CLASSICAL PSYCHOANALYSIS

Sigmund Freud

STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY

- The personality is comprised of three major components:

- Id
- Ego
- Superego

According to Freud, behavior is always a product of the interaction among those three.

The Id
- This is the original (first) system of the personality.
- It is the matrix within which the Ego and Supere9o become differentiated.
- It includes everything psychological that Is inherited and present at birth.
- It is considered the reservoir of psychic energy.
- The Id is in close contact with the bodily processes from which it derives its energy.
- Freud called it the TRUE PSYCHIC REALITY.

- Pleasure Principle
- This is the tension-reduction principle by which the Id operates.

- Two Processes For the actualization of the Pleasure Principle:

- Reflex Action—inborn automatic actions
- Primary Process (wish-fulfilment)—an attempt to discharge tension by forming an image of an object that will remove the
tension

- The Primary Process can be carried out through the following ways;
- Imagination
- Dreams
- HallucInation
- Autistic thinking—preoccupation in inner thoughts. daydreams, fantasies, private logic, egocentric, subjective thinking
lacking objectivity and connection with external reality.

The Ego

- It is known as the Executive of the Personality.

- The Ego’s activities follow a principle called the Reality Principle.
- This principle suspends the discharge of tension temporarily until an object that is appropriate for the satisfaction of the need has
been discovered.

- The Reality Principle is actualized through the Secondary Process/Realistic Thinking, which performs the following tasks:
- Reality TestIng—looking for and testing for real options in the environment
- Planning For a course of action

- The Superego

- It is known as the Moral Arm of the Personality.

- The Superego is the internal representative of the traditional values and ideals of the society through the parents and then enforced
by a pattern of reward and punishment.

- Subdivisions of the Superego:

- Conscience

- This is formed from the internalized experiences for which the child is punished.
- It causes the Feeling of GUILT.

- Ego Ideal

- This is formed from the internalized experiences for which the child is rewarded.
- It causes a feeling of PRIDE and SUCCESS.

DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

- Freud regarded the human being as a complex energy system that derives its energy from the Food it consumes, and expends it For
various physiological and psychological activities.
- PsychIc Energy—the energy utilized for psychological activities
- Instinct

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 - It is an inborn psychological representation of an inner somatic source of excitation.

- Wish — the psychological representation per se

- Need — the bodily excitation that causes the Wish

- Four Characteristic Features of an Instinct:

- Source - It is the body excitation that produces tension; essentially the same as the Need
- Eg. Lack of food in the stomach, which triggers the secretion of gastric juices
- Aim — removal of the body excitation
- Object — all the activities and things that intervenes between the appearance of a wish and its fulfilment.
Eg.
- Activities: looking For food, acquiring food, eating food
- Thing: Food
- Impetus — strength/force of the instinct

- Classifications cl Instinct

- Life Instinct (Eros)

- It is for individual survival and racial propagation.
- It Is manifested specifically as Sex, Hunger, and Thirst Instincts.
- Libido — energy utilized by the Life Instincts.

- Death Instincts (Thanatos)

- In contrast to Life Instinct that creates and propagates life, the Death Instinct is a destructive instinct.
- It is presumed to be emanating from the catabolic physiological processes of the body.
- Aggressiveness/Aggression/Aggressive Drive
- This is viewed by Freud as self-destruction turned outside.
- Its conception and recognition was inspired by the Great War of 1914-1918.

- Object-Cathexis/Object-Choice
- It is the investment of energy in an action, image, or thing that will gratify an instinct.

- Identification
- Technically speaking, it is the diversion of energy from the Id (primary process) into the processes that make up the ego
(secondary process, other cognitive functions: perceiving, remembering, judging, discriminating, etc.) and superego (follow ideals and
remember prohibitions of the parents).

- AntI-Cathexis
- This is the process of the Ego using its energy to restrain the urges from the Id.

- Anxiety

- the energy utilized for psychological activities

- It is experienced when the ego is overwhelmed with excessive stimulation from the environment.
- Its function is to warn the person of impending danger.

- Birth Trauma
- This is the prototype of all anxieties.

- Kinds of Anxiety

- Reality Anxiety caused by real objective sources of danger in the environment.

- Neurotic Anxiety — fear that the Id’s impulses wilt overwhelm the Ego and make the person do something for which he/she will
be punished
- Moral Anxiety — rear of doing something contrary to the superego, causing the experience of guilt

Freud claims that Personality is generally Formed at the end of the 5th year.

4 Major Source of Tension of the Personality

- Physiological growth process
- FrustratIons
- Conflicts
- Threats

- Two Methods for Resolving tensions

- Identification
- Displacement

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DEFENSE MECHANISMS

These are unconscious maneuvers of the ego, altering its interpretation of reality to decrease
anxiety.

Repression - It is unconscious forgetting. (Suppression is conscious forgetting.)

- It is the putting of material in the unconscious, rendering it inaccessible to consciousness.

Projection - This is when something true about a person Is seen (projected/externalized) by that person in someone/something else in
the environment.

Reaction Formation - This is the replacement of an anxiety-producing impulse or feeling by its opposite.

RegressIon - It is the returning to an earlier stage of development, or the reacting to problems the way a younger person does, when
one experiences stress/anxiety.

Rationalization - It is the justifying of ones flaws and failings through lame excuses.

METHODS

- Free Association
- This requires the client to say everything that comes into consciousness, no matter how
ridiculous or inappropriate.
- It allows, even demands, the client to talk about everything and anything that occurs to him/her without restraint or attempt to be
Logical or organized.
- What is not spoken Is as important as what is spoken.

- Dream Analysis
- Freud believed that dreams are disguised thoughts.
- He called dreams as the Guardians of sIeep and Royal Road to the Unconscious.
- TWO FORMS:
- Manifest Content — what the dreams appears to the dreamer
- Latent Content — underlying repressed thought that is represented by the
Manifest Content.

- Dream Distortions
Condensation
- This is the process wherein a part of something is symbolizing the whol e thing.

Synthesis
- This is the process when an idea in the Manifest Content symbolizes a combination
of ideas in the Latent Content.

Dislocation
- This is the process of replacing an acceptable idea with something that is more acceptable in the dream.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

- According to Freud “The first few years of life are decisive For the Formation of personality”.

- The stages are called psychosexual because it is the sexual urges that drive the acquisition
of psychological characteristics.
- Sexuality is not merely genital sexuality it is the sexual Forces that drive the developmental stages, which includes different types of
bodily pleasure.

- Personalities/Characters
- They result from Fixation in a certain stage when there is either undergratification or
overgratification of the erogenous zone.

- Erogenous Zone
- it is a part of the body that has the greatest capacity For experiencing pleasure.

ORAL STAGE

- Age: Birth to 18 months

- Erogenous Zone: Mouth
- Pleasurable Activity: eating, sucking, biting, nibbling, etc.
- Feelings of dependency arise From this stage, which tend to persist throughout life despite of Later ego development. This arise when
the person Feels anxious and insecure.

- Return to the Womb

- Wanting to return to the womb is the most extreme symptom/manifestation of dependency

- Oral Stage: Personalities/Characters

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 - Oral incorporative
- Gullible person
- Associated with the act of eating (oral incorporation)

- Oral Aggressive
- Sarcastic and argumentative person
- Associated with the act of biting (oral aggression)

ANAL STAGE

- Age: 18 months to 3 years

- Erogenous Zone: Anus
- Pleasurable Activity: Movement/expulsion of Feces
- Controlling bowel movements is the First decisive experience of internal regulation of instinctual impulse happens In this stage. The
baby has to learn to postpone the pleasure that comes from relieving anal tensions.
- The method of toilet training of the mother and her feelings concerning defecation influence fixation to a personality in this stage.

- Anal Stage: Personalities/Characters

- Anal Retentive
- Characterized by being obstinate, stingy, and too orderly.
- This is associated with very strict and oppressive methods of toilet training.

Anal Exputslve
- Characterized by being cruel, destructive, wanton, tantrums, and disorderly.
- This is associated with pleading with the child to move bowel and praising the child too
much after successfuL bowel movement.

PHALLIC STAGE

- Age: 3 to 6 years
- Erogenous Zone: GenitaLs
- Pleasurable Activity: Masturbation or autoerotic activities
- Oedipus Complex
- This term is derived from Oedipus, the mythological King of Thebes who killed his father and married her mother.
- It is the presence of sexual cathexis toward the parent of the opposite sex and hostile cathexis toward the parent of the same sex.
- Contrary to popular notion, it is present for BOYS and GIRLS
- Electra Complex
- This is a term coined by Carl Jung, referring to the Oedipus complex in girls.

Oedipus Complex: For Boys

- The complex is present in boys at the start, because the mother satisfies their needs
and considers the father as a rival.

Castration Anxiety
- This is the Fear that the Father will castrate him, since he is a rival and because the genitals are the sources of his desire toward the
mother.

- It fosters identification with the lather.

- It also induces repression of sexual desire toward the mother and hostility toward the lather (Oedipus Complex).
- It enables the boy to gain vicarious satisfaction for his sexual impulse.
- Repression of the Oedipus Complex facilitates final development of the superego.

- Oedipus Complex: For Girls

- Girls, like boys, initially love the mother because she satisfies their needs and consider the lather as a rival
- A switch of the loved objects happens because she thinks the mother is responsible For
her lack of penis (castrated condition) arid she wants a share of the valued object— penis—from her lather.

Penis Envy

- This is the girls condition of being envious with boys for lacking a penis, an additional protruding organ, and instead possessing a
cavity.

- Castration Complex
- For Boys: Castration Anxiety
- Oedipus Complex is repressed by Castration Anxiety.

- For Girls: Penis Envy

- Penis Envy Facilitates the development of Oedipus Complex by weakening cathexis
for mother and strengthening cathexis for the father.

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LATENCY STAGE

- Age: 6 to 12-18
- Erogenous Zone: None
- Pleasurable Activity: Social/interpersonal activities

- In this stage, there is temporary suspension of the sexual energy activities.

- Activity and personality development is temporarily shifted to social-interpersonal activities,

ORAL, ANAL, PHALLIC STAGES

- Pre-Genital Stages
- Cathexis during this stages are narcissistic in character. This means that the individual
gains gratification from stimulation of his/her own body.
- Other people are cathected only because they help in gratifying one’s own body.

GENITAL STAGE

- Age: 12-18 onward

- Erogenous Zone: Genitals
- Pleasurable Activity: Sexual intercourse within the context of a mature sexual relationship
- Self-love (self-gratification) is transformed into genuine Love of other people (altruistic motives).
- Sexual attraction, socialization, group activities, vocational planning become the major activities in one’s life.
- The person is transformed from being a pleasure-seeking narcissistic infant to a reality-oriented socialized adult.

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS: ERICH FROMM

THEORETICAL THEME:
FREEDOM AND LONELINESS

̄ From believed that the modern-day person feels lonely and isolated because he/she has become separated from nature and other
people. This situation is not found in other species.
̄ The healthy strategy for addressing this dilemma is to unite with other people in the spirit of love and shared work.
̄ The Unhealthy Strategy is to Escape from freedom through the following ways:

1. Authoritarianism ̄ this is the tendency to give up your independence and fuse yourself with somebody or something outside of you,
in order to acquire the strength that you are lacking.
̄ In more concrete ways this is done through masochistic submission to others and in sadistic treatment of others to become powerful
authorities.

2. Destructiveness ̄ Destructiveness is the tendency to destroy other people.

̄ At the societal level, it is the escaping of powerlessness by destroying social agents and institutions that produce a sense of
helplessness and isolation.

3. Automaton Conformity ̄ This is the renouncing of selfhood by adopting a pseudo-self, based from the expectations of others, to
escape a sense of aloneness.

̄ Escape From Freedom (1941)

Fromm expressed in this book that any form of society (feudalism, capitalism, fascism, socialism, communism) represents an attempt to
resolve the basic contradiction of humans—the fact that he/she is both animal and a human being.

NEEDS OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

1. Need for Relatedness ̄ This is the drive for union with another person or other persons.
̄ Humans, with their power to reason and imagine have lost their intimate interdependence with nature.
̄ Hence, they have to create their own relationships.
̄ According to Fromm, the most satisfying relationship would be one that is based on PRODUCTIVE LOVE—one that is comprised of
mutual care, responsibility, respect and understanding.

2. Need for Transcendence ̄ This is the need to rise above one’s animal nature, to become a creative person instead of a mere creature.
̄ If the creative urges are thwarted, the person becomes a destroyer.

3. Need for Rootedness ̄ This is the need to be an integral part of the world, to feel that they belong.
̄ As children, this need starts by being rooted to their mothers.
̄ The most satisfying and healthiest is the feeling of kinship with other men and women.

4. Need for Identity ̄ This is the need to be a unique individual.

̄ A person can be a unique individual through: ̄ Individual creative effort or the gaining of identity by being someone
̄ Identifying with another person or group or the gaining of identity by belonging to someone

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5. Need for Frame of Reference ̄ This is the need to have a stable and consistent way of perceiving and comprehending the world.
̄ These are actually belief systems or a philosophy in life that help provide logic and meaning.
̄ It provides us with goals that direct our daily activities.
̄ Can be:
̄ Primarily Rational
̄ Primarily Irrational
̄ Both

6. Need for Excitation and Stimulation ̄ Simple Stimuli ̄ Produce automatic response—drives
̄ Activating Stimuli ̄ Entails striving for goals

SOCIAL CHARACTER TYPES

1. Receptive ̄ This stems from masochistic orientation wherein the person believes the source of all things is outside him/her.
̄ It is characterized by passivity, lack of character, submissiveness, and cowardice.

2. Exploitative ̄ This is coming from sadistic behavior patterns wherein the person believes the source of all good things is outside, but
does not expect to receive it, so it must be taken forcibly.
̄ zIt is characterized by aggression, conceit, and arrogance.

3. Hoarding ̄ This is the strong tendency to hold on to the things that one has.
̄ It is characterized by stinginess, possessiveness, stubbornness.

