6 6
 The Main Constituents
• Fibers: Carbon, Glass, Kevlar® (Aramid), Boron,
Quartz & other natural fibers (hemp, flax,
basalt)
• Matrix (resins): Thermosets, Thermoplastics,
Ceramics and Metals (both less common)
• Cores & inserts (honeycomb, foam, balsa,
grommets, etc.) at times.

Main focus of this presentation will be Carbon Fiber/Epoxy laminates

7
 Resins
• The matrix (resin) transfers load from fiber to fiber
• Resins are typically high CTE materials; the fibers are
most typically low CTE
• Thermosets: Epoxy, Bismaleimide (BMI) & phenolic
most typically for aerospace. Others: polyester, vinyl
ester, cyanate epoxy, etc.
– Resin constituents cross-link (cure) in a chemical reaction:
shape is permanent .
• Thermoplastics: PEEK, PEI, PPS, PEKK most typically for
aerospace. Others: PP, PS, PET, PA, TP PI
– Resin melts and solidifies on cool-down. Can be re-melted
and re-formed to different shape.

8
 Fibers and Yarns
• Carbon Fibers are actually
quite small. Fibers are bundled
together to make yarns.
• The Yarns, or “Tow” come in
Fibers are 5 microns in diameter7
many sizes:
– Small Tow: 3K, 12K, 24K
– Large Tow: Larger than 24K
• Example – 1K fiber has 1,000
fibers per yarn
9
 Producers of Carbon Fiber

Hyosung

SGL

Zoltek

Mitsubishi Rayon
Toho Tenax

Toray

HPC March 2013: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/market-outlook-surplus-in-carbon-fibers-future 10

(Chris Red, Composites Forecasts & ConsultingLLC – Present. from CW Carbon Fiber 2012) Used by permission.
 Global Production of CF by Tow Size

HPC March 2013: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/market-outlook-surplus-in-carbon-fibers-future 11

(Chris Red, Composites Forecasts & ConsultingLLC – Present. from CW Carbon Fiber 2012) Used by permission.
 How are carbon fiber
prepreg materials made?
• PAN (Polyacrylonitrile), pitch or rayon precursors
• Superheated to 4900°F (pyrolysis)
• Spun into fiber
Harper CF Oxidation Line8
• Ultrahigh heating, oxidation, carbonization &
graphitization
• PAN-based: typically higher strength
• Pitch based: higher modulus
• Rayon-based – industrial grades
• Aerospace companies typically use PAN-based
fibers

12
 Carbon Fiber Properties
• Fibers that are made into prepregs come from several
providers – Hexcel (HexTow) , Toray (Torayca), Mitsubishi
Rayon (Grafil), Toho (Tenax), Cytec (Thornel) – there are
others.
• Aerospace fibers tend to be categorized by their modulus
Tensile Modulus Tensile Strength

1 High-VolumeGrade <25MSI 250–500KSI

StandardModulus(SM) 32–35MSI 500–700KSI

IntermediateModulus(IM) 42–43MSI 600–900KSI

HighModulus(HM) 50–65MSI 600–800KSI

Primary Source: ASM Handbook Vol.1 1 Source: USG DoE

13
 Basic Steps in Carbon Fiber Production
(PAN Precursor shown)
PAN Powder
(Acrylic)
Raw Material (powder)
• Poly-Acrylic-Nitrile(PAN) goes
through polymerization (turned
oven oven
into powder that will stick)
• solvent is added to turn into a
spinning dope.
Precursor

Pre-curser(white fiber) Oxidation Carbonization

• Dope is spun into fiber,
washed, dried, & chemically
treated.
• Commercial pre-curser used
only to make low end fiber
(chop application).
• high quality continuous ribbon
used to make aerospace
Carbon Fiber Spool
quality.

Sizing Surface Treatment

Carbon Fiber:
Simplified, the process is heating and stretching
precursor material through several oven stations ranging
from 400F to 2500F. (Burnt String)
Source: Boeing 14
Next – Creating the Product Forms
• Getting the fibers into the right place
– Unidirectional (UD, or “Uni”) Materials – Tapes,
Roving, Towpreg, Slit Tape
– Woven Materials – Fabrics, Braids, 3D Weaves
– Chopped Fibers (short)
– Milled Fibers (very short)
• Impregnating with resin
– Prepregging by material manufacturer, or
– Resin Infusion Processes (by part manufacturer)

15
 Basic Steps in Pre-impregnation Process
Solution Coat
Combi-Hot Melt/
Solution Coat
Oven
(B-stage)

Separation Film
Metering Rolls
“Blue Poly”

Carbon Fabric/Tape Prepreg

Resin Separation Film

Bath “Blue Poly”

 One of two methods are used to impregnate the dry carbon

fiber with polymeric matrix (resin).
 Different matrices have different properties (toughening, etc).
 Material is time and temperature sensitive after
impregnation….must be kept frozen to maintain chemical
and handling properties until cure.

Century Design9
16
 Prepreg Material Time Limits
(Boeing example)
• Uncured composite materials typically have “shelf life” limits:
– How long they can be refrigerated (frozen)
– How long they can out of refrigeration, uncovered
– How long they can be held, under a vacuum bag, before autoclave
curing
• Time limits are dependent on type of material. Typical example:

Supplier
Inventory Purchaser Inventory Life
110 – 730 Varies from 280 – 1095 days
Days (up to 3 years, dependent on material)

Date of Date of End of

Manufacture Receipt Handling Mechanical Storage
Life Life Life

In 240 Hrs 1000 Hrs

Freezer
Out of Layup Autoclave
Storage Complete, Cure Start 17
Bagged
 Typical Prepreg Product Forms
Aerospace Applications

Unidirectional Tape Unidirectional Tow Woven Fabrics

• Typically 3”, 6”, 12” wide
• Most typically used with
automated layup
• Will follow tool contours
• Not typically used on outer
plys – drilling quality issues
• Various narrow widths
• Can be made by slitting tape
• Always used with automated
layup
• Several bands laid at once
• Steerable (to a certain
extent)
• Not typically used on outer
plys – drilling quality issues
• More gaps/laps issues than
with tape
Typically 30” or 60” wide rolls
Most typically used with hand
layup
• Various weaves – some have
better drapability
• Typically used on outer plys
– least drilling breakout
• Generates most scrap
18
 Tow, Slit Tape and Tape

0.125” 0.182” 0.500" 1" 1.5" 3” 6” 12”

0.157” 0.250"

Tow / Slit Tape Widths Tape Widths

19
 Tape Width Drivers

Narrower Wider
Surface contour/steering
Knockdown for gaps
Ply width increment
Crenulation fidelity
Fly-away splices
Buy-to-fly ratio
Raw material cost*
Spool/Roll length
Head complexity

* Except for towpreg 20

 What’s a Crenulation?
• Jagged excess left by 1.0” Excess Line (usually scribed on tool)
automated layup Net Trim Line
machines.
– Machines trim ply
courses at 90° to
head travel.
– Must layup so that
there is full
coverage of ply
material.

Crenulations 21
 Typical Fabric Weaves

Plain Weave (PW) Basket Weave
• Good fabric stability • Flatter, stronger than PW
• Least pliable • Less fabric stability, more
pliable than PW
Leno Weave 4 Harness Satin (4HS) Weave
• Low number of yarns (AKA Crowfoot Satin)
• Good fabric stability
• Less fabric stability
• Not often used for Aero
• More pliable than PW
• Good drapability

Warp Yarns
(ply orientation
8 Harness Satin Twill Weave PX (Bias) Weave Direction)
(8HS) Weave • Better fabric stability • Good fabric stability
• Low fabric stability than satin weaves • Least pliable
• Very pliable, drapable • More pliable than • Can eliminate
• Only used on curved PW confusion of +/-45° Fill Yarns
surfaces plys
22
Fabric illustrations ©2015 Hexcel Corporation. Reprinted with permission of Hexcel, further reproduction forbidden
 Textreme (Oxeon)
• Woven unidirectional spread-tow fabric materials

23
Dickson Photos
• Quasi-Isotropic Reinforcement in a Single Braid Layer
• Symmetric and Balanced with One Ply

0°
(axial)
-60° +60°
(bias) (bias)

33% 33%

33%
Uniform Stiffness In
24
All Directions
Graphics – A&P Technologies11
 Specialty/Decorative Weaves

25
Photos used by permission of CFA
 The Radius Filler or “Noodle”
• Composite materials are inherently stiff
– Sharp corners are avoided (not producible and structurally bad)
• For certain types of geometry (blades / back-to-back angles,
I or J-shapes) a void is formed between the “halves” of the
shape. The more plys in the laminate, the bigger the void
• The void must be filled with material
• Area is prone to quality issues
Minimum
Radius

