Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 775–781

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A discussion of major geophysical methods used for geothermal

exploration in Africa
Zakari Aretouyap n, Philippe Njandjock Nouck, Robert Nouayou
Laboratory of Geophysics and Geo-exploration, University of Yaounde I, PO Box: 812, Yaounde, Cameroon

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Geophysics provides a range of methods for the exploration of geothermal sources. This range is so broad
Received 4 February 2015 that it can sometimes embarrass the geophysicist. The present paper classifies these methods according
Received in revised form to several criteria: best-fitted geological environment, main assets and limitations of each method,
21 December 2015
preliminary or detailed nature of each method and even the specific objective of the exploration to be
Accepted 27 December 2015
Available online 14 January 2016
carried out. This classification could therefore help to significantly reduce costs and time loss related to
trial uncertainty and bad choices in selecting the appropriate method. In order to provide necessary
Keywords: information for potential geothermal investors in Africa, the paper addressed several aspects such as the
Asset geological setting and the geothermal potential, the population density, the energy needs or demand, the
Direct method
current electricity tariff and the business environment or opportunities in the continent.
Geothermal exploration
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Indirect method
Limitation

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
3. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
3.1. Presentation of results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
3.2. Explanatory notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
3.2.1. Seismic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
3.2.2. electric and magnetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3.2.3. Thermal methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3.2.4. Remote sensing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3.2.5. γ-ray spectrometry method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3.2.6. Induction method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
3.2.7. Frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
4. Discussions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
4.1. Influence of the geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
4.2. The geothermal potential of Africa and business opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4.3. Appropriateness of those methods with the African continent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4.4. Geophysical methods and levelized cost of geothermal energy exploration in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4.5. Other advantages of geothermal energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
4.6. Useful information for geothermal investors in Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 237 675086759.
E-mail address: aretouyap@uy1.uninet.cm (Z. Aretouyap).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.277
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
776 Z. Aretouyap et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 775–781
1. Introduction
The fight against climate change is a challenge that currently
enrolls the whole world. Both developed countries, responsible for
the situation and developing countries, virtually victim are
expected to work together in order to curb the problem. Currently,
greenhouse gases produced by fossil and oil sources (hydro-
carbons) are indexed as the main cause of global warming. Hence,
it is necessary to explore renewable and cleaner energy sources
like geothermal sources [1]. However, Geophysics provides a so
broad range of methods that professionals may be embarrassed. It
becomes then important to classify those geophysical methods
according to some criteria such as best-fitted geological environ-
ment, main assets and limitations of each method, preliminary or
detailed nature of each method and even the specific objective of
the exploration to be carried out.
Geothermal energy is formed deep within the earth's crust, and
is exploited for electricity generation and other direct uses. The
medium of this energy transfer is geothermal fluid. On the surface,
these are manifested as hot grounds, fumaroles, geysers, mud-
pools and hot springs [2]. The main geological parameters of the
geothermal reservoir to be determined are: geological formation
(lithology), tectonic structures (faults), permeability (hydraulic
conductivity), temperature, and stress field. The depth to which
these parameters are located must also be considered. However,
the needs are not exactly the same for a hydrothermal or pet-
rothermal project. Some of these parameters can be estimated
from the surface, mainly by geophysical methods while others let
themselves be measured in a borehole [3]. Anyway, geophysical
methods are among the best to explore these sources [4].
Domra Kana et al. [4] drew up a review of the main geophysical
methods used for this purpose. Their study classifies these meth-
ods into four groups based on the physical measured parameter
and into two main categories depending on whether they are said
to be direct or indirect methods. The present paper aims at pro-
