BASIC PHYSICS IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING

1. PRESSURE
A solid body resting on a surface exerts to that surface a force equal to its weight equally distributed
over the surface.
If w = weight of the body
S = Surface area on which the body rests
then, Pressure (P) = Weight P= W
Surface Area A

Example: 1. A shovel in a quarry weighs 100 tons. It rests on a solid flat surface. The surface contact of
the tracks on the ground is 5 m2. What pressure does the shovel exert on the ground?

Solution: P = W/A = 100 tons

5 m2
Or in more commonly used units of kg/cm2
P = W/A = 100 x 1000 = 2 kg/cm2
5 x 100 x 100

Example: 2. A woman weighing 60 kg rests all her weight on heels of a high-heeled pair of shoes. The
heels are in contact with 1.2 cm2 of surface. What pressure is exerted on the ground?

P = W/A = 60 kg = 50 kg/cm2
1.2 cm2
Thus, we see that the pressure exerted on the ground by the shovel is only 1/25th of that exerted by the
heels of the woman’s shoes.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: The air around you has weight, and it presses against everything it touches.
That pressure is called atmospheric pressure, or air pressure. It is the force exerted on a surface by the
air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth.
Atmospheric pressure is commonly measured with a barometer. In
a barometer, a column of mercury in a glass tube rises or falls as the
weight of the atmosphere changes.

An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the

average air pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees
Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit).

One atmosphere is 1,013 millibars, or 760 millimeters (29.92 inches)

of mercury.

Atmospheric pressure drops as altitude increases. The atmospheric pressure on Mount Everest is much
less compared to the atmospheric pressure in Mumbai. Mumbai is a city at sea level.

As the altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, the amount of oxygen available in the
atmosphere also decreases, and hence the difficulty to breathe. At very high altitudes, atmospheric
pressure and available oxygen get so low that people can become sick and even die.

Atmospheric pressure Vs Altitude follows the equation

b = 760 x e-0.0001255 x H

where b is the barometric pressure at elevation (altitude) H at that place.

 Graph showing variation of Barometric Pressure (in mmHg) Vs Altitude in Feet

Densities of gases in the air:

Air 1.293
Oxygen 1.429
Nitrogen 1.250
Carbon Dioxide 1.977
Carbon Monoxide 1.250
Sulphur Dioxide 2.926
Argon 1.7837
Hydrogen 0.0899

Composition of air at sea level: By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93%
argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of
water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere.

Differential manometer (U tube) for measuring pressure or depression (vacuum):

We can measure pressure with a manometer. A manometer is merely a U shaped tube with the vertical
branches containing a liquid (colored water for low pressures & mercury for high pressures)

One branch is open to the free air, the other is connected to the vessel (R) in which we would like to
measure the pressure in relation to atmospheric pressure.
a) Without pressure or depression, the vessel the liquid stays
at point O. The pressure in the U tube is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, as in figure A

b) When the left branch is connected to the vessel (R) in

which the pressure is higher than the atmospheric
pressure, the liquid in the U tube moves from O to X. The
pressure exerted by the air in (R) will be OX + OX’ = XX’ and
we say that the pressure measured is XX’ = H mm of water,
as in figure B

Thus, H = h1 + h2

Example: If OX = 2 mm, then OX’ will be 2 mm

The pressure in (R) will be: OX = OX’ = h1 = h2

Or pressure: 2 + 2 = 4 mm of H2O

UNITS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS: (International System)

Two units used in pressure measurement are: Bar and Pascal
The Pascal is the unit used to express the uniform pressure (force) of 1 Newton exerted
perpendicularly to a surface of 1 m2
The Newton is the force communicated to a body with a mass of 1 kilogram, an
acceleration of 1 meter per second.
The bar is equal to 105 Pascals. This value is very close to normal atmospheric pressure
which has a value of 1.013 bars under normal gravitational acceleration.
Note:
In cement plants when pressure is measured by U tube or instruments derived from U
tubes, the pressure is often expressed as the equivalent height of the column of liquid
(water, alcohol, mercury, etc.)
1 mm of H2O = 0.0981 millibars (mbar)
1 mm of Mercury = 1.334 millibars (mbar).
1 bar = 1.0197 kg/ cm2 = 750 mm of mercury (mmHg)
= 10197 mm of H2O
(1 litre of H2O = 1 kg)
1 kgf / cm2 = 0.981 bar
 2. FLOW

