Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 1

Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

RADIATION PROTECTION
Module – 1.1

Use of this material, acknowledging the IAEA as the source, is permitted for
non-profit training.

The support of Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO)

management in providing the resource and contribution in the preparation of this material is
acknowledged.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

PART 1
BASIC KNOWLEDGE

MODULE 1.1
STRUCTURE OF MATTER

OVERVIEW.................................................................................................... 3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 4
1. THE ATOM ............................................................................................. 5
1.1 Protons, Electrons and Neutrons ........................................................ 5
1.2 Bohrs’ Atomic Model ........................................................................... 6
SELF-CHECK 1 ............................................................................................. 8
1.3 Important Atomic Terms ...................................................................... 9
1.3.1 Atomic number, neutron number and atomic mass...................... 9
1.3.2 Isotopes, radioisotopes, nuclides and radionuclides .................. 11
SELF-CHECK 2 ........................................................................................... 13
2. HOW ATOMS COMBINE ..................................................................... 14
2.1 Covalent Bonds................................................................................. 15
2.2 Ionic Bonds ....................................................................................... 16
SELF-CHECK 3 ........................................................................................... 17
3 THE PERIODIC TABLE ........................................................................ 18
SELF-CHECK 4 ........................................................................................... 21
4. THE CHART OF NUCLIDES ................................................................ 21
SELF-CHECK 5 ........................................................................................... 24
KEY POINTS ............................................................................................... 24
FINAL ASSIGNMENT ........................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................... 27
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................... 28
APPENDIX C ............................................................................................... 30
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.............................................................................. 31
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

OVERVIEW
As you study this module you will learn basic information about the structure
and properties of atoms. With the help of later modules, this information will
help you to understand why some atoms are radioactive, how radiation is
produced and how radiation interacts with atoms in materials through which it
passes. You will also learn about how atoms combine. This is particularly
important in radiation protection as it will help you to understand the changes
that ionizing radiation can produce in body tissue and how damage may be
caused. Finally, this module will introduce you to important tools used in
radiation protection such as the periodic table and the chart of nuclides.

Although you may already be familiar with some of the information in this
module, it should prove to be useful revision material. Before you attempt
the final assignment, it is advised that you complete the self-check questions
at the end of each section successfully.

MATERIALS
You will need a copy of the periodic table and a chart of nuclides to refer to
while studying this module. These materials may be found in the
accompanying booklet ‘Nuclides and Isotopes’.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this module you will be able to do the following:

1) Explain the terms atom, proton, neutron, electron, element, atomic

number, atomic mass, isotope, nuclide, radioisotope and radionuclide.

2) State the properties of protons, electrons and neutrons in terms of

atomic mass units and electronic charge.

3) Describe the structure of an atom in terms of Bohr’s atomic model.

4) Explain how it is possible for electrons to change orbits.

5) Draw simple diagrams to show the number of protons, electrons and

neutrons in an atom.

6) Write the symbol for an atom using the atomic number and atomic
mass.

7) Derive the structure of an atom from its atomic number and atomic
mass.

8) Explain the terms covalent bond, ionic bond, molecule, metal, non-
metal, salt, positive ion and negative ion.

9) Describe how atoms combine.

10) Describe the periodic table and explain how it relates to chemical
properties and atomic structure.

11) Describe the chart of nuclides and explain how it relates to isotopes of
elements and atomic structure.

12) Identify stable nuclides and natural and artificial radionuclides from the
chart of nuclides.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

NOW YOU ARE READY TO START WORK

1. THE ATOM
All matter is made up of small building blocks called atoms. These atoms
cannot be broken up by any chemical means but they are able to join
together to form materials. Individual atoms are very small (approximately
10-10 metres in diameter) and are impossible to observe directly with any
measuring instruments. Despite their small size, atoms themselves are
made up of a number of smaller subatomic particles known as protons,
electrons and neutrons. As the mass of these particles is very small, a
special unit called the atomic mass unit (symbol u or amu) is used to
describe their mass. The atomic mass unit is defined as one twelfth of the
mass of a carbon-12 atom and is equal to 1.66 x 10-24 grams.