moting the use of geothermal sources by reducing costs across the
world including Africa.
To achieve this prodigious idea, the present paper is as an
additive one designed to reduce ambiguity and speculation in
choosing a method. In fact, some methods are essentially pre-
liminary and may be used only for a "pre-exploration", others are
more conducive to well-defined geological settings.
Table 1
Summary of the main strengths and limitations of different geophysical methods.
Methods Assets
Seismic refraction Allows us to image directly basement (geological
formations, presence and geometry of faults, pre-
dictive surveys profile).
Seismic reflection Good resolution of layering from depths of 20 m to
more than several hundred meters.
Magnetic A significant depth resolution (magnetotelluric).
Gravimetric Simpler and less expensive.
Thermal Efficient for detecting geochemical haloes.
Remote sensing Autonomously and complementarily skilled.
γ-ray spectrometry High accuracy and enormous penetrating power.
Direct current (DC) Simple rule of thumb with existence of several
electrode configurations.
Induction A comparatively efficient reconnaissance tool
because the cap response is strong in both polar-
ization modes.
Frequency domain electro- Very effective for the rapid reconnaissance of an
magnetic (FDEM) area for mapping.
The main objective of the present paper is to clarify the assets
(strengths) and limitations of each method, then classify major
geophysical methods into preliminary and detailed categories.
2. Methodology
The study conducted by Domra Kana et al. [4] performs a
review of the most geophysical methods used for geothermal
exploration. That investigation of a paramount importance was
discussed mainly in terms of advantages and disadvantages for
each method. The present study is a thorough analysis of these
geophysical methods used in geothermal exploration. It presents
the assets, the limitations and the best-fitted geological environ-
ment of each of them. These methods have also been classified
into preliminary and non-preliminary ones.
The asset of a method is defined as its success rate, or its ability
to deliver positive results while the advantage represents a posi-
tive point of a method compared to others. Similarly, the limitation
of a method lets know on its inability to perform a task while the
disadvantage refers to defects or deficiencies or hazards related to
a method.
3. Results
For an easy operation, the main results are presented in tables.
3.1. Presentation of results
The results are reported in two summary tables. Table 1 sum-
marizes the assets, the limitations and the preferred environment
of each method.
3.2. Explanatory notes
3.2.1. Seismic methods
Seismic reflection predicts the depth and thickness of a desired
geological formation. This may be the thickness of an aquifer for a
hydrothermal project or the depth of the crystalline basement roof
for a petrothermal project, for example. The permeability of a geo-
logical formation, which guarantees the success of a hydrothermal
Limitations Environment/geological
setting
Does not directly determine the permeability of a Volcanic and sedimentary
geological formation [5]. rock assemblage [6].
Extracting precise interval velocities from mul- Volcanic and sedimentary
tilayered media is sometimes difficult [5]. rock assemblage [6].
Vertical sounding applications (no 2D or 3D Volcanic environments [8].
interpretation) [7].
Does not allow an unambiguous interpretation. Volcanic environments [8].
Limited to detecting relatively shallow features Any geological context [9].
[7].
Inefficient in areas covered by thick vegetation. Basement with faults [9].
Intended primarily to detect radionuclides con- Basement [8].
tained in a [10] rock.
Ambiguity in the interpretation of results Any geological context [9].
(determination of the structure or its geometry).
Requires large current sources (up to 100 A) and All geological setting away
large receiver loops (40 m 340 m) [11]. from power lines [9].
Topography can be a problem in interpreting All geological setting away
FDEM data. TDEM is not widely used for shallow from power lines [9].
studies (less than 20 m).
 Z. Aretouyap et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 775–781
project, on the contrary cannot directly be determined by seismic
reflection. Seismic methods can then be used to detect substantial
faults that may have a high hydraulic conductivity and may represent
a target for hydrothermal projects. Large regional faults can also be
associated with a higher risk of seismic activity and therefore must be
identified in the framework of petrothermal projects [12].
3.2.2. electric and magnetic methods
With the exception of the magnetotelluric, electrical or mag-
netic methods have not deep geothermal application. Indeed, the
vertical thermal gradient is an increasing function of the operation
depth. However, its value depends strongly on the petrophysical
and especially tectonic setting of the region except in the context
of (very) low geothermal energy. Industrial geothermal power
plants are located in areas where the temperature is abnormally
high. This is the case of the context of volcanic rifting in Iceland or
back-arc basins in the Philippines or the active plutonism in Lar-
derello, Italy [13]. Given that these potential methods do not allow
an unambiguous interpretation, they should be used in addition to