Fewer plys More plys

Smaller void Larger void 26
Smaller filler Larger filler
 “Noodle” former (radius filler)
• At simplest form, can be a hand-held die.
• Automated machinery has been made -
forms radius filler from folded tape
– Material pulled through a die by machine

Source: Anon, “Accudyne Systems ships automated radius filler for B787”. Avail online:
http://www.airframer.com/news_story.html?release=21989. Add’l info:
http://www.accudyne.com/composites-automation/specialty-machines/%E2%97%8F-noodle-former-radius-filler.htm 27
 Fiberglass
• Fiberglass prepreg has lots of aerospace applications in
non-structural parts
– Fairings
– Radomes
– Interiors parts
• Non-aerospace: boats, car/truck bodies, windmill blades
• Fiberglass plys are also used on composite laminates
between carbon fiber plys and aluminum structure as an
isolation patch to prevent corrosion.
• Fiberglass has also been used for tool leak tests (2 or 3 plys
cured on layup tool; leaks show as a starburst pattern on
the cured plys)

28
 Corrosion & CFRP
• Aluminum will corrode
when in contact with
CFRP
• Certain fastener
materials can also be
inappropriate.

Mellema, Greg: “From the Ground Up: A Maintainer’sPerspective on Designing Composite Structuresfor Supportability”. 29
2016: SME Aerodef Conference Proceedings, Long Beach, CA.
 Dry (Unimpregnated) Product Forms
• Many traditional fabrics are available without
added resin
– No cold storage requirements
• Typically used in “infusion” processes in
aerospace, wet layup in other applications
• Unique braided, woven product forms have
been developed to address producibility
issues.
30
 Dry Fiber Products

31
Boeing Photos
 Woven preforms
• Complex woven shapes or flat
shapes
• Can have extreme drapability
• Can make thick preforms
Fiberglass Pi-Chord Preform

SAMPE images10 32
 Braids
• Braids typically a “sock” or “hose” – like form
• Fibers both in axial or bias directions
• Bias fibers can range from 10 to 80 degrees
• No 90 degree fibers

Biaxial Braid Triaxial Braid

Graphics – A&P Technologies11 33

 Braids
• Braids typically a “sock” or “hose” – like form
• Fibers both in axial or bias directions
• Bias fibers can range from 10 to 80 degrees
• No 90 degree fibers

Biaxial Braid Triaxial Braid

Graphics – A&P Technologies11 33

 Discontinuous fiber products
• Used on extreme contours/shapes wouldn’t allow
other products to be used
– Stretch-Broken Carbon Fibers
– Cytec D-Form (mainly for Tooling)

Formed SBCF component 13

Cytec DForm™ 12
Slits in red

Pepin DiscoTex™ (SBCF)14

34
SAMPE Journal Vol. 51, no. 3
 Non-crimp fiber products
• Fibers in traditional woven fabrics “crimp”.
– Reduces load-carrying capability in direction Crimp Example
of fiber
• NCF fabric is created by stitching
unidirectional layers together
– Fibers not woven, no fiber crimp
• Can have several layers stitched together

SAMPE Photo15

SAMPE Illustration16 35
 Molding Compounds
• Short fibers compounded with resin for compression molding
– Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)
– Bulk Molding Compound (BMC)
– Low mechanical properties
• Randomly-oriented strips of unidirectional tape prepreg
– HexMC from Hexcel

HexMCtm
(and HexTooltm)
Image courtesy of Hexcel
36
BMC (High Performance Composites)17
 Demand by Product Form

HPC March 2013: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/market-outlook-surplus-in-carbon-fibers-future 37

(Chris Red, Composites Forecasts & ConsultingLLC – Present. from CW Carbon Fiber 2012) Used by permission.
 Cores
• Cores are used to stiffen products, with the
addition of only minimal weight
• Aerospace cores tend to be honeycomb materials
(lightest and most expensive)
• Other products use balsa, foam & other unique
cores
• In-service problems with cores tend to be in areas
where minimum gage laminates (few plys) are
damaged or porous, allowing moisture to
accumulate in core
– Freeze/thaw cycles, corrosion, etc.

38
 Honeycomb Core
• Various materials Coreorientation
– Nomex®, Korex® aramid T – Thickness or cell depth
L – Ribbon (or
– Fiberglass longitudinal) direction
– Polyimide/PAI W – Transverse direction
d – Cell size
– Graphite
– Aluminum, etc
– Ultem PEI Boeing

• 1/8”, 3/16”, 1/4”, 3/8” cell sizes are typical

• Core Densities 1.5 – 19.5 lbs/cu ft
• “Ribbon” – directionality: core bends / flexes easily in
transverse direction, stiff in ribbon direction
• Typically milled to shape with valve stem cutter or formed
– Edge chamfers
39
– Contour
 Common Aerospace Cores18

Face plys Film Adhesive

Hex Core

Core
Flex Core

Face plys Film Adhesive

Core can be milled or formed to shape Over-expanded Core 40
 Other cores
(Mainly non-aerospace)
• Cores are available in product forms that are optimized
for the process used (i.e. resin infusion or wet layup)
• Cores used in infusion allow resin to travel along
grooves & through holes to wet-out tool-side plys
• Balsa Baltek
Nida-Core
Diab
Rohacell
• Foam Others
– Rohacell has been used in aero structure
• Soric – combination core & infusion medium (fabric-
like)
• Parabeam – non-traditional infusion product
41
Dickson photos
 Core Stabilization

Grit
Strip

Boeing Core problem19 Dickson

Grit Strip Tiedown Method Photo
Film Adhesive

•Prevent plys over

Core
Fiberglass core from slipping
Prepreg Core
•(Contributes to
core crush)
Film Adhesive Boeing
Septum Method
42
 Products for Lighting/HIRF Protection
(HIRF-High Intensity Radiated Field)

• Metal airplanes – nearly entire airplane surface is

very conductive; lots of ability to dissipate
lightning strikes
• Composites – special treatments are typically
necessary to prevent lightning from creating holes
in structure & penetrating fuel cells
• Schemes allow conduction of current away from
fasters
• Interwoven Wire Fabric (IWWF)
• Expanded Aluminum Foil
• Sealing of “fay” (interfacing) surfaces, panel edges,
cap seals on fasteners, etc.
Dexmet LSP Samples
43 Dickson Photos
 Part Engineering Drawings
(and/or Specs)
What you can expect to see:
• Scale drawing or dataset showing ply boundaries
• Ply orientation rosette
• Splice requirements
• Ply table
• Core definition (if present)
• Materials used
• Quality requirements (dimensional, porosity, etc.)
44
Fabric Terminology & Ply Orientation
90°
- 45° + 45°

0°
Ply Orientation (ref)
+ 45° Typical Ply Orientation Rosette
As-Scribed on Layup Tool
0°
90°

- 45°

90°
45
 Ply Splices
• Splices may be required due to material size limits
• Drawings don’t always say where to splice
• “No Splice” areas usually noted
• Splice Types
– Overlap joints
• Not allowed in faying regions or in filler plys
• Often a .50” or less overlap
– Butt joints
• Often a .06” or less gap

46
 Example Drawing
P5
P8
P6
P3
P7 P1, 3, 6, 8
P1

90°
- 45°
+ 45°
Ribbon
Direction 0°
Ply Orientation (ref)

P2
View
(Schematic, P4 P8
NoScale) P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1

View (Schematic, 47
Dickson illustration NoScale) 47
 Ply Drops and Padups
• In many cases, localized plys are added for
load carrying purposes, increased thicknesses
for fasteners, etc.
• Plys are tapered (or dropped-off) gradually so
as to not create stress riser or quality
problems Atypical

Henkel test panel with more extreme ply drops20 48

 Also on Dwg

Balanced, Symmetric Layup Example Ply Table

(Different Example) Ply Orie
nt.
Mat’l

1 0°
1
Example Layup 2 +45
°
2

• A balanced, symmetric layup helps 3 90°

4 -
prevent laminate warpage 45°

5 0°
• A balanced layup “balances” the off-axis 6 +45

plys (e.g.. equal numbers of +45° & -45 ° 7

°

90°

or +60° & -60° plys) 8 -

•
45°
Not always possible in all areas of a part (e.g. 9 0°

where pad-ups exist) 10 +45

°
• A symmetric “quasi-isotropic” layup is 11 +45
°
common 12 0°

[0/+45/-45/90] [90/-45/+45/0] or 13 -
45°

[0/+45/-45/90] s 14 90°

– 25% 0°, 25% 90°, 25% +45°, 25% -45° 15 +45

°

– Isotropic in-plane only 16 0°

17 -
• Quasi-isotropic: 180°/Number of ply 18
45°

90°
orientations that you need 19 +45
°
2
1 Mat’l 1 callout: type, weight, Mfr. 20 0°
49 1
49 2 Mat’l 2 callout: type, weight, Mfr.
 Issues that make parts warp
• Unbalanced laminate
• Poor compaction/resin imbalance
Less resin Bleeder cloth
Lower CTE
More resin
Higher CTE
Tool
Warped part
• Excessive Tool CTE on cool-down