4. Marketing ̄ This is when one treats oneself as a mere commodity, obeying the laws of supply and demand.
̄ It is characterized by a lack of principle, aimlessness, and opportunism.

5. Productive ̄ This is the character type where one values himself/herself and others for what they are and experiences security and
inner peace.
̄ This is characterized by open-mindedness, loyalty, and flexibility.
̄ This is the ideal culmination of the four other types.
̄ And according to Fromm, this is the only healthy character type.

ADDITIONAL CHARACTER TYPES AND ORIENTATIONS

1. Biophilous ̄ In love with life

2. Necrophilous ̄ Attracted to death

3. Having Orientation ̄ This is when the person has competitive concern with possessing and consuming resources.
̄ This is fostered by technological societies.

4. Being Orientation
̄ The person focuses on what one is (not on what one has), and on sharing rather than competition.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

̄ Symbiotic Relatedness ̄ This is when the person in a relationship fails to attain independence beyond the relationship. This signifies
immaturity and pseudo forms of love.

̄ Withdrawal Destructiveness ̄ It is when a person demonstrates negative relatedness or distancing and indifference toward other
people.

̄ Genuine Productive Love: entails the 4 essential elements of love: 1. Care: This is the concern for the life and growth of a loved one.
2. Responsibility: It is the ability and readiness to respond to the needs of the loved one.
3. Respect: This is the ability to see the other person as they are and at the same time accepting their individuality.
4. Knowledge: It is the experience of union with another person, with full awareness of the total being of the loved one.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING
Burrhus Frederik Skinner

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

- Functional analysis is the analysis of behavior in terms of cause and effect relationships,
where the causes themselves are controllable.
- For Skinner, it is not necessary to talk about the mechanisms operating inside the organism,
as behavior can be studied and controlled purely by manipulation of the environment.

STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

- Skinner had great indifference to structural variables, structures that make up the mental
personality of the person.
- Instead, Skinner focused on modifiable behavior.
- Modification of behaviour is achieved by manipulating the environmental variables that bring
about behaviour.
- Skinner deamphasized the importance of biological variability, but regarded it as more
important than mentalism.

DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

- Although Skinner acknowledged the existence of inner states (thoughts, emotions, etc.). he
pointed out that a satisfactory answer must at some point involve discovery of an
environmental variable to explain variability In behavior.

- Emotion and Drives

- Skinner made no real distinction between drives and emotions.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

- Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov

- Conditioned Stimulus
- The stimulus to which the person learns/is conditioned to respond.

- UncondItioned Stimulus
- The stimuLus to which the response is expected/naturaL to respond.

Unconditioned Response
- Response to the unconditioned stimulus

- Respondent—a term from Skinner

- CondItioned Response
- Response to the conditioned stimulus

Example:
- A student is always scolded by his professor who always wears blue shirt.
- Blue shirt—conditioned stimulus
- Scolding Professor—unconditioned stimulus
- Fear toward Professor—unconditioned response
- Fear toward blue shirt—conditioned response

- Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov

- Extinction

- The decrease in the responding that occurs when the reinforcement following the response no longer occurs.

• Example: When the student always meets people wearing blue shirt but is treated
well and nicely, he might lose his fear For blue shirts.
- Skinner accepted the validity of Classical Conditioning but less concerned with it than
the other type of conditioning—Operant Conditioning.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

- Operant Conditioning

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• Operant
- A response that operates on the environment and changes it

- Law of Effect
- This was formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike, a significant influence of Skinner.
- This concept states that responses that produce a satisfying effect become more Likely to occur again in that particular situation,
and responses that produce an
unsatisfying effect become Less likely to occur in that situation.

- Operant Conditioning

- Shaping
- This is the process that start by reinforcing a behavior that is a first step toward the final behavior and then gradually reinforcing
successively closer approximations to
the final behavior.
- Through this process, organisms acquire extremely complicated behaviors.

• Operant Conditioning

- Punishment/Punishing Stimulus
- This is usually an aversive stimulus, which when occurring after an operant response,
decreases the future likelihood of that response.
- Eg. Being ticketed by a traffic enforcer after beating the red light.

- Reinforcement/Reward
- This is any stimulus, that when occurs after a certain behaviour, increases the likelihood of future occurrence of that behavior.
- Eg. Being ticketed by a traffic enforcer after beating the red light.

- Negative Reinforcement

- This is the removal of an aversive stimulus that is associated with a behavior, and
thereby increasing the Likelihood of such a behavior.
- Eg. Lifting the suspension of a student, if he promises to behave properly for the
remainder of his student life.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

- Operant Conditioning

- Personality
- SkInner viewed personality as a mere collection of b#havlor patterns.
- Studying personality, therefore, is studying these behavior patterns and their development.

- Skinner Box
- The Skinner box is a research equipment that was developed by B. F. Skinner. It is a
chamber that contains a bar or key that an animal can press or manipulate in order to
obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement.

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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

- Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

- This is when a reinforcement is presented on each occasion that the response

is elicited.
- With this schedule, Conditioning is quickest and Extinction ¡s quickest.

- Interval Reinforcement Schedule

- In this schedule the reinforcement is contingent on the interval of time.

• Interval Reinforcement Schedule

- Fixed-Interval Reinforcement Schedule

- In this schedule the time interval is unchanging.

- Variable-Interval Reinforcement Schedule

- This is characterized by random or intermittent time interval in the reinforcement
schedule.

- Ratio-Reinforcement Schedule
- For this schedule, reinforcement is determined by the number of responses and not
by time interval.

- Fixed Ratio-Reinforcement Schedule

- The number of responses per reinforcement is unchanging in this schedule.

- Variable Ratio-Reinforcement Schedule

- The number of responses per reinforcements is random and varying in this schedule.

. Variable Interval and Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedules

- This is the schedule that is slowest to result to conditioning/learning.
- However, extinction takes the longest time.

SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIOR

- This is the type of conditioning in which there is no causal relation between the response and
the reinforcer.
- According to Skinner this accounts for the many superstitions held by human beings.
- Intermittent/variable reinforcement schedules are responsible for this.
• Ex. Rain-making dance, lucky charms, power of prayer.

SECONDARY REINFORCER

- Stimuli that are linked to, associated to, and are causing the occurrence of reinforcers and/or
punishments.
- Skinner claims that the maintenance of the conditioning properties of the secondary reinforcer depends on its continuous association
with the primary reinforcers.
- He also said that money is the most common secondary reinforcer in today’s world.

GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION

- Stimulus Generalization
- Happens when a previously unassociated or new stimulus that has similar characteristics to the previously associated stimulus
elicits a response that is the same as or similar to the previously associated response.
- Ex. When you learn to fear your math teacher high school, you might also be fearful
of your next math teacher in college.

- StImulus Discrimination
- This the process of differentiating between a conditioned and other stimuli that
have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
- Ex. When you can discriminate between your old math teacher and your new one, thereby not exhibiting the same response of Fear.
- Skinner further explained that to the extent the response is maintained in a new situation
there is stimulus generalization. Also, to the extent that the response Is decreased or weakened there is stimulus discrimination.

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND THERAPY

- According to Skinner both normal and abnormal behaviors are products of operant conditioning,
- I behavior is learned, it can be unlearned, whether it is normal or abnormal.

- Flooding
- Flooding is the rapid and sudden exposure of the person to the conditioned stimulus.
- Skinner said that this is only effective il the unconditioned stimulus does not appear anymore.

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PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson

EPIGENETIC MODEL OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

- This model of human development asserts that every system of the body has a pre-determined sequence of development.
- The strengths and capacities developed at each stage are related to the entire personality and can be affected by development at
any point in one’s life.
- Each stage has a crisis in which the strengths and skills that form the essential elements of that stage.
- A Crisis is a turning point, a moment of decision between progress and regression, integration and retardation.

EGO PSYCHOLOGY: THE NEW EGO

- Creative Ego
- The creative ego ¡s a socialized and historical (developmental) ego, one that
develops and influenced through the years via socialization with others.
- It is an ego that can find solutions to the new problems that best Fit at each stage.
- When thwarted, the ego reacts with renewed effort instead of giving in— a resilient and robust ego.
- Thrive in conflict and crisis
- Master and not stave of the Id, the external world, and the superego.

- Aspects of the Ego

- Body Ego
- It is one’s experience with own body.

- Ego Ideal
- It is the image we have of ourselves as compared with established ideal.

- Ego Identity
- It is the image we have of ourselves in a variety of social roles.

- Four Aspects of Reality upon which Ego Identity is Anchored:

- Factuality
- it refers to a universe of facts, data, techniques that can be verified with the
observational methods.

- Universality/Sense of Reality
- This aspect of reality combines the practical and the concrete in a visionary world image.

- Actuality
-This refers to a new way of relating to each other, of activating and invigorating each other in the service of a common goal.

- Chance or Luck

STAGE: INFANCY

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: BASIC TRUST VS. BASIC MISTRUST

- Discussion
- In this stage, the infant develops a sense o[ certainty/trustfulness that the primary
care giver will always return for his/her needs.
- Routines, consistency, and continuity in the infant’s environment provide the earliest
basis For a sense of psychosocial identity.
- Through continuous experiences with adults, the infant learns to rely on them and to
trust them and trust itself.

- Basic Strength: HOPE

- This is the product of the proper ratio of basic trust and basic mistrust results into this.
- It is the earliest and most indispensible virtue inherent in the state of being alive.
- It relies on the infant’s initial relations with trustworthy maternal parents providing
tranquility nourishment and warmth.
- Upon acquiring Hope the child will even eventually develop the capability to abandon
disappointed hopes and to foresee hope in future goals.

- Core Pathology: WITHDRAWAL

- If infants do not develop sufficient hope during infancy, they will demonstrate the
opposite of hope, which is withdrawal
- With little to hope for, they will retreat from the outside world and begin the journey
toward serious pathological disturbance.

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- Basic Ritualization: NUMINOUS
- This is the baby’s sense of the presence of the mother, her looking, holding, touching,
smiling, feeding, naming, and recognizing him/her.
- Lack of recognition can cause estrangement—sense of separation and abandonment.

- Ritualism: IDOLISM
- Idolism is expressed in adult life by idolatrous hero worship.

STAGE: EARLY CHILDHOOD

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT

- Discussion
- The child’s striving for new & more activity-oriented experiences places two demands:
- A demand For sell-control
- A demand For sell-control

- Typically, shame is used to tame the child’s willfulness.

- Meanwhile, parents use encouragement for the child to develop a sense of autonomy.
- Excessive shamefulness results into development of shamelessness, being secretive,
sneaky, and sly.
- A sense of self-control gives the child a lasting feeling of good will and pride
- On the other hand, a sense of loss of self-control gives the child a Lasting feeling of
shame and doubt.

- Basic Strength: WILL

- Will is the ever-increasing strength to make free choices, to decide, to exercise
self-restraint, and to apply oneself.

- Core Pathology: COMPULSION

- When the child experiences too much shame and doubt, the children do not
adequately develop WILL, and inadequate will is expressed as compulsion.
- Too little will and too much compulsitivity carry forward into the play age as Lack of
purpose and into school age as tack of confidence.

- Ritualization: JUDICIOUS
- This is shown when the child begins to discriminate sell/our kind from others and
good From bad.
- It also includes the tendency to see others as bad and our kind as good.
- Actually, Erickson believes that this is the ontogenetic basis for the worldwide
estrangement called Divided Species.
- This is exemplified in the adult world by the courtroom trial and the procedures by
which guilt or innocence is established.

- Ritualism: LEGALISM
- This is the victory of the letter of the law over its spirit, retribution over compassion.

STAGE: PLAY AGE

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

- Discussion
- This is an age of expanding mastery and responsibility.
- The child is more advanced and more together.
- Together with the sense of autonomy, sense of INITIATIVE provides the child a
quality of pursuing, planning and determination of achieving tasks and goals.
- GUILT is experienced when child is overzealous for goals, genital fantasies.
- Additionally, the child is eager to LEARN at this stage.

- Basic Strength: PURPOSE

- This basic strength stems from the play activity of the child, whether they are physical plays, mental plays, or make-
believe/imitation plays.
- Play gives the child an Intermediate reality, teaching him/her the purpose of things.

- Core Pathology: INHIBITION

- If the child develops more guilt than initiative, he or she may become compulsively
moralistic or excessively inhibited.

- Ritualization: DRAMATIC
- This consists of play-acting, wearing costumes, imitating adults, pretending to be
something/someone else

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- Ritualism: IMPERSONATION
- This is manifested when the adult plays roles or acts in order to present an image that
is not representative of one’s true self.

STAGE: SCHOOL AGE

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

- Discussion
- At this stage, the child must submit to controlling its imagination and setting down to
formal education.
- Interest in toys and play is gradually superseded by an interest in productive situations and the tools used for work—attending
school, doing chores, assuming responsibilities, studying music, learning manual skills, participating in skillful games and sports.
- Basic Strength: COMPETENCE
- Competence is achieved by applying oneself to work and to completing tasks, which
eventually develops workmanship.
- WIthout competence and a sense of workmanship, the child would experience inferiority.
- Core Pathology: INERTIA
- lf the struggle in this stage favors either inferiority or and too much of industry, children are Likely to give up and regress to an
earlier stage of development. This regression is called inertia,
- Rituatization: FORMAL
- This is the watching and learning of proper methods/ways of performance provides
the child with an overall quality of craftsmanship and perfection.
- Ritualism: FORMALISM
- Formalism Consists of the repetition of meaningless formalities and empty rituals.

STAGE: ADOLESCENCE

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: IDENTITY VS. IDENTITY CONFUSION

- Discussion

- Identity Confusion
- Identity confusion is brought about by the transition from childhood to adulthood
on one hand, and sensitivity to social and historical change on the other.
- It makes one feel isolated, empty, anxious, and indecisive.
- With this, the person feels pressured to make important decisions.
- It makes one feel that the society is pushing him/her to make decisions, and this
makes one more resistant.
- This is characterized by periodical retreat to childishness.
- It brings about inconsistent and unpredictable behavior.
- It also caused changing attitudes regarding commitment in fear of being rejected,
disappointed or misled.