other investigation methods. They can also help to validate such a
geological model of the basement derived from the interpretation
of the seismic reflection.
In some cases, the changes in the gravity can be correlated to
changes in the porosity of the rocks. This method has the advan-
tage of being much simpler and less expensive to implement than
seismic reflection campaign.
To curb the limitations of DC methods, one states the double
assumption that the ground is horizontal with the last layer infi-
nitely thick, and each layer is electrically homogeneous and iso-
tropic [14].
3.2.3. Thermal methods
Thermal methods include two distinct techniques: the first one
is comprises borehole or shallow probe methods for measuring
thermal gradient. Thermal gradient is very useful since it permits
to measure heat flow when the thermal conductivity is known.
The second technique comprises airborne or satellite-based mea-
surements, which can be used to determine the Earth's surface
temperature and thermal inertia of surficial materials, of thermal
infrared radiation emitted at the Earth's surface [15].
3.2.4. Remote sensing method
Remote sensing techniques can contribute to geothermal sur-
veys by detecting topographic features related to geothermal
activities and by detecting surface thermal anomalies using ther-
mal infrared imagery [16].
3.2.5. γ-ray spectrometry method
Gamma-ray spectrometry is a surveying technique that allows
the calculation of the heat produced during radioactive decay of
potassium, uranium, and thorium within rock. Radiogenic heat
produced by rocks is often targets for geothermal exploration and
production. Hence, refinements in gamma-ray spectrometry sur-
veying will allow better constraint of resources estimation and
help to target drilling [10].
3.2.6. Induction method
The induced polarization method provides a measure of
polarizable minerals (metallic-luster sulfide minerals, clays, and
zeolites) within water-bearing pore spaces of rocks. Polarizable
minerals, in order to be detected, must present an active surface to
pore water. Induced polarization is widely used in geothermal
exploration [17].
777
3.2.7. Frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) method
Several light-weight FDEM units are available for use by single
operators for rapid reconnaissance. Active source (horizontal loop)
methods can be specially displayed to map ground features at
several hundred meters depth. TDEM appears to have well-
thought-of potential for vertically probing in areas of restricted
horizontal access. Whereas TDEM has been used by the mineral
industry for deep exploration for many years, it has few service
providers for shallow (o 100 m) investigations. However, topo-
graphy can be a problem in interpreting TDEM data [18].
Regardless of the preferred environment of each method or its
assets or its limitations, all those methods have also been classified
according to their preliminary or detailed and direct or indirect
status as shown in Table 2.
During reconnaissance surveys carried out in sedimentary
basins or blank areas (unexplored), the choice of a method is based
on gravimetry, magnetism, aeromagnetic, radiometric and mag-
netotelluric. On the contrary, in detailed and semi-detailed studies,
the most appropriate methods are seismic reflection or vertical
electrical soundings. And for recovered structures, the best-fitted
methods are seismic refraction and polarization induction.
4. Discussions
4.1. Influence of the geology
A good and precise knowledge of the geological context of the
area to be explored is very important. This goes beyond the choice
of the suitable exploration method and even controls the selection
of the geothermal system to be implemented. Indeed, there are
two major geothermal systems for the moment: firstly hydro-
thermal systems that use hot water from aquifers. Those systems
are usually installed in the sedimentary context; secondly the
petrothermal systems using the heat stored in the hard and dry
rocks (crystal rocks) by artificially increasing their permeability
and using a heat exchanger (Fig. 1).
Two basic factors determine the performance of a deep geo-
thermal project: reservoir temperature and permeability of the
rock allowing sufficient volumes of water to flow between drilling
production and injection [12].
The deep geothermal projects suffer from a fundamental con-
flict of interest between these two factors. In order to maximize
performance and energy efficiency, high temperature is desired.
This involves reservoirs located at huge depths. However, the
increase in depth is accompanied by increasing compaction of
sedimentary rocks. Unfortunately, too deep sedimentary rocks
gradually lose their porosity and permeability which are required
for high flow rates. In general, the best quality reservoirs are at
shallow depths. One solution to this conflict of interest is provided
by what is called the "reservoir stimulation", namely the increase
Table 2
Broad classification of major geophysical methods used for geothermal exploration.
Methods Nature Observations
Seismic Preliminary Indirect
Magnetic Preliminary
Gravimetric Preliminary
Thermal Detailed Direct
Remote sensing Preliminary
γ-ray spectrometry Detailed
Direct current (DC) Detailed
Induction Preliminary
Frequency domain electromagnetic (FEM) Detailed
778 Z. Aretouyap et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 775–781

