B1 15aGasTurbineTheorySR

Student Resource
Subject B1-15A:
Gas Turbine Engines
Copyright © 2008 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold, or
otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject B1-15a – Gas Turbine Theory
CONTENTS
Page
Definitions 3
Study Resources 4
Introduction 5
Fundamental Principles 15.1-1
Engine Performance 15.2-1
Inlets 15.3-1
Compressors 15.4-1
Combustion Section 15.5-1
Turbine Section 15.6-1
Exhaust 15.7-1
Bearings, Seals and Accessory Gearboxes 15.8-1
Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 1 of 6

AA Form TO-18
This Page Intentionally Left Blank

AA Form TO-18
DEFINITIONS
Define
 To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
 To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
 Specify in words or writing.
 To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
 To establish the identity of.
List
 Itemise.
Describe
 Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or process.
 To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
 Make known in detail.
 Offer reason for cause and effect.

AA Form TO-18
STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen Sanderson Training Products:
 A&P Technician General Textbook.
 A&P Technician Powerplant Textbook.
 Aircraft Gas Turbine Powerplants Textbook.
 Aircraft Technical Dictionary Third Edition
 Aircraft Gas Turbine Powerplants.
 Encyclopedia of Jet Aircraft Engines.
Aircraft Powerplants Fifth Edition R.Bent, and J.McKinley (1985).
Essential Physics. Book One. Second Edition D.Christian, and W.Crossley (1987).
Aviation Maintenance Technician Series – POWERPLANT D.Crane (1996).
Fokker 50 Airframe and Powerplant Training Manual, Volume 1 and 2.Fokker (1986).
A/C Maintenance Text 2. Practical Science – Part 1. N.Handsley, T.Amor & D.Peters. (1978).
Aircraft Powerplants Seventh Edition M.Kroes. and T.Wild (1995).
The Jet Engine. Rolls Royce plc (1996).
Aircraft Gas Turbine Technology Third Edition. I.Treager (1996).
B1-15a Student Handout

AA Form TO-18
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to explain how gas turbine engine theory is applied to a variety
of different engine designs/types. Purpose, function, & characteristics of the primary sections
of each gas turbine engine and some significant engine components will be explained, and
typical operating characteristics and parameters of gas turbine engines will be explained.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 15.1 Fundamentals

Describe Newton’s laws of motion.
Describe potential energy, kinetic energy and Brayton cycle.
Describe the relationship between the following:
 Force
 Work
 Power
 Energy
 Velocity
 Acceleration.
Describe the constructional arrangement and operation of the following engine types:
 The jet engine family.
 Turbojet
 Turbofan
 Turboshaft
 Turboprop.
Topic 15.2 Engine Performance

Describe the following and their relationship to engine operation:
 Gross Thrust
 Net Thrust
 Choked Nozzle Thrust
 Thrust Distribution
 Resultant Thrust
 Thrust Horsepower
 Equivalent Shaft Horsepower
 Specific Fuel Consumption
Describe engine efficiencies.
Describe by-pass ratio and engine pressure ratio.
Describe the pressure, temperature and velocity of the gas flow through each section of
a gas turbine engine.
Describe the following:
 Engine ratings
 Static thrust
 Influence of speed, altitude and hot climate.
 Flat rating
 Limitations.

AA Form TO-18
Topic 15.3 Inlet.

Describe the purpose, construction & principles of operation of compressor inlet ducts.
Describe the effects of various inlet configurations.
Describe the construction and operating principles of engine inlet ice protection
Topic 15.4 Compressors

Describe the constructional features and applications of
 Axial
 Centrifugal and
 Centri-axial (axial and centrifugal combinations).
Describe the operating principles and the advantages, disadvantages of:
 Axial,
 Centrifugal and
 Centri-axial compressors (axial and centrifugal combinations).
Describe fan balancing.
Describe the causes and effects of compressor stall and surge and its effects.
Describe methods of air flow control using:
 Bleed valves
 Variable inlet guide vanes
 Variable stator vanes
 Rotating stator blades.
Describe compressor ratio.
Topic 15.5 Combustion Section

Describe combustion sections their constructional features and principles of operation.
Topic 15.6 Turbine Section.

Define the characteristics of turbine blades and describe their operation.
Describe methods of turbine blade to disk attachment.
Describe the construction and purpose of nozzle guide vanes.
Describe causes and effects of turbine blade stress and creep.
Topic 15.7 Exhaust

Describe constructional features & principles of operation of engine exhaust sections.
Describe convergent, divergent and variable area nozzles.
Describe the purpose, constructional features and operation of engine noise
suppressors.
Describe the purpose, constructional features and operation of engine thrust reversers.
Topic 15.8 Bearings and Seals

Identify types of bearings used in gas turbine engines and describe their constructional
features and principle of operation.
Describe the purpose, construction and principles of operation of typical gas turbine
engine bearing seals.

AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.1 – FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

The Jet Engine Family
The terms jet engine and gas turbine engine, although sometimes used synonymously to
describe aircraft engines, represent quite different engine designs. Therefore, these terms
are defined very carefully in this book.
The jet engine family includes:
 Rockets
 Ramjets
 Pulse-jets and
Gas turbine powered jets.
Hero’s Aeolipile or, Hero’s Engine
Today’s modern turbine engine is based on the reaction principle, which was discovered
centuries ago. One of the earliest accounts of the use of the reaction principle describes an
Egyptian mathematician and philosopher named Heron, sometimes referred to as Hero, who
invented a device which converted steam pressure to mechanical power. Current historians
date this between one to two hundred years BC. The designer of the sketch of Hero’s
invention, the Aeolipile, is not known and the actual device might have looked quite
differently.
It is known that by heating water in a closed vessel and by supplying steam to opposing
nozzles mounted on a rotating sphere, Hero was able to successfully demonstrate the
reaction principle. Whether he was able to put his aeolipile to practical use is not historically
clear.
Chinese Rocket
Another early application of the reaction principle can be seen in rocket development as early
as 1200 AD. By utilizing black powder, a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and saltpeter, the
Chinese were able to perfect a solid-fuel rocket. In records available today, one can see a
reference to a battle about 1230 A.D. in which the Chinese chronicled the use of the rocket
as a military weapon.
Solid rockets are still in use today, they are used as booster rockets for lifting heavy space
vehicles such as the Space Shuttle and to power modern military weapons. (Figure 1.1)
Figure 1.1
B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

AA Form TO-18
The History of Jet Propulsion

Frank Whittle, while a cadet in the British Royal Air College, wrote a thesis advocating use of
the gas turbine engine for aircraft propulsion. He was aware of developing industrial uses of
ground installation type turbine engines and felt that, if an engine could be made light enough
in weight, the ram effect of the incoming air in flight would provide sufficient power to make it
an effective aircraft powerplant. In 1930, he patented the first turbojet aircraft engine, based
on the ideas of his original thesis. His engine was to use a compressor impeller, driven by a
turbine wheel.
During the early thirties, Whittle served as a regular officer in the Royal Air Force where he
was a design engineer and test pilot of reciprocating engine powered aircraft. The
reciprocating engine was in an accelerating developmental stage at that time, and Whittle
was dissatisfied with what he referred to as their obvious limitations of altitude and top speed.
Between 1930 and 1935, Whittle exhausted every avenue of help but was unsuccessful in
obtaining sufficient government or private support for constructing his turbojet engine.
The engine developed was a pure reaction turbojet. That is, its total thrust came from
reaction to the hot gas stream emitted from a propelling nozzle.
The engine featured an impeller-type compressor, a multiple- can combustion chamber, and
a single stage turbine wheel. Today, the gas turbine engine receives its name from this
design, wherein flowing gas drives the turbine wheel which is attached to, and drives, the
compressor impeller. (Figure 1.2)
Figure 1.2
Four Types Of Jet Engines;

Jet propulsion is defined as the reacting force produced by the acceleration of air, gas, or
liquid through a nozzle. The four common types of jet engines, the rocket jet, the ramjet, the
pulse-jet, and the turbine-type jet are all propelled forward by the emission of a gaseous fluid.

AA Form TO-18
The Rocket Engine

The rocket is a non-air breathing engine. This means it does not use atmospheric air to
support combustion but carries its own oxidizer and fuel in a solid or liquid form. Combustion
transforms solids or liquids of small volume into gases of large volume. The gases released
by combustion of the fuel and oxidizer escape through an exhaust nozzle at an extremely
high velocity. The thrust reaction from the exhaust gases drives the rocket at very high
supersonic speeds and completely out of the earth’s atmosphere. (Figure 1.3)
Figure 1.3
Ramjet
The ramjet or athodyd (aero-thermodynamic duct) is the simplest of all power plants that use
the atmosphere to support combustion. It is a duct with few component parts, designed to
receive inlet air and change its velocity to static pressure.
Fuel, typically of hydrocarbon base, is added to the compressed air with the resultant
combustion and expansion of gases. This combustion causes the mass airflow to quickly exit
the engine. The change in velocity of entering and departing air results in reactive thrust. The
ramjet is seen today in many military pilotless weapons delivery.
There is also a proposed application for a future hypersonic (above Mach 6.0) engine, which
would convert from a turbojet in initial lower speed flight to a type of ramjet in very high speed
flight.

AA Form TO-18
Actually, this new type engine would be called a scram-jet because the airflow would be
allowed to reach supersonic speeds during combustion, hence the term supersonic
combustion-ramjet (scram-jet).
This engine would have to use a more exotic fuel than kerosene, perhaps hydrogen, in order
to support combustion at high airflow velocities. The scram-jet is stated as having the
potential to power future high speed transports at velocities up to Mach 20. (Figure 1.4)
Figure 1.4
Pulse-jets
The pulse-jet is similar to a ramjet except that the pulse-jet inlet is fitted with a system of air
inlet flapper valves. These valves are closed during combustion and provide the device with a
moderate static thrust that the ramjet does not have.
However, this thrust is not sufficient to enable a pulse-jet to take off under its own power and,
therefore, must be rocket boosted for initial flight.
Major development of the pulse-jet seems to have ceased with the German V-1 rocket of
World War II. The German V-I, buzz bomb, was powered by a rocket assisted pulse - jet
engine which could propel the V-1 to approximately 400 mph.
This engine was fitted with inlet shutters (flapper valves) which automatically blew open and
closed approximately 40 times per second. Each time fuel (kerosene) pulsed into the
combustion chamber, the back pressure created from combustion would force the shutters
closed, then between combustion cycles ram inlet air pressure would reopen them.
This intermittent combustion was, in effect, a series of rapid backfires or pulses of force which
created forward thrust of approximately 600 pounds.
A single electrical spark igniter was used for initial starting. Subsequent ignition occurred
from internal residual heat
Development of the pulse-jet ceased in the late 1940’s due to the poor performance of this
engine design. (Figure 1.5)
Figure 1.5