Flow is the quantity, in volume or weight, of a material transported in a given unit of

time.
Ex: tons/hour. . . . . . . Kg/sec . . . . . . m3/sec
For solids: the quantity of material is expressed
• In tons per day
• In tons per hour
• In kilograms per second
For gases and liquids the quantity is generally expressed in m3 per second. We have
flow = quantity in m3 per second
1. Flow expressed as volume = Q (m3/sec)
2. Flow expressed as weight = Q (m3/sec) x w = Q (kg/sec)
Where w = specific weight
Q in volume = A x L
t where A = Area, L = Length, and t = time

Also D/t = V (velocity) or L/t = V (velocity)

We have Flow (in volume) = A x v
Flow (in weight) = A x v x w
It is necessary to know these ideas of volume, specific weight and velocity to calculate
flow.

FLOW OF GAS OR LIQUID

To measure the Flow we use the Dynamic

pressure. It is the dynamic pressure,
because it is a function of the velocity, that
allows us to calculate the Flow.

To measure this Flow directly, we use a

Pitot tube.
TOTAL PRESSURE
The total pressure is the force per unit area that is felt when a flowing fluid is brought to
rest and is usually measured with a pitot tube type instrument, shown in the following
figure. The total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure.

Ptotal = Pstatic + Pdynamic

Total pressure is often referred to as the stagnation pressure.
STATIC PRESSURE
Static pressure is felt when the fluid is at rest or when the measurement is taken when
traveling along with the fluid flow. It is the force exerted on a fluid particle from all
directions, and is typically measured with gauges and transmitters attached to the side of
a pipe or tank wall. Since static pressure is what most pressure gauges measure, static
pressure is usually what is implied when the term "pressure" is used in discussions.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE

The difference between the total and static pressure is the dynamic pressure, which
represents the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid. Dynamic pressure (Pdynamic) is a
function of the fluid velocity (V) and its density (ρ) and can be calculated from:

Pdynamic = ρ * V2
2g
Where g = Accelaration due to gravity = 9.80665 m/s2 (Can be taken as 9.81 m/s2)

Figure: Measuring Total, Static, and Dynamic Pressure.

VARIOUS PRESSURE RELATION EQUATIONS:

Total Pressure: Ptotal = Pstatic + Pdynamic

Dynamic Pressure: Pdynamic = Ptotal – Pstatic
Static Pressure: Pstatic = Ptotal – Pdynamic

MEASUREMENT OF GASES
I Velocity
If we know the dynamic pressure, we can calculate the velocity of the gas
V (m/s) = 2 x g x p

V = Velocity of the gas in meters per second
g = Accelaration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
p = Dynamic pressure measured in mm of H2O with Pitot tube
 = specific mass of gas expressed in mm of Kg/m3 at the temperature of the
gas in the pipe which contains the gas.

If we know the velocity and the cross-sectional area of the pipe S, we can measure the
quantity of the gas.

Q (m3/s) = V (m/s) x S (m2)

II Influence of the Temperature on the Gas: If we heat the gas, it will expand.
a) Pressure changes in gases due to change in temperature, keeping the
volume constant:
The increase in pressure of a gas under a constant volume is proportional to
the raise in temperature.
Pt = Po ( 1 +  t)
Where Pt = Volume of the gases at toC
Po = Volume of the gases at 0oC
 1=
273
Example: Calculate the pressure of 1 kg/cm2 (at 0oC) of air which when heated
to a temperature of 273oC
Pt = Po ( 1 +  t)
= 1 ( 1 + 273/273)
P273 = 2.00 kg/cm2
 b) Volume changes in gases due to change in temperature, keeping
pressure constant:
The increase in volume of gas under a constant pressure is proportional to
the raise in temperature.
Vt = Vo ( 1 +  t)
Where Vt = Volume of the gases at toC
Vo = Volume of the gases at 0oC
 = 1
273
Example: Calculate the volume of 1 m3 of air which passes through the clinker
bed of 700oC
Vt = Vo ( 1 +  t)
= 1 ( 1 + 700/273)
V700 = 3.56 m3

III Influence on density of gases due to changes in temperature

When you increase the temperature of any gas, the gas expands, due to
molecules going apart from each other. As the molecules goes apart, the number
of molecules per unit volume of gas reduces, and hence the density of gases
reduces as we increase the temperature.