1.1 Protons, Electrons and Neutrons

Protons are positively charged particles with a mass of approximately 1u.

They are found in the centre (or nucleus) of an atom and have a charge
equal to +1.6 x 10-19 coulombs. This quantity of charge is known as the
electronic charge and is given the symbol e.

Electrons have an equal but opposite negative charge (-1.6 x 10-19

coulombs) and are found in orbits around the nucleus. In general, the
number of electrons in an atom is the same as the number of protons, so the
atom has no overall charge. The electron has a much smaller mass than the
proton (approximately 5 x 10-4 u or 1/1840 u). This mass is so small that for
the purpose of describing changes to the structure of atoms during
radioactive decay, it can be taken as zero.

Neutrons may be regarded as a combination of a proton and an electron

and therefore has a mass of approximately 1u but no net electrical charge.
Neutrons are found in the nucleus of the atom.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

Table 1 summarizes the properties of these particles.

Table 1
Remember
The Properties of Particles in the Atom

Particle Position in Atom Mass Charge

(u) (e)
Proton Nucleus 1 +1

Electron Orbit 1/1840 -1

Neutron Nucleus 1 0

1.2 Bohrs’ Atomic Model

Although the exact structure of an atom is not known, a simple model known
as Bohr’s atomic model (named after the physicist Neils Bohr) is used to
describe both the structure and properties of atoms. According to this model,
the structure of an atom is similar to that of the solar system with a heavy
centre or nucleus (the sun) and lighter particles (the planets) orbiting the
nucleus. In atoms, the heavier protons and neutrons form the nucleus
making the nucleus positively charged. The lighter, negatively charged
electrons are attracted to the nucleus by electrostatic forces and they orbit
around the central area.

These electrons can only rotate around the nucleus in specific orbits known
as shells and there is a limit to the number of electrons in each shell. The
shells are called K, L, M and N shells and they can hold 2, 8, 18 and 32
electrons respectively. Note that electrons will start filling the N shell before
the M shell has filled (e.g. potassium and calcium – see Appendix A). This is
because sub-shells exist and the energy levels overlap. Electrons can
change their orbit and move to different shells but only if energy is added to
or released from an atom.
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Remember
Electrons can change orbits (shells) but only if energy is added to or
released from the atom.

A substance composed of a single type of atom is called an element. The

element is determined by the number of protons in each atom. Each
element is given an individual name and symbol such as helium (He) and
carbon (C). Figure 1 illustrates the electron shells for zinc (Zn), an element
with a total of 30 electrons. Note that this is a simple diagram but electron
orbit diagrams for heavier elements can become quite complex.

Figure 1
The Electron Shells of Zinc

Appendix A shows how the electrons are arranged in the shells of the twenty
lightest elements. From this information, draw a simple diagram to illustrate
the electron shells for sodium (Na).

You should have drawn a diagram similar to that shown in Figure 1 but with 2
electrons in the K shell, 8 electrons in the L shell and 1 electron in the M
shell. Now continue.

The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of

protons (and hence the number of electrons) it contains. Neutrons do not
have an electric charge and therefore do not affect the chemical
characteristics of the atom. However, different numbers of neutrons change
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

the total mass of the atom and, in addition, change the stability of the
nucleus. These properties are discussed further in Module 1.3, Ionizing
Radiation and Radioactive Decay as they are important in determining
whether an atom will emit radiation.

SELF-CHECK 1
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Match the terms atoms, protons, neutrons, electrons and element

with the following descriptions:

a) Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.

b) Particles which orbit the nucleus of an atom in shells.

c) Basic building blocks of matter.

d) Particles without an electric charge found in the nucleus of atoms.

e) Material with atoms which all have the same number of protons.

2. Complete the following table:

Particle Mass Charge

(u) (e)
Proton
Electron
Neutron

3. According to Bohr’s atomic model:

a) which particles make up the nucleus of an atom?

b) which particles orbit the nucleus?

c) can electrons move freely within atoms?

d) when is it possible for electrons to change orbits?