AA Form TO-18
The Gas Turbine

The aircraft gas turbine is a heat engine using air as a working fluid. In its most basic form it
consists of a compressor for compressing the air, a combustion chamber for burning the
air/fuel mixture, and a turbine for extracting energy from the high velocity exhaust gases.
Some of the energy in the highly heated gases is required to drive the compressor and
accessories, the remainder being available to produce power or thrust. The turbine-type jet
and, more specifically, the gas turbine engine is a name given to a family of engines based
on the Whittle design, which include the turbojet, turboprop, turboshaft, and turbofan. These
four gas turbines are discussed in detail throughout this chapter.
Physics
For a clear understanding of jet propulsion principles it is necessary to understand the
applicable principles of physics. These are the physical principles which govern the action of
mass or matter.
The physics described here, however, are not intended to be complete in this regard but
rather to present the basic ideas necessary for an understanding of the physical relationships
of gases and the turbo-machinery within a gas turbine engine.
The mass-flow of gases referred to is atmospheric air which is compressed and accelerated
in the gas turbine engine to create useful work at the turbine wheel and, ultimately, thrust.
The thrust is created from either pure reaction to the flowing gases or from a propeller or fan
driven by a turbine
Power – Gas Turbines
Reciprocating engines measure power in horsepower or kilowatts. Gas turbine engines are
more concerned about thrust, and as such the engine is rated on thrust produced or a
combination of thrust produced and shaft horsepower in turboprop applications.
Thrust is stated as Force (F) when calculating the output of thrust producing gsa turbine
engines.
Force
Force is defined as the capacity to do work, or the tendency to produce work.
It is also a vector quantity that tends to produce acceleration of a body in the direction of its
application. It can be measured in units of pounds.
Turbojet and turbofan engines are rated in pounds of thrust.
The formula for force is:
Force = Pressure x Area, or F = P x A
Where: F = Force in pounds
P = Pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) A = Area in square
inches
EXAMPLE: The pressure across the opening of a jet tailpipe (exhaust nozzle) is 6 psi above
ambient and the opening is 300 square inches. What is the force present in pounds?
F=PxA
F = 6 x 300
F = 1,800 pounds
The force mentioned here is present in addition to reactive thrust in most gas turbine engine
designs. This “pressure thrust” will be discussed later in this chapter.

AA Form TO-18
Work
Work = Force x Distance
Expressed simply, power is the rate at which work is performed.

Power depends on three factors the:
 Force used
 Distance the force moves
 Time required to move the force
Power
The definition of work makes no mention of time. Whether it takes five seconds to move an
object or five hours, the same amount of work would be accomplished. Power, by
comparison, does take the time into account. To lift a ten pound object 15 feet off the floor in
five seconds requires significantly more power than to lift it in five hours. Work performed per
unit of time is power. Power is measured in units of foot pounds per second, foot pounds per
minute, or mile pounds per hour.
The formula for power is:
Force x Distance
time
or
Work
Power
Time
Where: P = Power in foot pounds per minute D Distance in feet
t = Time in minutes
EXAMPLE: A 2,500 pound engine is to be hoisted a height of 9 feet in two minutes. How
much power is required?
P = FxD
t
P = 2,500 x 9
2
P = 11,250 ft. lbs/mm.
To accelerate a 1500kg vehicle over a ¼ mile in seven seconds requires significantly more
power than to cover the distance in five minutes.

AA Form TO-18
Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity; it has both speed and direction.
The velocity of the gas flow throughout the gas turbine engine is particularly important as it
not only is responsible for the resultant thrust in line with Newton’s third law but is also critical
with regard to controlling engine operating temperatures.
Velocity = Distance ÷ time, or
V=D÷t
Both aircraft are flying at the same speed – 200 Knots. (Figure 1.6)
• The velocity of the aircraft on the left is 200 knots – East.
• The velocity of the aircraft on the right is 200 knots – West.
(Figure 1.6)
Acceleration
In physics, acceleration is defined as a change in velocity with respect to time. Observe that
distance traveled is not considered, only loss or gain of velocity with time. The typical
(Imperial) units for acceleration are feet per second/second (fps/s) and miles per hour/second
(mph/s). Feet per second/second are sometimes referred to as feet per second squared
(fps2).
The SI unit – metres/second2.
The formula for calculating acceleration is:

AA Form TO-18
Energy
Energy is used to perform useful work. In the gas turbine engine this means producing
motion and heat. The two forms of energy which best describe the propulsive power of the jet
engine are potential and kinetic.
Recall the law of Conservation of Energy:
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
It can only be changed from one form to another”.
Conversion of Energy
The gas turbine engine relies on the 1st law of thermodynamics in that a cycle of energy
conversion is constantly taking place:
In the Inlet:
 Kinetic energy in the form of airflow velocity is being converted to potential energy in
the form of pressure by the divergent design of the Inlet.
Across the compressor:
 Pressure or potential energy is continually being converted to velocity or kinetic
energy across the compressor rotor(s)
 Kinetic energy is continually being converted back to potential energy across the
compressor stators.
In the combustion area:
 Potential energy developed in the compressor is increased by the addition of heat
energy.
 kinetic energy developed due to the expansion caused by the application of heat
energy.
Across the turbine area:
 Kinetic energy in the form velocity due to the expansion, is being converted into
mechanical energy by the turbine to drive the compressor.
 Mechanical energy is the source of the air pressure increase within the compressor.
 The loss of kinetic energy across each stage of turbine is compensated for by utilising
velocity stabilisation methods preparing the airflow for the next stage of turbine.
 Velocity is stabilised by blade &/or stator design
 To maintain velocity a subsequent drop in potential energy (pressure is effected)
across the turbine pack.