– Tool/ply friction
– Ply/ply slippage
Unbalanced stresses
Tool Growth in part causes warpage 50
 Composites Processes
 Ply Cutting of Prepreg Materials
 Hand Layup
 Composites Tools
 Vacuum Bagging
 Autoclave Curing of Composites and Out of Autoclave
Curing OoA
 Resin Infusion, Resin Transfer Molding, Resin Infusing
Molding and Stand Alone Molding
 Filament Winding

51
Steps in making parts from prepreg
Record time Record time
Record time

Pull prepreg Layup Final Bag

Cure
from freezer Use Now
Remove part
from tool
Compaction
Cut hand- or Debulk Trim
laid plys Cycles
Temp bag or
Use Later Reusable bag

Kit & seal NDI

for later use

Return to
Freezer
Assembly 146
52
 Ply Cutting
• Larger Shops use ultrasonic
cutters
– Gerber, AGFM, Eastman, others
– Accuracies to .003”
– Fast cutting Boeing photo
– Integrated nesting to minimize
waste
• Many plys are cut by hand
– Scizzors, “pizza wheels”, steel rule
dies, etc.
– Knives only if backing material used

M Torres “Torresonic”32
53
 Manual Cutting Methods
• Cutting devices
– Razor blade / Razor knife
Airtech Shop Shears21
– Hand held shears
– Rotary (“Pizza”) cutter
– Steel rule die
• Most manual cutting devices
are less accurate than
automated methods
• Allow “trim to fit” (cuts
Various Cutters22
during layup)
• Cuts should use backing
boards
• CAN DAMAGE TOOLS if done
improperly.
Durabledependabletools.com23
• Can lead to CTD injuries 54
 Ply Cutting & Kitting
 Plys nested – minimize
waste
 Automated

 Plys kitted for layup

 Doublers
 Padups
 Refreeze if not immediately
used

54
Boeing illustrations 55
 Hand Layup
Boeing
• Smaller aerospace parts, all boats, sporting goods
all are done by hand layup
• Plys that are cut to the right shape are placed, or
“laid-up” in the right place and orientation
• Very sensitive to process anomalies – mistakes,
leaving extraneous materials in the laminate,
poor technique, contaminants…
• MUST do things correctly, per the drawing, per
the process documents and the planning 56
instructions.
 Locating Plys
• Plys are most typically
located by laser projection
devices or by physical
templates
– Red or green lasers LPT, Virtek, Assembly Guidance,
others
• Templates are sometimes
necessary, even when shop
has a laser projector.
– Tool fabrication, rework,
maintenance costs
Boeing photos Template with “Eyebrow” Cutouts
57
 Layup Aids
• Shops typically have a palette of shop aids
available
– Sweeps
– Silver pencils
– Scissors
– X-Actotm knives
– Tapes
– Gloves
– etc.
Boeing photo 58
 Tooling for Hand Layup
• Variety of materials available
• Aerospace mfrs use Invar 36 for most production
applications unless tool weight is an issue
• Many varieties of composite materials
• Steel, Aluminum, Nickel also used
• Usually best to use best match with the CTE of the
part Typical Aerospace ToolingMaterials

Steel, Nickel Can be exceptions!

Alum, Steel, Nickel Invar or Carbon Fiber/BMI or Benzoxazine
Production
Prototype 3 ft 6 ft (Over)
Foam, MDF, RP Materials GFRP Carbon Fiber/Epoxy 59
 Composite Tools
• Composite materials primarily used for Outside
Mold Line tooling applications (i.e. cover panels)
• Most composite tools will require a master or
pattern to lay up on. (HexTool product may not
necessarily require them)
• Eggcrate or tubular substructures
• ~1/3 the weight of a comparable Invar tool
• Longevity dependent on many things – how well
they are made, how well they are treated in
production, environmental conditions, etc.
OML
IML
61
Dickson photo
 Composite Tool Examples

NONA Composites (CamX paper)24 Pic: Janicki Industries25

Boeing /Spirit Sect. 41

www.burnhamcomposites.com26 fuselage mandrel27 62
 Invar Tools
• Tool size & shape dependent on part
• Outside Mold Line & Structural Parts
• Many tools will require 6” or more excess
• Panel tools – eggcrate or partial eggcrates with
tubular frames
• Welding, machining & annealing processes
• Billeted tools for smaller parts
• Extremely durable – should last for over 1,000
cycles
63
 Invar Tool Examples

Rib Layup Mandrel/Mold28 Nacelle Layup Mandrel/Mold

(Coast Composites)29

RTM Die for Helicopter Rib

(North Coast Tool & Mold)30 787 Wing Skin LM31
64
 Vacuum Bagging
• Vacuum bags help compress or “compact”
plys in the layup shop environment.
• The bag, sealant tape, tool and fittings make
up a system that has to be vacuum-tight,
especially for liquid resin infusion processes.
• Two main methods:
– Consumable (throw-away) bags
– Reusable bags

65
 Rolls of Material
• Airtech
• Cytec (former
Richmond Aircraft
Products)
• Others?
• Pre-kitted/pre-seamed
Boeing photo
bags available

66
 Consumable Bags
• Bagging films – various materials, depending
on application (nylon, kapton, etc.)
• Pleats help ensure pressure transfer
– Allow bag to be fitted to complex geometry
Pleat

67
Boeing
 Example Bagging Schematic
(Prepreg parts)

Bagging Film

Breather cloth Consumables

FEP release film * Caul is reusable

SealantTape
Peel Ply or caul * (optional)
Laid-up Part Plys
Tool

Typical Spec Diagram 68

Boeing
 Reusable Bags
• Fabricated elastomeric bag
• Fitted to part – eliminates pleating
• Big time saver in production
– Compaction & debulk cycles
– Cure cycle
• Often have proprietary sealing methods Torr Mosites Rubber Bags48

Custom bag for NASA AST Wing46 “Sprayomer” Bag47

Silicone Bag (Smooth-On)49
69
DESIGN OVERVIEW
AUTO-VAC (KEYHOLE SEAL W/PREFORMED BAG)

General Description
• Vacuum bag de-bulking
• Vacuum bag curing both autoclave and oven at 350 to 400 F
and autoclave pressures up to 200 psi.
• Vacuum Assisted Resin transfer Molding (VARTUM) used on
medium to large FRP structures.

70
DESIGN OVERVIEW
(KEYHOLE SEAL W/PREFORMED BAG)

New Tool Material Design Parameters

71
 Design Overview
(Keyhole seal w/Preformed Bag)
Eliminating Complexity of Vacuum Bag
Fabricated Composite structures

RPBS TM showing a Wax Mock-up Auto-Vac TM with channel bonded onto

of Final Layup 72 tool showing a completed part used for
Mock-Up
 Materials
BP 102.080-G Uncured “B” Stage
Elastermer .080” Thick (Grey)

BP 103 CH&K-05 BP 103 CH&K-05

Silicone Extrusion Silicone Extrusion
Channel & Keyhole Channel & Keyhole
) Seal .250” Seal .500”

73
 Vacuum Leak Detection
• Various methods
– Listen for audible leak
– Use stethoscopes, sniffers, etc
– Static tests (measure vacuum loss over a Laco Hand-held Sniffer50
time period, e.g. 2” Hg loss in 5/10/20
mins. – dependent on tool size)
– Helium leak check
– Phenolphthalein leak test
– 2 or 3 ply fiberglass prepreg layup/cure

Ultrasonic Leak Detector

(DeComp Composites)51
74
 Compaction & Debulk
• For thick laminates, even transfer of pressure can
be difficult.
– Potential issues: Ply bridging, resin
richness/starvation, etc.
• Intermediate steps often taken in layup:
– Ply compaction – bag the plys and let it compress
under vacuum (some times as often as every two plys)
– Hot debulk: bag the part, heat it and let it compress
(lower temperature than cure temp), e.g. 200°F for
350°F curing prepreg (done much less often than RT
compaction)
75
 Autoclave Cure
• Parts cured per a spec
– Heatup requirements
– Dwell requirements
– Cooldown requirements Convergent, inc.52
– Parts monitored by thermocouple and vacuum
level
• Watch for exotherms
• Often a nitrogen atmosphere is used in
autoclave Dickson photo
– Prevents fires from exotherms, etc.
– Some sealant tapes actually perform better in
nitrogen (foaming prevention)
• All autoclaves are not created equal (P, T)

76
MHI – 787 Wing Skin53
 Out-of-Autoclave (OoA)
• Resin Infusion processes (some may still use
Autoclaves)
• Oven Cures
– May use specially-formulated prepregs
• Stand Alone Cures
– Integrally-Heated Tools

Advanced Composite Cargo Aircraft91 77

HPC Jan 200854
 Resin Infusion
• Typically, a dry preform is laid-up, placed
under a vacuum bag and mixed resin is drawn
into the preform.
• Many different variations to this, with
numerous patents involved.