- Identity Crisis
- This is the necessity to resolve the transitory Failure to form a stable identity or a
confusion of rotes.

- Negative Identity
- This is the sense of possessing a set of potentially bad or unworthy characteristics.
- Projection is a common way of dealing with this: ‘they are bad not me.
- It is linked with prejudice, crime, delinquency, and discrimination.

- Basic Strength: FIDELITY

- Fidelity is the ability to sustain Loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable
contradiction of value systems.

- The youth seeks an inner understanding of self and attempts to formulate a set of values.
- This is the foundation upon which a continuous set of identity is formed, which is
based upon the need to feel that one belongs to some particular kind of
people/group.

- Core Pathology: ROLE REPUDATION

- Blocks one’s ability to synthesize various self-images and values into a whole workable unit.
- Diffidence is the extreme Lack of self-trust or self-confidence.

- Rituatization: IDEOLOGY
- This is the solidarity of conviction that incorporates ritualizations from previous life stages into a coherent set of ideas and ideals.
- RituaLism: TOTALISM
- Totalism is the fanatic and exclusive preoccupation with what seems to be un
questionably right or ideal.

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STAGE: YOUNG ADULTHOOD

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

- Discussion
- Identity confusion is brought about by the transition from childhood to adulthood
on one hand, and sensitivity to social and historical change on the other.
- The adult here seeks relationships of intimacy, partnership and affiliation.
- For the first time, the person can develop true sexual genitality in mutuality with a
Loved partner.
- Isolation, on the other hand, is the avoidance of relationships because one is unwilling
to commit oneself to intimacy.

- Basic Strength: LOVE

- According to Erikson, love is the dominant virtue of the universe.
- Erikson described it as the mutuality of devotion forever subduing the antagonisms
inherent in divided attention.
- He asserts that love is already present since birth but is first exhibited primarily for
others in this stage.

- Core Pathology: EXCLUSIVITY

- It is the absolute limiting of love to someone or a group of persons so much so that in
blocks one’s ability to cooperate, compete, or compromise—all prerequisites For intimacy and love.
- Rituatization: AFFILlATIVE
- This is the sharing together of work, friendship and love.
- Ritualism: ELITISM
- ELitism is the Formation of exclusive groups that are a form of communal narcissism.

STAGE: ADULTHOOD

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

- Discussion

- This stage is characterized by the presence of progeny, products, ideas and so

forth—and the setting forth of guidelines for upcoming generations.
- Stagnation happens when generativity is weak or not given expression.

- Basic Strength: CARE

- Care is expressed by one’s concern for others, by wanting to take care of those who
need it, and to share one’s knowledge and experience with them.
- It is also demonstrated through childrearing and teaching, demonstrating, supervising,
etc.

- Core PathoLogy: REJECTIVITY

- Unwillingness to take care of certain persons or groups.
- Ritualization: GENERATIONAL
- GenerationaL Is the ritualizatlon or parenthood, production, teaching, heaLing, and so
forth.
- Ritualism: AUTHORITISM
- Authoritism is Authority without care.

STAGE: OLD AGE

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

- Discussion
- Integrity is a state one reaches after having taken care of things and people, generated products and ideas and having adapted to
the successes and failures of existence.

- Despair
- Despair is the frustration over the circumstances of one’s life, social and historical
conditions, nakedness of existence in the face of death.
- It can bring about fear of death or wish for death.

- Basic Strength: WISDOM

- Wisdom is the detached concern with life itself, in the face of death itself
- It is associated with a feeling of wholeness and completeness, which alleviates feelings
of helplessness and dependence that can mark the end of life.

- Core Pathology: DISDAIN

- Disdain is defined by Erikson as the reaction to feeling and seeing others in an increasing state of being finished, confused, and
helpless.
- Disdain is the continuation of rejectivity.
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- Rituallzation: INTEGRAL
- Reflected in the wisdom of the ages such as in spiritual and philosophical teachings.
- RituaLism: SAPIENTISM
- Sapientism is the unwise pretense of being wise.

METHODS

- Discussion

- Casa History

- AnthropologIcal Study (ethnograph/ethnology)

- PractIced by Erikson In the study of children In Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
and Yurok Indians.

- Psychohistory
- Combination of case history and psychoanalysis.

- Play ConstructIon
- Erikson discovered that children could often reveal their concerns better when
playing with toys.

PSYCHOANALYTICAL SOCIAL THEORY AND FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY

Karen Horney

BASIC ANXIETY

- Basic anxiety is the feeling a child has of being isolated and helpless in a potentially
hostile world.

- It is brought about by BASIC EVIL from the parent, which is typically manifested by
the parent through the following:
- Domination
- Indifference
- Erratic behavior
- Lack of respect for the child’s individual needs
- Lack of guidance
- Disparaging attitudes
- Too much admiration
- Injustice
- Absence of appreciation
- Lack of warmth
- Forcing children to take sides in parental disagreements.
- Too much/too little responsibility
- Overprotection, isolation from other children
- Unkept promises
- Discrimination

Basic Evil provokes Basic Hostility (Resentment) from child, which leads to basic
anxiety in the child.

- Three Strategies of the Child:

- I have to repress my hostility because I need you.
- I have to repress my hostility because I’m afraid of you
- I have to repress my hostility for fear of losing you.

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 - A child with insecurity will employ the following strategies for coping with feelings of isolation and helplessness:
- Hostility and seeking of avenging self
- Over-submissiveness
- Developing an unrealistic, idealized picture of self as compensation for feelings of inferiority
- Bribing/forcing through threats other people to like him/her
- Wallow in self-pity to gain sympathy
- Obtain powers over others (exploiting others), as compensation for sense of helplessness
- Becoming overly competitive wherein winning is more important than the achievement

Neurotic Needs
- Neurotic Need for Affection and Approval
- Neurotic Need for a Partner who will take over one’s life
- Neurotic Need to Restrict one’s life within narrow boundaries
- Neurotic Need for Power
- Neurotic Need to Exploit others
- Neurotic Need for Prestige
- Neurotic Need for Personal Admiration
- Neurotic Need for Self Sufficiency and Independence
- Neurotic Need for Perfection and Unassailability

- THREE “SOLUTIONS” (PRIMARY ADJUSTMENT TECHNIQUES

- Moving TOWARD PEOPLE

- Compliance or Self-Effacing solution
- “If you love me, you won’t hurt me.”
- Shows HELPLESSNESS

- Moving AWAY FROM PEOPLE

- Withdrawal or Resignation solution
- “If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me.”
- Shows ISOLATION

- Moving AGAINST PEOPLE

- Aggression or Expansive solution
- “If I have power, no one can hurt me.”
- Shows HOSTILITY

Alienation
- This is when one is not in touch with one’s real self.
- It is the consequence of the child’s attempt to cope with basic anxiety.

- AUXILLARY APPROACHES IN NEUROSIS (SECONDARY ADJUSTMENT TECHNIQUES

- Blind Spots/Compartments - This is the process when they refuse to see the discrepancy between their behavior and their
idealized self.
- Rationalization
- This is the giving of excuses for one’s shortcomings and flaws.
- Cynicism
- This is negative thinking and the lack of belief in the goodness of people and things.
- Excessive Self-Control
- Externalizing Inner Conflicts
- This is the seeing one’s flaws in other people and things.

SIX PRINCIPLES OF HORNEY’S THEORY

- Optimism-Positivism Principle
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 - This principle asserts that people have the capacity to change; personality is not permanent.

- Society-Culture Principle
- This principle claims that personality is a product of interaction with other people.

- Character-Structure Principle:
- This principle asserts that people create a structure character which may be changed. Instead of prescribing how an individual
should behave, it sets the limits within which one has a free choice on how to behave.

- Complementation-Conflict Principle
- This refers to the Major and Minor Adjustment Techniques discussed above.

- Self-Analysis Principle
- This principle asserts that people have the capacity to analyze their own defects; they have the basic skills to solve many, but not
all, of their problems.

- Self-Concept Principle
- Awareness of oneself as a human being
- Importance of oneself in the roles of life
- Distinguishes the person’s self from all the other selves around.

ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Carl Jung

View of human nature

- Carl Jung believed that human behavior is conditioned not just by individual and racial history (causality) but also by aims and
aspirations (teleology).

- The past as actuality and the future as potentiality guide one’s present behavior.

- Jung gave strong emphasis on racial and phylogenetic foundations of personality.

- Freud addressed the infantile origins of the personality, while Jung addressed the racial its racial origins.

- The human psyche consist of conscious and unconscious elements, masculine and feminine traits, rational and irrational impulses,
spiritualistic and animalistic tendencies, and the tendency to bring all these contradicting behaviors into harmony.

- Self-Actualization
- This is the state when harmony among all the elements of the psyche has been attained.

- Religion – a major vehicle in the journey toward self-actualization

STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY

- Total Personality/Psyche
- This consists of a number of different interacting systems: ego, personal unconscious, complexes, collective unconscious,
archetypes: persona, anima, animus, shadow, self.
- It also assumes the Attitudes: introversion and extroversion, and Functions of Thinking: feeling, sensing, and intuiting.

- Ego
- For Jung the Ego is the conscious mind.
- It consists of conscious perceptions, thoughts, and feelings.
- It is also responsible for one’s feeling of identity and continuity.

- Personal Unconscious
- It consists of experiences that were once conscious but have been repressed, suppressed, forgotten, are too weak to make a
conscious impression in the person.
- Jung believed that there is a two-way traffic between Ego and Personal Unconscious.

Complexes
- It is a personally strong constellation of thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and memories that exist in the personal unconscious.

- The Collective Unconscious

- It is also called Transpersonal Unconscious.
- It is the most original and controversial concept of Jung.
- Jung viewed it as the most powerful and influential system of the psyche and in pathological cases overshadows the ego and
personal unconscious.
- It is a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from one’s ancestral racial history, which includes humans and pre-human
ancestors.
- It’s the psychic residue of human evolutionary development.

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- The Archetypes
- They are also known as dominants, primordial images, imagoes, mythological images.
- It is defined as universal thought-form (idea) containing strong elements of emotion.
- They are the structural elements of the Collective Unconscious.
- They are specific predisposition to perceive the world in the form of a distinct thought-form (idea).

- The Archetypes
- The Persona
- It is a mask adopted by the person in response to the demands of social convention and tradition.
- It is the role/s assigned to a person by society.
- It is sometimes called the Public Personality.
- The so-called Private Personality is the one that exists behind the social façade.
- Inflation of the Persona
- This is the state when ego identifies with the persona.
- In this state, the person becomes a mere reflection of society instead of being a genuine person.

- The Archetypes o Animus

- It is the masculine archetype in women.
- Women apprehend the nature of men through their Animus.

- Anima
- It is the feminine archetype in men.
- Men apprehend the nature of women through their Anima.

- Both archetypes are of racial experiences of a man with woman and woman with man.

- Shadow
- The shadow consists of animal instincts humans inherited on their evolution from lower forms of life.
- It typifies the animal side of man
- According to Jung, the shadow is responsible for man’s conception of original sin.
- When projected outward, it becomes the devil or enemy
- It bears resemblance to Freud’s Id.

- The Archetypes
- Self
- The Self is expressed by the symbol Mandala, Magic Circle.
- It is the midpoint of the personality, around which all of the other systems are constellated.
- It holds those systems together and provides the personality with unity, equilibrium, and stability.
- Ego (conscious mind) is the first center of the psyche, but self eventually becomes the new center, the midpoint between the
conscious and unconscious, and the new equilibrium and centering of the entire personality.
- This is perhaps Jung’s most important psychological discovery.
- Jung said that the Self is Life’s Goal.
- It motivates a person to search for wholeness, especially through the avenues provided by religion/spirituality.
- Christ and Buddha are perhaps the most highly differentiate expressions of the Self archetype.
- Before a Self emerges, it is necessary for all the systems/components of the personality to be fully developed.
- The Self usually emerges at the beginning of middle age (40 years old) when the person becomes interested with his/her
unconscious.

- The Attitudes
- Both attitudes are present in a person, but one is dominant and conscious and the other is subordinate and unconscious.
- If the Ego is predominantly extraverted, the Personal Unconscious will be introverted.
- Extraversion
- This attitude orients the person toward the external objective world.
- It makes the person more preoccupied with and in touched with happenings and people around him/her.

- Introversion
- This attitude orients the person toward the inner, subjective world.
- It makes the person more preoccupied with and in touched with his/her own thoughts, ideas, and feelings.

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- The Functions (Psychological Functions)
Thinking
- Ideational and intellectual function
- By this, the person tries to comprehend the world and themselves.
- It is concerned with logical explanations of things and events in the world.

Feeling
- The evaluation function
- By this, the person tried to determine the value of things, whether positive or negative.
- It is concerned with the values of things in the world.

- The Functions (Psychological Functions)

Sensing
- Perceptual or reality function
- By this, the person yields concrete facts or representations of the world.

- It is concerned with getting in contact with the things in the world through the five senses.

o Intuition Perception by unconscious process or subliminal contents

- The person goes beyond facts, feelings and ideas in the search for the essence of reality.
- It is the apprehension of things in the world but via the information a person directly gets through the five senses.

- The Functions (Psychological Functions)

Rational Functions
- Thinking and Feeling
- These functions govern judgment and the processing of information.

Irrational Functions
- Sensing and Intuiting
- These functions govern perception and acquisition of information.

Superior Function
- This is the most highly differentiated among the four functions in an individual.
- It plays a role in consciousness.
- It could be any of the four functions.

Inferior Function
- This is the least differentiated of the four functions in an individual.
- It is repressed and unconscious, manifesting itself in dreams.
- The inferior function is automatically the other member of the pair containing the superior function.

