UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL

LABORATORY (BFC 21201)

OPEN ENDED LABORATORY

LECTURER’S NAME : DR. NOR AMANI FILZAH BINTI MOHD

KAMIL
GROUP :2
NO NAME MATRIC NO.
1 MOHAMAD HAZWAN BIN MOHAMAD AF170021
ADZALI
2 MOHAMAD ZAMARUL HISHAM BIN CF180077
MAHIZAN
3 IZZATUL SYAHIRA BINTI ZAKARIA AF170184
4 MOHAMMAD HARITH BIN MUSTAFA AF170204
5 MASIDAYU BINTI ABDUL KADIR AF170055

SUBMISSION DATE : May 2019

 LAB 1A :
BASIC
HYDROLOGY
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY 2

3.0 RESULTS & DATA ANALYSIS 4

4.0 DISCUSSION 9

5.0 CONCLUSIONS 10

6.0 REFERENCES 11
1.0 INTRODUCTION

A runoff model is a mathematical model describing the rainfall–runoff relations of a

rainfall catchment area, drainage basin or watershed. More precisely, it produces a surface
runoff hydrograph in response to a rainfall event, represented by and input as a hyetograph.
In other words, the model calculates the conversion of rainfall into runoff.
As well know runoff model is the linear reservoir, but in practice it has limited
applicability. The runoff model with a non-linear reservoir is more universally applicable,
but still it holds only for catchments whose surface area is limited by the condition that the
rainfall can be considered more or less uniformly distributed over the area.
The maximum size of the watershed then depends on the rainfall characteristics of the
region. When the study area is too large, it can be divided into sub-catchments and the
various runoff hydrographs may be combined using flood routing techniques.

Runoff is generated by rainstorms and its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the
characteristics of the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. The
rainfall-runoff process is extremely complex, making it difficult to model accurately.
In addition, other important factors which influence the runoff generating process like
natural surface detention, soil infiltration characteristics and the drainage pattern formed by
natural flow paths. The soil type, vegetative cover and topography play as important roles.
Rainfall and runoff are very important hydrologic components because of their direct
relations with water resources quantity, flood, stream flow and design of dam and hydraulic
structure.

1
2.0 METHODOLOGY
2.1 EQUIPMENTS

1. Basic hydrology equipment

2. Stopwatch

3. Test tube

2
2.2 PROCEDURE

Case 1: Flat and sandy soil surface profile (without slope)

Case 2: Flat and sandy soil surface with 1:100 slope profile.

i. The rail at side of the catchment area must be adjust to get the slope is zero, according
the requirement for Case 1.
ii. The steel ruler has been used to flat the sand or used our hand. That can be more easy
method.
iii. Set the time according the computer time.
iv. Put the rain gauge inside the rail and close the plastic curtains.
v. The pump has been switched on and starts the stop watch at the same time. The time
while start of rainfall has been recorded.
vi. The discharge and the reading from the rain gauge have been recorded every 20second
(during the rainfall).
vii. The pump has been switched off when the peak discharge achieved (after 3 discharge
reading with same value obtained) to stop the rainfall. The time while stop of rainfall has
been recorded.
viii. At the same time, record the discharge for each 20 second until the reading constant.
ix. The procedure has been repeated for case 2.

3
3.0 RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 RESULTS

CASE 1 CASE 2
Time, s Water level Discharge Water level Discharge
s L m3 m3/s L m3 m3/s
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 0.7 0.007 1.67 x 10-5 0.2 0.002 0.48 x 10-5
40 0.9 0.009 2.14 x 10-5 0.3 0.003 0.71 x 10-5
60 1.4 0.014 3.33 x 10-5 0.4 0.004 0.95 x 10-5
80 1.8 0.018 4.29 x 10-5 1.5 0.015 3.57 x 10-5
100 2.1 0.021 5.00 x 10-5 2.1 0.021 5.00 x 10-5
120 2.5 0.025 5.95 x 10-5 2.3 0.023 5.48 x 10-5
140 2.7 0.027 6.43 x 10-5 2.8 0.028 6.67 x 10-5
160 3.0 0.030 7.14 x 10-5 2.9 0.029 6.90 x 10-5
180 3.2 0.032 7.62 x 10-5 3.0 0.030 7.14 x 10-5
200 3.4 0.034 8.10 x 10-5 3.1 0.031 7.38 x 10-5
220 3.4 0.034 8.10 x 10-5 3.2 0.032 7.62 x 10-5
240 3.4 0.034 8.10 x 10-5 3.2 0.032 7.62 x 10-5
260 3.1 0.031 7.38 x 10-5 3.2 0.032 7.62 x 10-5
280 2.9 0.029 6.90 x 10-5 3.1 0.031 7.38 x 10-5
300 2.7 0.027 6.43 x 10-5 3.0 0.030 7.14 x 10-5
320 2.5 0.025 5.95 x 10-5 2.9 0.029 6.90 x 10-5
340 2.4 0.024 5.71 x 10-5 2.6 0.026 6.19 x 10-5
360 2.3 0.023 5.48 x 10-5 2.5 0.025 5.95 x 10-5
380 2.2 0.022 5.24 x 10-5 2.4 0.024 5.71 x 10-5
400 2.0 0.020 4.76 x 10-5
420 1.9 0.019 4.52 x 10-5

4
TOTAL FLOW, BASEFLOW AND DIRECT FLOW

CASE 1 CASE 2
TIME, t Total flow,Q Total flow,Q
s m3/s m3/s
20 1.67 x 10-5 0.48 x 10-5
40 2.14 x 10-5 0.71 x 10-5
60 3.33 x 10-5 0.95 x 10-5
80 4.29 x 10-5 3.57 x 10-5
100 5.00 x 10-5 5.00 x 10-5
120 5.95 x 10-5 5.48 x 10-5
140 6.43 x 10-5 6.67 x 10-5
160 7.14 x 10-5 6.90 x 10-5
180 7.62 x 10-5 7.14 x 10-5
200 8.10 x 10-5 7.38 x 10-5
220 8.10 x 10-5 7.62 x 10-5
240 8.10 x 10-5 7.62 x 10-5
260 7.38 x 10-5 7.62 x 10-5
280 6.90 x 10-5 7.38 x 10-5
300 6.43 x 10-5 7.14 x 10-5
320 5.95 x 10-5 6.90 x 10-5
340 5.71 x 10-5 6.19 x 10-5
360 5.48 x 10-5 5.95 x 10-5
380 5.24 x 10-5 5.71 x 10-5
400 4.76 x 10-5
420 4.52 x 10-5
TOTAL 120.24 x 10-5 106.41 x 10-5