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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

4. Using Appendix A, draw a simple diagram to show the number of

electrons in each shell of a chlorine atom.

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

1.3 Important Atomic Terms

An atom may be described in terms of the number of basic particles it

contains. By using the following definitions it is possible to uniquely define
the atomic structure of any atom.

1.3.1 Atomic number, neutron number and atomic mass

As explained earlier, each element is given an individual name and symbol.
An alphabetical list of the elements and their symbols is given in Appendix B.

Turn now to Appendix B and find the symbols for the elements hydrogen,
lithium, oxygen and potassium.

You should have found that the symbol for hydrogen is H, the symbol for
lithium is Li, the symbol for oxygen is O and the symbol for potassium is K.
Now continue.

The atomic number (symbol Z) is defined as the number of protons in the

nucleus and is unique for each element. For example, Z for hydrogen is 1,
for helium Z is 2 and for carbon Z is 6. Appendix C gives the atomic
numbers for the twenty lightest elements.

Now look at Appendix C and find the atomic number (Z) for hydrogen lithium,
oxygen and potassium.

You should have found that Z for hydrogen is 1, Z for lithium is 3, Z for
oxygen is 8 and Z for potassium is 19. Now continue.
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The number of neutrons in the nucleus is denoted by the symbol N.

Although the number of neutrons for a given element may vary, the most
commonly occurring neutron numbers are listed in Appendix C for the twenty
lightest elements.

Turn now to Appendix C and find the neutron numbers for hydrogen, lithium,
oxygen and potassium.

You should have found that N for hydrogen is 0, N for lithium is 4, N for
oxygen is 8 and N for potassium is 20. Now continue.

The atomic mass is represented by the symbol A and is equal to the total
number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N) in the nucleus of an atom. (The
mass of the electrons is much smaller and not significant.) The relationship
between the atomic mass number and the number of protons and neutrons
can be represented by Equation 1:

A=Z+N [1]

For example, for a helium atom with two protons and two neutrons in the
nucleus, the atomic mass is 4 (A = 4) and for a carbon atom with six protons
and six neutrons in the nucleus, the atomic number is 12 (A = 12).

Using the information you have already found, calculate the atomic mass for
hydrogen lithium, oxygen and potassium.

Check your answers with the atomic mass listed in Appendix C. You should
have found that for hydrogen A = 1, for lithium A = 7, for oxygen A = 16 and
for potassium A = 39. Now continue.

Although atomic mass is sometimes referred to as atomic weight, the first

term is used for the purpose of radiation protection. By multiplying the
atomic mass number by the atomic mass unit (u) you can find the
approximate mass of the atom.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

For example, a helium atom with an atomic mass of 4 will have an actual
mass of approximately (4 x 1.66 x 10-24 g) or 6.64 x 10-24 g

Using the information you have already found, calculate the atomic mass in
atomic mass units for hydrogen, lithium, oxygen and potassium.

You should have found that the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.66 x 10-24 g,
the atomic mass of lithium is approximately 1.16 x 10-23 g, the atomic mass
of oxygen is approximately 2.66 x 10-23 g and the atomic mass of potassium
is approximately 6.48 x 10-23 g. Now continue.

Each atom has a unique combination of atomic number and atomic mass
and this is commonly displayed in the following standard form:
A
Z X

where A is the atomic mass, Z is the atomic number and X is the symbol for
the element with Z protons.

Using this information, now write the most commonly occurring atoms of
hydrogen, lithium, oxygen and potassium in standard form.

1 7 16 39
You should have written the following: 1 H , 3 Li , 8 O , and 919 K .

There are a number of other ways of uniquely describing a nuclide including

the element name or symbol preceded or followed by the atomic mass
12
number. For example, 12
6 C may be represented by C, carbon 12, carbon-

12, C12 or C-12).

1.3.2 Isotopes, radioisotopes, nuclides and radionuclides

An element may have atoms with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. Thus, a carbon atom with six neutrons has an atomic
mass number of 12 but a carbon atom with eight neutrons has an atomic
mass number of 14. Atoms of a particular element which have different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes which emit radiation are
called radioisotopes. Since isotopes all belong to the same element they
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are all chemically identical but they have a different mass and may have
different radiation properties.