Auxiliary Function
- The auxiliary function is one member of the function-pair that does not contain the superior and inferior functions.
- This is means that the superior function is always reinforced by an auxiliary function belonging to the other pair of functions.
This arrangement makes sense and is complementary, given that the irrational functions (sensing, intuiting) govern
perception/acquisition of information, while the rational functions (feeling, thinking) control judgement/processing of information.

PSYCHIC VALUES
Life Energy
- This is all the energy of the organism as a biological system.

Psychic Energy
- This is the energy by which the work of the personality/psyche is performed.
- It is a manifestation of life energy.

Libido
- Jung’s conception of Libido is that it is Life Energy. However, it is sometimes used interchangeably as Psychic Energy.

Psychic Value
- This is the amount of psychic energy invested in an element of the personality.
- The higher the psychic value of a particular element of personality, the more likely that it will influence behavior.

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Constellating Power of a Complex
- This is the number of groups of items (associated concepts, ideas, memories, feelings) that are brought into association by the
nuclear element of the complex.
- Three Methods of Assessing the Constellating Power of a Complex:
- Direct Observation
- You can directly observe people about the things they are very preoccupies about. This indicates the power of a
complex.
- Complex Indicators • Slip of the Tongue
- Unusual blockage in memory
- Word association test

- Intensity of Emotional Expression

Principle of equivalence
- This principle states that if energy is expended in bringing about a certain condition, the amount of energy will appear elsewhere in
the system.

- If the energy of a certain psychic element is exhausted, that energy will go to a different psychic element to bring vigor to it.

- Jung considered this as a manifestation of the Principle of Conservation of Energy, the First Law of Thermodynamics

Principle of entropy
- This principle states that the distribution of energy in the psyche seeks a state of equilibrium or balance.
- If two psychic values are of unequal strength, energy will tend to pass from the stronger value to the weaker value until a balance is
reached.
- This is actually Second Law of Thermodynamics.

- Self-realization mirrors this principle, in a sense that the closer to equilibrium one gets, the closer to self-realization he/she becomes.

Self-realization
- This is the state of fullest most complete differentiation and harmonious blending of all the aspects of a human’s total personality.
- The Self becomes the new center of the psyche.
- In this state, there is perfect equilibrium in the energy distribution in the psyche.
- Self-realization is the combination of Individuation and harmony (Transcendent Function).

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

- Causality vs. Teleology
- Causality
- Expresses that the present events are the consequences or effects of past/antecedent conditions.
- Teleology
- This principle, on the other hand, explains the present in terms of the future
- Through it personality is comprehended in terms of where it is going, not in terms of where it has been.

- Synchronicity
- This principle applies to events that occur together in time but are not the cause of one another.
- Jung said that many events /experiences cannot be explained by either chance or causality. Therefore, there is a higher order in the
universe that explains this.
- Jung was suggesting that this may explain ESP and paranormal events.

- Progression and Regression o Progression In this process the ego is adjusting satisfactorily both to the demands of the external
environment and needs of the unconscious.

o Regression This is the process where libido (life energy) invests exclusively on unconscious and introverted values due to frustrating
circumstances in the world one lives in.

- Heredity o Responsible for biological INSTINCTS For Jung and instinct is an inner impulsion to act in a certain manner when a
particular tissue condition arises.
Purposes of Instinct: Self-preservation and reproduction

o Heredity is also responsible for inheritance of ancestral experiences in the form of archetypes.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
- Childhood
- The child’s life is determined by instinctual activities necessary for survival.
- Also, the child is governed by parental demands.
- Unlike Freud, Jung did not emphasize the determining power of childhood for subsequent behavior.

- Young Adulthood
- Jung believes that this stage is the Psychic Birth of the personality.

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 - This is where Sexuality emerges, the child differentiates from parents.
- Extraversion is primary attitude and consciousness dominates mental life at this stage.

- Middle Age
- At this stage the need for meaning emerges.
- There is also a shift toward an introverted attitude.
- Movement toward self-realization begins here.
- There develops more self-awareness and less impulsion.
- Wisdom takes the place of physical and mental rigor.
- The values are sublimated into social, civic, philosophical, religious, spiritual preoccupations.

THE INDIVIDUATION PROCESS AND TRANSCENDENT FUNCTIONS

- Individuation
-This is the crucial process of differentiation/full development of all the different systems of the personality.

- Transcendent Function
- This is the process of integrating all the differentiated aspects of the psyche.
- Individuation plus Transcendent Function equals Self-Realization.

Sublimation
- This is the displacement of energy from more primitive, instinctive and less differentiated processes to higher cultural, spiritual,
and more differentiated processes

- Sublimation takes place when displacement is governed by the individuation process and the transcendent function.

Repression
- When discharge of energy, whether instinctual or sublimated ways, is blocked, this is repression.

- Repressed energy never disappears but will follow the Principle of Equivalence and Principle of Entropy.

- Sublimation is progressive, repression is regressive.

Symbolization
- Representations in the Psyche

- Two Major Functions of a Symbol

- An attempt to satisfy an instinctual impulse that has been frustrated
- Embodiment of an archetypal material

- Two Aspects of a Symbol

- Retrospective
- Guided by the instincts
- Instinctual basis of a symbol

- Prospective
- Guided by the ultimate goal of humankind
- Yearning for completion, rebirth, harmony, purification

Dreams
- Dreams are retrospective and prospective in content

Big Dreams
- These are dreams that have many archetypal elements.

- Little Dreams
- These are dreams that contain mostly conscious elements.

- Method of Amplification
- It is the giving of multiple associations to an dream element and developing these associations.

- Dream Series Method

- This is the process wherein a series of dreams are used for analysis and interpretation.

- Active imagination
- This involves concentrating on an unintelligible dream image or spontaneous visual image and observing what happens to the
image.

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)

- MBTI is the most influential test derived from Jung’s theory.
- The instrument Identifies 16 personality types based on Jung’s Attitudes, Functions, and Auxiliary Functions.

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Evaluation
- Strengths
- First to discuss the process of self-actualization
- First to identify the importance of the future in determining human behavior
- Stressed the importance of purpose and meaning
- Stressed the importance of selfhood as a master motive in human behavior

- Weaknesses
- Put too much emphasis on occultism, spiritualism, mysticism, and religion
- Less scientific than other theories and quite vague in some aspects
- Some find his concept of self-actualization as elitist, applicable only to the intelligent, highly educated, etc.

HOLISTIC DYNAMIC THEORY: HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS

Abraham Maslow

HUMAN NATURE
- Maslow believed that man has an essential human nature-a skeleton of psychological structure that is analogous to his physical
structure.
- Healthy, normal and desirable development of a human being consists in actualizing this nature.
- Psychotherapy, therefore, is any means that helps to restore the person to the path of self-actualization.

- Jonah Complex
- Our tendency to fear and attempt to evade our constitutionally suggested destiny and possibilities.
- We fear the god-like possibilities in our selves.

Prepotency/Dominance of Needs
- This is the quality of lower needs that necessitates them to be activated
before higher needs.
- When several needs are active, the lowest will be the most compelling.

- Deficiency Motivation
- This is the motivations that is associated with the lower needs, prior to self-actualization.
- Deficiency motivation is triggered by something that is lacking in the person.
- Growth Motivation
- This motivation is associated with self-actualization.
- Entails the person's striving after personal growth.
- Instinctoid/weak instincts
- These are needs that are essential even for health of the mind and body.
- They are innately determined need, but they can be modified by experience.
- So what exactly are the instinctoid needs? - physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs, self-esteem, and self-
actualization.
- Meanwhile, these two are non-instinctoid needs: cognitive and aesthetic needs.
- Frustration of instinctoid needs leads to pathology while frustration of non-instinctoid needs does not.
- Physiological Needs
- These are in the form of hunger, sex, thirst and other drives with somatic/bodily basis.

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 - This is similar to the Instincts discussed by Freud.
- Safety Needs
- These are in the form of security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from fear, need for structure, etc.
- Such needs are most obvious in infants and children.
- In adults, these become pronounced during social disasters or in neurosis such as obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Belongingness and Love Needs
- These are the need for friends, family and affectionate relations with people in general.
- It is our deep tendency to herd, to flock, to join, to belong.
- Maslow believed that Increasing urbanization and depersonalization of recent generation contributes to the frustration of this
need.

- Esteem Needs

Self-Esteem
- This is the desires for strength, achievement, mastery, competence, confidence, independence.
Esteem from Others (Reputation)
- This is the need for respect and esteem from others, fame, status, dominance, attention, and dignity.
- Thwarting of this need produces a feeling of inferiority, which causes compensatory or neurotic trends.
- Self-Actualization Needs
- This need is the desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything that one is capable of
becoming.
- It arises when the lower needs have been satisfied.
- It represents intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism as it develops from within rather than from without.
- Paradoxically, the highest motive is to be unmotivated or unstriving.
- Self-actualizing people are not motivated by basic needs but by metaneeds or Being values/B values.
- But like the other needs, it is also instinctoid, which means they are necessary to avoid illness and achieve fulfilment.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: ADDITIONAL

- Maslow eventually added more needs into his model.

- Cognitive Need {1970s)
- This is the desire to know and understand things in the world.
- Aesthetic Need {1970s)
- It is the desire for beauty, balance and form in ourselves and things around us.
- Self-transcendence Need {1990s)
- This is the need for helping others and facilitating their own journey toward self-actualization.

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QUALITIES OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS

- They are realistically oriented.

- They accept themselves, other people, and the world as they are.
- They have a great deal of spontaneity.
- They are problem-centered rather than self-centered.
- They have an air of detachment and a great need for privacy.
- They are autonomous and independent.
- Their appreciation of people and things are fresher than stereotyped.
- They usually have profound mystical or spiritual experience.
- Their Intimate relationships tend to be profound and deeply emotional.
- They identify with mankind.
- Their attitude and values are democratic.
- They do not confuse means with ends.
- Their sense of humor is philosophical rather than hostile.
- They have a great fund of creativeness.
- They resist conformity to the culture.
- They transcend the environment rather than cope with it.

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INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Alfred Adler

FICTIONAL FINALISM
- This concept was strongly influenced by the philosophy of Hans Vaihinger: Humans live by many purely fictional ideas—FICTIONS—
that have no counterpart in reality.
- E.g.
- All men are created equal.
- Honesty is the best policy.
- The end does not justify the means.

- Humans are motivated more by their expectations of the future than by experiences of the past.
- Such goals exist subjectively/mentally here and now as strivings or ideals that affect present behavior. In other words, although they
are about the future, they are imagined and felt in the present and affect present behavior.

STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY

- Adler claimed that aggression was more important than sexuality.

- Later on the emphasis on aggression was replaced by will to power. - Power was equated with masculinity and weakness to
femininity.

- MASCULINE PROTEST - This is any form of compensation or overcompensation by both men and women in times that they feel
inadequate and inferior.

- Then came a time when will to power was abandoned in favor of striving for superiority.

- Evolution of Adler’s Conception of the FINAL GOAL OF HUMANS: - He first claimed that the ultimate goal of human beings was to be
aggressive.
- Later on he changed in to being powerful.
- Finally he said that it was to be superior.

- Adler’s notion of Superiority: - It is NOT social distinction, leadership, or high position/status in society.
- It is the striving for perfect completion.
- It is the great upward drive.
- It is similar to Jung’s Self/Self-realization.
- Adler claims that it is not just a part of life, but it is life itself.
- It carries the person from one stage of development to the next.
- It may manifest itself in many different ways. Each person has his/her own unique way of achieving this perfection.
“PERFECTION, not PLEASURE, is the goal of life.” – Alfred Adler

INFERIORITY FEELINGS AND COMPENSATION

- Organ Inferiority - This is a basic/constitutional inferiority/weakness in a particular body organ.
- Adler said that this is the reason why certain people get sick often in certain organs/organ-systems.
- He added that it may be due to heredity or developmental anomaly.

INFERIORITY
- Adler initially equated this to femininity.
- It was later defined as a sense of incompletion or imperfection.
- Under normal circumstances, this feeling of inferiority/sense of incompleteness is the great driving force of mankind.

- Under “abnormal” circumstance—pampering/rejecting the child—the person will develop inferiority complex or compensatory
superiority complex.

SOCIAL INTEREST
- This concept consists of the individual helping society to attain the goal of a perfect society.
- It is the true and inevitable compensation for all the natural weaknesses of individual human beings.
- By working for the common good, humans compensate for their individual weaknesses.
- It can be viewed as socialized striving for superiority.
- Adler claimed that it is inborn and not a mere habit, which is something that is acquired.

STYLE OF LIFE
- This is the most distinctive feature of Adler’s psychology.
- It refers to the specific/unique way by which a person strives for superiority.

- According to Adler, it is the principle that governs the entire personality, and the whole that commands the parts.

- It is Adler’s chief idiographic principle—the principle that explains the uniqueness of the person.

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- It also determines how a person confronts the THREE LIFE PROBLEMS OF ADULTHOOD:

1. Social Relations
2. Occupation
3. Love and Marriage

- The childhood counterparts of which are: 1. Friendship

2. School
3. Opposite Sex

- FOUR TYPES of STYLE OF LIFE:

- This typology is made in terms of 1) Social Interestand 2) Activity

a. Ruling Type
• High ACITIVITY, low SOCIAL INTEREST
• People under this type deals with life problems by dominating them.

b. Getting Type
• Low ACITIVITY, low SOCIAL INTEREST
• People under this type expects to be given everything he/she needs.
• It is the most frequent type.

c. Avoiding Type
• Low ACITIVITY, low SOCIAL INTEREST
• People under this type avoid defeat by avoiding the problems themselves.

d. Socially Useful
• High ACTIVITY, high SOCIAL INTEREST
• People under this type exhibits activity in the service of others.
• They also confront life tasks and attempt to resolve them in a manner consistent with the needs of other individuals.

CREATIVE SELF
- Adler claimed that humans make their own personalities, they construct them out of the raw material of heredity and experience.
- This concept is considered as Adler’s crowning achievement.