78
Steps in making parts infused parts
Install Draw Mix Resin,
Layup Consumable Vacuum Infuse &
Items Cure
Remove part
Peel ply,
from tool
Resin Distribution Media
Create Vacuum Lines
Resin Distribution Lines Trim
Preform
Vacuum bag
Stitching A/R,
Add Tackifier

NDI

Assembly
79
 Creating the Preform
• Methods used typically depend on part
complexity
• Simplest – cut plys and place them on mold in
correct position, typically with a sprayed
tackifier
• Often use Non-Crimp Fabrics (NCF) for rapid
ply buildup
• Complex – stitch plies together to form
integral stiffeners, etc.
80
Robotic Ply Placement for Automotive
Applications
• Most typically for Resin Transfer Molding
(RTM) applications:
– Plys are nested and cut
– Plys are located by “pick and place” operations –
robots with vacuum or needle gripper end
effectors

Schmalz Grippers55 81
Pinette Emidicau Robotic RTM Cell56
Large Preforms → Large Parts

Latecoere Passenger Door57

NASA AST Wing Preform58 82

 Some of the Processes
(everybody’s got an acronym)
• CAPRI (Boeing) – Controlled Atmospheric
Pressure Resin Infusion
• RTI (Bombardier) – Resin Transfer Infusion
• SCRIMP – Seeman Composites Resin Infusion
Manufacturing Process
• VaRTM – Vacuum-assisted Resin Transfer Molding
• VIP – Vacuum Infusion Process
• VAP (Airbus) – Vacuum-Assisted Process

83
 How Resin Infusion Works
(typical simplified schematic)
Peel ply over part

Resin
Vacuum Resin Advancing Distribution
Pump Trap Resin Media
Flow Approx 16 “
Front or so apart

Unclamped
Vacuum Resin
Line Line
Around
Periphery
Clamped-off
Mixed Resin Lines
Resin 84
 How Resin Infusion Works
(typical simplified schematic)
Peel ply over part

Resin
Vacuum Resin Advancing Distribution
Pump Trap Resin Media
Flow Approx 16 “
Front or so apart

Unclamped
Vacuum Resin
Line Line
Around
Periphery
Unclamped
Mixed Resin Lines
Resin 85
 Notes on Infusion Media
• Infusion materials (throw-
away)
– Round tube for resin
– Spiral-cut tube for vacuum
– Omega shapes and other
various media for resin
distribution
• Some products (plastic Dickson Photo
netting) used in lieu of
breathers

86
 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
• Preformed plys are placed in a
(very expensive) mold and resin i
is injected and cured.
• Matched mold halves are often
held in a press
• Molds machined to close
tolerances
• Often liquid-heated (oil or
pressurized water)
• Fast cycle times – less than 30 Pics – North Coast Tool & Mold 59
minutes typically
87
88
 Aerospace RTM Part Examples

Hexcel/Eurocopter
A350 HTP Leading Edge A380 Hinge Fitting60
One-shot RTM Sine Wave part61
Aernnova60 Comparable Metal Part

757 Door
Radius SQRTM Roof Panel (HPC)63 Latecoere A350 Door64 89
(Boeing Photo)
 Light-RTM
• Closed mold system – one side is hard tool,
other is semi-rigid (~8 plies fiberglass mat).
• Resin drawn into preform by vacuum; may be
assisted by a pump (2psi).

Vacuum Resin Vacuum

(clamp) injection (clamp)

Fabric Preform Reinforced Plastics65 90

Figure 1 shows the process of the vacuum
pulling the resin from the external
reservoir into the part. It also shows the
position of the RDM and vacuum bag
as indicated by the arrows..

Figure 1 Schematic of the VARTM Process (Reference 7)

91
 Project Title: Stitched RFI

Stitched Preform

• Material- carbon fiber warp-knit hybrid

• Preform size- 10’ x 5’
• Skin thickness- 0.072”
• Vectran thread

92
 Project Title: Stitched RFI

Resin Tile Installation

• Resin tiles placed on IML side in each bay (vs. OML)

• Resin material: Hexcel 3501-6 RC

93
 Project Title: Stitched RFI
Cured Part

• Success Criteria: +/-0.030”on stiffener location

• 100% of 238 stiffener data points taken by laser tracker
were within +/-0.030”!!!
• Next step- Ballistic Test!
94
 Stand-Alone
Quickstep
• Unique process that uses a “heat transfer
fluid” and “floating mold technology” to cure
parts.

“Floating Mould”62

95
Curing Chamber66
 Stand-Alone
Windmill Blade Mold
• Molds use hot liquid channels, electrical
heating cables or blown hot air to cure parts.
• Size typically can require powered hinge
system

CW Cover Photo67 LM Glassfiber (CW)68 96

 Resin Film Infusion (RFI)
• Gelled, cast resin tiles are placed on the tool
and preform placed over the tiles
• Part is bagged and heated in autoclave.
• Resin liquifies and wicks into the preform.

NASA AST Wing Project (SAMPE)69 97

 Debag & Tool / Part Separation
• Consumables (bag, breather, tape, etc) are removed
and disposed-of.
• Part must be removed from tool CAREFULLY
– Don’t want to damage tool or part
– Use relatively soft tools to assist
• Phenolic or plastic wedges
• Wooden tongue depressors around periphery
• Work around tool until the part breaks free
• In some cases, features designed-into the tool may
offer good assistance
– Threaded holes in stiffener mandrels
– Cavities for wedges – cure over the wedge in part excess.

98
 Thermoplastics
• Thermoplastics are used mainly for secondary
structures and Interiors in aircraft
• Significant research in Europe for using T/Ps
for more and more structure
– TAPAS: Integral tail structure
– Airbus: In-situ layup/consolidation of fuselage
barrel structure
• PEEK, PEKK, PPS, PEI in Aerospace
• PP, PA, PBT/PET, PPS in Automotive
99
 Benefits of Thermoplastics
• Very fast cycle times for some applications
– Press cures: low labor cost
• Ability to re-melt & re-form
• Can be welded
• Easy to recycle
• Drawbacks are mainly material cost & high
processing temperatures (600 – 700°F).

100
Press-Forming of Thermoplastic Parts

Pre-Heat
Thermoplastic
Composite
Sheet

Stamping Press

Die typically has a steel half and an elastomeric half

101
 Welding of Thermoplastics
• Ultrasonic welding (localized areas, e.g.
inserts) – think “spot welding”
• Resistance Welding – a “weld strip” is placed
within the part-to-part interface and is
heated.
• Induction welding – a magnetic field induces
current in the carbon fiber, creating heat

102
 Part Trim
(Thermoset or thermoplastic parts)

• Parts in most cases are trimmed net

• Sometimes fastener holes are drilled while on
the same tool
• Typical methods:
– Hand-held router with a guide
– Pin shaper with a guide
– Multi-axis NC router
– Multi-axis waterjet/abrasive waterjet

103
 Small Parts – Trim with Routers and Pin
Shapers
• Edge of router fixture tool is used to guide the router
• Router shoulder also rides on tool – ensures 90
degree cut
• Requires skilled labor – easy to gouge-up the part

Tool Part

104
Boeing
 Large Parts – Trim with NC routers
• Various styles of tool – may allow gage
reduction/ milling

Boeing photo & illustration

Want to contain/capture the dust!