All isotopes of a particular element have identical chemical properties

Remember
but they may have different radiation properties.

Consider the isotopes of hydrogen as an example. The most commonly

occurring hydrogen atom has one proton and no neutrons. However, other
isotopes of hydrogen exist with one neutron or two neutrons. Thus a
hydrogen atom may have an atomic mass of 1, 2 or 3. The hydrogen
isotopes with atomic mass 2 and 3 have special names to distinguish them
from the most common hydrogen isotope with an atomic mass of 1. The
hydrogen isotope with a mass of 2 is called deuterium or heavy hydrogen
and like the hydrogen isotope with mass 1, it is stable. The hydrogen isotope
with a mass number of 3 is called tritium but is different to the other isotopes
in that it is radioactive (i.e. it is a radioisotope). These three isotopes of
hydrogen are shown in Figure 2.

1 electron 1 electron 1 electron

1 proton
1 proton
1 proton

1 neutron
2 neutrons

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

1 2 3
1 H 1 H 1 H

Figure 2
The Isotopes of Hydrogen

The atomic structure of these three isotopes of hydrogen is summarized in

Table 2.
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Table 2
Atomic Structure of Hydrogen Isotopes

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Symbol 1
1 H
2
1 H
3
1 H
Number of Protons 1 1 1
Number of Electrons 1 1 1
Number of Neutrons (N) 0 1 2
Atomic Number (Z) 1 1 1
Atomic Mass (A) 1 2 3

Isotopes of any element may also be called nuclides. However, a nuclide

can refer to any element (and is a more general term) whereas isotopes
must refer to the same element. A special term, radionuclide, is used to
describe a nuclide which spontaneously emits radiation. They are written
and described in exactly the same manner as general nuclides.

The atomic structure of a nuclide may be inferred from its symbol and atomic
14
mass number. For example C means a carbon atom with an atomic mass
of 14. Since the atomic number of carbon is 6 (i.e. carbon atoms have 6
14
protons in the nucleus), we can work out that C will have eight (14 - 6)
neutrons. We also know that an uncharged atom will have six electrons, the
same number as protons.

SELF-CHECK 2
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Match the terms atomic number, atomic mass, nuclide, isotopes,

radionuclide, radioisotope with the following descriptions:

a) Atoms of a particular element which have the same number of

protons but different numbers of neutrons.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

b) The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

c) A general term referring to any isotope of any element.

d) The number of protons in an atom.

e) A nuclide which emits radiation.

f) An isotope which emits radiation.

2. Using Appendices A and C, provide the following information for the

nuclide neon-20:

a) How many protons, electrons and neutrons are in this atom?

b) How many electrons are in the outer shell of this atom?

c) What is the atomic mass of the atom in atomic mass units?

d) Write this nuclide in standard form.

e) What are two other ways of expressing this nuclide?

3. Given that the atomic number of the radionuclide cobalt-60 (60Co) is 27,
how many protons, neutrons and electrons are present in the atom?

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

2. HOW ATOMS COMBINE

As explained earlier, the chemical properties of an element depend on the
number of protons and hence the number of electrons in the atom. For
atoms of an element to be chemically stable, they must either have a filled
outer electron shell (two or eight electrons respectively for the K and L shells)
or have eight electrons in its outer orbit. Hence, most atoms do not exist
separately but are attached to other atoms by chemical bonds. These
bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons (a covalent bond) or by
transferring electrons (an ionic bond). Chemical bonds do not involve the
nucleus of the individual atoms in any way and only affect the outer part of
an atom.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

It is important to note that the way atoms interact is an entire branch of

science. The information provided here is only a very basic introduction. It
will help you to understand the changes that ionizing radiation can produce in
body tissue and why damage may be caused.