- Heredity endows man with certain abilities, while the environment gives him impressions. But it is the manner in which he/she
experiences them—the interpretations man makes of these experiences—that are the bricks of his/her existence.

NEUROSIS
- Adler explained that neurosis stems from the rigid overcompensation from perceived inferiorities.

- Under neurosis, one’s goals are self-aggrandizement and personal interest rather than social interest.

- Neurotic symptoms are actually efforts of protection from the overwhelming sense of inferiority that the person is trying desperately
to avoid.

BIRTH ORDER
- First Born
- Their typical story is that they are given a lot of attention then dethroned upon the birth of the second born. This experience my result
to:

- Hating people in general

- Protecting self against sudden reversals of fortune
- Protection from feelings of insecurity
- They are associated with being neurotics, criminals, drunkards and perverts.
- However, when prepared well for the situation, they become responsible and protective persons.

- Second/Middle Child
- They are typically ambitious, constantly trying to surpass the older sibling.
- They have the tendency to be rebellious and envious.

- Youngest
- Adler claimed they are the ones that are typically spoiled.
- They are also associated to neurosis and maladjustment, next to the oldest.

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CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
- According to Adler, the following are the most notable types of childhood experiencesor childhood situations that may affect his/her
psychological development.
1. Children with inferiorities

2. Spoiled Children
• They have the tendency to expect societies to conform to their self-centered wishes.
• When maladjusted, they are the most dangerous.

3. Neglected Children
• They may become enemies of society.
• They may be dominated by the need for revenge

FACTOR-ANALYTIC TRAIT THEORY

Raymond B. Catell

PERSONALITY
- Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.
- It is a complex and differentiated structure of traits.

TRAIT
- A trait is a mental structure, and an inference that is made from observed behavior to account for the regularity or consistency of a
person’s behavior.

- Surface Traits

- These are clusters of manifest or overt behaviors that often occur together.
- They are similar to the notion of syndrome.
- They are less stable than source traits.

- Source Traits

- Source traits are identified only by means of factor analysis.

- They promise greater economy of prediction when compared to surface traits.
- They are claimed to be the real structural influences underlying personality.
- Sources traits are a combination of two factors:

- Constitutional Factors - Heredity and genetics

- Environmental Factors - Brought about by the environment

TRAITS: IN TERMS OF MODALITY

- Dynamic Traits
- These are traits that predispose or cause the individual to pursue a certain goal.
- Ability Traits
- They are concerned with the effectiveness with which the individual reaches the goal, or the capacity of the individual to reach a
certain goal.
- Temperamental Traits
- These are also the constitutional aspects of one’s behavior such as speed, energy, or emotional activity.
- Major Sources of Data
L-data/Life Record
- These are actual records of the person’s behavior such as school records, court records, or rating by other people who know the
individual.
Q-data/Self-Rating Questionnaire
- These are a person’s own statements about his/her behavior.
T-data/Objective Test
- These are elicited through objective tests through hypothetical situations on which the person’s behavior may be objectively
recorded.

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CATTEL’S SOURCE TRAITS

SPECIFICATION EQUATION
R=S1T1+S2T2+…+SnTn

- R stands for response.

- S stands for the situation.
- T stands for the different traits
- This means that given response may be predicted from the characteristics of the given person (the traits T1 to Tn), each weighted by
its relevance in the presenting situation (the situation indices S1 to Sn).

- High S – trait is highly relevant to a given response

- Zero S – trait is totally irrelevant
- Negative S – trait detracts from or inhibits the response

- If a particular trait is highly relevant to a situation…or promotes a response, the S will be large.
- S is ZERO if the trait is totally irrelevant to the situation.
- If the trait INHIBITS the response, the S is negative.

DYNAMIC TRAITS
- Attitudes
- These are the manifest dynamic variable.
- They are the observed expression of underlying dynamic structure from which ergs and sentiments are inferred.
- It is also defined as an interest of a certain intensity in some course of action with respect to some object.
- Ex. “I want very much to take criminology in college.”

- Ergs
- These are constitutional dynamic source traits.
- They are innately determined but modifiable implements of behavior.

- They are technically defined as innate psychophysical disposition which permits its possessor to acquire reactivity (attention,
recognition) to certain classes of objects more readily than others, to experience a certain emotion in regard to them, and to start a
course of action.

- Four Major Parts:

- Perceptual Response
- Emotional Response
- Instrumental Acts
- Goal Satisfaction

- Ten Ergs
- Hunger, sex, gregariousness, parental protectiveness, curiosity, escape (fear), pugnacity, acquisitiveness, self-assertion, narcissistic
sex

- Sentiments

- They are the environment-mold dynamic source trait.

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 - It is parallel to ergs, except that it is the result of experiential or sociocultural factors instead of constitutional determinants.
- It is technically defined as the major acquired dynamic trait structures which cause their possessors to pay attention to certain objects
or classes of objects, and to feel and react in a certain way with regard to them.

THE DYNAMIC LATTICE

- This illustrates that the dynamic traits are interrelated in a pattern of subsidiation.

- Attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments, and sentiments are subsidiary to ergs, which are the basic driving forces of personality.

THE SELF

- The self is actually a sentiment.

- Nearly all the attitudes reflect the Self sentiment in varying degrees.
- It, in turn, is linked to the expression of most or all of the ergs and other sentiments.
- The Self is called the master sentiment, as it influences the satisfaction of all ergs and other sentiments.

CONFLICT AND ADJUSTMENT

- “I want to very much marry a woman.”
- I marry = 0.2Ecuriosity + 0.6Esex + 0.4Egregariousness – 0.3Efear + 0.3Mparents – 0.4Mcareer + 0.5Mself
- If the terms in the equation are:

- predominantly positive, the attitude tends to stable

- Predominantly negative, the attitude will tend to be abandoned

- Conflict - Fixed attitude containing negative terms

- Indurated Conflict - The conflict that remains after a decision has been made

- Active Conflict - The conflict involved in deciding what action to take

STATES, ROLES, SETS

- These also are patterns within a personality that come and go to a much greater extent compared to traits.

- Roles and Sets have not received extensive empirical research.

- States - Like traits, states are also investigated through factor analysis.

- Traits: Differences between traits are determined by correlation between test scores.

- States: These are investigated by correlation among changes in test scores over time or in response to particular situations.

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
- Catell and company carried out factor-analytic studies at both child and adult levels.

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- Preschool Personality Quiz (PSPQ) for 4-6 years old
- Early School Personality Quiz (PSPQ) for 6-8 years old
- Child’s Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) for 8-12 years old
- High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ) for 12-15 years old
- 16 Personality Factors for 16 years old and above

HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT ANALYSIS
- Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA)
- This is a method that Catell developed for studying the influence of heredity and environment on source trait.
- It involves gathering of data on the resemblance between twins and siblings reared together in their own homes or adopted into
different homes and then analyzing the data.

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- Law Of Coercion To The Biosocial Mean
- It is the tendency for environmental influences to oppose systematically the expression of genetic variation.

- Ex. When a parent attempts to bring different children to the same norm of behavior by encouraging the bashful ones and
discouraging on the more undisciplined.

LEARNING
- Structure Learning Theory with 5 Principles/Types
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
3. Integration Learning
4. Ergic Goal Modification
5. Personality Learning

Classical Conditioning
- Catell claims that classical conditioning is Important in attaching emotional responses to environmental cues.

- Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
- Operant conditioning is important in establishing the ergic goals.
- It also plays a role in building up the dynamic lattice, which consists of subsidiation between ergs, sentiments and attitudes.

- Integration Learning
- During this learning process the individual learns to maximize total satisfaction by expressing some ergs at a given moment while
suppressing, repressing or sublimating others.

- Ergic Goal Modification

- During this learning process, the ergic goal as well as the path to the goal are modified.
- It is analogous to Freud’s sublimation.

- Personality Learning
1. This entails a multidimensional change in response to experience in a multidimensional situation.
2. It involves changes in the ergs, sentiments and attitudes altogether.

3. The developments in this learning process are studied my means of Path Learning Analysis.
- Trait changes occurring in a number of people in response to a period of ordinary life adjustments
- Theoretical analysis of various possible paths of adjustment

4. According to Catell, all learning is a multidimensional change in a multidimensional situation.

INTEGRATION OF MATURATION AND LEARNING

- Threpic
- This is a term that Catell coined to refer to changes due to environmental influence, including learning as well as other changes
induced by such agents as general stimulations, diet, drugs, and the like.

THE SOCIAL CONTEXT

- Syntality
- This is the so-called personality of the group.
- It is described through dimensions in the same manner as individual personality is.
- The 10 Dimensions that comprise a group’s syntality are the following: size, cultural pressure, enlightened affluence, thoughtful
industriousness, vigorous and self-willed order, bourgeois-Philistinism, Buddhism- Mongolism, cultural integration and morale.

- Factor analysis also plays a central role in describing syntality as it does personality.
- Syntality
- Synergy Dimensions
- This is a subset of syntality dimensions that is analogous to traits of the individual.
- The Specification Equation can also be applied to identifying and understanding these.
- Econetic Model
- According to this model any psychological event has Five Signatures:
- Person
- Stimulus
- Act
- Ambient situation
- Observer
- Econetics
- This is the study of behavioral ecology.
- It requires and utilizes the Cultural Syntality Matrix.
- This matrix represents the syntality of a culture plus a personal relevance matrix, which indicates how much individuals are
influenced by the syntality dimensions of the group.

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BIOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY
Hans Eysenck

THEORETICAL ANTECEDENTS

Hippocrates
- Humors were reflections of the cosmic elements.

Galen
- Galen added the emotional qualities.

IMMANUEL KANT

- Anthropologie (1798)

- Four Temperamental Types:

- Melancholic –Weak feelings

- Sanguine –Strong Feelings

- Phlegmatic –Weak Activity

- Choleric –Strong Activity

WILHELM WUNDT

Introduced a dimensional rather than categorical descriptive systems.

- Elements of Physiological Psychology

- Two Dimensions:

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 - Changeability

- Strength of Emotion

CARL JUNG

- Introverts
- Susceptible to psychasthenia
- Nervousness, free-floating anxiety
- Now labelled as phobia, OCD

- Extraverts
- Susceptible to hysterical disorders

- Also included description of the contrast between Neuroticism and Normality

HANS EYSENCK

- Replaced psychasthenia with dysthymia, but retained the term hysteria.

- Tests developed from his model:

- Maudsley Personality Inventory
- Eysenck Personality Inventory
- Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

- Phenotype/Phenotypic
- Expressed aspect of personality
- Introvert and Extravert descriptions are examples of this

- Biosocial Model: Eysenck’s model

PSYCHOTISM

- A dimension that subsumes the continuum from normal behavior through criminal and psychopathic behavior to schizophrenic and
other psychoses.

- Polygenic
- Reflects the presence/absence of a number of Small Effect Genes—genes that function in an additive manner
- When they are present in a large number, manifest as varying degrees of schizoid, schizotype, or psychopathy

- Large Effect Genes—result into a textbook schizophrenia

EXTRAVERSION AND PSYCHOTISM

Extraversion
- Originally described as a combination of traits of sociability and impulsivity.

- Later on, impulsivity was relegated under psychoticism, and this was replaced with venturesome for extraversion.

CAUSAL MODELS

- Extraversion, introversion, and neuroticism all reflect phenotypic components of personality.

- Genotypic component is responsible for phenotypic components, and hinges on physiological differences.

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EYSENCK’S FIRST MODEL (1957)

- Introverts
- More excitatory neural processes
- Responsible for acquisition of conditioned responses (learning)

- Low inhibitory: excitatory neural processes

- Reactive inhibition is slow and weak

- Responsible for longer drive
- Predisposed to dysthymic disorders

EYSENCK’S SECOND MODEL (1967)

- Extraverts
- More inhibitory neural processes
- High inhibitory: excitatory neural processes

- Reactive inhibition is quick and strong

- Predisposed to hysterical-psychopathic disorders

- Difference between introvert and extravert are based on the arousal level of the nervous system, particularly the ascending reticular
activating system (ARAS).
- THE HIGHER THE ARAS activity cortical arousal aras arousal threshold

- Introverts have a higher ARAS activity than introverts.

- Neuroticism depends on activity in visceral brain, which is composed of the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulum, septum,
hypothalamus (often referred to as the limbic system).

- There is greater activity in the visceral brain in neurosis.

- There is a curvilinear relationship between stimulation and cortical arousal, with introverts reaching their point of maximum arousal
at a lower level of stimulation than extraverts.

CURVILINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STIMULATION AND CORTICAL AROUSAL

EYSENCK’S MODEL: BASIC DIMENSIONS OF TEMPERAMENT

- Extraversion-Introversion
- Emotional Stability-Emotional Instability
- Psychoticism

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PERSONALITY STRUCTURE

- Type/Super Traits
- Exerts the highest influence

- Trait Level
- Composed of habitual responses

- Habitual Response
- Frequently repeated behavior

- Specific Response Level

- Behaviors from which the individual forms habit

MORE CONCEPTS

- Character
- A person’s more or less stable and enduring system of cognitive behavior (will)

- Temperament
- More or less stable and enduring system of affective behavior (emotion)

- Physique
- More or less enduring system of bodily configuration and neuroendocrine endowment

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura

RECONCEPTUALIZING REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcer/Reinforcement
- Reinforcement is an informative and motivational operation rather than a mechanical response strengthener.

- Actually, Bandura considered regulation as a more appropriate term than reinforcement.

- In Observational Learning, a reinforcer serves as an antecedent rather than a consequent influence.

- Skinnerian Learning Theory

- A reinforcement acts backward to strengthen an imitative response.

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- Bandura
- Reinforcement facilitates learning in an anticipatory manner by encouraging the observer to pay attention and to rehearse the
observed behavior.

- Two Types of Reinforcement

- Self-reinforcement
- This occurs when an individual compares his/her behavior to internal standards.

- If behavior meets standards, this results to pride.