AA Form TO-18
Laws of Thermodynamics
The effects of heat in a jet engine, or any engine, are explained by the laws of
thermodynamics. It is necessary for you to understand what is involved in the process of the
conversion of fuel into mechanical work, as it will give you a better understanding of the
internal operation of gas turbine engines. The two laws of thermodynamics are as follows:
First Law
The first law of thermodynamics simply states that:
 “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed in form.”
 This is also known as the law of conservation of energy.
In a gas turbine engine heat energy is imparted to the air by the compressor, while additional
heat is added when the fuel is burned. The heat energy is changed to thrust and the gases
are cooled as they pass through the turbine section and out the jet nozzle.
With this law in mind, it is reasonable to assume that the total quantity of energy in a cycle is
equal to the amount of energy that can be accounted for in any of the forms in which it can
occur through out the cycle, ie. mechanical energy, heat energy, pressure energy, etc.
To obtain 100% efficiency from a heat engine is a practical impossibility. An engine, as it
converts heat into work, has to lose some heat. This phenomenon is the basis of the second
law of thermodynamics.
Second Law
“Temperature differences between systems in contact with each other tend to even out and
that work can be obtained from these differences, but that loss of heat occurs, when work is
done.”
In other words, no cyclic process is possible in which heat is absorbed from a reservoir at a
single temperature and converted completely into mechanical work.
Another definition of the same law states that heat cannot flow from a cooler body to a hotter
body. It must flow from hotter toward cooler. The cooling of an engine involves this principle,
in that heat is transferred from hotter bodies or substances to cooler bodies or substances. If
cooling is not introduced the components will continue to get hotter until they fail.
Another variant explains that mechanical energy can be converted entirely into heat energy
but heat energy cannot be entirely converted to mechanical energy.

AA Form TO-18
Newton’s Laws of Motion

Jet engines and propellers develop thrust in accordance with Sir Isaac Newton’s laws of
motion. Jet engines, rocket motors, and propellers develop thrust in accordance with these
laws of motion.
Thrust is defined as a forward force that imparts momentum to a mass of air behind it. In
other words, thrust is a reaction to the rearward momentum of a gas. Jet engines work on
the principle of reaction. Therefore, the reaction to the acceleration of the air through the
engine is felt as thrust.
Knowledge of these laws will help you understand Thrust.
• The inertia of the mass air flow.
• The momentum of the mass air flow.
• The reaction to the mass air flow.
Newton’s First Law

Newton’s first law of motion states:
 “A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in motion
in a straight line, unless acted upon by an external force.”
This law is often termed the Law of Inertia. Inertia is that quantity which depends solely upon
mass. The more mass, the greater the force required to change its motion, the more inertia it
will have when in motion.
The mass air flow through a jet engine or propeller will remain motionless or at a constant
flow until it is moved by an external force, such as increasing or decreasing the engine rpm.
The inertia of the propeller and/or the engine’s rotating assembly will resist any change of
motion. More force is required to overcome this inertia – more power to increase the mass air
flow, or more drag to reduce mass air flow.
Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law states:
 “The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force causing it and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.”
In simple terms, this means that a body will accelerate in proportion to the force applied to it.
Acceleration = Final Velocity – Initial Velocity
Time
This law deals with acceleration and is the one that explains, to a great extent, the thrust
produced by a turbine engine. The acceleration of a body (air) is directly proportional to the
force causing it (engine or components) and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
In other words, a change in motion is proportional to the force applied. This may be
expressed by the equation:
Force = Mass x Acceleration ( F = M x A )
Mass = Weight
Gravity

AA Form TO-18
This second law relates to aircraft engines and propellers accelerating their mass airflow to
produce thrust. The propeller moves a large mass of air rearwards with a relatively small
change in velocity (Figure 1-7), while the exhaust gas stream from a turbojet engine has a
relatively small mass, but the acceleration that has taken place within the engine is large
(Figure 1-8). Both types of acceleration produce thrust.
Figure 1-7
Figure 1-8
Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s third law of motion states:
 “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
When a jet engine, or an engine turning a propeller accelerates a mass of air backwards, an
equal amount of force is produced that moves the aircraft forward. This law is best explained
by observing a deflating balloon. Figure 1-9 shows this.
Figure 1-9
Due to an imbalance of the balloon’s internal pressure, the air is accelerated out the neck.
An equal and opposite force reacts to the force accelerating the air and causes the balloon to
move.