Sediments

Basement

Fig. 1. Illustration of the location of hydrothermal (surface) and petrothermal (deep) systems (Source GREGE).

in natural permeability by injecting water under pressure into the

rock [19]. 60
Space/ district heating
It is important to mention that in order to be more appre-

Installed capacity (MW)

50 Greenhouse heating
hensive about some key parameters of a geothermal reservoir like
Bathing and swimming
permeability, temperature and the stress field, surface measure- 40
Fish farming
ments are very limited. These parameters are usually extrapolated
30 Other uses
or modeled from deep wells.
20

4.2. The geothermal potential of Africa and business opportunity 10

0
Many African countries (from east Africa, the Horn of Africa,
Algeria

Kenya

Morocco

South Africa
Egypt

Ethiopia

and parts of north and southern Africa) are endowed with geo-
thermal energy. This energy source is likely to become a major
contributor to the electrical power of those countries. Other
countries may benefit by means of high voltage direct current lines
[20,21].
Using technology available today, Africa has the potential to
provide 9000 MW of power generation capacity from hot water
and steam based geothermal resources, not including the addi-
tional potential of heat and ground source heat pump applications
[22]. Kenya and Ethiopia are front-runners in the domain. With a
geothermal power generation potential of more than 4000 MW,
both countries have already registered significant progress in
exploring geothermal energy for power generation. Nowadays,
both countries have an installed capacity of about 300 MW,
equivalent to about 15% of the countries installed electricity gen-
eration capacity [23]. In the near future, Kenya plans to double its
installed capacity [24].
For now, following the classification criteria namely power
generation, direct use and ground source heat pumps, Africa is
very poorly ranked on the global market status [25,26]. This is due
to the fact that geothermal energy for power generation is cur-
rently being used mainly only in Kenya (about 270 MW installed
capacity). Nevertheless, geothermal energy is directly used in
several countries, including Algeria, Tunisia, Kenya, South Africa,
and Morocco [27]. The type of direct use differs between indivi-
dual countries, however, in general, the heating of greenhouses
and bathing and swimming are the two applications showing the
highest shares of installed capacity [28]. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.
With such a geothermal potential and such energy demand,
Africa offers a pretty good business opportunity in the renewable
energy sector in general and geothermal energy in particular to
geothermal investors.
Tunisia
Fig. 2. Installed capacity for direct use in Africa in 2010, adapted from Lund et al.
[27] and RE21 [29].
4.3. Appropriateness of those methods with the African continent
Independently of the implantation region, geothermal devel-
opment typically consists of six major key steps undergoing sys-
tematic investigation and evaluation processes of the geothermal
fields from their initial exploration and development until steam
production mechanisms have been implemented: project defini-
tion and reconnaissance evaluation, detailed exploration,
exploratory drilling and delineation, resource analysis and
assessment of development potential, field development, and
steam production and resource management [21].
However, as mentioned in Section 3.1, the choice of a method
may depend strongly on the geological setting of the study area.
Africa continent is divided into 6 major geology areas as illustrated
in Fig. 3.
0].A combination of Table 1 and Fig. 3 may help to select the
most suitable method for each region.
4.4. Geophysical methods and levelized cost of geothermal energy
exploration in Africa
In general, Africa's power sector is facing many challenges,
mainly due to insufficient generation capacity which has limited
electricity supply, resulting in low access. As a result, the average
electricity tariffs in Africa are much higher than in other devel-
oping regions. For instance, in 2010, the average effective tariff in
Africa was US $0.14/kW h (despite the governments subsidy) while
that for South Asia was US $0.04/kW h [31]. This is partly due to
 Z. Aretouyap et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 775–781 779

Fig. 3. Simplified geological map of Africa [30].

Table 3 corrosion resistant materials, cheaper scaling mitigation methods,

Energy and investment costs for electric energy production from renewables more reliable resource potential prediction minimizing the num-
[32,29].
ber of abandoned projects and improved exploration techniques
Current Potential future Turnkey invest- minimizing the number of abandoned projects far into develop-
energy cost energy cost ment cost ment [28].
US$/kW h US$/kW h US$/kW h
4.5. Other advantages of geothermal energy
Biomass 5–15 4–10 900–3000
Geothermal 2–10 1–8 800–3000
Wind 5–13 3–10 1100–1700 Geothermal energy provides various benefits and advantages
Solar (photovoltaic) 25–125 5–25 5000–10 000 including competitiveness in terms of cost, ecological or green
Solar (thermal 12–18 4–10 3000–4000 characteristics (near zero emissions, true for modern closed cycle
electricity)
Tidal 8–15 8–15 1700–2500
systems that reinject water back to the earth's crust), compactness
(less cumbersome: very little space requirement per unit of power
generated), autonomy from the seasonal fluctuations, versatility
the type of energy creation. Indeed, fossil-fuel based power gen- (with many other direct uses such as space heating and heating of
greenhouses for horticultural farming). All these aspects make
eration is the single largest source of electricity generation in
geothermal energy an attractive option compared to fossil fuel
Africa. However, fossil fuels are the most expensive means for
alternatives, more regular than hydroelectric power which is
generating electricity, and this could be exacerbated by high fuel
affected by low rainfall and cheaper than oil fired power plants,
prices.
which can be prohibitively expensive to operate when oil prices
Geophysical methods, by their effectiveness in exploring geo-
are high [33,23,34,35].
thermal sources can contribute significantly to reducing the high In terms of the technologies used, geothermal power projects
cost of electricity since geothermal energy is presented as the one have very unique development timelines that are substantially
with the lowest current and future cost among all renewable different from most other energy technologies. A greenfield pro-
sources [32]. Table 3 compares energy conts from various renew- ject typically starts with several years of exploration and drilling,
able energy sources. followed by a brief construction period, and then several decades
Even using geothermal energy, the electricity cost can be fur- of operation. The advantages of geothermal power in relation to
ther reduced by including factors such as cheaper drilling tech- other energy technologies can be summarized in two main points:
nology through advances in the state of the art of drilling, – Even with high upfront capital costs, geothermal power is a
increased efficiency of the energy conversion process, cheaper competitive renewable energy source. The absence of fuel costs
780 Z. Aretouyap et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 775–781