5
3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Case 1
Slope 0

Case 2
Slope 5

6
From the graph plotted:
a. Time concentration
Case 1: 200s < tc < 420s
Case 2: 220s < tc < 380s
b. Rainfall duration
Case 1: 420 seconds
Case 2: 380 seconds
c. Peak discharge
Case 1: when 420 seconds, the discharge is 8.1 x 10-5 m3/s
Case 2: when 380 seconds, the discharge is 7.62 x 10-5 m3/s
d. Runoff volume
Runoff volume = Total Direct Flow
Case 1: Direct Flow = 120.24 x 10-5 x 3600s = 4.33 m3/s
Case 2: Direct Flow = 106.41 x 10-5x 3600s = 3.82 m3/s
e. Rainfall intensity
Case 1:
Rainfall intensity = rain gauge maximum / rain duration
= 0.250 mm / 480s
= 5.21 x 10-5 mm/s
Case 2:
Rainfall intensity = rain gauge maximum / rain duration
= 0.095 mm / 380s
= 2.50 x 10-5 mm/s
f. Storage volume
Storage volume = Base flow x 3600s
Case 1: storage volume = 8.10 x 10-5 x 3600s = 0.29 m3
Case 2: storage volume = 7.62 x 10-5 x 3600s = 0.27 m3

7
 CASE 1 CASE 2
Time Concentration 200s < tc < 420s 220s < tc < 380s
Rainfall Duration 420 seconds 380 seconds
Peak Discharge 8.1 x 10-5 m3/s 7.62 x 10-5 m3/s
Runoff Volume 4.33 m3/s 3.82 m3/s
Rainfall intensity 5.21 x 10-5 mm/s 2.50 x 10-5 mm/s
Storage Volume 0.29 m3 0.27 m3

8
4.0 DISCUSSION

Rainfall and runoff are very important hydrologic components because of their
direct relations with water resources quantity, flood, stream flow and design of dam
and hydraulic structure.
Based on the graph of discharge verses time in both case, we get the bell shape
graph. The volume of discharge are increase when the time are increase. In case 1, the
storage volume is 0.29 m3 which are highest that the storage volume in case 2 which
0.27 m3. The value of runoff volume case 2 should be higher than case 2. But in this
experiment, the value of runoff volume case 1 is higher than case 2. The error might
be occur during the experiment that affect the result of the experiment.
The error might occur are reading taken does not accurate caused of taking
reading when the soil was still wet before the experiment started. Besides, parallax
error which the eyes ball does not parallel with scale when observe the reading.
The precaution step that can reduced the error are make sure the soil is dry
before start the experiment. Besides, make sure the eyes ball parallel with the scale to
avoid the parallax error.

9
5.0 CONCLUSION

From the experiment, when the rainfall increase the runoff also will increase
until it reach the time of maximum discharge. The slope area has the shorter time of
concentration that the flat area.

10
6.0 REFERENCES

1. Hydraulics Laboratory, Open Ended Laboratory Instruction, Department Of Water

and Environment Engineering, Faculty Of Civil And Environment Engineering
UTHM.

2. Resevoir. Retrieved from https://enmwikipedia.org/wiki/Runoff_model_(reservoir)

3. Basic hydrology, Infiltration test. Retrieved from

https://www.scribd.com/doc/174047240/BASIC-HYDROLOGY-INFILTRATION-T
EST

11
 LAB 1B :
INFILTRATION
RATE
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY 2

3.0 RESULTS & DATA ANALYSIS 3

4.0 DISCUSSION 8

5.0 CONCLUSIONS 9

6.0 REFERENCES 10
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Infiltration is the term applied to the process of the water entry to the
soil,generally by downward flow through all or part of the soil surface.The rate of this
process,relative to the rate of water supply,determine how much water will enter the
root zone,and how much,if any,will run off. The determination of infiltration is
receiving increasing attention in hydrologic studies because of the need for more
quantitive data on all phases of the hydrologic cycle.

Infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters into the soil. It is
usually measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil in one
hour. An infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the soil
surface, will take one hour to infiltrate.

In dry soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the initial infiltration rate. As
more water replaces the air in the pores, the water from the soil surface infiltrates
more slowly and eventually reaches a steady rate. This is called the basic infiltration
rate.

The infiltration rate depends on soil texture (the size of the soil particles) and soil
structure (the arrangement of the soil particles) and is a useful way of categorizing
soils from an irrigation point of view.The most common method to measure the
infiltration rate is by a field test using a cylinder or ring infiltrometer.

1
2.0 METHODOLOGY
Firstly,hammer the 30 cm diameter ring at least 15 cm into the soil.The timber is
used to protect the ring from damage during hammering. Keep the side of the ring
vertical and drive the measuring rod into the soil so that approximately 12 cm is left
above the ground.
Secondly,hammer the 60 cm ring into the soil or construct an earth bund around
the 30 cm ring to the same height as the ring and place the hessian inside the
infiltrometer to protect the soil surface when pouring in the water .
Next,the test is started by pouring water into the ring until the depth is
approximately 70-100 mm. At the same time,water is added to the space between the
two rings or the ring and the bund to the same depth.The water in the bund or within
the two rings is to prevent a lateral spread of water from the infiltrometer.

Then. the clock time is recorded when the test begins and note the water level on
the measuring rod.

After 1-2 minutes,the drop in water level is added in the inner ring on the
measuring rod and water to bring the level back to approximately the original level at
the start of the test.The water level is recorded. Maintain the water level outside the
ring similar to that inside.

4. Continue the test until the drop in water level is the same over the same time
interval.Readings is took frequently (e.g. every 1-2 minutes) at the beginning of the
test, but extend the interval between readings as the time goes on (e.g. every
20-30minutes).

2
3.0 RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 RESULTS

INFILTRATION INFILTRATION
TIME (s) INNER (mm)
CAPACITY (mm) RATE (mm/s)
60 108 2 0.0333
120 103 7 0.0583
180 98 12 0.0667
240 93 17 0.0708
300 87 23 0.0767
360 82 28 0.0778
420 78 32 0.0762
480 74 36 0.0750
540 69 41 0.0778
600 66 44 0.0733
660 64 46 0.0697
720 58 52 0.0722
780 57 53 0.0679
840 55 55 0.0655
900 54 56 0.0622
960 52 58 0.0604
1020 51 59 0.0578
1080 40 70 0.0648
1140 40 70 0.0614

3
3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Initial depth of water : 110m

Time : 60s
Inner : 108mm
Infiltration capacity : 110mm-108mm = 2mm
2𝑚𝑚
Infiltration rate : 60𝑠
= 0.033 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

4
3.3 GRAPHS

Graph of Infiltration capacity vs Time

Graph of infiltration rate vs time

5
Sketch the graph infiltration rate versus time for the three different characteristics of
soils :

1) Dry soil
Infiltration rate (mm/s)

Time, t (s)

For the dry soil, we can see that the infiltration occurred faster than other soil. This is
because, water easier to absorb to the dry soil because inside the soil, they have a lot
of void.