105
Thermwood 5-axis composite router70
 Cutters for composite trimming
• Carbide cutters (short life)
• Various grades of diamond coatings
• PolyCrystalline Diamond (PCD) Coatings – very
durable
• Various geometries

Robbjack, Inc.71 106

Carbide Diamond-Coated PCD-Coated
 Large Parts – Trim with Automated
Waterjet
• Edge trim and cut-outs (doors, windows, etc.)
• Often use Universal Holding Fixtures (next
slide)
• Very powerful stream of high-pressure water,
with or without garnet abrasive particles

Flow73
107
Omax72
 Universal Holding Fixtures

Micado “Snake System” Micado “Hedgehog” 74 Micado “Pogostick Gantry”

(Repositionable Posts)74 (Passive pogos) 74

M Torres “TorresTool” – example configurations75 108

 Assembly
• Traditional assembly involves “drilling Drill Jig (Boeing)
and filling” – drill holes for fasteners,
disassemble and deburr parts, shim
parts & wet-install fasteners.
• Some technologies (e.g. orbital drilling)
may eliminate the deburr operation.
• Co-curing or co-bonding parts can
Orbital Drilling
eliminate many downstream assembly
operations, related tools and drilling
equipment.

109
Boeing graphics Latecoere A350 Door
 Some Assembly Considerations
• Fabric is typically used on outer plys to help
prevent drilling breakout
• Fiberglass isolation plys are used where
carbon and aluminum would otherwise be in
contact (corrosion prevention)
• Airplane wings typically carry fuel – sealing
and the lightning protection scheme are of
critical importance!

110
 Drilling Composites

Slide Credit: Chris Eastland

111
Boeing photos
 “Mainstream Production” vs “One-
off”/ ”Prototype”
• The same approaches are typically not used for
prototyping vs. serial production unless you
already have the equipment (tape layers, fiber
placement machines, etc.)
• The place where corners may be cut is in the
tooling (NEVER cut corners on production tools),
but there will be trade-offs
– Dimensional integrity
– Warpage
– etc

112
 Composite Materials for Prototyping
• Materials that cure at low temperatures allow
higher CTE tooling materials to be used.
• Examples:
• Cytec LTM-series – can do initial cures at 140°F
– Elevated free-standing post cure necessary (i.e. 15 min
@ 392°F then 8 hrs @ 375°F
– Infusion resins
• RenFusion 8615: 24 hrs @ 77°F, 4 hrs @ 250°F, 4 hrs @
350°F
• NONA – cures by it’s own exotherm
• Expect trade-offs!
113
 Examples of Prototype Tooling
• Layup/cure:
– Plaster/Bondo
– Wood/MDF
– Foams from General Plastics, Coastal Enterprises, Stepan, etc
– Cfoam carbon foam with surface filler
– Additive Mfg materials (FDM Ultem)
– REN RP4040 “LCTC” patties over alum. honeycomb
– Aluminum rather than Invar
• Trim:
– Foam with a vacuum chuck or hold part with drywall screws in part excess or
with double-back tape
– Additive Mfg materials (e.g. SLS Nylon or FDM ABS)
– Hand layout/hand trim with straight edge guide
• Assembly
– Layout holes with mylar plot and hand drill
– Use metrology assist (Laser Tracker)

114
 Planes, Blades and Automobiles
• Quick overview of how parts are made

115
 Fabrication of Composite
Aircraft Structure

Upper Panel

Spars (2 or more) Ribs

Stringers (various types!)

Lower Panel
Rib Posts (at each rib/spar joint)

116
Dickson illustration
Shear Ties (upper & lower at each rib)
 A few Examples of Production Curing Methods
Composite Aircraft Wing Skins
• Co-bond
– Pre-cured stringers with uncured panel

• Reverse-Co-bond
– Pre-cured panel with uncured stringers

• Resin Transfer Infusion

– Resin infused into panel and stringers through stringer
caps
– Co-bonded vent stringers (hats)

117
 Stringers
• Stringer geometry (i.e. “hats” “blades”, “I’s” or
“omegas”) can be a determining factor of cure
method and tooling concept.
• Drape forming, roll forming, press forming
commonly used prior to cure.
Caul
Bladder

IML Tool Surface OML Tool Surface

Cure Tool 118
Dickson illustration
 A few Examples of Production Curing Methods
Composite Aircraft Wing Spars
• Hot Drape Forming most common
– Uni-tape laid flat, then formed to channel shape
under heat and bladder pressure

• Other methods (mostly studies):

– Automated Fiber Placement
– OoA Prepreg
– RTM
119
Dickson illustration
 A few Examples of Production Curing Methods
Composite Aircraft Fuselages
• One Piece Barrels
– AFP & Co-cure of stringers and skins on IML tooling
• Build-up from panels
– AFP & Co-bond cured stringers and uncured skins on
IML tooling
– Some smaller airplanes have used hand layup and
honeycomb-stiffening

• Studies – OoA prepregs, Resin Infusion

120
 Honeycomb-Stiffened Parts
• Most typically hand layup
• Autoclaved cures, 350°F at 45-60 psi
• Ribs, control surfaces (e.g. flaps, ailerons,
rudders, fairings, etc.)
• Control surfaces can be multi-stage cures due
to having complex components in a bond
assembly (spars, fittings, close-out ribs, etc.)

121
Dickson illustration
 Future A/P Fabrication
• EU research: thermoplastic fuselages & wings
– (TAPAS, FUBACOMP, FUSCOMP, other “Framework
programmes”)
• Use of more OoA technologies (prepregs,
RTM, VaRTM, integrally-heated tools, etc)

122
TAPAS Thermoplastic Helicopter Stabilizer (Dickson JEC show photos)
 Wind Generation
• Due to size, processes rely on resin infusion
and OoA cures
• Traditionally fiberglass with foam, balsa cores
in skins and foam cored spars

123
Dickson JEC show photos
 Wind Generation
• More recently – use of Non-crimp fabrics
– Glass/Carbon/Aramid hybrids
• Faster laydown rates
• As blades get larger, more carbon will likely be
necessary
• More layup automation
– Fives Cincinnati, Danobat, M Torres, others

124
 Autos
• Big push to drive down cost
– Carbon Fiber:
• BMW with SGL
• Ford with DowAksa
• ORNL low cost carbon BMW I3 at JEC 2013
– Production efficiency
• Plasan 16 minute cures on Corvette hoods
– Globe “Rapid Claves”
– BMW automated preform handling for RTM

125
Dickson photo
 Bikes
• Prepreg plys cut
• Layup in a female mold with a bladder
• Mold closed & placed in a press
• Bladder is pressurized
• Part is cured & demolded
• Fittings are secondary-bonded

Trek Bike pictures courtesy of High Performance Composites90 126

 End of Life: Recycling
• Thermoplastics are the easiest to recycle
• Thermosets are most often used.
• Thermoset recycling most often means
separating fiber and resin (cured or uncured)
– Pyrolysis, Fluid Bed Oxidation, Solvolysis, etc.
• Long fiber products become short fiber and
recombined with resin (molding compounds,
etc.)
• Development work: fiber alignment
127
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ZQzfwdHf1I
 Filament Winding Process

• Types of Filament Winding Machines

– Tube Winders
– Longo Winders
– Complex Shapes 3 Axes or more
– Ring Winder

128
 Pros and Cons of Wet Filament
Winding verses Prepreg Winding
• Pros
– Cost of materials
– You control the quality of the fiber impregnation
– No storage of prepreg material and worry about
material running out of date.
• Cons
– Some feel it saves time using prepreg material

129
Wet Filament Winding For Process
Control

130
Three Axes Filament Winding Machine
With Fiber Impregnation On Machine

131
Filament winding of outer skin using Prepreg fibers

132
Filament Winding Machine - Winding Spar Tube

133
Race Track Winder
Manufacturing spar caps
For Composite Main Rotor
Blade

134
Race Track
Winder – showing
resin
impregnation of
fibers

135
 Filament winding of
prepreg spar cap

Spar cap
assembly

136
137
Four axes
electrically driven
computer
controlled
unidirectional
fiber placement
machine with 16
rotating fiber
spools

Manufactured by
Century Design

138
Tooling and Filament Winding Process
This filament winding machine has 5axis

139
Ring Winder – A
developmental
machine with a
stationary
mandrel and
rotating fibers

140
 Machine Layup
• Prepreg Tape, Slit Tape, Towpreg or Roving is laid-down
in a pre-determined orientation by automated
machines
• Flat tape laminators (3-axis)
• Contoured tape laminators (5-plus axes)
• Automated Fiber Placement (AFP) machines
• Automated Filament Winders (sometimes uses wetted-
out roving)
• Pultrusion machines
• Typically the machines come in a number of
configurations/sizes/etc.