Table 4
Summary key information useful for geothermal investors in Africa.

Aspects Observations

Geological setting
Geothermal potential
Population density
Energy needs/demand
Current electricity tariff
Business environment/opportunities Private sector activities in many African countries are facing various obstacles such as high costs of starting a business, weak
The continent has a diverse geology divided into 6 large groups: younger sedimentary rocks, younger orogens, sedimentary
basins, orogens, sedimentary rocks and cratons [30].
Africa has the potential to provide 9000 MW of power generation capacity from hot water and steam based geothermal resources
[22]
The total population of Africa is estimated at 1.1 billion, representing approximately 15% of the world's population [38].
About 200 kW h per capita. From an electricity-access point of view, sub-Saharan Africa's situation is the world's worst. It has 13%
of the world's population, but 48% of the share of the global population without access to electricity [36].
The average effective electricity tariff in Africa is US $0.14 per kilowatt-hour (kW h) against an average of US $0.18 per kW h in
production costs [36].
property rights, burdensome profit tax rates, unstable tax regimes, and limited access to finance [39].

and other variable costs over the long project life span give geo-
thermal power the lowest levelized cost ($89.6/MW h) of any
renewable energy technology with the exception of wind power
(at $86.6/MW h) [36].
– Having no reliance upon intermittent energy sources such as
wind and sunlight, geothermal facilities can produce electricity
24 h a day, 7 days a week. As a result, geothermal power plants
have a high capacity factor, demonstrating a level of consistency
and reliability not found in other renewable technologies. Geo-
thermal power has the highest capacity factor (92%) of all the
energy sources, higher than coal (85%), natural gas (87%), and
biomass (83%). Many geothermal power plants enjoy capacity
factors of more than 96%. For comparison, the capacity factors of
wind, solar thermal, and solar PV are listed as 34%, 20%, and 25%,
respectively [36].
However, this technology has a huge risk and disadvantage
compared to other technologies in the same category [37]:
– Geothermal power plant construction involves high expen-
ditures and capital costs at the beginning of the project. This
upfront capital is especially necessary for the drilling and
exploration phases. This stage of the project involves considerable
risks. Indeed, the return on investment is essentially random or
long-term programmed.
– Wind, solar, and fossil fuels are less limited by location than
traditional geothermal power systems. Geothermal plants must be
placed near or above the resource.
4.6. Useful information for geothermal investors in Africa
Any geothermal investor in Africa must question some aspects
such as the geological setting and the geothermal potential of the
interest area, the population density, the energy needs or demand,
the current electricity tariff and the business environment or
opportunities in the region. Table 4 summarizes the state of those
aspects for any potential investor.
5. Conclusions
Domra Kana et al. [4] reviewed concise geophysical methods used
in geothermal exploration. The present paper that offer one's service
as an additive will allow faster and more efficient exploitation of that
article [3] by reducing wasted time and costs associated with trial and
error. The choice of a method will from now on be wiser and based on
the main purpose of the investigation and on the geological setting the
operation area. However, to make the choice of a method rational and
more efficient the choice of a method, a preliminary geological
investigation of the exploration area is required. Nevertheless, one can
note other choice criteria. For example, detection of a geothermal heat
source is best carried out by using a combination of gravity and
magnetic measurements, while reservoir characteristics are best
imaged by the use of electric or electromagnetic techniques.
Acknowledgment
The authors are very grateful to anonymous reviewers who
have hugely contributed to the improvement of the manuscript.
They would also like to record their gratitude to Prof. Oben Julius
Enyong and Prof. Kofané Timoléon Crépin for their advice and
encouragement. Madam Arétouyap Mirelle Flore and Mrs. Tchi-
mela Clotilde are thanked for their linguistic assistance.
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