2) Wet soil
Infiltration rate (mm/s)

Time, t (s)

For the wet soil, infiltration not too fast. It is slow than saturated soil. This is because
they already have a water inside the soil. So, the water was slowly to absorb inside the
soil.

6
 3) Saturated soil
Infiltration rate (mm/s)

Time, t (s)

For the saturated soil, infiltration occurred very slow because they have a lot of
water inside the saturated soil that wet soil.

7
4.0 DISCUSSION

From the experiment, we consider that the soil are quite dry at first and then turn
into a little bit wet soil. For dry soil, infiltration rate occurred fast because the soil
have a lot of void. After a few minutes, the water get slowly absorb the soil as if they
have already water inside. The process of infiltration is not too fast because they
already have water inside the soil. So the water was slowly to absorb inside the soil
during the experiment was carried out.

8
5.0 CONCLUSION

As conclusion of this experiment, we found out the infiltration rate is affected by

the type of soil that we used. The infiltration rate is faster in a dry soil, become slowly
in a wet soil and very slowly in a saturated soil. Therefore, the infiltration rate was
affected by the porosity of the soil and moisture content of the soil.

9
6.0 REFERENCES

1. Infiltration Rate and Infiltration Test. Retrieved from

http://www.fao.org/3/S8684E/s8684e0a.html

10
 LAB 2 :
HYDRAULIC
JUMP
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY 6

3.0 RESULTS & DATA ANALYSIS 7

4.0 DISCUSSION 17

5.0 CONCLUSIONS 18

6.0 REFERENCES 19
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

The concept of the hydraulic jump when the hydraulic drop that occurs at a
sudden drop in the bottom of a channel, and the free surface flow around obstructions
like bridge piers. A hydraulic jump forms when a supercritical flow changes into a
subcritical flow. The change in the flow regime occurs with a sudden rise in water
surface. Considerable turbulence, energy loss and air entrainment are produced in the
hydraulic jump. A hydraulic is used for mixing chemicals in water supply systems, for
dissipating energy below artificial channel controls, and as an aeration device to
increase the dissolved oxygen in water.

In a hydraulic jump there occurs a sudden change in liquid depth from

less-than-critical to greater-than-critical depth. The velocity of the flow changes from
supercritical to subcritical as a result of the jump. This transition takes place over a
relatively short distance, usually less than 5 times the depth of flow after the jump,
over which the height of the liquid increase rapidly, incurring a considerable loss of
energy. An example of a hydraulic jump can be observed when a jet of water from a
faucet strikes the horizontal surface of the kitchen sink. The water flows rapidly
outward and a circular jump occurs.

We shall restrict the derivation of the basic equation of the hydraulic jump
to rectangular horizontal channels. First, we shall determine the downstream depth of
the jump by using the momentum and continuity equations for one-dimensional flow.
Then the energy loss due to the jump will be evaluated, using the energy equation.

1
1.2 OBJECTIVE

1. To investigate the characteristic a standing wave (the hydraulic jump) produce

when waters beneath an undershot weir and to observe the flow patterns
obtained.

2. To find out the characteristics of the standing wave produced when waters
beneath an undershot weir thus observe the patterns flow.

1.3 THEORY

Figure 3.1: Hydraulic Jump

A hydraulic jump or standing wave is produced when the water flow

changes from a rapidly flowing of water to a slower tranquil flow. This
phenomenon can be seen clearly where water shooting under a sluice gate mixes
with deeper water downstream. When a depth less than critical changes to a
depth which is greater than critical, a hydraulic jump occurs and must be
accompanied by loss of energy. An undular jump will occur when the change in
water depth is small. The surface of the water undulates in a series of oscillations,
which gradually decay to region of smooth tranquil flow. Besides, a direct jump
occurs when the change in water depth is large. The large amount of energy loss
will then produce an extremely turbulent water zone before it settles into a
smooth tranquil flow.By considering the forces acting within the fluid on either
side of a hydraulic jump of unit width it can be shown that (eq. 1):

2
 va
2
 v 
2

H  d a    d b  b  ____________(eq. 1)
2g  2g 

Where, ∆H is the total head loss across jump (energy dissipated) (m), va is the
mean velocity before jump (m/s), da is the depth of flow before hydraulic jump
(m). Because of the working section is short, da ≈ d1 and db ≈ d3.

Therefore, simplifying the above equation,

d 3  d1 3
H  ____________(eq. 2)
4d1 d 3

Figure 3.2: Relationships between Hydraulic Jump with y/yc

Hydraulic jump is similar to a shock wave in aerodynamics. It is a

turbulent, non-energy-conserving process that the flow passes from a rapid flow
to a slow tranquil flow. Since the energy is not conserved, the states of before
and after do not correspond to the intersection of a line E = constant with the
specific energy curve. However, momentum is conserved and this helps us to
find the final state if we know the initial state. Since the hydraulic jump will
occur in a limited channel length and gravitational energies will not be important,
therefore we assume that the channel is in horizontal.

3
 First, let the water to flow entering the jump with a velocity, V1 and a height,
y1, and leaving with a velocity, V2 and a height, y2. The momentum lost by the
fluid passing through the jump is ρQ (V2 - V1), and this must be equivalent to the
difference in pressure forces on the two cross sections. This difference is ρgh1A1
- ρgh2A2, where h is the distance from the surface to the centroid of area, A. This
is the place where the pressure plays an important and exact role. Equating the
momentum rate changes with the net force acting, we find that the combination
hA + QV/g is conserved. For a rectangular channel, A = by and h = y/2m, so a
conserved quantity is f = q2/yg + y2/2.

As we have done for the specific energy above, we can write this in
dimensionless form by setting x = y/yc, Then, f/yc = 1/x + x2/2. We shall call a
plot of y/yc vs f/yc as the hydraulic jump curve. It is actually the specific energy
curve with 1/x in place of x and the hydraulic jump curve for a wide rectangular
channel is shown at the right. When there is a slope changes from a steep to a
mild slope, a hydraulic jump will occur at a point such that y2 is the normal
depth on the downstream end. Depending on the corresponding value of y1, the
hydraulic jump may occur either before or after the break in the slope wherever
the required value of y1 can be found. If y1 is greater than the depth on the steep
slope, then the hydraulic jump will occur on the mild slope when the height of
the rapid flow reaches y1. In contrary, if it is not, then the hydraulic jump will
occur on the steep slope to a depth that becomes the normal depth on the mild
slope.