AA Form TO-18
As with all forms of jet propulsion, the balloon is not propelled forward by the escaping air
pushing on anything outside, but from the reaction force inside the balloon. Both action and
reaction forces occur inside all engines, this concept will be covered in detail during topic two
It should be remembered that all three of Newton’s laws take place simultaneously and are
inseparable.
Bernoulli's Theorem
Bernoulli’s principle finds that if air is passed through a venturi, as the air velocity increased,
the pressure decreased, and as the velocity decreased, the pressure increased.
A venturi is simply a narrowing in a tube, as can be seen in Figure 1-10.
Figure 1-10
Bernoulli’s theorem states:
 “The total energy of a particle in motion is constant at all points on its path at a steady
flow.”
In its simplest form, the theorem means that in a venturi, pressure is inversely proportional to
velocity. Another way of stating this is that if pressure increases, velocity decreases
proportionally or, if pressure decreases, velocity increases proportionally.
The significance of this discovery is that it is one of the basic principles of operation of a jet
engine and will become evident during later topics. Figure 1-11 shows an example of how
varying the size of a tube will affect the velocity and pressure of a fluid however the total
energy always remains constant.
Figure 1-11

AA Form TO-18
Compression & Expansion Processes

Theoretically there are three types of processes relevant to compression & expansion of a
gas flow.
 Adiabatic.
 Isothermal.
 Polytropic.
Adiabatic
When all of the energy utilised in the compression and/or expansion is converted without any
losses due to cooling or heat transfer to atmosphere the process is said to be adiabatic.
Isothermal
When there is zero temperature change during the compression &/or expansion the process
is said to be isothermal (one temperature).
Polytropic
The previous processes are perfect world and generally will not prove to be a valid process.
During compression and expansion processes some energy will be lost to the process
through overcoming friction and heat transfer.
When the energy required to produce a designated compression or expansion is greater than
the actual potential of the result the process is said to be polytropic.

AA Form TO-18
Gas Turbine Basic Construction

The mechanical layout of the gas turbine engine is simple in that it consists of four basic
sections:
 Compressor
 Combustors.
 Turbines.
 Exhaust.
Only two of these parts rotate the compressor and turbine. One or more combustors direct
the mass airflow through the turbine into the dynamically designed exhaust system. Figure
1-12 shows the layout of a typical modern gas turbine engine.
Figure 1-12
In a gas turbine engine ambient air enters the inlet where it is subjected to changes in
pressure, velocity and temperature.
The air is directed at the optimal angle into the compressor where pressure and temperature
are increased mechanically.
The air continues to the diffuser where, by the divergent nature of the duct, the pressure is
further increased and velocity is decreased.
As the air enters the combustion section it is mixed with fuel and ignited. The ignition of the
air/mixture increases the temperature and volume which converts the potential energy of the
fuel to kinetic energy.

AA Form TO-18
The Brayton Cycle

The hot gases expand through a convergent exhaust nozzle. The expansion of the gases,
caused by the addition of heat energy, creates the necessary action to give the reacting
thrust.
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to the four stroke reciprocating engine.
In the gas turbine engine, combustion takes place at a constant pressure and is referred to as
the Brayton Cycle, whereas, in the reciprocating engine, or Otto Cycle, it occurs at a constant
volume.
Both engine cycle’s show that in each instance there is induction, compression, combustion
and exhaust (Figure 1-13). In the case of the reciprocating engine, these processes are
intermittent and occur in the same place. In the gas turbine engine however, the cycle is
continuous and occurs in different places.
Figure 1-13
In the piston engine cycle, only one stroke (combustion) is utilised to produce power, the
others being involved in the Inlet, compression and exhausting of the working fluid.
The gas turbine on the other hand disposes of the three idle strokes, which enables the gas
turbine engine to burn more fuel in a shorter time and give a greater power output for a given
size engine.
Due to the continuous action of the turbine engine and the fact that the combustion chamber
is not a fully enclosed space, the pressure of the air does not rise, like that of a piston engine,
but its volume does increase. This process is known as heating at a constant pressure.

AA Form TO-18
Constructional Configurations
All gas turbine engines consist of the same basic components. However, the nomenclature
used to describe each component does vary among manufacturers. Nomenclature and
overhaul differences are reflected in applicable maintenance manuals.
The following discussion uses the terminology that is most commonly used in industry.
There are seven basic sections within every gas turbine engine. They are the
1. Air Inlet
2. Compressor Section.
3. Combustion Section.
4. Turbine Section.
5. Exhaust Section.
6. Accessory Section and
7. Systems necessary for:
• Starting,
• Lubrication,
• Fuel supply, and
• Auxiliary purposes such as;
• Anti- icing,
• Cooling, and
• Pressurization.
Additional terms you often hear include hot section and cold section. A turbine engine’s hot
section includes the combustion, turbine, and exhaust sections. The cold section, on the
other hand, includes the air inlet duct and the compressor section.
The gas turbine powered jet is further broken down into:
• Turboshaft.
• Turbo-propeller.
• Turbojet, and
• Turbofan types.
These four types of engines are the ones most commonly found in today’s aircraft.

AA Form TO-18
Turboshaft
The gas turbine engine that delivers power through a shaft to operate something other than a
propeller is referred to as a turboshaft engine.
The turboshaft power take off may be coupled to and driven by the turbine that drives the
compressor, but is more likely to be driven by a turbine of its own. Engines using a separate
turbine for the power take off are called free turbine or free power turbine type turboshaft
engines.
A free turbine turboshaft engine has two major sections, the gas generator and the free
turbine sections. Figures 1.14 shows an example of the gas generator section and the free
turbine section of turboshaft engines.
Figure 1-14
The function of the gas generator is to produce the required energy to drive the free turbine
system. The gas generator extracts about two thirds of the energy available from the
combustion process leaving the other third to drive the free power turbine.
These engines are widely used in industrial applications, such as electrical power generating
plants and surface transportation systems (mainly high speed naval vessels), while in
aviation, turboshaft engines are used to drive the rotors of many modern helicopters.
Aircraft auxiliary power units (APUs) are also often turboshaft engines which are used in
aircraft to drive generators and hydraulic pumps.