2.1 Covalent Bonds

A simple example of covalent bonds (sharing of electrons) is the oxygen

(O2) which we breath. In nature, a free atom of oxygen is very rare as it is
very reactive and will combine with a second oxygen atom to become more
chemically stable. Oxygen has an atomic number of 8 and therefore has a
total of eight protons and eight electrons. The innermost (K) shell contains
two of the electrons and the other six electrons are in the next shell (L). As
the L shell needs eight electrons to be chemically stable, there are two
spaces that need to be filled before stability can be achieved. Therefore, two
oxygen atoms share two electrons each (a total of four shared electrons) so
the outer shell of both atoms is full. Figure 3 shows an oxygen molecule. A
molecule is formed when a group of two or more atoms are joined by
chemical bonds.

Figure 3
An Oxygen (O2) Molecule

Atoms of one element can also interact with atoms of other elements. One
of the most common examples of this is water. A water molecule consists of
two hydrogen atoms combined with one oxygen atom and is given the
chemical symbol H2O.

The oxygen atom shares one electron with each hydrogen atom to fill the
hydrogen’s K shell (two electrons). The hydrogen atoms each share their
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one electron with the oxygen to fill the oxygen atom’s outer L shell (eight
electrons). This is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4
A Water (H2O) Molecule

2.2 Ionic Bonds

In some atoms, the outer shell has only a few electrons but many holes
(spaces in outer or inner shells that are available for electrons to fill). These
atoms would therefore be chemically stable if they could lose the electrons in
the outer shell to leave only the full number of electrons in the next inner
shell. Such elements are known as metals. Other atoms have only a few
holes in the outer shell and would be chemically stable if they gained
electrons. These elements are known as non-metals.

When a metal element loses its electrons to a non-metal element, a salt is

formed. A simple example of this is common salt which is made up of the
elements sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl). Sodium, with an atomic number of
11 has one electron in its outer shell, and chlorine with an atomic number of
17 has seven in its outer shell. With sodium losing one electron and chlorine
gaining an electron, both elements will subsequently have eight electrons in
their outer shell.

The overall electrical charge of sodium chloride (NaCl) is neutral as the total
number of protons and electrons is the same. However, the sodium atoms
have a positive charge (owing to loss of an electron) and the chlorine atoms
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

have a negative charge (owing to the gain of an electron). These charged

atoms are called positive and negative ions respectively and the resulting
attraction between the ions is known as an ionic bond.

Note that the difference in charge of an ionic bond attracts atoms together
such that they arrange themselves into a lattice (see Figure 5).

Figure 5
Structure of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Salt

SELF-CHECK 3
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Match the terms covalent bond, ionic bond, molecule, metal, non-
metal, salt, positive ion and negative ion with the following
descriptions:

a) An element which needs to lose electrons to become chemically

stable.

b) An atom with a positive charge.

c) A type of chemical bond where electrons are shared between atoms.

d) A group of atoms which are joined by chemical bonds.

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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

e) An element which needs to gain electrons to become chemically

stable.

f) A type of chemical bond formed by the attraction of positive and

negative ions.

g) An atom with a negative charge.

h) A combination of a metal and a non-metal.

2. a) Using Appendix A, find the number of electrons in the outer shell of

nitrogen.

b) Two nitrogen atoms may share electrons to fill the holes in their outer
shells. Draw a diagram to illustrate the nitrogen (N2) molecule.

3. a) Using Appendix A, find the number electrons in the outer shell of

calcium and fluorine.

b) What is likely to happen to make these elements more chemically

stable?

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

3 THE PERIODIC TABLE

As already mentioned, the number of protons and hence the number of
electrons in an atom determines the chemical properties of the atom. As
electrons are also restricted to certain orbits or shells, elements with similar
numbers of electrons in their outer shells also display similar chemical
properties.

Remember
Elements with similar numbers of electrons in their outer shells have
similar chemical properties.

Hence, by grouping the elements according to how the electron shells are
filled, elements with similar properties may be identified. A special table
known as periodic table has been devised for this purpose (see Figure 6).
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Figure 6
The Periodic Table
As you can see from Figure 6, the periodic table is divided into eight vertical
columns. All elements in the same column have similar numbers of
electrons in their outer shells and hence have similar chemical properties.
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Elements in the same column of the periodic table have similar

Remember
chemical properties.