Figure 3.3 The hydraulic Jump

4
 This may be illustrated by the jump shown in the figure at the left. The flow
is rapid as the water flows through a gate with high velocity and a depth which is
less than the critical depth. The depth conjugate to y1' is y2'. Since this is greater
than the normal depth on the mild slope, the jump will not occur immediately as
there is insufficient energy. The rapid flow will then decelerate on the mild slope
and the water depth increases, bringing down the conjugate depth. Both the
energy line and the water surface are slightly concave upwards in this region, so
it is drawn as straight. When the depth reaches y1 and it conjugates to the normal
depth on the mild slope, the hydraulic jump occurs at the first point where it is
possible. It will not occur at a single section, but it extends for the length of the
turbulent jump (foreshortened in the diagram). It can be seen clearly that the
momentum on the left is balanced by the pressure force on the right. The energy
line falls rapidly through the region of the jump, then resumes with the mild
slope, S' = S. From the level of the slack water upstream, there is a small loss of
energy at the gate. A good place to see a hydraulic jump is at the overflow
spillway of a dam which having a rapid flow down the inclined face of the
spillway, and a jump on the apron beyond in the tail water.

5
2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 EQUIPEMENTS

1. Self-contained Glass Sided Tilting Flume

2. Adjustable Undershot Weir
3. Instrument Carrier
4. Hook and Point Gauge

2.2 PROCEDURES

i. Set up the opening gate with 40mm and make sure there is no leakage between
the gate and open channel wall.
ii. Adjust the slope, so with +400 before switch on the pump.
iii. Switch on the pump switch and control the gate valve to get the flow depth.
iv. Wait and observe the movement of water until the water level remain and take the
reading of flow depth, do (a depth before the gate).
v. v.Rotate the rail gates slowly and make sure it can form a waterfall
vi. Water jump must be formed close to the gate. Wait a while until the jump is
fixed.
vii. Take the reading of flow depth, d1 (in front of the gate, before the water jump),
d3 (in front of the gate, after the water jump) and flow rate, q (m3/s) at the
control panel.
viii. Before take the reading of flow depths, make sure the gauge must be at zero (0).
ix. After take the reading, raise the door gate to 40mm and slope, So -400.
x. x.Make sure the water jump formed before still at the same place. If the jump
move, set the rail gate slowly using gate holder and make sure the jump is at the
place.
xi. After the water jump fixed and stop (no movement), repeat procedure 6
xii. Switch off the pump switch after ended the experiment.

6
 3.0 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 RESULTS

Weir breadth, b = 0.300 m

Flow
Flow
Upstream Depth
Weir Depth Flow
Flow Below v1
H d3
Opening Above Rate H
Depth d o Jump d1 d1
d g (m) Jump (m3/s)
(m) d3
d1 (m)
(m)

0.020 0.402 0.013 0.108 0.010 0.153 2.564 11.769 8.308

0.025 0.294 0.017 0.102 0.010 0.089 1.961 5.235 6.000

0.030 0.214 0.025 0.092 0.010 0.033 1.333 1.320 3.680

0.035 0.168 0.026 0.086 0.010 0.024 1.282 0.923 3.308

0.040 0.134 0.027 0.080 0.010 0.017 1.235 0.630 2.963

Table 1: Data 1 recorded for hydraulic jumps experiment

7
Graph 1 v1 versus d1 for b = 0.300 m

8
 Weir breadth, b = 0.310 m

Flow
Upstream Flow Depth
Weir Depth Flow
Flow Below v1
Opening Above Rate
Depth d o Jump d 3 H d3
d g (m) Jump d1 3
(m /s) H
d1 d1
(m) (m)
(m)

0.020 0.394 0.013 0.125 0.011 0.216 2.730 16.615 9.615

0.025 0.255 0.015 0.111 0.011 0.133 2.366 8.867 7.400

0.030 0.208 0.019 0.104 0.011 0.078 1.868 4.105 5.474

0.035 0.184 0.020 0.101 0.011 0.066 1.774 3.300 5.050

0.040 0.121 0.025 0.085 0.011 0.025 1.420 1.000 3.400

Table 2: Data 2 recorded for hydraulic jumps experiment

9
Graph 2 v1 versus d1 for b = 0.310 m

10
3.2 DATA ANALYSIS
For Table 1 data:

Calculation for velocity, V1

Q
Given formula: V  , where A  b  d11
A

V1 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.010 / (0.30 x 0.013) = 2.564 m/s

V2 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.010 / (0.30 x 0.017) = 1.961 m/s

V3 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.010 / (0.30 x 0.025) = 1.333 m/s

V4 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.010 / (0.30 x 0.026) = 1.282 m/s

V5 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.010 / (0.30 x 0.027) = 1.235 m/s

Calculation for ratio of d3 and d1

d3
Given formula: d 1

d3 0.108 d3 0.102
1. = = 8.308 2. = = 6.000
d1 0.013 d1 0.017

d3 0.092 d3 0.086
3. = =3.680 4. = = 3.308
d1 0.025 d1 0.026

d3 0.080
5. = = 2.963l
d1 0.027

11
Calculation for total head loss across jump, H

Given formula:

va  v 
2 2
H  d a    d b  b 
2g  2g 

Value for da = d1 and db = d3, therefore simplify the equation, ∆H = (d3-d1)3 / 4

d1d3

∆H1 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.108-0.013)3/ 4(0.013) (0.108) = 0.153

∆H2 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.102-0.017)3/ 4(0.017) (0.102) = 0.089

∆H3 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.092-0.025)3/ 4(0.025) (0.092) = 0.033

∆H4 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.086-0.026)3/ 4(0.026) (0.086) = 0.024

∆H5 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.080-0.027)3/ 4(0.027) (0.080) = 0.017

Calculation for ratio of ∆H and d1

Given formula:

H
d1

∆H1/d1 = 0.153 / 0.013 = 11.769

∆H2/d1 = 0.089 / 0.017 = 5.235

∆H3/d1 = 0.033 / 0.025 = 1.320

∆H4/d1 = 0.024 / 0.026 = 0.923

∆H5/d1 = 0.017/ 0.027 = 0.630

Calculation for dc, and verify d3: d1< dc< d3

12
A specific value is fixed for the flow rate for every testing to ensure there is no
over flow happen on open channel equipment while carrying out the experiment.