AA Form TO-18
Turbo-Propeller
Commonly called the “turboprop” engine, this engine is similar in design to the turbojet with
the exception that it delivers the power produced in the engine to a shaft which feeds into a
reduction gearbox and onward to the propeller.
The reduction gearbox is used to slow the propeller’s rotational speed and to increase torque
capability.
Most of the power produced in the engine is used to drive the propeller and therefore little
thrust is produced from the engine exhaust.
In Figure 1-15 you will notice the engine is very similar to the basic turbojet. The major
differences will be discussed in later topics.
Figure 1-15
Turboprop engines are best suited to speeds below approximately 350 MPH. Up to this
speed they are more efficient than turbojet engines but propeller efficiency falls away rather
rapidly at speeds above 350 MPH, due to disturbance of the airflow at the propeller blade
tips.
The advantages of the turboprop have been largely offset by advances in turbofan
technology.

AA Form TO-18
Turbojets
Modern turbojets use many variations on this theme but the components are still basically
unchanged. Figure 1-16 illustrates a typical example of a modern turbojet.
Figure 1-16
The turbojet engine uses the acceleration of airflow throughout the engine to produce thrust.
The turbojet is well suited to high speed, high altitude operations due to enhanced
efficiencies under these conditions.
The basic operating principles of a turbojet engine are relatively straight forward; air enters
through an inlet duct and proceeds to the compressor where it is compressed. Once
compressed, the air flows to the combuster section where fuel is added and ignited. The heat
generated by the burning fuel causes the compressed air to expand and flow toward the rear
of the engine. As the air moves rearward, it passes through a set of turbine wheels that are
attached to the same shaft as the compressor blades. The expanding air spins the turbines
which, in turn, drives the compressor. Once past the turbines, the air proceeds to exit the
engine at a much higher velocity than the incoming air. It is this difference in velocity between
the entering and exiting air that produces thrust.
From 450 mph on up, the turbofan or turbojet is most widely used. The turbofan is newer and
has become the most popular powerplant for commercial and business jets because its
design affords the most propulsive power at higher subsonic cruising speeds. The turbofan
engine was developed in order to permit the use of higher turbine temperatures without a
corresponding increase in jet velocity, because a high jet velocity is not efficient for subsonic
flight. The turbojet engine is less efficient and has, for all practical purposes, been replaced
by the turbofan.
Today some large turbojets remain in use in military aviation, and they are still used in the
supersonic Concorde aircraft. All current military supersonic aircraft, like the B-i bomber or F-
22 advanced tactical fighter, are powered by low bypass turbofan engines.

AA Form TO-18
Turbofan Engines
The turbofan engine or, by-pass engine, consists basically of a multi bladed ducted propeller
driven by a gas turbine (Figure 1-17).
Figure 1-17
There are several different configurations of turbofan engines. Some early designs had the
fan driven through a reduction gearbox from the compressor (Figure 1-17) while others are
connected directly to the compressor (Figure 1-18).
Figure 1-18
In a turbofan engine, the fan makes a substantial contribution to the total thrust.
Over and above the thrust developed by the core engine (that portion of the turbofan engine
that resembles a typical turbojet), the fan accelerates the air passing through the duct similar
to the function of the propeller of a turboprop.
The fans of a turbofan engine produce between 30 and 80 percent of the total thrust, the
actual amount depending principally upon the bypass ratio.
Turbofan engines have turbojet-type cruise speed capability, yet retain some of the short-field
takeoff capability of a turboprop. Nearly all present day airliners are powered by turbofan
engines for the reasons just mentioned as well as the fact that turbofans are very fuel
efficient.
A turbofan engine may have the fan mounted to either the front or back of the engine.
Engines that have the fan mounted in front of the compressor are called forward-fan engines,
while turbofan engines that have the fan mounted to the turbine section are called aft-fan
engines.
The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually divided into two separate
streams of air.
AA Form TO-18
Turbofan Configurations
Low Bypass
In the low bypass engine, the airflow is divided approximately into two halves between the
fan and the compressor.
Air that is being discharged by the fan may be ducted overboard from a short duct, or it may
pass down a duct that extends the full length of the core engine is known as the ‘cold gas
stream’.
The core engine air is compressed, combusted, and discharged in the normal manner out the
hot exhaust nozzle. The air that passes through the core engine is known as the ‘hot gas
stream’.
The turbofan illustrated in Figure 1-19 has a non mixed exhaust. This means that the air
being discharged from the fan is not mixed with that from the core engine before reaching the
outside air.
Figure 1-19
Figure 1-20 is also a fully ducted fan engine, however the hot gas stream (from the core
engine) is mixed with the cold gas stream (from the fan) in the exhaust before they enter the
atmosphere.
This design offers the advantage of diluting the hot gases in the common exhaust, which aids
in noise suppression, helping to lessen noise pollution.
Figure 1-20