- If behavior does not meet standards, this results to guilt, shame or dissatisfaction.

- Bandura said that any behavior has Two Consequences:

- Self evaluation

- External outcome

- Two Types of Reinforcement

- Vicarious Reinforcement
- This takes place when an individual witnesses someone else experience reinforcing or punishing consequences for a
behavior, and that individual anticipates similar consequences if he/she produces the same behavior.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

- Observational Learning or Modelling is governed by Four Constituent Processes:

- Attention

- Retention

- Production

- Motivation

- Attentional Process
- People can’t learn anything unless they pay attention to and accurately perceive significant features of the to-be-modelled
behavior.

- A model that is vivid, attractive, competent, and seen repeatedly is more likely to catch attention.

- What a person notices is influenced by his knowledge and orientation.

- Therefore, the characteristics of the model and the observer both determine what will occur.

- Retention Process
- A behavior can’t be reproduced unless we remember it, code it in symbolic forms.

- This is done through images and verbal representations in memory.

- Memory is enhanced by rehearsal.

- Production Process
- The learner must be able to reproduce the behavior that has been observed, and this entails certain skills and abilities.

- Feedback to the performer plays a crucial role in this process.

- Motivational Process
- A learned behavior will be enacted if it leads to certain incentives.

- Performance of observed behavior is influenced by three kinds of Incentives:

- Direct
- When the behavior leads directly to a desired outcome
- Vicarious
- When it has been observed to be effective
- Self-Administration
- When it is self-satisfying

- People can learn even novel responses by observing others.

- The capacity to perform new behaviors that are observed before but never practiced is possible through our cognitive faculties.
Images and verbal symbols can translate such observed behaviors into new patterns of behaviour from one’s self.

- In human cultures, novel behavior is very frequently acquired by observing the behavior of others.

- Three Effects of Exposure to Models

- Acquisition of novel behavior

- Eliciting the performance of similar responses already in the observer’s repertoire, which is more likely to happen if the
behavior is socially acceptable.

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 - When the model is performing a socially proscribed/unacceptable behavior:
- Performer’s inhibition to perform the behavior is strengthened if the model is punished.

- Performer’s inhibition to perform the behavior is weakened when the model is rewarded.
- Classically conditioned emotional response
- Not only do observers exposed to the emotional reactions of a model experience similar reactions, but they may also begin to
respond emotionally to stimuli that produced these reactions from the model.

RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM

- 1) Personal influences (cognitive/metal/psychical/psychodynamic, etc.), 2) environmental force, and 3) behavior function as

interdependent rather than autonomous determinants.

- Three Ways to conceptualize interaction of individual and situation/environment:

- Unidirectional Interaction

- Bidirectional Conception

- Reciprocal Determinism

- Unidirectional Interaction
- Persons and situations are independent entities that combine to generate behavior.

- Bidirectional Conception
- Persons and situations are interdependent causes, but behavior is seen as a consequence that does not figure in the causal
process.

- Reciprocal Determinism
- Behavior, environment, and person all function as interlocking determinants of each other.

- Personality Approach
- Focuses on the traits and patterns of the person

- Learning Approach
- Focuses on the environment reinforcers

- Interactionist Approach
- Considers the contribution of the person and situation to the behavior

- Reciprocal Determinism
- Behavior, environment, and person all function as interlocking determinants of each other.

SELF SYSTEM

- This refers to the cognitive structures that provide reference mechanisms and to a set of subfunctions for the perception, evaluation,
and regulation of behavior.

- Self-Observation

- Judgmental Process

- Self-Reaction

SELF-SYSTEM: SELF-OBSERVATION

- Performance Dimensions
- Quality
- Rate
- Quantity
- Originality
- Sociability
- Morality
- Deviancy
- Regularity
- Proximity
- Accuracy

- Self-Observation
- We observe our behavior, noting such factors as quality, quantity, and originality.
- The more complex the behavior and the more intricate the setting, the more likely that the observation will have inaccuracies.

SELF-SYSTEM: JUDGEMENTAL PROCESS

- Personal Standards
- Challenge

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 - Explicitness

- Generality

- Referential Performance
- Standard Norms

- Social Comparison

- Personal Comparison

- Collective Comparison

- Valuation of Activity
- Highly regarded
- Neutral
- Devalued

- Performance Attribution
- Personal Locus
- External Locus

Self-system
- Judgmental Process
- Behavior generates a self reaction in the form of judgments about the correspondence between behavior and personal
standards.
- We use as reference a. past behavior, b. norms, c. social comparison.
- Self judgment is enhanced when we choose people with less ability for comparison.
- We are more critical to our behavior when the activity is something important to us.

SELF-SYSTEM: SELF REACTION

- Evaluate Self-Reactions
- Positive
- Negative

- Tangible Self-Reactions
- Rewarding
- Punishing

- No Self-reactions

- Self-Reaction
- Favorable appraisals generate rewarding self-reactions, unfavorable judgements generate punishing responses, and behaviors
without personal significance don’t generate any reaction.

- Studies of children showed that those exposed to models with low standards rewarded themselves more indulgently than those
who observed strict models.

DISENGAGEMENT FROM SELF-EVALUATION

- Reprehensible Behavior
- Moral Justification, palliative comparison, euphemistic labelling
- Displacement/diffusion of responsibility
- Detrimental Effects
- Minimizing, ignoring, misconstruing the consequences
- Displacement/diffusion of responsibility

- Victim
- Dehumanization
- Attribution of blame

SELF-EFFICACY

- The expectation that one can, by personal effort, master a situation and bring about a desired outcome.

- Therapeutic change results from the development self-efficacy.

- Two Components:
- Efficacy Expectation
- Conviction that the person can successfully produce the behavior required to generate the outcome
- Outcome Expectation
- Refers to a person’s belief that a given behavior will lead to a particular outcome.

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- Major Sources of Efficacy Information
- Performance Accomplishment
- This is the most effective method to induce mastery since they are based on actual mastery experience.
- Vicarious Experience
- Modelling that leads to successful outcome is most effective

- Multiple models are more effective than a single model.

- Verbal Persuasion (encouraging)
- This source is popular but may be less effective than the other strategies
- Emotional Arousal
- It can trigger a perception of low efficacy since it triggers anxiety.

PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL

Gordon Allport

PERSONALITY

- Classifications of Definitions of Personality:

- Etymology or early history of the term

- Theological meanings
- Philosophical meanings
- Juristic meanings
- Sociological meanings
- External appearance
- Psychological meanings

- Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments
to his environment.

- Dynamic Organization
- Personality is constantly changing, although there is an organization/system that binds together the various components of the
personality.

- Psychophysical
- This notion entails the operation of both body and mind, fused together.

- Determine
- Personality is made up of determining tendencies that play an active role in the individual’s behavior.
- Personality is something and does something.

CHARACTER AND TEMPARAMENT

- Character
- The notion of character implies some code of behavior in terms of which individuals and their acts are appraised/evaluated.
- Temperament
- These are dispositions that are closely linked to biological or physiological determinants and that consequently show relative little
modification with development.

TRAIT

- These are neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide
equivalent (meaningfully consistent) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior.

PERSONAL DISPOSITION

- This is a neuropsychic structure peculiar to the individual having the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to
initiate and guide equivalent (meaningfully consistent) forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior.

- It is also called morphogenic traits.

TRAIT AND PERSONAL DISPOSITION

- These are loose tendencies, each expression of which is slightly different because it occurs in the face of different determining
conditions.

- They are inferred from behavior, not directly observed.

- Such inferences are based from frequency of the behavior, range of situations in which it arises, and the intensity of the behavior.

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CRITERIA OF TRAITS

1. Have more than nominal existence

2. More generalized than habits
3. Dynamic and determinative
4. May be established empirically and statistically
5. Only relatively independent of each other
6. Not the same as moral quality
7. Acts and habits inconsistent with a trait are not proof of the non-existence of the trait.

TRAITS: NATURE OF ELEMENTS

1. Have the capacity to motivate, inhibit, or select appropriate behavior

2. Mutually interdependent traits are the main elements in behavior.
3. Help explain the consistencies that we find in personality
4. Not directly observable but must be inferred through behavior
5. There are individual traits (personal dispositions: unique to the individual) and common traits (traits: shared by many).
6. A trait begins with a neuropsychic system.
7. A habit is a combination of two or more traits. Habits do not have the capacity to dominate traits but traits may force the creation of
habits.
8. Traits may drive, direct, guide and initiate behavior.
9. Have a strong connotation of contemporaneity or a nowness of things.
HABITS

- Habit are also determining tendencies but are less general than traits and personal dispositions.

- Traits are often a combination of two or more habits.

ATTITUDES AND TYPES

- Attitude
- This is also a predisposition that can be unique, may initiate and guide behavior, and a product of genetic factors and learning.
- It is linked to a specific object or class of objects.
- It usually implies evaluation (acceptance of rejection) of the object toward which it is directed.

- Types
- Types are idealized constructions of the observer, and the individual can be fitted to them, but only at the loss of some distinctive
identity.

TYPES OF DISPOSITION

- Cardinal Disposition
- These are very general dispositions, that almost every act of the person who possesses one seems traceable to its influence.
- They dominate the personality, influencing almost everything a person does.

- Central Disposition
- These dispositions are highly characteristic of the individual.

- Secondary Disposition
- These dispositions are more limited in occurrence, and less crucial to a description of the personality,
- They are responses to particular stimuli which occur on rare occasions.

PROPRIUM

- The proprium is the region of the personality where we find the root of the consistency that marks attitudes, intentions, and
evaluations.

- It is not innate but develops in time.

- It is comprised of ego-functions such as: self-identity, self-esteem, self-extension, sense of selfhood, rational thinking, self-image,
cognitive style, function of knowing.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPRIUM

- 0-3 years old. The following Aspects of the Self are developed during this phase:
1. Sense of self
2. Sense of continuing self-identity
3. Self-esteem or pride

- 4-9 years old. The following Aspects of the Self are developed during this phase:
1. Extension of the self
2. Self-image

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- 6-12 years old. The following Aspects of the Self are developed during this phase:
1. Awareness that it can cope with problems by means of reason

- Adolescence. The following Aspects of the Self are developed during this phase:
1. Emergence of Intentions, long-range purposes, and distant goals—propriate strivings.

- Those numbered items under each stage are the Seven Aspects of The Self, and they constitute the prorpium.

MATURITY

- Maturity entails increasing reliance on personal and/or internal standards of behaviour.

- Childhood (0-3 yo): Must Conscience

- This involves internalization of parental and cultural rules.

- 4-6 yo: Should Conscience

- This is governed not by fear of punishment but by the positive structure of the propriatestrivings.

- Adult: mature Generic Conscience

FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY

- The principle states that a given activity/behavior may become an end in itself in spite of the fact that it was originally engaged in
some other reason.

- This is the most controversial concept by Allport.

LEVELS OF FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY

- Preservative Functional Autonomy

- Includes addictions, repetitious acts, and routines.

- Propriate Functional Autonomy

- Refers to acquired interests, values, sentiments, intentions, master motives, personal dispositions, self-image, and lifestyle.

PRINCIPLES OF ORIGIN OF FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY

- Principle of Organizing the Energy Level

- Healthy people need activities to absorb the energy left over after their opportunistic needs have been gratified.
- There must be motives to consume one’s available energies.

- Principle of Mastery and Competence

- Motives that lead to feelings of competence tend to become self-sustaining.

- Principle of Propriate Patterning

- Those motives most consistent with or expressive of the self becomes autonomous; the self-structure demands it.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

- Infant
- Infants, according to Alllport, are creatures of heredity, primitive drives, and reflex existence.

- They don’t have a personality yet, but may show some patterns that are the forerunners of subsequent personality.

- They are persons of segmental tension and pleasure-pain feelings.

- A biological model of behavior or a theory that rests on the importance of reward, law of effect, or the pleasure principle is ideal for
them.

TRANSFORMATION OF THE INFANT

- Development takes place along multiple lines:

- Differentiation,
- Integration,
- Maturation
- Imitation
- Learning
- Functional Autonomy
- Extension of Self

- Allport recognizes the role of psychoanalytic mechanisms on trauma but did regard them important for the normal personality.

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- ON LEARNING
- Allport had an eclectic approach.

- Conditioning, reinforcement theory, habit, are valid principles for animals, infants, and opportunistic learning.

- Identification, closure, cognitive insight, self-image, and subsidiation to active ego systems are valid for propriate learning.

THE ADULT

- Their most important motives are not echoes of the past but beckonings from the future.

- However, not all adults achieve full maturity.

- The Mature Personality…

- possesses an Extension of the Self
- A person should not be solely preoccupied with own needs.
- should be able to participate in and enjoy many activities
- Satisfaction and frustrations should be many and diverse.
- Involves projection into the future—planning, hoping
- Relate self warmly to others in both intimate and non-Intimate manners
- Has emotional security and acceptance of self
- Realistically oriented with outer reality and self—self-objectification (humor and insight are its two components)
- Has a unifying philosophy of life
- Religion is a good common source of this, but is not the only source.

RESEARCH METHOD

- Idiographic
- This is the research of the qualities of the individual.
- Allport later changed the term to morphogenic.

- Nomothetic
- This is the research for universal qualities among humans.
- Allport borrowed the terms from German philosopher Windelband.

- Although Allport recognized the place of both research in psychology, he leaned more on the idiographc/morphogenic type.

PERSON CENTERED THEORY

CARL ROGERS

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

- Formative Tendency

- This is the tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to evolve from simpler to complex forms.
- Good examples are snowflakes emerging from vapor, complex organisms evolving from single cells, and complex galaxies of stars
evolving from less organized mass.

- Actualizing Tendency

- This is the tendency within all human beings and other animals and plants to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY

- Organism/Organismic Self

- This is the locus of all experience, of the totality of experience, which is called the Phenomenal Field.