Q = 0.010m3/s

b = 0.30 m

q = Q/b dc = (q2/g)1/3

= 0.010/0.30 = ((0.033)2 / 9.81)1/3

= 0.033 m3/s/m = 0.048 m

Based on the calculation, we concluded that the value of dc is within the stated
interval.

d1< dc< d3 = 0.013 < 0.048 < 0.108

13
For Table 2 data:

Calculation for velocity, V1

Q
Given formula: V  , where A  b  d11
A

V1 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.011 / (0.31 x 0.013) = 2.730 m/s

V2 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.011 / (0.31 x 0.015) = 2.366 m/s

V3 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.011 / (0.31 x 0.019) = 1.868 m/s

V4 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.011 / (0.31 x 0.020) = 1.774 m/s

V5 = Q / (b x d1) = 0.011 / (0.31 x 0.025) = 1.420 m/s

Calculation for ratio of d3 and d1

Given formula:

d3
d1

d3 0.125 d3 0.111
1. = = 9.615 2. = = 7.400
d1 0.013 d1 0.015

d3 0.104 d3 0.101
3. = =5.474 4. = = 5.050
d1 0.019 d1 0.020

d3 0.085
5. = = 3.400
d1 0.025

14
Calculation for total head loss across jump, Δ H

Given formula:

va
2
 vb 
2

H  d a    db  
2 g  2 g 

Value for da = d1 and db = d3, therefore simplify the equation, ∆H = (d3-d1)3 / 4

d1d3

∆H1 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.125-0.013)3/ 4(0.013) (0.125) = 0.216

∆H2 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.111-0.015)3/ 4(0.015) (0.111) = 0.133

∆H3 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.104-0.019)3/ 4(0.019) (0.104) = 0.078

∆H4 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.101-0.020)3/ 4(0.020) (0.101) = 0.066

∆H5 = (d3-d1)3 / 4 d1d3 = (0.085-0.025)3/ 4(0.025) (0.085) = 0.025

Calculation for ratio of ∆H and d1

Given formula:

H
d1

∆H1/d1 = 0.216 / 0.013 = 16.615

∆H2/d1 = 0.133 / 0.015 = 8.867

∆H3/d1 = 0.078 / 0.019 = 4.105

∆H4/d1 = 0.066 / 0.020 = 3.300

∆H5/d1 = 0.025/ 0.025 = 1.000

Calculation for dc, and verify d3: d1< dc< d3

15
A specific value is fixed for the flow rate for every testing to ensure there is no
over flow happen on open channel equipment while carrying out the experiment.

Q = 0.011m3/s

b = 0.31 m

q = Q/b dc = (q2/g)1/3

= 0.011/0.31 = ((0.035)2/9.81)1/3
= 0.035m3/s/m = 0.050 m

Based on the calculation, we concluded that the value of dc is within the

stated interval.

d1< dc< d3 = 0.013 < 0.050 < 0.125

16
4.0 DISCUSSION

A hydraulic jump can be viewed as discontinuous waves of all frequencies

(wavelengths), which are generated and propagate from a point near the jump. The
waves propagate both upstream and downstream. Since a large fraction of the waves
fall in a wavelength range where they are shallow water gravity waves that move at
the same speed for a given depth, they move upstream at the same rate.

However as the water shallows upstream, their speed drops quickly, limiting the
rate at which they can propagate upstream. Shorter wavelengths, which propagate
more slowly than the speed of the wave in the deeper downstream water, are swept
away downstream. A fairly wide range of wavelengths and frequencies are still
present, so Fourier analysis would suggest that a relatively abrupt wave front can be
formed and this is indeed observed in practice.
One of the most important engineering applications of the hydraulic jump is to
dissipate energy in channels, dam spillways, and similar structures so that the excess
kinetic energy does not damage these structures. The energy dissipation or head loss
across a hydraulic jump is a function of the magnitude of the jump. The larger the
jump as expressed in the fraction of final height to initial height, the greater the head
loss.

17
5.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it shows that the degree of hydraulic jumps is affected by the

changes of height of opening gate dg, level before jump d1, the velocity before
jumps v1 and level of upstream do. This function of this agent can be determined
by manipulated those variable and result with the observed transformation of
flow hydraulic jump pattern. If the water depth changes abruptly over a
comparatively short distance, it is classified as rapidly varies flow (RVP) and a
rapidly varied hydraulic jump will be produced. In term of engineering, the
objective of hydraulic jump is to perform an energy-dissipating device to reduce
the excess energy of water flows.
The relationship between the graphs of ΔH/d1 against d3/d1 is linearly
proportional. When the value of d3/d1 increases, the value of ΔH/d1 increases. On the
other hand, for the graph of dg against v, when the value of weir opening, dg
increases, the value of velocity of water decreases. When the gate is opened, the value
of stream flow depth will decrease and the downstream flow depth will increase.
Hydraulic jumps can be classified according to the Froude Number and ratio of d3/d1.

18
6.0 REFERENCES

1. Hydraulic Jump Experiment Laboratory Practical Manual Notes. Retrieved from

https://www.aboutcivil.org/hydraulic-jump-lab-experiment.html

19
LAB 3A :
PELTON
TURBINE
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY 2

3.0 RESULTS & DATA ANALYSIS 3

4.0 DISCUSSION 9

5.0 CONCLUSIONS 10

6.0 REFERENCES 11
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fluid is sent through the nozzle so that most of its available mechanical energy is
converted into kinetic energy in an impulse turbine. The bucket-shape vane is
impinged by the high speed jet that transfers the energy to the turbine shaft. Lester A.
Pelton has invented the modern and most efficient type of impulse turbine in 1878 and
the rotating wheel is now called a Pelton wheel in his honor.
The buckets of a Pelton wheel are designed so as to split the flow in half and turn
the flow nearly 180 around (with respect to a frame of reference moving with the
bucket). The splitter ridge shape has been modelled by Pelton after the nostrils of a
cow’s nose. A portion of the outermost part of each bucket is cut out so that the
majority of the jet can pass through the bucket that is not aligned with jet (bucket) to
reach the most aligned bucket. In this way, the maximum amount of momentum from
the jet is utilized.

1
2.0 METHODOLOGY

The general start-up procedures was performed. The throttle valve was fully open
and allowed the water to circulate until all air bubble dispersed. The spear valve was
opened and adjusted for a particular nozzle opening. The tensioning screw was tighten
up on the pulley wheel until the turbine is almost stalled (rotor just turning). Suitable
increments in force was decided to give adequate sample points and the value of the
pulley brake was noted. The tensioning screw was slacken off so no force is being
applied to the turbine. The screw is tighten to give the first increment in force for the
brake. All the readings was recorded again when the readings are steady enough. Step
above was repeated for a gradually increasing set of f6 values. The final sample point
was correspond to the turbine stalling. The data used for analysis and the pelton
characteristics curve was plotted. The volume flow rate was decrease to a new setting
by changing the throttle valve position and at the same time, the spear valve position
was changed to maintain the pressure at 1.0 kgf/cm.