For example, calcium (Ca), barium (Ba), strontium (Sr) and radium (Ra) are
all in the same column of the periodic table and have similar chemical
properties. As calcium is one of the major elements in the bones of humans,
the other similar elements may be thought of as bone seekers as they will be
treated by the body in the same way as calcium. This is important
radiologically as it determines where the radiation will affect the person
exposed to a radionuclide such as radium.

A more detailed periodic table is located on page 62 of the accompanying

booklet, ‘Nuclides and Isotopes’. This booklet will be used throughout the
course so take time to study it now. Using the booklet, find some of the
simple atoms like hydrogen, helium or carbon. What information is given
about these elements? How many columns are there in the table, excluding
the transition elements?

The periodic table gives the name and symbol of each element, its atomic
number and atomic weight (mass) (the average mass of all naturally
occurring isotopes in atomic mass units), and may also give the electronic
structure and physical properties such as density, boiling point and
melting point. The periodic table may also be coloured to show the
physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of the element as found in nature. There
are eight columns in the table. The transition elements are those with
atomic numbers between 21 and 30, 39 and 48, 57 and 80, and 89 and
above. The elements with an atomic number greater than 92 are artificially
produced, radioactive and do not exist to any significant degree in nature.
However, these artificially produced elements are radiologically important as
they are associated principally with nuclear facilities.
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SELF-CHECK 4
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. How are elements arranged in the periodic table?

2. The elements helium (He), neon (Ne) argon (Ar) and krypton (Kr) are all
found in the same column of the periodic table. What is the chemical
significance of this?

3. Which elements would you expect to have the same chemical

properties as lithium (Li)?

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

4. THE CHART OF NUCLIDES

The periodic table displays information about all the elements and arranges
them according to the number of electrons in each shell. However, for each
element there may be several isotopes about which information is required.
To look at all the isotopes of all the elements, the chart of nuclides is used.

The chart of nuclides displays all the nuclides, both naturally occurring and
artificial, on the basis on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
The number of neutrons is displayed on the x-axis (horizontal) and the
number of protons on the y-axis (vertical). This results in all the isotopes of a
certain element being displayed as a horizontal band on the chart of
nuclides.

A section of the chart of nuclides is shown in Figure 7.

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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

Number of
neutrons (N)

Number of protons (Z)

Note: Stable nuclides are shaded grey

Radionuclides are not shaded

Figure 7
A Section Of The Chart Of Nuclides
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

The whole chart of nuclides is shown from page 18 onwards in the

accompanying booklet ‘Nuclides and Isotopes’. Look at it now.

The chart of nuclides contains a large amount of information, some of which

is not required for general radiation protection work. At this stage in the
course only the basic functions of the chart of nuclides are examined. As the
course progresses more detailed information will be obtained from the chart.
An annotated diagram on page 16 of the booklet describes the location and
type of information to be found in each of the nuclide squares.

The basic information displayed on the chart of nuclides includes:

• data on the particular element at the start of each row (similar to the
information on the periodic table);

• each nuclide defined by its atomic mass and symbol;

• the abundance and/or half-life of the nuclide; and

• the main and secondary methods of radioactive decay if the nuclide is

radioactive.

For a specified element, the abundance is defined as the percentage of one

isotope to the total, as occurring in nature.

The half-life is the time taken for half the atoms of the radionuclide to
undergo radioactive decay; so the shorter the half-life, the quicker the
radionuclide will decay. No half-life indicates no radioactive decay and that
the nuclide is stable. Both half-life and methods of decay are discussed in
detail in Module 1.3 Ionizing Radiation and Radioactive Decay.

Stable nuclides (those which do not undergo radioactive decay) and those
with very long half-lives (greater than half a billion years) are generally
shaded grey in the chart of nuclides. Naturally occurring nuclides which are
radioactive are indicated by a black bar highlighting the isotope’s name.

Artificial nuclides are created by a number of technological processes. They

are generally unstable and will undergo radioactive decay to stable nuclides.
As they do not occur in nature, their abundance is not shown on the chart.
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Some elements, mostly those with high atomic numbers, do not occur in
nature.