o = t ( 1 +  t)
Where t = Density of the gases at toC
o = Density of the gases at 0oC
 = 1
273
Example: Given that the density of air at 0oC as 1.293 kg/m3, what will be its
density if this air is passing through the clinker bed of 700oC?

o = t ( 1 +  t)
1.293 = t ( 1 + 700/273)

= t x 3.56

Therefore, t = 1.293/3.56 = 0.363 kg/m3

IV Example of calculation of flow a gas
What is the volume in m3/s of a fan used on a cooler which blows air through a
rectangular duct of dimensions 0.85 m x 0.6 m.
The temperature of the air is 55oC. The differential pressure measured by pitot
tube is 4 mm of H2O. the specific mass of air is 1.293 kg/m3 at 0oC.
Solution: The specific mass of air at 55oC is

o = t ( 1 +  t)
1.293 = t ( 1 + 55/273)

= t x 1.201

Therefore, t = 1.293/1.201 = 1.076 kg/m3

Velocity of the air in the duct is given by the following formula
V (m/s) = 2 x g x p


= 2 x 9.81 x 4
1.076
= 8.54 m/s
Cross sectional area of the duct
A (m2) = Length (l) x Width (w)
= 0.85 x 0.6
= 0.51 m2
The volume in m3 of the air at 55oC is
Q (m3/s) = V (m/s) x S (m2)
= 8.54 x 0.51
= 4.35 m3/s
Recalculating to get the results in Nm3 (Values at 0oC, Normal cubic meters)
The volume in Nm3/s
Vt = Vo ( 1 +  t)
4.35 = Vo ( 1 + 55/273)
Solving for Vo we get Vo = 3.62 Nm3/s
In one hour, the volume developed by the fan is = 3.62 x 3600 = 13,039 Nm3/h
 3. TEMPERATURE

IDEA OF TEMPERATURE

We all have a notion of temperature. The impressions received by our organs (touch for example) permits
us to know whether water is hot or cold. However, we have only a general idea of the temperature and
not a precise knowledge or measure.

By lack of sensibility: we cannot measure, or even have a fair idea of the temperature of a hot coal for
example, because we experience a sensation of burning.

By lack of accuracy: like warm water will appear hot or cold depending on whether you placed your hand
in hot or cold water before testing the lukewarm water.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

When a body is heated it becomes enlarged, that is it increases in length or in its apparent volume. Thus
it is possible to know, perfectly, the order of dilation as a function of the temperature. Thus we have a
means to measure temperature.

For a solid body we can measure the change in length (for example measure the change in length of a
steel rod). However this change is very slight and is practically never used.

For a liquid body we can measure the change in volume. This variation can be amplified by using a
reservoir of material and a very thin tube (capillary). This is the principle used in a mercury thermometer.
Mercury is chosen because it is a good conductor of heat and remains in liquid form over a wide range of
temperature ( – 40oC to + 380oC)

For a gas we can use the same system as for a liquid and measure temperature by direct variations of
volume. If the gas is enclosed in a reservoir which does not dilate, the pressure increases and this increase
in pressure gives us a measure of temperature. This phenomena of increase in pressure can be changed
to release a gas (water vapor) heated in a tiny pressure cooker. The vapor which escapes is measured as
proportional.

OTHER MEASURING DEVICES

- A homogenous metal wire which, when heated, increases in length can be used as a measuring device as
the change in length is proportional to the change in temperature.
- If two wires of different metals constitution are joined by a weld, the two wires will change in length as
the temperature increases but each will change in length but also in electrical potential. This change in
electrical potential (ability to carry current) can gives us a measure of temperature change. This apparatus
is called a “thermocouple” and is widely used in cement plants. Normally the two different wires are:

Platinum and Platinium Rhodium (1000oC to 1700oC)

Chromel and Alimel (700oC to 1300oC)
The phenomena described allows us to classify temperatures as a function of other temperatures, that is
we have relative temperatures. To define temperatures in particular numbers we must define a scale.
This scale is fixed by two points easily reproduced.