- Awareness (also known assymbolization and/or consciousness) - Awareness is the symbolic representation of experience.
- Levels of Awareness:
1. Ignore or denied
2. Accurately symbolized
3. Distorted

- Subception - Subception is the perception of unsymbolized experience.

- Phenomenal Field
- As mentioned above, the phenomenal filed is the totality of experience.
- It emerges within the organism.

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 - The individual behaves depending upon the phenomenal field (subjective reality) and not upon the stimulating conditions
(external reality).

- The Self
- The Self is defined as the organized consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the Iormeand
the perceptions of the relationships of the I orme to others and to various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these
perceptions.
- Since you have been experiencing yourself through the years, you now have formed a constellation of impressions about yourself,
which is technically called SELF.
- The self is developed from within the Phenomenal Field.
- Sense of “I”
- Remember that the organism is the locus of experience, and the totality of experience is the Phenomenal Field.
- As discussed above, within the Phenomenal Field are 1) Ignored or denied experience, 2) Distorted Experience, 3) Accurately
symbolized experience.
- The Self being a set of impressions of one’s self derived from experiences of one’s self through the years, therefore, is a developed
or differentiated part of the Phenomenal Field.

- Ideal Self - This is what the person would like to be.

CONGRUENCE AND INCONGRUENCE

- Congruence
- This is the state when the symbolized experiences that constitute the Self faithfully mirror the real experiences of the
organism/Organismic Self.
- When congruent the person is said to be adjusted, mature, and fully functioning.
- On the other hand, incongruence between self and organism makes individuals feel threatened and anxious.

DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

- Actualizing Tendency
- This refers to the tendency to actualize the whole organism/whole person—conscious and unconscious, physiological and
cognitive.

- Self-Actualizing Tendency
- This refers to the tendency to actualize the Self as perceived in awareness.

- According to Rogers:
- There is only one drive—self-actualizing drive.
- There is only one goal in life—to become self-actualized.

- Self-Concept
- The self-concept is comprised of all aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness (though not
always accurately) by an individual.

- This is generally the same in meaning as the Self.

- Literature, however, associates more the sense of “I” or “Me” to Self than to Self-concept.

BECOMING A PERSON

- Positive Regard
- This is the need to be loved, liked and accepted by others.

- Positive Self Regard

- This is the experience of valuing one’s own self.
- Receiving positive regard from others result into having positive self-regard.
- And once positive self-regard is established it becomes independent of the continuous need positive regard.

BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH

- Conditions of Worth
- Instead of receiving unconditional positive regard, most people receive conditional positive regard.
- They perceive other people love and accept them only if they meet their expectations and approval.
- If we see that others accept us regardless of our actions, then we come to believe that we are prized unconditionally.
- But if we perceive that some of our behaviors are approved and some are disapproved, then we see that our worth is conditional.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

- Conditional Positive Regard

- Ex. A boy has a self-picture of being good and being loved by his parents but he also enjoys tormenting his little sister for which he is
punished.

- As result of self-punishment, the boy revises his self-image to one of the following interpretations:
- I am a bad boy.
- My parents don’t like me.
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 - I don’t like to tease my sister.

- Distorted Symbolization
- Denial - Denial is the falsifying of reality either by saying it does not exist or by perceiving it in a distorted way.

- Projection - This happens when denied feelings are projected into the environment/other people.

CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY

- Under certain conditions of complete absence of any threat to the self-structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it may be
perceived, and examined, and the structure of self is revised to assimilate and include such experiences.

- The warm accepting attitude from the counsellor encourages clients to explore unconscious feelings and to bring them into
awareness, and slowly and tentatively symbolize the unsymbolized.

- Psychopathology is developed through:

- Conditional positive regard, which produces:

- Conditions of Worth
- I am good if I am “like this”…or “like that”
- …and this produces:

- Incongruence
- Experiences of the Self Image is far from the experiences of the Organism.
- This is maintained through distortion, denial, projection.
- And this eventually leads to full blown…

- Psychopathology

Q-SORT TECHNIQUE
- This is a clinical technique where the client is given 100 cards containing statements about himself/herself.

- The client is asked to choose the statements which best describes himself/herself, creating the self sort.

- Then the client is asked another set of cards that describe the person he/she wants to be, describing the ideal sort.

PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY

GEORGE KELLY

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
- Constructive Alternativism - There are various ways in which the world that surrounds us can be understood; there always exist
alternative perspectives for us to choose from.

- Just like Alfred Adler, this view was influenced by Hans Vaihinger’s “philosophy of ‘as if.’”

- And again just like Adler, Kelly believed that one’s interpretation of events is more important than the events themselves.

- Man-the-Scientist
- People develop hypotheses about the consequence of their behavior, and they evaluate the validity of those hypotheses in terms
of the accuracy of their predictions.

- Scientists construct theories that lead to better and better predictions, and individuals try to construct anticipatory systems that
give them better and better sense of what is going to happen if they act in a certain way.

- A healthy person is like a good scientist, adjusting constructs according to new data.

- The unhealthy person is like a bad scientist, not changing his constructs even if it does not work.

- Focus on the Construer

- When a person makes a statement about the world, we should understand that the statement reveals more about the person than
about the world.

- Statements about people and the world are best considered as proposals or hypotheses, but many treat them as factual claims.

- Motivation
- This is an unnecessary and redundant construct, because people are active by definition since we are alive!

- People act as they do, not because of forces that act on them or in them, but because of the alternatives they perceive as a
function of their construal of the world.

- Two Types of Motivational Forces:

- Push Theories: drive, motive, stimulus

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 - Pull Theories: purpose, value, need

- Being Oneself
- There is no internal agent.

- Objections to the formulations of the Self:

- The Self often serves as a mask behind which we hide the real self. To think of oneself as an introvert is to impose a label that sets
up expectations for behavior.

- Kelly thought of one’s self-image as fluid, not a predetermined reality.

PERSONAL CONSTRUCT
- This is a way in which some things are construed as being alike yet different from others.

- Features of Constructs:
1. Bipolar: Constructs are dichotomous.
2. Range of Convenience: Certain constructs have certain range of applications only.
3. Locus of Convenience: the class of objects to which it is most relevant.
4. Permeability: the ease with which they can be extended to new objects/events.
5. Preemptive: This makes nothing else about the object matters.
6. Constellatory: triggers other constructs without additional information.
7. Propositional: Designating an object would not lead to other judgements about the object.
8. Core: central to a person’s sense of who he is.
9. Peripheral: less fundamental and more amenable to change.

FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATE AND ITS COROLLARIES

- Fundamental Postulate
1. Construction corollary
2. Individuality corollary
3. Organization corollary
4. Dichotomy corollary
5. Choice corollary
6. Range corollary
7. Experience corollary
8. Modulation corollary
9. Fragmentation corollary
10.Commonality corollary
11.Sociality corollary

Fundamentals Postulate
- A person’s processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he or she anticipates events.
- This is the core of Kelly’s position.
- A person’s understanding of the world and behavior in that world are directed by his expectations and anticipations about what
will happen if he/she acts in a certain way.
- Anticipation is both the push and pull of the psychology of personal constructs.

1. Construction Corollary
- A person anticipates events by constructing their replications.

- No two events are exactly alike, but people see enough similarities among some events to create a construct to represent them.

- Replication: using experience to identify recurrent themes in meanings of events

- This is like a cognitive version of Skinner’s reinforcement theory.

- Key Idea: Similarities among events

2. Individuality Corollary
- Persons differ from each other in their construction of events.

- People differ not only because they have been exposed to different events, but because they have developed different approaches
to anticipation of the same events.

- No two people interpret an event in exactly the same way.

3. Organization Corollary
- Each person characteristically evolves, for convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing ordinal
relationships between constructs.

- Each person arranges his/her constructs into a hierarchical system that characterizes that personality.

- This helps minimize incompatibilities and inconsistencies.

- Such a system continuously evolves with experience.

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4. Dichotomy Corollary
- A person’s construction system is composed of a finite number dichotomous constructs.”

- Dichotomous constructs are constructs that are opposite to each other.

- In nature, things may not always opposite, or either-or.

- However, to form a construct, a person must be able to see similarities between events and contrast those events with their
opposite pole.

- Peace can only be understood in comparison to war or chaos and vice-versa.

- Comfort can be understood in contrast to discomfort or suffering.

5. Choice Corollary
- A person chooses that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which he/she anticipates the greater possibility for
extension and definition of his/her system.

- A behavior reduces to a choice between 1. further defining the existing construct system, or acting in a manner that 2. extends
the range of convenience of the construct system.

- Choices will be made in favor of whatever it is that will provide the best basis for improving the future anticipation of events.

- Believing that tattoos signify that a person is bad, a girl can either believe that her boyfriend with tattoos is a bad person OR not.

- If she believes he is bad, it is for the purpose of further proving the existing construct, making it stronger.

- But if she believes he is not, because the boyfriend showed good qualities, it will expand the conception of having tattoos to
people who are good, and not just to those who are bad.

- Either way, the goal is to improve the person’s ability to anticipate the character and behavior of people with tattoos in the
future.

6. Range Corollary
- A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only.

- In other words, a construct is limited to a particular range of convenience or range of events only.

- Brightness and darkness are applicable to the color of a computer monitor, but not to the taste of coffee.

7. Experience Corollary
- A person’s construction system varies as he/she successively constructs the replications of events.

- The constructions we place on events represent hypotheses about the consequences of behavior, and we use the actual outcomes
to validate the construct system, just as a scientist uses data to validate a theory.

- It is not what happens around him/her that makes a person experienced, but the successive construing and reconstruing of what
happens that enriches the experience of life.

8. Modulation Corollary

- The variation in a person’s construction system is limited by the permeability of the construct within whose range of convenience
the variants lie.

- The extent to which people revise their constructs is related to the degree of permeability of their existing constructs.

- Goodness can be applied to persons with tattoos…. But not to things with “tattoos”.

- This is similar to range corollary, which says that there are only some objects to which a construct can be applied. That one focuses
on the objects to which the expanse of applicability per se.

- The range corollary and modulation corollary are like two sides of the same coin.

9. Fragmentation Corollary
A person may successfully employ a variety of construction subsystems that are inferentially incompatible with each other.

- For example, a man might be protective of his wife, yet encourage her to be more independent. Protection and independence
may be incompatible with each other on one level, but on a larger level, both are subsumed under the construct love.

10. Sociality Corollary

- To the extent that one person construes the construction process of another, he/she may play a role in a social process
involving the other person.

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 - Kelly believed that people can engage in meaningful relationships only if they understand each other’s construal process.

11. Commonality Corollary

- To the extent that one person employs a construction of experience that is similar to that employed by another, his/her
psychological processes are similar to those of the other person.

- Just as dissimilar construction of events lead to individual differences, similar construction of events leads people to behave in
similar ways.

- This accounts for within-cultural similarities.

THE CONTINUUM OF COGNITIVE AWARENESS

- Preverbal Constructs
- These are constructs not coded in linguistic form, they cannot be articulated but continue to influence our behavior.

- Submerged Constructs
- This is when one pole of a dichotomous construct is less available than the other.

- Suspended Constructs
- Ideas and memories are only available if constructs that can represent them exist.

- If a dichotomous construct disappears from the construct system, this may result into temporary forgetting of a memory until a
new construct can represent them again.

- A 6-year old boy might not yet have the construct of let say a flirt person….so encounters of a woman flirting with her dad might
not stick to his memory because there was no construct to encode it. But once he acquires that construct as he grows older, memories
of the women in his past might emerge into his mind now that it can me encoded.

PERSONOLOGY
Henry Murray

PERSONALITY
- Personality was viewed by Murray as: - a mere abstraction formulated by theorists
- a series of Events: The history of the personality is the personality.
- reflections of enduring and recurring events as well as of novel and unique ones
- The organizing, integrating and governing agent of the individual.
- located in the brain: No personality, no brain.

PROCEEDINGS
- These are subject-object interactions or subject-subject interactions of sufficient duration to include the significant elements of
any given behavioral sequence.
- Classifications:
- Internal: day-dreaming, problem-solving, planning, etc.
- External: Has Two Aspects
- Subjective experiential aspect
- Objective behavioral aspect

SERIALS
- In relation to proceedings, serials are longer functional units of behavior.
- They are directionally organized intermittent succession of proceedings
- E.g. Friendship, marriage, career

- Some proceedings so intimately relate to one another they can only have meaning within the context of a serial.

- To better understand this concept think of relationships, and not just interactions.

SERIAL PROGRAMS, SCHEDULES, ORDINATION

Serial Programs: Orderly arrangement of sub-goals that stretch into the future perhaps for months or years that can eventually lead to
some desired end state.
- Schedules: Devices for reducing conflict among competing needs and goals by arranging for them at different times
- Ordination: The process of plan-making as well as the outcome of the process—serial program or schedule; can be an umbrella
term for serial programs and schedules.

ABILITIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS

- Henry Murray considered abilities and achievements as integral components of personality.
- Abilities can be divided into many areas:
- physical, mechanical, leadership, social, economic, erotic, intellectual

ESTABLISHMENT OF PERSONALITY
- Id
- In contrast to Freud’s conception of Id, this includes impulses that are also acceptable to the self and society.

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- Ego
- Murray’s Ego does not really suppress the Id’s instincts but governs them by moderating their intensities and determining their
modes and times of their fulfilment.
- It is not really an inhibitor/suppressor but it arranges, schedules, and controls the number in which other motives are to appear.

- Superego
- Similar to Freud’s Superego, this one is also a cultural implant in the individual’s psyche.
- However, it develops strata (levels), hence, conflicts may develop within the superego itself among its strata.

- Ego-Ideal
- This is the idealized picture of the self.
- It is intimately related to superego BUT IS NOT PART of the superego.
- It is possible for the superego and ego-ideal to be separated and have contrasting aspirations.

DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

NEED
- A Need is a construct that represents a force in the brain, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation
and action in such a way as to transform a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation.
- It is abstract/hypothetical but linked to underlying physiological processes in the brain.