Mechanical Power, Pm ( watt )  Torque( , Nm)  AngularVelocity ( , rad / s )

2radius / min
Where  ( Nm )  Force ( N )  Radius ( m) and   ( rad / s )
60 sec/ min
Where 1 revolution is equal to 2radius

Meanwhile, Water Power, Pw ( watt )  gQ where  is water density

(1000kg/ m 3 ), g is gravity constant (9.81m/ s 2 ),  is head at inlet point (m) and Q is

flowrate ( m 3 / s ) .
Pm
Turbine efficiency,  %   100
Pw

2
3.0 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 RESULTS

Drum Radius, r = 0.0261m

Specific Weight of Water, ɣ = 9800 N/m3

Load(N)  0.5 Water

Wheel Angular
NO Pressure Speed ,N Velocity ,
(rpm)  ( s 1 ) Time
W1 W2 W Volume
(s)

1 0 0 0 21 9251.3 968.794 5 32.54

2 0.50 1.0 0.50 18 8329.9 872.305 5 19.95

3 1.0 1.50 0.50 15.5 6833.9 715.644 5 20.36

4 1.50 2.0 0.50 15 6593.5 690.470 5 19.94

5 2.0 3.0 1.00 14 6217.9 651.114 5 19.96

6 2.50 3.50 1.00 13 6104.9 639.304 5 18.78

7 3.0 4.50 1.50 11.5 5528.7 578.964 5 17.01

8 3.50 5.10 1.60 10 5094.6 533.505 5 15.97

3
 Torque,
Wheel Speed, Mechanical
Load (N)  0.5 
NO N Power, Pm
(Nm)
(rpm) (W)
W1 W2 W  10 3
1 0 0 0 0 9251.3 0
2 0.50 1.0 0.50 6.525 8329.9 6.321
3 1.0 1.50 0.50 6.525 6833.9 5.692
4 1.50 2.0 0.50 6.525 6593.5 4.670
5 2.0 3.0 1.00 13.055 6217.9 8.500
6 2.50 3.50 1.00 13.055 6104.9 8.346
7 3.0 4.50 1.50 19.583 5528.7 11.338
8 3.50 5.10 1.60 20.888 5094.6 11.143

Volume Flow Volume Flow

Hydraulic Efficiency,
No Rate, Q Rate, Q
Power, Ph (W)  (%)
(l / min) (10 4 m 3 / s )

1 9.219 1.537 31.631 0

2 15.038 2.506 44.206 14.30

3 14.735 2.456 37.307 15.26

4 15.045 2.508 36.868 12.67

5 15.030 2.505 34.369 24.73

6 15.974 2.662 33.914 24.61

7 17.637 2.940 33.134 34.22

8 18.785 3.131 30.684 36.32

4
3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Radius of drum brake, r = 0.0261m

Specific weight of water ,  = 9800 N / m 3

Weight of load 1, W1  0.50

Weight of load 2, W2  1.0

W  W2  W1
Net load,  1.0  0.50
 0.50

  W  r
Torque,  0.50  0.5  0.02611
 6.525 10 3
Rotational speed of turbine,   8329 .9rpm

2  

60
2    8329.9
Angular velocity, 
60
 872.305

m    
Mechanical power,  6.525  10 3  872.305
 6.321W

15.038  10 3
Q
Volume flow rate, 60
 2.506  10  4

h  QH
Hydraulic power,  9800  2.506  10  4  18
 44.206

5
 m
  100
h
6.321
Turbine efficiency,   100
44.206
 14.30%

6
3.3 GRAPHS

Graph of Rotation Power, m (W ) against Motor Speed,  (rpm )

Graph of Efficiency,  (%) against Motor Speed,  (rpm )

7
Graph of Volume Flow Rate, Q(  10 4 m 3 / s ) against Motor Speed,  (rpm )

8
4.0 DISCUSSION

Based on the graph that has been constructed, rotation power, efficiency and
volume flow rate decreased against motor speed. Supposed to be the results besides
efficiency are increased against motor speed as expected results or theory. The result
that obtained from this experimental are different from expected results may due to
errors in the experiments. Experimental errors occur in the experiment leads to the
deviation of the readings obtained as compared to the expected results. The first error
is the fluctuation of the machine’s readings whereby when taking the readings of
loads, the readings fluctuate and the exact value of the loads’ readings are hard to
obtain.
This may be caused by the vibration of the operating motor and water flow
through the pipe. These vibration will affect the sensors and cause the instruments’
readings to fluctuate. This leads to less accurate net weight of load, torque and
mechanical power readings. Besides, there is also pipe leakage which may also
contribute to the deviation of the experimental readings. The zero errors also
contribute to the experimental errors whereby the measuring instrument show
negative readings at the beginning of the experiment before the readings are taken.
The frictional force between the wheel and the wheel shaft also causes the readings
obtained to be less accurate. The old brake band unable to give a constant friction
with the wheel drum.

9
5.0 CONCLUSION

The Pelton Turbine will show different operational characteristics when the
machine pump is operating at different frequencies and different hydraulic pressure.
At higher frequency, it will have higher wheel rotational speed, torque, volume flow
rate and power output but lower efficiency. At lower frequency, it will have lower
wheel rotational speed, torque, volume flow rate and power output but higher
efficiency. Graph of volume flow rate, rotational power and efficiency against wheel
rotational speed are drawn.
There are some errors in the experiment and precaution steps are required to
improve the experimental results. First, the experiment should be carried out for a few
more times and the average readings are taken to improve the experimental result. The
readings should only be taken when they are stable to give more accurate
experimental results. The installation of the damper in motor and pump will minimise
the system vibration. Furthermore, new piping system should be designed with no
leakages, smooth inner piping and less bending, valves or other factors which will
contribute to the minor head losses and affect the hydraulic power obtained. Besides,
the measuring instruments should also be set zero before the readings are taken to
avoid the zero errors. Furthermore, the contact area between the wheel and its shaft
should be lubricated frequently to ensure the minimum amount of friction subjected
which affect the experimental readings. The brake band should be replaced to
improve the experimental result. The adjusting knob used for adjusting the turbine
speed is loose and this will cause the value of impeller speed can’t be set accurately.
The adjusting knob can be replaced by using a digital control system to control the
speed which can improve the accuracy of the readings.

10
6.0 REFERENCES

1. John F. Douglas, Fluid Mechanics, 5th Ed., Pearson.

2. Frank M. White. 2008. Fluid Mechanics. Sixth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill
International Edition.pp341-446.
3. Brady, James E. Engineering Thermodynamic. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1997.