Freezing temperature of water at 0 oC

Boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure at 100oC
By definition these two points are fixed, correspondingly at 0o and 100o, and divided into equal parts of 1o
This scale is the centigrade temperature scale in degrees Celsius (oC)

FARENHEIT SCALE:
The Farenheit scale (oF) is defined by:

+ 32oF : Freezing point of water

+ 212oF: The boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure

KELVIN SCALE
The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero,
the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics.
The kelvin (symbol: K) is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI). The kelvin
is defined as the fraction 1⁄273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to or written as a degree. The
kelvin is the primary unit of temperature measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in
conjunction with the degree Celsius, which has the same magnitude. The definition implies that absolute
zero (0 K) is equivalent to −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F).
MERCURY THERMOMETER
Common measuring device.
We use mercury because it can easily be obtained in the pure state, it is a good conductor and it stays in
the liquid state over a wide range of temperatures – 40oC to + 380oC
OTHER MEASURING DEVICES

Different types of apparatus are used in Cement plants according to the temperature to be measured

MEASURING DEVICE MEASURABLE TEMPERATURE RANGE IN CEMENT PLANT

Fusible
(600oC to 2000oC)

Color crayons
(100oC to 600oC)

Thermometers
(Liquid, Gas vapor,
tension)
(-200oC to 600oC)
Resistance thermeter
(probe)
(-220oC to 600oC)

Thermistor
(-100oC to 600oC)

Thermocouple
(-20oC to 650oC)

Radiation Pyrometer
(600oC to 2000oC)

Temperature (Celsius) -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
 4. HEAT

What is heat?

According to the modern theory, heat is molecular and atomic motion. In any gas the molecules are in a
state of actual motion but in a soilid they are said to vibrate. Heat is the physical manifestation or evidence
of this motion. In a solid, if the vibration is sufficiently intense, the solid disintegrates or melts and
becomes a liquid. If the molecular vibration becomes still more intense, the liquid breaks up and becomes
a vapour.

It can be stated then that heat is not a substance or something physical that can be transferred from one
body to another, but is rather the state in which a body exists. No matter how hot or cold a body may
become there is no change in weight, provided of course that the solid or its vapours are not allowed to
escape. When all molecular and atomic motion ceases in a body, it is said to be at absolute zero. It is
estimated that this condition exists at about minus 273 degrees Celsius.

Now while it is true that heat is not a substance that can be transferred from one body to another, it may
be easier to think of it as such when we come to deal with combustion, etc.

It is necessary to distinguish between temperature, heat, and latent heat. Temperature is a measure of
the frequency or rate of vibration of the molecules or atoms in a body and does not indicate the amount
of heat in a body. The amount of heat in a body depends on its mass or weight, the kind of material of
which the body is composed and its temperature. Thus a certain body weighing one kilogram at a given
temperature will only contain half as much heat as a body weighing two kilograms composed of the same
material and at the same temperature.

HEAT QUANTITIES:

To boil one litre of water it requires a certain quantity of heat (furnished by gas for example). This quanitity
of gas can be measured by counter. If we boil 2 liters of water the counter will verify that we used double
the quantity of gas.

We say that, by definition, two quantities of heat are equal when they heat the same weight of water the
same number of degrees from the initial temperature.

The unit of heat we use is the calorie, which is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 1 gram of water by
1oC.

We also use the units:

Kilocalorie : 1000 calories

Thermie : 1 000 000 calories or 1000 Kilocalories.

UNDERSTANDING WHAT IS HEAT:

If we have in a pan 1 litre of water at 0oC:

To raise the water to 100oC, it requires 100 Kilocalories or with this 100 Kilocalories we can raise 10 litres
of water by 10oC.
We have provided, in both cases, the same quantity of heat.

If we place an eff in the first pan of water we can hard boil the egg, however, the same is not true in the
second case although the quantity of heat is the same.

To continue:

At 10oC it is impossible to hardboil an egg

At 100oC, it is possible to hardboil an egg in 3 minutes

At 60oC, it is possible to hardboil an egg in several hours

The amount of heat in a body is measured in industrial work by heat units is called calories of K calories
(Calories X 1000). When increasing the heat in most solids and liquids the temperature continues to rise
until a certain point is reached, when the rise in temperature stops, and a physical change commences to
take place in the body. During this change, heat is added without showing any increase in temperature.

This heat is called latent heat. As an illustration consider the boiling of water. When heat is applied to
water at atmospheric pressure the temperature continues to rise until 100 degrees is reached and then
the temperature ceases to rise. As still more heat is applied the water turns into steam. This heat applied
at 100 degrees until the water is vapourized is called the latent heat of vapourization and is not indicated
by any rise in the temperature. It amounts to 539 K cals per liter (per kg) of water. It will be shown later
how this fact affects wet process kiln operation. The amount of heat measured in B.T.U. that is added to
a body increase the temperature of one pound of the body one degree Fahrenheit is called the specific
heat of the body. This varies with different substances.