AA Form TO-18
High Bypass
The high bypass engine has a fan ratio of 4:1 or better (this means that four parts of air go
through the fan for every part that goes to the core engine).
To accomplish this ratio, a large diameter fan is required (Figure 1-21). These engines are of
the type fitted to large aircraft commercial jets and produce the greater percentage of their
thrust from the fan (produces 80%).
Figure 1-21
The turbofan engine is now the most widely used gas turbine engine in the aircraft industry,
both military and commercial. It offers performance in comparison to the turbojet, low speed
efficiencies in the order of the turbopropeller and the best fuel economy of them all.
For example, a turbojet may bypass 25% of the airflow around the high pressure compressor.
This would then be classed as a 1:3 or 0.33:1 bypass ratio (low bypass turbojet).
Ducted Fan Operation
The ducted fan engine, may be regarded as a development of the bypass principle. The
requirement for high bypass ratios of up to 5:1 is largely met by using the front fan in a twin or
triple spool configuration.
The front compressor stage (fan) is housed in an aerodynamic duct or shroud, up to 80% of
the airflow accelerated by the fan rotor blades is ducted past the core engine while the air
from the lower portion of the blades flows into the engine itself. (Figure 1-22)
Figure 1-22

AA Form TO-18
On some front fan engines, the bypass airstream is ducted overboard either directly behind
the fan through short ducts, or at the rear of the engine through longer ducts as illustrated in
Figure 1-23; hence the name ‘ducted fan.’
Figure 1-23
Fan tip speed may be allowed to exceed Mach 1 so the compressor can deliver the correct
amount of air. Pressure within the fan duct helps retard airflow separation from the blades at
speeds over Mach 1 so there is an effective transfer of energy to the air at the required
compression ratio.
High bypass engines and ducted fan engines produce more fan thrust than low bypass
engines because they suffer less loss through skin friction with their short ducts as well as
being designed to carry much larger airflow mass.
Another seldom used variation is that of the aft fan, where the fan is arranged either behind
the turbine and powered by shaft from the turbine, or is an extension of the turbine blades.

AA Form TO-18
Engine Stations
Although the terms hot and cold section are useful indicators of engine position, they are not
specific enough when referring to maintenance manuals/tasks. To make it easier to identify
the position (or station) of a component or fitting, a reference system using engine stations
has been developed.
An engine station is a numbered location along the axis line of the engine and refers to basic
locations such as the compressor inlet, compressor outlet, turbine inlet and outlet etc. Figure
1-24 gives a general indication of the engine stations for a single spool turbojet.
Figure 1-24
The number of designated stations vary according to engine complexity. It is therefore
possible for the same station number to refer to different positions on different engines.
For example, Figure 1-21 shows a dual spool turbofan engine (an engine with a fan and a
compressor). It can be seen that station 4 indicates turbine inlet in the turbojet (Figure 1-24),
and the high pressure compressor outlet on the turbofan (Figure 1-25).
For ease of identification, engine manufacturers number locations, either along the length of
the gas path or along the length of the engine. Station numbers start at either the flight
cowling inlet or the engine inlet. Manufacturers do not always number engine stations the
same way. The purpose of the numbering scheme is always the same.
Figure 1-25
Engine symbols such as Pt and Tt are often used in conjunction with station numbers.
For example: To describe Pressure Total at Station-2 (the engine inlet), Pt2 is used. To
describe Temperature Total at Station-7, the turbine outlet on a dual-spool engine, Tt7 is
used. From this discussion it is evident that station numbers, when used as a subscript to an
upper case prefix, help greatly in abbreviating cumbersome terminology in describing
locations and functional data of the engine.

AA Form TO-18
In addition to the station numbers, prefixes are used to show various parameters occurring at
these stations within the engine.
For example, temperature has the prefix T.
The temperature occurring at station 5 is called T5.
Pressure has a prefix P and can be further divided into:
 Pt – total pressure;
 Ps – static pressure.
The static pressure at station 3 is known as Ps3.

AA Form TO-18
Engine Terminology
Many different terms are used to describe parts of, or positions (stations) on, the engine.
Generally speaking, the terms referred to in this package are universally acceptable.
The engines cold & hot sections are those sections exposed to cold & hot gases respectively.
Cold Section
Basically, the front part of the engine which handles the colder airflow is termed the cold
section. Figure 1-26 shows the cold section which consists of the:
 Engine inlet.
 Compressor.
 Diffuser.
Figure 1-26
Hot Section
The hot section of the engine is that section of the engine that is exposed to hot air and
includes the:
 Combustion chamber.
 Turbine assembly.
 Exhaust.
The air that flows through the hot section is known as the ‘hot gas stream’. Figure 1-27
illustrates the hot section and identifies its component parts.
Figure 1-27
Ambient Air
Ambient air refers to the natural air surrounding the engine. The pressure and temperature of
ambient air is usually required when an aircraft requires a ground run. This is usually
obtained by contacting the base meteorology section.