141
 Machine Layup
• Machine layup is most effective when they can
lay-down very long courses of material,
uninterrupted
– Starts and stops for short courses reduce effectiveness
• E.g. 90 and +/-45° plys on long, narrow parts
• Name of the game is lbs/hr in laydown
– Varies considerably with complexity of part design and
basic geometry
– Traditional machines anywhere from 5 – 25 lbs/hr
– Machine mfrs working to move this closer to 100
lbs/hr

142
 Automated Tape Layers

M Torres32

Fives Cincinnati machine

At Exelis33

777 Skin Panel Layup

(Boeing photo) 143
 Automated Fiber Placement
More traditional machines

Ingersoll – Vertical35 Ingersoll – Horizontal (787 Alenia)36

ElectroImpact37
144
Fives Cincinnati34
 Methods of Fiber Delivery

Spools at head Central Creel-house

M Torres Photos32

145
 Relatively new – Automated Fabric
Laydown (for infusion processes)

Fives Cincinnati Rapid Mat’l Placement System M Torres Wind Blade System
(CompositesWorld38) (CompositesWorld38)

Danobat – Gelcoat Application

(SME Composites Mfg 2012)39

Engineering TV Video (Fives Cincinnati machine)

146
http://www.engineeringtv.com/video/Automating-Wind-Turbine-Blade-F
 Robotic AFP Machines

Coriolis Composites40 Fives Cincinnati “Robotic Viper”41

ElectroImpact42
147
Automated Dynamics43
What’s next? Robots working in unison

DLR Center for Lightweight M Torres Robotic ATL Cell32

Production Technology
GroFi Platform44

148
 Tools for Automated Layup
• Tool designs must consider how the tools will
be indexed to the automated layup
equipment, plus any special load cases
– Rotating tool supported by spindles?
– Special load cases: dynamic frequency, emergency
stop
– Types of indexes required

149
 Purpose-Built Machinery
• Large Airframers and Sub-contractors often
build unique equipment to perform layup and
other functions.
• Example: ATK Stringer & Frame formers

Hooper, et al (SAMPE)45 150

 Tool Preparation
• Tools are routinely cleaned before/after each
use
– Remove resin flash, tape residue, etc.
• Tools are treated with a sealer before each use
and after stripping release coat buildup
• Tools are very often treated with release coats
before each use.

151
 Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI)
• Laminates can be checked by various methods
– Visual inspection
– Tap tests
– Large “monument”-type NC-driven Ultrasonic Testing
(UT) machines very common in aerospace
– Conventional and digital X-ray
– Numerous types of hand-held devices – Pulse-echo,
Laser shearography, Flash thermography, FTIR, etc
• NDI devices are calibrated by “Standards”
– Sample parts with a known flaw

152
 Visual Inspections
• Should be able to find:
• Warpage
• Obviously crushed core
• Surface Anomalies (resin richness/starvation, sink
marks, etc.)
• Surface wrinkles
• Cracks, delaminations, etc.
• Obviously mislocated details (stiffener migration,
etc.)

153
 Monument-type NDI Equipment
Typically $Millions for larger equipment
• Ultrasonics (e.g. TTU, AUSS, Laser UT, etc.)
– Various configurations, many have specially-
designed arrays, transducers or sensors

Immersion Gantry Robotic

Water-coupled
• X-Ray (conventional or digital) (SAMPE76)

154
Boeing photos, except as noted
 Hand-held NDI Equipment
Increasing sophistication and cost
• Tap Hammer / Quarter

• Calibrated Tap Hammer Mil-spec tap hammer77 Digital tap hammer78

• Pulse-Echo
Olympus Boeing81
Quantum UT79
• Bond Testers OmniScan80

• FTIR

Olympus ImperiumAcousticam84
BondaScope82 Bondmaster83 155
<-Agilent FTIR85
 Types of Ultrasonic Scans
• A-Scan: Ultrasonic pulse will show that
there is a defect, displayed as a simple
wave form showing amplitude vs time.
Signal reflects either off the opposite
side of the part (long amplitude) or off
an anomaly (shorter amplitude)

• B-Scan: Multiple A-scans along a line

B-scan of wrinkle (single line)

• C-Scan: Records the A-scan and displays
the plan view of defect boundaries (an
image)

Boeing photos C-scan of wrinkle plan view 156

 Many Devices Use All Three

B-scan
Along
Line
Trace of
C-scan

157
Boeing photos
 What do we look for?
Some common types of Laminate Anomalies

Disbonds, Delaminations,
Porosity Wrinkles Cracks

Voids (>.25 in) Inclusions (e.g. backing poly)

Ply bridging

158
Boeing photos
 Core Anomalies
Production Issues

Crushed core
In-service Issues

Water in core cell

(X-ray image)
Boeing photos 159
 In-Service Issues
• Examples of types of damage composite parts
might typically experience

160
 Aircraft - FAA

Used by permission 161

 Aircraft - FAA

Used by permission 162

 Aircraft - FAA

Used by permission 163

 Automotive Damage

10 inch crack to Fender Liner Driver’s side door rocker channel impact damage

164
Pictures courtesy of Lou Dorworth, Abaris Training. Used by permission.
 Automotive Damage

10 inch crack to Fender Liner Driver’s side door rocker channel impact damage

165
Pictures courtesy of Lou Dorworth, Abaris Training. Used by permission.
 Windmill Blade Damage

North American Windpower pic86. Daily Mail (UK) pic.87

London Express88 CompositesWorld89 166

 Repairs
• First step – decide whether its easier/more cost
effective to replace the part rather than repair
– You often have to deal with or at least work-around
underlying structure
• Repairs typically involve inspecting, removing the
damage and restoring the damaged plys
– Want to maintain close to the same strength &
stiffness as the original part
• Extent of the repair depends on the extent of the
damage
167
Picture: CompositesWorld89
 Typical Repairs
• Bolted
– Repair patch is bolted to the damaged area
• Cosmetically poor; may be OK in areas out of airstream
• Bonded

– Step-cuts
• New – robotic and applieddevices that mill steps

– Scarf cuts (<10° taper sanding)

• Skilledtech’s with rotary grinder, e.g. Dotco
– Plies cut to shape, compacted, applied with a caul and cured with heat
blanket
– Plies follow same orientation as original plies

168
Boeing graphics
 Class Summary
• Materials – resins & reinforcements
• Processes – layup, trim, assembly
• Automation
• Inspection (in-factory and in-service)
• Repairs
• Applications – aerospace, wind, automotive
Recycling