One Calorie is the amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of one gram of water at
atmospheric pressure by one degree centigrade.

Quantity of heat:

If we know the mass of a substance and its specific heat, we can determine the amount of heat, q,
entering or leaving the substance by measuring the temperature change before and after the heat is
gained or lost:

Quantity of heat q = specific heat (c) x mass of the substance (m) x temperature change ΔT

In this equation, c is the specific heat of the substance, m is its mass, and ΔT (which is read “delta T”) is
the temperature change, Tfinal − Tinitial.

- If a substance gains thermal energy, its temperature increases, its final temperature is
higher than its initial temperature, Tfinal − Tinitial. has a positive value, and the value of q is
positive.
- If a substance loses thermal energy, its temperature decreases, the final temperature is
lower than the initial temperature, Tfinal − Tinitial. has a negative value, and the value of q is
negative.
CHANGES IN PHYSICAL STATE

Fusion is the change from a solid to a liquid state. The temperature of the body during fusion is invariable,
regardless of the relative proportion of the states (solid – liquid). Although, the temperature of the body
during fusion is invariable, it can furnish heat to augment the proportion of the liquid state. It is this heat
which we call “latent heat of fusion” of the body and is the number of calories absorbed by a unit weight
of the body to melt it, with the temperature remaining constant.

Example

If we have a chunk of ice at – 5oC and we heat it, it remains ice (solid state) until the temperature reaches
0oC. If we continue to heat it, it changes to water with a greater and greater proportion of water, but the
temperature of the mixture remains at 0oC. (This is why we use the mixture ice-water as a fixed point on
the temperature scale).

If we stop the heating and the mixture ice/water remains as it is, the temperature of ice and water remains
stable.

If we once again apply heat, the proportion of water increases, but the temperature of the mixture
remains at 0oC until all the ice disappears and only then does the temperature of the water increase.

The heat that is necessary to transform the ice at 0oC at water at 0oC corresponds to the “latent heat of
fusion of ice”

Solidification is the inverse of fusion. When a liquid body is cooled sufficiently it reaches the solid state.
This phenomena is called solidification. Once solidification commences, the equilibrium temperature of
the liquid/solid remains constant, regardless of the relative proportions of liquid/solids.

The change from the liquid state to the solid state is accompanied by the giving up of calories (in a
sufficient quantity to change the body from a liquid to a solid).

Vaporisation is the phenomena which occurs when a liquid under certain conditions changes to a gaseous
vapor state.

Evaporation is vaporization over a long period of time. For example the phenomena of evaporation allows
a wet sheet hanging outside to dry; as the air passing the sheet takes with it a small quantity of the water.

Boiling

When we heat a liquid, the temperature raises and we see certain changes in the liquid:

- At first, bubbles rise to the surface: this is the dissolved air which is released
- Then larger bubbles rise but disappear just below the surface; this is vapor which condenses
in the cooler level of the liquid.
- Finally even larges bubbles break the surface and create a vigorous (boiling) action, this is
vapor being released.

After this time the temperature of the liquid remains constant, and this constant temperature,
corresponds to a change from liquid to vapor and absorbs heat – “heat of vaporization”.
We call “the heat of vaporization”, for a given liquid at a given temperature, the number of calories
necessary to transform to a saturated vapor, a unit weight of the liquid, from its boiling point.

fusion vaporisation

Solid Liquid Gas

solidification Liquefaction

Latent heat of fusion of some common elements (in oC)

Platinum 27.18 Silver 28.13

Lead 5.03 Zinc 21.47
Mercury 2.83 Sulphur 9.368
Tin 14.252 Phosphorus 5.368

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

Laws which govern modes of heat transmission:

The influence of form on heat exchange – if a certain quantity of heat is transmitted by some means,
during a period of one hour; under the same conditions, in two hours, it will transmit twice as much heat.

It is evident that the higher the temperature of the heat source, the higher the heat exchange. However,
the effect of raising the temperature is not the same for all type of heat transmission.

In heat transmission, heat by radiation plays the major role if the heat from the source (a flame for
example) is doubled the heat transmitted by radiation is increased 16 times.

Heat can be transmitted by:

Radiation: It is radiation from the sun which gives us the sensation of heat, from the sun in the winter, or
it is the lack of radiation which makes it cooler in the shade.

Convection: It is convection which gives us the sensation of cold (or heat) when we are exposed to the
wind.