SELF-CHECK 5
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. How are the nuclides displayed in the chart of nuclides?

2. How are the isotopes of a particular element shown in the chart of

nuclides?

3. Using the chart of nuclides on page 18 of the accompanying booklet:

a) name the two stable isotopes of carbon found in nature.

b) name the radioactive isotope of carbon which occurs in nature.

c) which is the most abundant isotope of carbon in nature?

d) name four artificial isotopes of carbon.

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

KEY POINTS
• Atoms are the building blocks of all matter.

• Atoms are made up of small particles called protons, electrons and

neutrons.

• Protons have a mass of one atomic mass unit and an electric charge of
+1.

• Neutrons have a mass of one atomic mass unit and no electric charge.

• Electrons have a mass of 1/1840 of an atomic mass unit and an electric

charge of -1.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

• According to Bohr’s atomic model, protons and neutrons form the nucleus
of an atom and electrons orbit around the nucleus in well-defined orbits or
shells.

• Energy must be added to or released from the atom for an electron to

change its orbit.

• Atoms with the same number of protons are called elements.

• The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of

protons and hence the number of electrons in an atom.

• Atomic number (Z) is defined as the number of protons in the nucleus of

an atom.

• Atomic mass (A) is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.

• Isotopes are defined as atoms of a particular element which have different

numbers of neutrons.

• The term nuclide is a more general term used to describe any isotope of
any element.

• Isotopes which emit radiation are called radioisotopes.

• Nuclides which emit radiation are called radionuclides.

• All isotopes of a particular element have identical chemical properties but

they may have different radiation properties.
• Each atom has a unique combination of atomic number and atomic mass
and this is commonly displayed in the following standard form:
A
Z X

• The atomic structure of a nuclide may be inferred from its symbol and
atomic mass number.

• A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond where electrons are shared

between atoms.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

• An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed by the transferral of

electrons between atoms and the resulting attraction of positive and
negative ions.

• A positive ion is an atom with a positive charge.

• A negative ion is an atom with a negative charge.

• A molecule is defined as a group of atoms which are joined by chemical

bonds.

• A non-metal is defined as an element which needs to gain electrons to

become chemically stable.

• A metal is an element which needs to lose electrons to become chemically

stable.

• A salt is defined as a combination of a metal and a non-metal.

• Atoms combine by either sharing electrons or transferring electrons

between atoms.

• As the electrons orbit the nucleus in well-defined shells, elements with

similar numbers of electrons in their outer shell exhibit similar chemical
characteristics.

• The periodic table displays all the elements arranged on the basis of
electron arrangement and hence similar chemical properties.

• The chart of nuclides displays all the nuclides, both naturally occurring and
artificial, on the basis on the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. The number of neutrons is displayed on the x-axis (horizontal)
and the number of protons on the y-axis (vertical).

• All isotopes of a certain element are shown as a horizontal band on the

chart of nuclides.

• Stable nuclides (those which do not undergo radioactive decay) and those
with very long half-lives (greater than half a billion years) are generally
shaded grey in the chart of nuclides.
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

• Naturally occurring nuclides that are radioactive are indicated by a black

bar highlighting the isotope’s name.

APPENDIX A
ELECTRON SHELL STRUCTURE

Element Symbol Total Number Electrons in Each Shell

Of Electrons K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2

Lithium Li 3 2 1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3
Carbon C 6 2 4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Fluorine F 9 2 7
Neon Ne 10 2 8

Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
Argon Ar 18 2 8 8

Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

APPENDIX B
ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Actinium Ac Gold Au
Aluminium (aluminum) Al Hafnium Hf
Americium Am Hahnium Ha
Antimony Sb Helium He
Argon A Holmium Ho
Arsenic As Hydrogen H
Astatine At Indium Im
Barium Ba Iodine I
Berkelium Bk Iridium Ir
Beryllium Be Iron Fe
Bismuth Bi Kurchatovium Ku
Boron B Krypton Kr
Bromine Br Lanthanum La
Cadmium Cd Lawrencium Lw
Caesium Cs Lead Pb
Calcium Ca Lithium Li
Californium Cf Lutetium Lu
Carbon C Magnesium Mg
Cerium Ce Manganese Mn
Chlorine Cl Mendelevium Mv
Chromium Cr Mercury Hg
Cobalt Co Molybdenum Mo
Copper Cu Neodymium Nd
Curium Cm Neon Ne
Dysprosium Dy Neptunium Np
Einsteinium E Nickel Ni
Erbium Er Niobium (columbium) Nb
Europium Eu Nitrogen N
Fermium Fm Nobelium No
Fluorine F Osmium Os
Francium Fr Oxygen O
Gadolinium Gd Palladium Pd
Gallium Ga Phosphorus P
Germanium Ge Platinum Pt

APPENDIX B
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

Name Symbol Name Symbol

Plutonium Pu Sulfur (sulphur) S
Polonium Po Tantalum Ta
Potassium K Technetium Tc
Praesodymium Pr Tellurium Te
Promethium Pm Terbium Tb
Protactinium Pa Thallium Tl
Radium Ra Thorium Th
Radon Rn Thulium Tm
Rhenium Re Tin Sn
Rhodium Rh Titanium Ti
Rubidium Rb Tungsten (Wolfram) W
Ruthenium Ru Uranium U
Samarium Sm, Sa Vanadium V
Scandium Sc Xenon Xe
Selenium Se Ytterbium Yb
Silicon Si Yttrium Y
Silver Ag Zinc Zn
Sodium Na Zirconium Zr
Strontium Sr
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Module 1.1 – Structure of Matter

APPENDIX C
PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

Element Symbol Atomic Neutron Atomic

Number Number* Mass*
Z N A
Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 4

Lithium Li 3 4 7
Beryllium Be 4 5 9
Boron B 5 6 11
Carbon C 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 10 19
Neon Ne 10 10 20

Sodium Na 11 12 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 14 27
Silicon Si 14 14 28
Phosphorus P 15 16 31
Sulphur S 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 18 35
Argon Ar 18 22 40

Potassium K 19 20 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 40
* For the most commonly occurring stable atom.
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Abundance The percentage of one isotope to the total occurring in

nature.

Atom The building blocks that make up all matter.

Atomic mass (A) The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom.

Atomic mass unit This is defined as one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12
(12C) atom and is equal to 1.66 X 10-24g.

Atomic number (Z) The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Boiling point The temperature at which a liquid changes to a vapour.

Chemical bond The way in which atoms are joined together.

Chemical symbol The letter(s) used to denote a particular element.

Covalent bond A type of chemical bond where electrons are shared

between atoms.

Density The mass of material divided by its volume.

Electron A negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus of an

atom.

Element A substance in which all the atoms have the same

number of protons.

Half-life The time taken for half of the atoms of a radionuclide to

undergo radioactive decay.

Ionic bond A type of chemical bond formed by the transferral of

electrons between atoms and the resulting attraction
of positive and negative ions.

Isotopes Atoms of a particular element with different numbers of

neutrons.

Melting point The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.

Metal An element which needs to lose electrons to become

chemically stable.

Molecule A group of atoms which are joined by chemical bonds.

Negative ion A negatively charged atom.

Neutron An uncharged particle in the nucleus of an atom

composed of a proton and an electron
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composed of a proton and an electron.

Neutron number (N) The number of neutrons found in the nucleus of an

atom.

Non-metal An element which needs to gain electrons to become

chemically stable.

Nucleus The positively charged centre of an atom, consisting of

protons and neutrons.

Nuclide A general term referring to any isotope of any element.

Orbit The path of an electron around an atomic nucleus.

Periodic table The grouping of elements according to how the electron

shells are filled.

Positive ion A positively charged atom.

Proton A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an

atom.

Radioactive decay The change that takes place in the nucleus of an atom
to make it more stable.

Radioisotope An isotope which emits radiation.

Radionuclide A nuclide which emits radiation.

Salt A combination of a metal and a non-metal.

Shell A specific orbit which electrons take around the nucleus.