11
LAB 3B :
FRANCIS
TURBINE
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY 3

3.0 RESULTS & DATA ANALYSIS 4

4.0 DISCUSSION 13

5.0 CONCLUSIONS 14

6.0 REFERENCES 15
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

Turbines are subdivided into impulse and reaction machines. In the impulse
turbines, the total head available is converted into the kinetic energy. This is usually
accomplished in one or more nozzles as mentioned previously in Pelton Wheel
experiment. In the reaction turbines, only some part of the available total head of the
fluid is converted into kinetic energy so that the fluid entering the runner has pressure
energy as well as kinetic energy. The pressure energy is then converted into kinetic
energy in the runner.
The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine that was developed by James B.
Francis. Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today. They
operate in a water head from 40 to 600 m and are primarily used for electrical power
production. The electric generators which most often use this type of turbine have a
power output which generally ranges just a few kilowatts up to 800 MW.

1.2 THEORY

The reaction turbine consists of fixed guide vanes called stay vanes, adjustable
guide vanes called wicket gates, and rotating blades called runner blades. Flow enters
tangentially at high pressure, is turned toward the runner by the stay vanes as it moves
along the spiral casing or volute, and then passes through the wicket gates with a large
tangential velocity component. Momentum is exchanged between the fluid and the
runner as the runner rotates, and there is a large pressure drop. Unlike the impulse
turbine, the water completely fills the casing of a reaction turbine. For this reason, a
reaction turbine generally produces more power than an impulse turbine of the same
diameter, net head, and volume flow rate. The angle of the wicket gates is adjustable
so as to control the volume flow rate through the runner.

1
 In most designs the wicket gates can close on each other, cutting off the flow of
water into the runner. At design conditions the flow leaving the wicket gates impinges
parallel to the runner blade leading edge to avoid shock losses.In Francis turbine,a
reaction turbine, there is a drop in static pressure and a drop in velocity head during
energy transfer in the runner. Only part of the total head presented to the machine is
converted to velocity head before entering the runner. This is achieved in the
adjustable guide vanes, shown in Fig.1.

Figure 1: Configuration of a Francis Turbine

Similarly to Pelton wheel, Francis turbine usually drives an alternator and, hence, its
speed must be constant. Since the total head available is constant and dissipation of
energy by throttling is undesirable, the regulation at part load is achieved by varying the
guide vane angle. This is possible because there is no requirement for the speed ratio to
remain constant. In Francis turbines, sudden load changes are catered for either by a
bypass valve or by a surge tank.

2
2.0 METHODOLOGY

The delivery control shutter was closed. The distributor leverage at the chosen
value (50% and 100%) was fixed. The delivery control shutter was opened until
desired flow rate. The reading of pressure (m), speed (n), flow rate (Q), and voltage (v)
for each distributor leverage value was recorded. Then it were repeated with different
distributor leverage value.

3
3.0 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 RESULTS
TABLE 1 : RESULT OF FRANCIS TURBINE EXPERIMENT
Sm = 1962.5mm2 Hm = 0.20 m

Current Reading I Current

Pressure Flowrate Q (m3/h) Speed, n (RPM) Voltage V (volt)
Z(%) (ampere) Reading I
Pm (bar)
Q QAverage n nAverage V VAverage I IAverage (%)
16.3 4642 24.6 0 0
0.94 16.3 14.1 5588 4843 24.8 24.8 0 0
9.7 4300 24.9 0
15.2 5411 16.7 0.71
0.88 15.7 15.6 4134 4738 19.8 17.7 0.87 0.74 25
16.0 4669 16.7 0.64
16.0 4584 15.3 1.63
50 0.78 16.0 16.0 4555 4554 15.3 15.3 1.62 1.62 50
15.9 4524 15.2 1.61
16.6 3708 11.8 2.11
0.74 16.7 16.7 3655 3669 11.7 11.7 2.09 2.09 75
16.8 3643 11.7 2.07
17.1 2711 7.9 2.55
0.72 17.2 17.2 2726 2721 7.9 7.9 2.56 2.55 100
17.2 2727 8.0 2.55
 Current Reading I Current
Pressure Pm Flowrate Q (m3/h) Speed, n (RPM) Voltage V (volt)
Z(%) (ampere) Reading I
(bar)
Q QAverage n nAverage V VAverage I IAverage (%)

15.0 5882 22.8 0

0.94 15.0 14.5 5616 5537 23.5 23.5 0 0 0
13.5 5114 24.1 0
14.9 5421 18.9 0.91
0.88 14.9 15.0 5455 5437 19.0 18.9 0.92 0.91 25
15.2 5434 18.9 0.91
15.9 4448 14.9 1.63
100 0.84 15.1 15.7 4460 4467 14.9 14.9 1.64 1.64 50
16.1 4493 15.0 1.65
15.0 2878 8.1 1.61
0.72 18.4 16.4 3044 3162 8.3 9.3 1.98 1.89 75
15.8 3564 11.4 2.08
16.8 2723 7.9 2.56
0.70 16.9 16.8 2729 2726 7.9 7.9 2.55 2.55 100
16.8 2726 7.9 2.55
 TABLE 2 : RESULT OF FRANCIS TURBINE EXPERIMENT
Sm = 1962.5mm2 Hm = 0.20 m

Turbine
Distance
Current Electrical Pipe Cross Water Total Mechanical Hydraulic Efficiency
Between Turbine Kinetic Hkin Pressure
Z(%) Reading I Power Pel Section Sm Speed Head Htot Power Pm Power Phyd (Pm
Shaft & Pressure (m) Hpress (m)
(%) (w) (m2) Vm (m/s) (m) (watt) (watt) /Phyd )x100
Tap Hman(m)
(%)

0 0 1.963 x 10-3 1.996 0.2 0.203 9.572 9.975 0.000 383.667 0.000
25 13.098 1.963 x 10-3 2.208 0.2 0.248 8.961 9.410 17.464 400.418 4.361
50 50 24.786 1.963 x 10-3 2.265 0.2 0.261 7.943 8.404 33.048 366.805 9.010
75 24.453 1.963 x 10-3 2.364 0.2 0.285 7.536 8.020 32.604 365.361 8.924
100 20.145 1.963 x 10-3 2.435 0.2 0.302 7.332 7.834 26.860 367.557 7.308
0 0 1.963 x 10-3 2.052 0.2 0.215 9.572 9.987 0.000 395.013 0.000
25 17.199 1.963 x 10-3 2.123 0.2 0.230 8.961 9.391 22.932 384.251 5.968
100 50 24.436 1.963 x 10-3 2.222 0.2 0.252 8.554 9.006 32.581 385.678 8.448
75 17.577 1.963 x 10-3 2.321 0.2 0.275 7.332 7.807 23.436 349.233 6.711
100 20.145 1.963 x 10-3 2.378 0.2 0.288 7.128 7.617 26.860 349.039 7.695
 TABLE 2 : RESULT OF FRANCIS TURBINE EXPERIMENT
Sm = 1962.5mm2 Hm = 0.20 m