169
170
171
Photo & Illustration Credits
1. Boeing 787 photo, courtesy of The Boeing Company
2. BMW i3 – Dickson photo
3. Anon: “Wind Turbine Blades: Big and Getting Bigger. June 2008: Composites Technology. Article avail.
Online: www.compositesworld.com/articles/wind-turbine-blades-big-and-getting-bigger Cover photo:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/archive/863d0bd5-e4a5-42cc-a6a4-cc3583bfc0d1
4. Blackbird “Super OM” Guitar: www.blackbirdguitar.com Used by permission.
5. Misc. Sporting goods: Dickson photos
6. BMW/Oracle America’s Cup Yacht: Anon. “America’s Cup 34”. Sept 23, 2013: Seattle Times. Avail online:
http://www.seattletimes.com/news/americas-cup-34/
7. Carbon fiber: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_%28fiber%29
8. CF Oxidation Line: Anon. “Complete Carbon Fiber Process Lines from Harper”. April 7, 2011. Avail online
(video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=W16JJw0fFjQ
9. Century Design Hot Melt Prepreg Equipment: www.centurydesigninc.com. Used by permission.
10. 3Tex woven preforms: Heider, D, et al. “ Large-Scale Joint Fabrication Using 3-D Fabric Preforms,
Sandwich Core Structure and VARTM Processing”. SAMPE Sept/Oct 2008, Vol 44, No. 5. Also -
Bogdanovich, A, et al. “Fabrication of 3-D Woven Preforms and Composites with Integrated Fiber Optic
Sensors”. SAMPE 2003 Conf, Long Beach, CA, May 11-15, 2003. SAMPE Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4, July/Aug
2003, pp. 6-15. Additional info on 3D weaves: www.3Tex.com
11. Braid pictures and illustrations: A&P Technologies. www.braider.comUsed by permission.
12. Illustration and component fabricated from Cytec Dform material: http://www.cytec.com/dform/.
Images courtesy of Cytec, Inc.
13. Test component fabricated from Stretch Broken Fiber: Dillon, Gregory & Stiver, Donald: “Application of
Stretch Broken Carbon Fiber Materials to Rotorcraft Structures”. 2006, Vol. 51. Society for the
Advancement of Material & Process Engineering (SAMPE).
14. DiscoTex Stretch Broken Fiber: Ng, Stanley and Meilunas, Raymond: “Aligned Discontinuous Carbon Fiber
forComposites Forming”. 2007, Vol. 52. Society for the Advancement of Material & Process Engineering
(SAMPE). Additional info: www.pepinassociates.com/DiscoTex.html
15. Non-CrimpFiber Fabric Image: Bischoff, T, et al. “Multi-Axial Fabrics – Near Net Shape Preforms for
Advanced Composite Structures”. 2005: SAMPE – proceedings of 37th ISTC conference. Additional info:
Saertex, inc. www.saertex.com 172
Photo & Illustration Credits
16. NCF image: Dobrich, O, et al. “A Novel Technology for Manufacturing Non-Crimp Reinforcement Fabrics
forComposites ’. 2014: Sampe Conference proceedings. Add’l info : www.saertex.com.
17. BMC: Black, Sara. “Redesigning for simplicity and economy”. 2012: High Performance Composites. Avail
online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/redesigning-for-simplicity-and-economy
18. Core illustrations: Dickson
19. Crushed core cells: Boyd, J and Maskell, R. “Product Design for Low Cost Manufacturing of
Composites for Aerospace Applications”. 2001: Proceedings of SAMPE Conference, Long Beach, CA.
20. Henkel Test Panel: Floryancic, Bryce, et al: “Development of Void Free Out of Autoclave (OOA)
Benzoxazine Prepreg Systems for High Toughness and High Temperature Applications”. 2014: Society for
the Advancement of Material & Process Engineering (SAMPE CamX Conference Proceedings).
21. Airtech Shears: www.airtechonline.com. Used by permission.
22. Various cutters: Dickson photo.
23. Steel rule die: www.durabledependabletools.com
24. NONAcomposite LM: Dietz, Ben: “No-Oven, No-Autoclave Composite Tool Fabrication”. 2014: Society for
the Advancement of Material & Process Engineering (SAMPE CamX Conference Proceedings).
25. Composite tool with steel substructure: Used by permission of Janicki Industries. www.janicki.com.
26. Truss-type composite tool: Burnham Composites, Wichita, KS. www.burnhamcomposites.comUsed by
permission.
27. Boeing 787 Fuselage Cab Fiber Placement Mandrel: Drew, Christopher and Mouawad, Jad. “New
Challenges for the Fixers of Boeing’s 787”. NY Times. Avail online:
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/business/boeings-787-poses-new-challenges-for-repair-
teams.html?_r=0
28. Rib Layup Mandrel: Boeing image
29. Nacelle Mandrel: Courtesy of Coast Composites, an Ascent Aerospace Company
(www.coastcomposites.com).Used by permission.
30. Resin Transfer Molding Die : Dickson photo (SAMPE conference display) Additional info: www.nctm.com

173
Photo & Illustration Credits
31. 787 Wing Skin Mandrel at MHI. Boeing photo
32. M Torres photos of Tape Layers, Fiber Placement and Ultrasonic Knife: M Torres proprietary photos. Add’l
info: http://www.mtorres.es/en/aeronautics/products/carbon-fiber/torreslayup. Used by permission.
33. Fives Cincinnati Tape Layer at Exelis: Sloan, Jeff. “Exelis Aerostructures: Salt Lake City”. 2015:
CompositesWorld. Avail. Online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/exelis-aerostructures-salt-
lake-city. Used by permission.
34. Fives Cincinnati AFP equipment: Anon. “Vertical gantry fiber placement system”. 2012: High
Performance Composites. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/products/vertical-gantry-
fiber-placement-system . Used by permission.
35. Ingersoll AFP machine at Goodrich: Sloan, Jeff: “ATL and AFP: Signs of evolution in machine process
control “. High Performance Composites, Sept 2008. Avail online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/atl-and-afp-signs-of-evolution-in-machine-process-control.
36. 787 Fuselage barrel section layup at Alenia: Boeing photo
37. Electroimpact AFP machine and mandrel: Ehinger, Peter, et al. “Implementation of Non-Contact Drives
into a High-Rail, 7-Axis, AFP Motion Platform”. 2013: Proceedings of SAE Aerotech Congress. Avail.
online: www.electroimpact.com/WhitePapers/2013-01-2288.pdf
38. Windmill Blade Automation: Black, Sara. “Automating Wind Blade Manufacture”. 2009: Composites
Technology. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/automating-wind-blade-
manufacture
39. Danobat automated equipment for gel coat application on windmill blades: Maas, David. “Automated
Dry Fiber Placement for Very Large, High Throughput VARTM Composite Applications”. 2012.
Proceedings of SME Composites Conference, Mesa, AZ.
40. Coriolis robotic AFP: Grant, Carroll. “Composites automation: Trending smaller and robotic“. 2012: High
Performance Composites. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/columns/composites-
automation-trending-smaller-and-robotic. www.coriolis-composites.com
174
Photo & Illustration Credits