Conduction: It is conduction which gives us the sensation of cold when we touch something hot. (The sun
can heat a piece of metal by radiation and this same heat can be transferred to us by condition if we touch
the metal).

These heat exchanges are always transmitted from a hot body to a cold body.
 5. HYGROMETRY AND DRYING

It is important to understand certain theoretical notions of hygrometry and drying to better understand,
in cement manufacturing.

1) The drying of limestone, clay, etc.,

2) The phenomena of condensation in mills, dust collectors, etc.. . . .
3) The presence of water in compressed air
4) The importance of cold air leaks in dust collectors.

Hygrometry (Humidity)

1) In the air we breathe there is always water vapor

2) For a given temperature, 1 m3 of air can contain a maximum of water vapor – when this
maximum is reached we say the air is “saturated”
3) We call the “hygrometric state” (relative humidity” the proportion of the quantity of water
vapor contained in the air at a given moment to the quantity of water vapor which will saturate
the same air, without changing the temperature.

Relative humidity = Weight of water vapor ccontained in the air considered

Weight of water vapor contained in the air considered if it is saturated

For example:
At 40oC, 1M3 of air can hold at a maximum of 50 grams of water, that is it is saturated.
If at the same temperature (40oC), it holds only 25 gms of water then
Relative humidity = 25/50 = 50%

TEMPERATURE WEIGHT
(oC) gms/M3
The adjacent table gives the quantity of water vapor contained 0 4.86
in 1M3 of air at different temperatures. 5 6.78
10 9.39
If in 1M3 of air at 20oC, there is 8.5 gms of water vapor, 15 12.75
20 17.17
Relative humidity = 8.5/17.1 = 50% 25 22.89
30 30.04
35 39.23
40 50.69
45 65.29
50 82.30
60 129
70 196
80 290

4) Dry air absorbs water like a sponge.

 5) If the relative humidity at 20oC is 50%, 1M3 of air can absorb 17.17 x 0.50 = 8.5 gms of water
6) If we heat the 1M3 of air to 40oC, it will still have 8.5 gms of water vapor but it can absorb:
50.69 – 8.5 = 42 gms of additional water vapor
7) If we cool the 1M of air to 5oC, it will contain only 6.78 gms of water, as in cooling, it will have
3

deposited droplets of water on the walls.

8.5 gms – 6.78 = 1.72 gms of water (deposited on the walls)
This is the phenomena of raining or condensation.
This temperature at which this occurs is called as the “dewpoint”

To measure the dew point we wrap a thermometer in wet cotton and expose it to the air in which we
would like to know the dew point. We call this measurement as the “wet bulb” temperature.

Drying
When we dry limestone in a dryer (or mill) what occurs? We pass hot air through the mill and the water
from the limestone leaves the mill with this air.
Suppose the ambient air temperature (the air outside the mill) is 10oC and is saturated, and the air leaving
the mill (with the moisture from the limestone) has a temperature of 60oC. In this case, each M 3 of air,
leaving the mill, can carry 129 gm – 9 gm = 120 gms of water.
Thus it is simple to determine the flow of air through the mill necessary to remove a given percentage of
water in the limestone.

Example: (as above)

Air exiting mill can carry 120 gms of water per M3. Suppose mill feed is 100 tph and the limestone has 6%
moisture.

100 tph x 1000 kg/ton x 6 / 100 = 6000 kg/hr of moisture

6000 kg/hr = 6000 kg/hr x 1000 gm/kg = 50000 M3/hr

120 gm/M3 120 gms/M3

Thus theoretically, it will require 50000 m3/hr at 60oC (mill exit) to remove the water produced by 100 tph
of limestone with 6% moisture.

What can we learn from the dew point?

Imagine again the mill used to dry limestone.

If we measure the temperature of the gas leaving the mill with a dry thermometer, and then with a “wet
bult thermometer” we find,

Dry (bulb) temperature 80oC

Wet (bult) temperature 40oC
There is a great difference in the two temperatures, thus we are wasting a great deal of heat and can
reduce the fuel used to heat the air (in the case of a hot air furnace) or reduce the amount of air (in the
case of a hot air furnace) or reduce the amount of air through the mill.

Another example:
Dry bulb temperature 40oC
Wet bult temperature 40oC

We do not know if we have completely dried the limestone in the mill because the air leaving the mill is
saturated and there probably is still water left in the limestone. To remedy the situation we must increase
the hot air flow or increase the temperature of the air passing through the mill.