Water Distance Between

Current Electrical Pipe Cross Total Mechanical Hydraulic EfficiencyPm
Speed Turbine Shaft & Kinetic Hkin Pressure
Z(%) Reading Power Section Sm Head Htot Power Pm Power Phyd /Phyd
Vm Pressure Tap (m) Hpress (m)
I (%) Pel (w) (m2) (m) (watt) (watt) (watt)
(m/s) Hman(m)

0 0 1.963 x 10-3 2.052 0.2 0.215 9.572 9.987 0.000 395.013 0.000
25 13.098 1.963 x 10-3 2.208 0.2 0.248 8.961 9.410 17.464 400.418 0.044
50 50 24.786 1.963 x 10-3 2.265 0.2 0.261 7.943 8.404 33.048 366.805 0.090
75 24.453 1.963 x 10-3 2.364 0.2 0.285 7.536 8.020 32.604 365.361 0.089
100 20.145 1.963 x 10-3 2.435 0.2 0.302 7.332 7.834 26.860 367.557 0.073
0 0 1.963 x 10-3 2.052 0.2 0.215 9.572 9.987 0.000 395.013 0.000
25 17.199 1.963 x 10-3 2.123 0.2 0.230 8.961 9.391 22.932 384.251 0.060
100 50 24.436 1.963 x 10-3 2.222 0.2 0.252 8.554 9.006 32.581 385.678 0.084
75 17.577 1.963 x 10-3 2.321 0.2 0.275 7.332 7.807 23.436 349.233 0.067
100 20.145 1.963 x 10-3 2.378 0.2 0.288 7.128 7.617 26.860 349.039 0.077
3.2 DATA ANALYSIS

i. Pipe cross section, Sm

Sm = 1963 mm2 convert to m2
Sm = 1963 x 106
Sm = 1.963 x 10-3 m2

ii. Distance between Turbine Shaft and Pressure Tap, Hmm

Hmm = 0.20 m

iii. Pressure (bar) convert to N/m2

1 bar = 1000000 N/m2

iv. γ = 9820 N/m2

v. g = 9.81 ms-1

Data process:
1. Electric power, Pel (W) = V.I
= 24.80 x 0
=0W
Q Average
2. Water speed , Vm =
Sm
Q
Q = A.V ≈ V 
A
14.50
V= = 0.0040
3600
A = Sm ≈ A = 1962.5mm2
Q 0.0040
Vm = = = 2.038 ms-1
Sm 1.9625 x 10-3
3. Kinetic, Hkin (m)

Hkin =
V2m
=
2.038 = 0.212 m
2

2g 2  9.81

8
4. Pressure, Hpress (m)
0.94
Pm = 5
= 94000 N/m2
10
γ = 9820 N/m3
Pm 94000
Hpress = = = 9.572 m
γ 9820

5. Total Head, Htot (m)

Htot = Hmm + Hkin + Hpres
Htot = 0.2 + 0.215 + 9.572
Htot = 9.987 m

6. Mechanical Power, Pm (watt)

Md = 0.75
Pel 0
Pm = = = 0 Watt
Md 0.75

7. Hydraulic Power, Phyd (watt)

Phyd = γ × Htot × Q
Phyd = 9820 × 9.987 × 0.0040
Phyd = 395.013 watt

8. Efficiency, n (watt)
Pm 0
n = = 0 watt
Phyd 395.013

9. Power Output, Pout (watt)

Pm
Pout  T , T 

Pm  T

Hence, Pout  Pm

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3.3 GRAPH

i. Output power,Pout versus velocity, V.

X-axis : velocity, V
Y-axis : output power, Pout

Graph 1 : Pout vs V at z=50%

Graph 2 : Pout vs V at z=100%

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ii. Flow rate, Q versus velocity, V.
X-axis : velocity, V
Y-axis : flow rate, Q

Graph 3 : Q vs V at z=50%

Graph 4 : Q vs V at z=100%

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 Pm
iii. Efficiency ,  100% , versus velocity, V.
Phyd

X-axis : velocity, V
Y-axis : efficiency

Graph 5 : Efficiency vs V at z=50%

Graph 6 : Efficiency vs V at z=100%

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4.0 DISCUSSION

The efficiency increased with the increasing of the degree of reaction while the
overall efficiency decreased with the increasing of the degree of reaction when the
blade position is fixed at number 8 with the different turbine speed.the pressure to turn
the turbine decrease as the turbine speed decrease. The hydraulic power will be decreased
too when the turbine speed decreased. This will cause the efficiency increased and as the
degree of reaction increased. When the speed of turbine decreased, the rotor blade will
turn slower and the volumetric flow rate increased. The effective power and hydraulic
power of the turbine decreased and hence the overall efficiency decreased.
There are some errors occur during this experiment. Firstly, the reading from
un-calibrated electronic sensor change rapidly which has a hard time taking which an
exact reading, so we can only take the random readings that suitable. Next, the water that
used is not pure, which there are impurities in water, so the density is not same as pure
water as in theory. There are some leakages along the pipe. This will affect the reading
values.Besides that, the water bubbles exist throughout the pipe can cause the cavitation
effect in the turbine and this will reduce the head and local static pressure drop to the
vapour pressure level. The noise and vibration of the turbine will be produced because of
the cavitation effect. This will reduce the accuracy of the experiment. The vibration of the
pipe due to motor, pump and water flow will affect the accuracy of the result. Lastly,
there is minor loss due to friction inside the pipe.
There are some precautions needed in this experiment in order to reduce the errors.
The electronic sensor used can be hooked up to a closed loop system that feedback the
result by adjusting the sampling rate of each parameter. Next, make sure the water that
being used is pure water. Make sure there are no leakages along the pipe.A damper as a
good vibration absorber should be installed in order to reduce vibration of the turbine.
Lastly, we need to consider the minor loss due to friction inside the pipe.

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5.0 CONCLUSION

Based on this experiment, we are able to determine the relationship between the
head, flow rate, velocity, power and efficiency of Francis turbine. Next, the basic
operating system of this turbine is understood. After the data have been analyzed, the
factors that influence the efficiency of the turbine is identified. Throughout the
experiment, we received guidance from our lecturer and lab assistant.

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6.0 REFERENCES

1. Francis turbine. (2019). Retrieved from

http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2018/01/francis-turbine.html

2. Francis turbine. (2019). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_turbine

3. Francis Turbine - its Components, Working and Application. (2019). Retrieved

from
https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/francis-turbines-components-application/29
00/

4. Francis Turbines - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (2019). Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/francis-turbines

5. What is Francis Turbine? How Francis Turbine Works? Types of Hydraulic

Turbines. (2019). Retrieved from
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/fluid-mechanics-hydraulics/27407-hydraulic-t
urbines-francis-turbine/

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