TYPES OF NEEDS
- Primary/Viscerogenic Needs
- They are linked to organic events.
- Examples are air, water food, sex, lactation, urination, defection.

- Secondary/Psychogenic Needs
- They don’t have connection with organic processes.
- Examples are acquisition, construction, achievement, recognition, exhibition, dominance, autonomy, deference.

- Overt Needs
- Overt needs are permitted direct expression through motor behaviour.

- Covert Needs
- These are generally restrained and repressed, expressed only in fantasy and dreams.

- Focal Needs
- These are needs that are closely linked to specific environmental objects.
- Fixation: need that is firmly attached to an unsuitable object; usually is pathological

- Diffuse Needs
- These are needs that are generalized as to be applicable in almost any environmental setting.
- Although, jumping from one object to another may also be pathological.

- Proactive Needs
- These are needs that are determined from within, spontaneously kinetic.
- These are needs that operate because of something within the person as opposed to something in the environment.
- Proactor: a person who initiates an interaction

- Reactive Needs
- These are needs activated by something in the environment.
- Reactor: a person who reacts to others

- Effect Needs
- These are needs that lead to some desired state or end result.

- Process Activity
- This is a need of performing acts for the sake of performing alone.
- The satisfaction is in the process, not on the result.

- Modal
- Modal need is similar to Process Activity but satisfaction is only experienced upon gaining a level of mastery of the act.

INTERRELATION/HIERARCY OF NEEDS
- Prepontecy
- There exists a hierarchy of needs with certain tendencies taking precedence over others.
- Minimal satisfaction of such prepontent needs is necessary before other needs can operate.

- Conflict between competing needs exist.

- Fusion of Needs
- This is present in instances where the outcome of different needs is behaviorally the same.

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- Subsidiation
- A subsidiary need is one that operates in the service of another, where operation of one need is merely instrumental to the
gratification of another.

- Aim represents the specific goal adopted by the person as an expression of the need.

PRESS
- Press is a property or attribute of the environmental object or person that facilitates or impedes the efforts of the individual to reach a
certain goal.
- The press of an object is what it can do to/for the subject—the power that it has to affect the well-being of the subject in one way or
another.
- Beta Press: This is the object as it is perceived /interpreted by the individual.
- Alpha Press: These are properties of the object as they exist in reality or as objective inquiry disclose them.

TENSION REDUCTION
- Henry Murray explains that not only does the individual learn to respond in a way to reduce tension and experience satisfaction, but
also he/she learns to develop tension so that it can later be reduced, thereby enhancing the amount of pleasure.
- However, this only applies to effect needs, and not to process and modal needs.

THEMA
- A Thema is a molar and interactive behavioral unit.
- A Thema Includes:
- The press, which is the instigating/triggering situation
- The need that is operating
- Thus, it deals with the interaction between needs and press.
- It permits a more global and less segmental view of behavior.
- Dyadic Unit:
- Not only represents full the nature of the subject but also of the person the subject is interacting with.

NEED INTEGRATE AND UNITY THEMA

- Need Integrate: A well-established thematic disposition—a need for a certain kind of interaction with a certain kind of person or
object

- Unity Thema: single pattern of related needs and press, derived from infantile experience, that gives meaning and coherence to the
largest portion of the individual’s behavior

REGNANT PROCESS
- Physiological accompaniment of a dominant psychological process
- All conscious processes are regnant but not all regnant processes are conscious. Consciousness is just one product of a dominant
psychological process.

VECTOR-VALUES SCHEME
- Vector:
- broad physical/psychological direction of activity
- Rejection, reception, acquisition, construction, conservation, expression, transmission, expulsion, destruction, dependence, and
avoidance

- Values:
- Body (physical well-being), property (objects, wealth), authority (decision-making power), affiliation (interpersonal affection),
knowledge (facts, theories, science, history), aesthetic (beauty, art), ideology (system of values, philosophy, religion)

20 NEEDS
1. Abasement: to submit passively to external forces, self-depreciation, low self-regard
2. Achievement: to accomplish something difficult and overcome obstacles
3. Affiliation: to enjoyably cooperate or reciprocate with an allied other
4. Aggression: to break out overcome opposition forcefully, to fight
5. Autonomy: to get free, shake off restraint, break out of confinement, and strive for independence
6. Counteraction: to overcome weakness and repress fear
7. Deference: to admire and support a superior, to praise, honor, and serve gladly
8. Defendant: to defend the self against assault, to offer explanation
9. Dominance: to control one’s human environment, to lead and direct
10.Exhibition: to make an impression, self-dramatization
11.Harmavoidance: to avoid pain, physical injury, illness and death
12.Infavoidance: to avoid humiliation and failure
13.Nurturance: to give sympathy and to gratify the needs of a helpless object
14.Order: to put things in order, to organize
15.Play: to act for fun and avoid serious tension
16.Rejection: to separate oneself and exclude another
17.Sentience: to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions
18.Sex: to form an erotic relationship
19.Succorance: to always have a supporter, to be dependent
20.Understanding: to ask or answer general questions, to analyze experiences
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INFANTILE COMPLEXES
- Five highly enjoyable conditions that are terminated, frustrated, or limited at some point:
1. Secure and dependent existence within the womb (interrupted by birth)
2. Sensuous enjoyment of sucking good nourishment from mother while lying safely in her arms (halted by weaning)
3. Free enjoyment of defecation (restricted by toilet training)
4. Enjoying the sensations of urination
5. Excitations of genital frictions

- An enduring integrate that determines the course of later development.

- Complexes are results of extension of effects of infantile experiences upon later behavior.
- May be normal and abnormal in extreme cases

- Simple Claustral Complex

- Reinstatement of uterine conditions
- Nurturant of motherly objects, death, the past, and resistance to change
- Needs for passivity, harm avoidance, seclusion, and succorance

- Fear of Insupport Complex

- Fear of open spaces, falling, drowning, earthquake, fire, and family in support

- Egression Complex
- Concerned with escaping or departing; displays as cathexis for open spaces
- Need for travel, to move, for change, claustrophobia and strong need for autonomy.

- Oral Succorance Complex

- Oral activity plus passive and dependent tendencies
- Sucking, cathexis for oral objects such as the nipple, breast, thumb
- Compulsive eating and drinking
- Need for passivity and succorance
- Compulsive eating and drinking
- Cathexis for words, nurturant objects
- Inhibited aggressive needs

- Oral Aggression Complex

- Oral activity plus aggression
- Biting and cathexis for solid oral objects
- Strong aggressive needs
- Ambivalence toward authority figures
- Projection of oral aggression (seeing the environment as full of aggression)
- Need for harm avoidance, phobia for biting objects and stuttering

- Oral Rejection Complex

- Involves spitting out and disgust over oral activities
- Negative cathexis for some food, negative cathexis for food
- Fear of oral infection or injury
- Need to reject, for seclusion and autonomy
- Dislike for nurturant objects

- Complex
- Derived from events associated with the act of defecating and bowel movement
- Anal Rejection Complex
- Includes diarrhea and cathexis for feces
- Need for aggression, particularly involving disorder and dirtying or smearing
- Associated with need for autonomy and anal sexuality

- Anal Complex - Anal Retention Complex

- Cathexis for feces but with concealed discussed and negative reaction for defecation
- Also associated with anal sexuality and need for autonomy—displayed through resistance to suggestion rather than seeking for
independence/freedom.
- Strong need for order, cleanliness, and retaining of possession
- Parsimony, cleanliness, and obstinacy.

- Urethral Complex
- Involves bedwetting, urethral soiling and urethral erotism

- Icarus Complex
- Cathexis for fire, history of enuresis, craving for immortality, strong narcissism, lofty ambition that dissolves in the face of failure

- Castration Complex
- Murray suggested that this should be given limited meaning than commonly assigned to.

GENETIC-MATURATIONAL DETERMINANTS

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- Responsible for programming a succession of eras throughout an individual’s life.
- First Era (childhood, adolescence, young adulthood)
- New structural compositions merge and multiply
- Dominance of anabolism

- Middle Era
- Conservative recomposition of already emerged structures and functions
- Equal anabolism and catabolism

- Final Era (senescence)

- Capacity for composition and recomposition decreases
- Increase in atrophy of existing forms and functions
- Dominance of catabolism

LEARNING

- Learning consists of discovering what generates pleasure and what generates distress for the individual.
- The Pleasure/Hedonic Center and Displeasure/Anhedonic Centers of the brain play crucial roles in learning.
- Retrospective Generators: memories of past experiences that were delightful or distressful
- Prospective Generators: anticipations of future pleasures or pains
- Learning consists of discovering what generates pleasure and what generates distress for the individual.
- Generators can be classified as - Within the person
- Body
- Emotional centers of the brain
- Physiological processes
- conscience
- In the environment
- Interpersonal

OTHER IMPORTANT POINTS

- Sociocultural Determinants - His concept of proceedings and thema imply an interactionist view—a conviction that full
understanding of behavior will follow only when both subject and object are adequately represented.

- Uniqueness - Murray always maintained the essential uniqueness of each person, and even of the each behavioral event.

- Unconscious Processes - Murray not only accepted the unconscious determinants of behavior but also recognized the operation of
the Freudian mechanisms of repression and resistance.

- The Socialization Process - The human personality is a compromise between the individual’s impulses and the demands and interests
of other people, which are represented collectively by the institutions and cultural patterns to which the individual is exposed.

FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGY
Virgilio Enriquez

SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO: INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY

- Indigenous: Native, Local

- Indigenization from Without

- This is the translation of foreign concepts, methods, theories and measures into Filipino.

- Indigenization from Within

- This is the looking for the indigenous psychology from within the culture itself and not just clothing a foreign body of knowledge
with a local dress

- It includes assessing historic-socio-cultural realities, local language, Filipino characteristics, and explaining them through the eyes
of the native Filipino.

- This effort resulted into a body of knowledge that includes indigenous concepts and methods.

RETHINKING FILIPINO VALUES

- Bahala na
- Andres
- Bahala na ang Diyos
- Fatalistic resignation
- Withdrawal from engagement and shrinking from responsibility

- Lagmay
- Determination and risk-taking

- Hiya
- Sibley translated it as shame.

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 - Lynch defined it as uncomfortable feeling that accompanies awareness of being in a socially unacceptable position, or performing
a socially unacceptable action.
- Salazar, on the other hand, defined as sense of propriety.

- Utang na loob
- Kaut translated it as debt of gratitude.
- Kaut/Andres redefined is as principle of reciprocity incurred when an individual helps another.
- Enriquez redefined it as gratitude combined with solidarity.
- He said that it is encapsulated in the saying Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makakarating sa
paroroonan.

- Pakikisama vs. Pakikipagkapwa

- Pakikisama
- Lynch translated it as smooth interpersonal relations.
- Kapwa
- Enriquez translated this as shared identity.

- He elaborated that it is not mere smooth interpersonal relationships that Filipinos are concerned with, but pakikipagkapwa,
which means treating the other person as kapwa or fellow human being.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION

- Part of the Filipino’s socialization is being sensitive to non-verbal cues, having concerns for the feelings of others, and being truthful
but not at the expense of hurting others’ feelings.

- Pakikiramdam
- This is defined as shared inner perception.
- It is very useful in conducting interviews especially for Filipinos.
- It is done through reading and being sensitive to non-verbal cues.

CORE VALUE OR KAPWA

- Kapwa, meaning 'togetherness', is the core construct of Filipino Psychology. It refers to community; not doing things alone.

- Kapwa has Two Categories:

- Ibang Tao (other people)
- Hindi Ibang Tao (not other people).

- Five Domains of Ibang Tao:

- Pakikitungo: civility
- Pakikisalamuha: act of mixing
- Pakikilahok: act of joining
- Pakikibagay: conformity
- Pakikisama: being united with the group

- Domains of Hindi IbangTao:

- Pakikipagpalagayang-loob: act of mutual trust
- Pakikisangkot: act of joining others
- Pakikipagkaisa: being one with others

PIVOTAL INTERPERSONAL VALUE

Pakiramdam:
- Shared inner perceptions.
- Filipinos use damdam, or the inner perception of others' emotions, as a basic tool to guide his dealings with other people.

SOCIO-PERSONAL VALUE
Kagandahang-Loob:
- Shared humanity.
- This refers to being able to help other people in dire need due to a perception of being together as a part of one Filipino humanity.
ACCOMMODATIVE SURFACE VALUES
1. Hiya
This is loosely translated as 'shame' by most Western psychologists. However, hiya is actually 'sense of propriety'

2. UtangnaLoob:
Norm of reciprocity. Filipinos are expected by their neighbors to return favors whether these were asked for or not—-when it is
needed or wanted.

3. Pakikisama and Pakikipagkapwa:

Smooth Interpersonal Relationship, or SIR, as coined by Lynch (1961 and 1973). This attitude is primarily guided by conformity
with the majority.

CONFRONTATIVE SURFACE VALUES

1. Bahala Na:

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 This attitude, loosely translated into English as 'fatalistic passiveness', actually describes the Filipino way of life, in which, he is
determined to do his best, hence the term bahala na, which actually came from the phrase bahala na, meaning 'I will do all my best, let
God take care of the rest'.

2. Lakas ng Loob:
This attitude is characterized by being courageous in the midst of problems and uncertainties.

3. Pakikibaka:
Literally in English, it means concurrent clashes. It refers to the ability of the Filipino to undertake revolutions and uprisings against
a common enemy.

SOCIETAL VALUES
1. Karangalan:

Loosely translated as HONOR or DIGNITY, this actually refers to what other people see in a person and how they use that information to
make a stand or judge about his/her worth.
- Puri: the external aspect of dignity. May refer to how other people judge a person of his/her worth.
- Dangal: the internal aspect of dignity. May refer to how a person judges his own worth.

2.Katarungan:
Loosely translated to justice, this refers to equity in giving rewards to a person.

3. Kalayaan:
Freedom and mobility. Ironically, this may clash with the less important value of pakikisama or pakikibagay (conformity).

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