41. Fives Cincinnati robotic “Viper” AFP cell: (see source 40). Avail online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/columns/composites-automation-trending-smaller-and-robotic.
Add’l info: http://metal-cutting-composites.fivesgroup.com/products/composites/composites-
systems.html. Used by permission.
42. Electroimpact AFP machine and mandrel: Faubion, Guy and Wells, Dan. “Highly-Flexible Automated
Carbon Fiber Layup Cell for Manufacturing Wide Variety of Carbon Fiber Parts”. 2014: Defense
Manufacturing Conference (DMC). Avail. online:
https://www.electroimpact.com/WhitePapers/EI_DMC_2014_Presentation.pptx
43. Automated Dynamics robotic AFP equipment: Anon. “Automated Dynamics wins fiber placement
contract with U.S. Navy”. 2012” CompositesWorld. Avail online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/news/automated-dynamics-wins-fiber-placement-contract-with-us-
navy. Add’l info: www.automateddynamics.com
44. DLR (German Aerospace Institute) GroFi robotic layup cell: Krombholz, C. et al. “Advanced Automated
Fiber Placement”. Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK: Proceedings of the 11th International Conferenceon
Manufacturing Research (ICMR2013). Also: “GroFi - Combining automated fiber placement (AFP) and
automated tape laying (ATL) on a flexible production plant by means of simultaneous working, robot
based layup units” Additional info:
http://www.dlr.de/fa/portaldata/17/resources/dokumente/publikationen/grofi_handout.pdf
ATK Stringer and Frame cells: Hooper, et al. “Advancements in Automated Fabrication and Inspection of
45. Aerospace Grade Composite Structures”. 2014: Society for the Advancement of Material & Process
Engineering (SAMPE CamX Conference Proceedings).
Custom bag for NASA AST Wing project: Thrash, Patrick and Ghumman, Aaron: Manufacture of Stitched
46.
Resin Film Infused Carbon Fiber Epoxy Wing Cover Panel. 1999, Vol. 52. Society for the Advancement of
Material & Process Engineering (SAMPE).
Sprayomer™Technology spray on vacuum membranes/bags by SR Composites, LLC, U.S. Patents
47.
8,916,073 & 8,672,665 Other U.S. & International Patents & Patents Pending. Add’l info:
http://www.srcomposites.com/. Used by permission. 175
Photo & Illustration Credits
48. Torr Technologies reusable elastomeric vacuum bags: http://www.torrtech.com/Pages/index.html
49. Smooth-On reusable silicon vacuum bags: Black, Sara. “Reusable vacuum membranes: Coming of age?”.
2013: Composites Technology. Addl info: http://www.smooth-on.com/Vacuum-
Bagging/c1334/index.html
50. LACO Technologies Handheld GasCheck Sniffer Leak Detector:
http://www.lacotech.com/leaktesting/handheld-leak-detectors/handheldgaschecksniffer.aspx. Used by
permission.
51. De-Comp Composites ultrasonic vacuum leak detector: http://decomp.com/product/d9140k-leak-
detector-kit/. Used by permission.
52. Example autoclave trace : Convergent Manufacturing Technologies. Add’l info: www.convergent.ca.
Used by permission.
53. 787 wing skin mandrel in autoclave at MHI in Japan: Boeing photo
54. Integrally-heated mold: LeGault, M. “Tooling Update: New Dimensions in Tooling”. 2008: High
Performance Composites. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/tooling-update-new-
dimensions-in-tooling. Additional info: www.weberman.on.ca.
55. Schmalz composite grippers: Katz, Justin. “Handling Technologies for the Automated Production of
Composite Parts”. 2014: Proceedings of the SME Composites Manufacturing 2014 Conference.
56. Pinette Emidicau robotic RTM cell: Anon. “Pinette Emidecau reveals details of high-speed RTM cell”.
2013: CompositesWorld. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/news/pinette-emidecau-
reveals-details-of-high-speed-rtm-cell. Add’l info: http://www.pinetteemidecau.eu/en/
57. Latecoere aircraft door : Sloan, Jeff. “Integrated, Optimized Aircraft Door”. 2012: High Performance
Composites. Avail. Online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/integrated-optimized-aircraft-
door
176
Photo & Illustration Credits
58. NASAAST wing project preform and finished panel: Thrash, Patrick and Ghumman, Aaron: Manufacture of
Stitched Resin Film Infused Carbon Fiber Epoxy Wing Cover Panel. 1999, Vol. 52. Society for the
Advancement of Material & Process Engineering (SAMPE).
59. Resin Transfer Mold and molded rudder structure: Evanovich, Jay. Out-of-press resin transfer molding of
the G250 rudder. 2011: Proceedings of the SME Composites Manufacturing 2011 Conference, Dayton, OH.
Add’l info: North Coast Tool & Mold. www.nctm.com
60. Aernnova A350 RTM structure &Hexcel/Eurocopter A380 Hinge Fitting (2013 JEC Show, Paris): Dickson
photo
61. VAP infused Sine-Wave part: Anon. “Premium AEROTEC, Boeing demonstrate composite wing technology”.
2012: CompositesWorld. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/news/premium-aerotec-boeing-
demonstrate-composite-wing-technology
62. Quickstep Floating Mould: Hodgkin, J. and Rabu, N. “A New Development in High-Speed Composite
Fabrication for Aerospace, Automotive, and Marine applications. 2000: Proceedings of SAMPE conference,
Long Beach, CA.
63. Radius Engineering Same-Qualified RTM prototype helicopter cabin roof panel: Black, Sara. “SQRTM
enables net-shape parts”. 2010: High Performance Composites. Avail. Online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/sqrtm-enables-net-shape-parts
64. Latecoere RTM Passenger Door: Boeing photo (Paris Air Show) . Additional Info: Gardiner, Ginger: “Cutting
the cost of integrated composite aerostructures”. July 2013: High Performance Composites. Avail online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/cutting-the-cost-of-integrated-composite-aerostructures.
65. Light RTM Example: Zuijderduin, R. and Bottger, W. “Cobalt-free curing takes off”. 2013: Reinforced
Plastics. Avail online: http://www.reinforcedplastics.com/view/30162/cobalt-free-curing-taking-off/
66. Quickstep process illustration & photo: Luedke, B et al: Rapid Out-of-Autoclave Composite Manufacturing
forAerospace-Grade Prepregs. Sampe Journal, March/April 2015, Vol. 51, No. 2. Avail online:
www.sampe.org.Additional info: www.quickstep.com.au.Images courtesy of Quickstep. 177
Photo & Illustration Credits
67. Anon: “Composite Wind lades: the Boom Gets Bigger”. June 2008: Composites Technology. Avail. Online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/archive/863d0bd5-e4a5-42cc-a6a4-cc3583bfc0d1
68. Hinged Blade Mold: Gardiner, Ginger: HPC November 2008: “Wind Blade Manufacturing, Part I: M and P
innovations optimize production”. http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/wind-blade-manufacturing-
part-i-m-and-p-innovations-optimize-production. Used by permission.
69. NASAAST Wing photos: Thrash, Patrick and Ghumman, Aaron: Manufacture of Stitched Resin Film Infused
Carbon Fiber Epoxy Wing Cover Panel. 1999, Vol. 52. Society for the Advancement of Material & Process
Engineering (SAMPE).
70. Thermwood 5-axis router: http://www.thermwood.com/.Used by permission.
71. Robbjack cutters: MacArthur, Mike: “Tips & Tricks for Machining Composites”. . 2014: Society for the
Advancement of Material & Process Engineering (SAMPE CamX Conference Proceedings).
72. OMAX waterjet): Sloan, Jeff. “Rail Car Doors: Waterjet Cutter Shapes Panels with Precision”. 2013:
Composites Technology. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/rail-car-doors-waterjet-
cutter-shapes-panels-with-precision
73. Flow Waterjet: Sloan, Jeff. “Machining Carbon Composites: Risky Business”. 2010: High Performance
Composites. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/machining-carbon-composites-risky-
business
74. Micado workholding solutions: http://www.micado.at/en/. Used by permission.
75. M Torres “TorresTool” actuated vacuum holding fixtures.
http://www.mtorres.es/en/aeronautics/products/carbon-fiber/torrestool. Used by permission.
76. Water-coupled ultrasonic test: SAMPE Journal cover photo. March/April 2011, vol. no. 47, no. 2. Avail
online: www.sampe.org.Photo courtesy of ATK Space Launch Systems (Utah).
77. Mil-spec tap hammer:. MIL-HDBK-337, Military Standardization Handbook, “Adhesive Bonded Aerospace
Structure Repair”. Avail. Online: http://www.freestd.us/soft1/541281.htm
178
Photo & Illustration Credits
78. Boeing digital tap hammer: Boeing photo. US Patent 6748791. Commercial product under license:
Wichitech RD Electronic Digital Tap Hammer. Add’l info” www.wichitech.com.
79. Quantum QFT ultrasonic flaw detector. Diederichs, Rolf. “News from the Quality Testing Show”.
Seattle. Avail online: http://www.ndt.net/article/report/seattle/q_show.htm.Additional info:
http://www.ndtsystems.com/
80. Olympus Omniscan: Anon. “OmniScan MX Flaw Detector from Olympus NDT”. (Date unknown).
Labcompare.Avail online: http://www.labcompare.com/24506-Ultrasonic-Flaw-Detector/2807090-
OmniScan-MX-Flaw-Detector/. Add’l info: http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/omniscan-pa/
81. Boeing ramp damage checker: Boeing photo. Commercial products under license: Olympus 35RDC
Ramp Damage Checker and GE Bondtracer.
82. Bondascope 350 Bond Tester: Anon. “The Ultimate in Ultrasonics”. 2011: Quality Magazine. Avail
online: http://www.qualitymag.com/articles/90020 Add’l info:
http://www.ndtsystems.com/bondascope-350
83. Olympus Bondmaster bond tester: Anderson, Meindert. “Olympus NDT Introduces the BondMaster
1000e+ Composite Inspection Instrument”. 2007: NDT.net. Avail online:
http://www.ndt.net/search/docs.php3?id=4820&content=1. Add’l info: http://www.olympus-
ims.com/en/bondmaster1000/
84. Imperium Acousticam Digital Acoustic Video : Boeing photo. Add’l info:
http://www.imperiuminc.com/
85. Agilent Exoscan Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) scanner. Anon. “4100 ExoScan
Series Handheld FTIR from Agilent Technologies” . 2014: LabCompare. Avail online:
http://www.labcompare.com/116-Infrared-Spectrophotometer-IR-FTIR-Spectrometer/57752-4100-
ExoScan-Series-Handheld-FTIR/. Additional information: http://www.agilent.com

179
Photo & Illustration Credits
86. Damaged blade: Bebon, Joseph. “GE Investigates Two More Turbine Blade Breaks”. 2014:
North American Windpower. Avail online:
“http://www.nawindpower.com/e107_plugins/content/content.php?content.12970”
87. Damaged windmill blades: Cohen, Tamara. “Wrecked by gales again as windfarms get
£300,000 to switch off...in high winds”. 2012: Daily Mail. Avail online:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2083149/Wind-turbines-cope-UK-weather-3-
blown-pieces.html#ixzz3TQXIXeBa .
A2: Wood, Karen. “Blade repair: Closing the maintenance gap”. 2011: Composites
Technology. Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/blade-repair-closing-
the-maintenance-gap.
88. Blazing turbine: Ingham, John. “REVEALED: The 'hidden’ peril of wind turbines that catch
fire”. 2014: London Express. Avail online:
http://www.express.co.uk/news/nature/142264/Wind-turbine-fires-are-hidden-peril
89. Delaminated blade and repairs in-process: Wood, Karen. “Blade repair: Closing the
maintenance gap”. 2011: Composites Technology. Avail, online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/blade-repair-closing-the-maintenance-gap
90. Trek Bike Fabrication: Dawson, Donna. “At the top and still climbing”. 2005: High Performance
Composites, Avail online: http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/at-the-top-and-still-
climbing
91. Advanced Composite Cargo Aircraft: Gardiner, Ginger. “Out-of-autoclave prepregs: Hype or
revolution? “. 2011: High Performance Composites. Avail online:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/out-of-autoclave-prepregs-hype-or-revolution 180