AA Form TO-18
Gas Generator
The term gas generator is used to describe that part of the gas turbine engine that produces
the basic gas. Basic gas is the gas that travels through the compressor(s) to the combustion
area, and onwards to the turbine.
The gas generator section of a jet engine excludes the engine inlet and exhaust nozzle.
Figure 1-28 illustrates the gas generator portion of an engine.
Figure 1-28

AA Form TO-18
Airflow Characteristics
Figure 1-29
Figure 1-29 displays the behaviour of airflow through a gas turbine engine in relation to
pressure, temperature and velocity.
In the Compressor Assembly
Air pressure increases, temperature increases & velocity decreases. At the diffuser, just
prior to combustion chamber entry, there is a final dramatic increase in pressure and
temperature and decrease in velocity to aid in maintaining flame stabilisation.
In the Combustion Area
Airflow ignition causes a dramatic increase in temperature but in line with the Brayton cycle
principle, pressure and velocity remain relatively constant.
In the Turbine Assembly
Velocity of airflow will increase and decrease across the turbine stages. Due to the energy
extraction by the turbine assembly, pressure and temperature gradually will decrease.
In the Exhaust Assembly
Velocity, temperature and temperature will remain relatively constant until the propelling
nozzle where a dramatic increase in velocity will take place.

AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.2: ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Thrust
The terms used to describe the types of thrust produced by aircraft engines are:
 Propeller thrust.
 Jet thrust.
 Gross thrust
 Net thrust
 Choked nozzle thrust
 Thrust distribution.
 Resultant thrust.
 Fan thrust.
Propeller Thrust
Some aircraft rely on engine driven propellers to produce their thrust. An aircraft’s propeller
gives small acceleration to a large weight of air. Propeller Thrust is the thrust developed by
the propeller, as illustrated by Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
Engine Performance Calculations

AA Form TO-18
Jet Thrust
Jet aircraft produce thrust by accelerating air through an engine and ejecting it out a
propelling nozzle. Unlike a turbopropeller, a turbojet engine gives large acceleration to a
small weight of air. Jet Thrust is the thrust developed by a jet, as illustrated by Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2
Mass Air Flow and Thrust

The basis of the thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine is the change in momentum
of air flowing through the engine. Anything that increases the mass of air increases the thrust.
Two factors that affect the mass of air are its density and the ram effect.
Air density has a profound effect on the thrust produced. The volume of air flowing through
the engine is relatively fixed for any particular RPM by the size and geometry of the inlet duct
system. But since thrust is determined by mass, not the volume of air, any increase in its
density increases its mass and thus the thrust.
As the temperature of the air increases, its density decreases, and the thrust produced by the
engine decreases. As the air pressure increases, its density increases, causing the thrust
produced by the engine to increase.
Altitude has a double effect on thrust. As altitude increases, the air becomes colder and
denser, up to the beginning of the stratosphere. This causes the .thrust to increase. But, at
the same time, an increase in altitude air causes a decrease in pressure, thus a decrease in
density and a corresponding decrease in thrust. Since the loss of thrust caused by
decreasing pressure is greater than the increase caused by decreasing temperature, the
thrust decreases as the aircraft ascends.

AA Form TO-18
Thrust Creation
The air discharge and the bullet leaving the gun DO NOT create reactive power by exerting a
pushing force on the outside air. Rather, their acting forces create a reacting force within the
device. In fact, if the air or bullet were to exit into a vacuum as rockets do in space, the exiting
velocities would be greater and the resultant thrust would be greater.
To create the acting force within a turbine engine, a continuous flow cycle is utilised.
Gas Turbine Engines operate on a principle of continuous combustion or one unit of mass
airflow in and one unit of mass airflow out. Because the unit trying to exit has been increased
in size (volume), it will have to accelerate greatly to leave the exhaust nozzle as the new unit
enters the inlet.
Thrust is transmitted to the aircraft through the engine mounts. All the points of thrust created
within the engine are not easily identifiable, but variations in pressures within the engine exert
forces all along its length, from the airframe inlet to the exhaust. The acting force is created
within a turbine engine. – NOT externally by pushing on the outside air.
A simple explanation of the operation of a gas turbine turbojet is that it is a device which
increases potential energy and then converts it to kinetic energy. Some of this energy
performs work at the turbine, while the remainder exits the engine in the form of thrust.
Thrust
Newton’s 2nd law states force is proportional to the product of mass & acceleration.
Force = Mass x Acceleration or,
F = ma
Mass (m) and weight (W) are different quantities.
However, when an object is in the Earth’s gravitational field, it is subjected to an attractive
force we call weight. In Earth’s gravity, mass and weight can be treated as similar quantities.
An object will fall due to gravity, accelerating at 9.81 m/s/s (meters/second/second) (SI units)
or 32.2 ft/s/s (feet/second/second) (British units)
These constants are known as “g”, the acceleration due to Earth’s gravity.
From F = ma, we get W = mg
Turbojet and turbofan engines burns fuel to accelerate a mass of gas rearwards to create a
forward reaction, called Thrust.
V1 V2
Considering acceleration as then

This formula forms the foundation for calculating the maximum reactive or, thrust of a gas
turbine engine.
Static Thrust is calculated as the maximum thrust developed by an engine on the test bed,
when V1 is zero.

AA Form TO-18
Gross Thrust
An engine develops its gross thrust when it is operating but not in motion.
An aircraft’s gross thrust may be observed immediately prior to releasing the brakes for
takeoff.
At this point, aircraft drag, Inlet ram air and atmospheric changes do not affect the amount of
thrust produced.
The formula for gross thrust may be stated as”
Where
• Fg = Gross thrust, in lbs.
• Wa = Weight of airflow in lbs./sec.
• V2 = Exhaust velocity, in ft./sec.
• V1 = Inlet velocity, in ft/sec.
• g = Gravity acceleration, 32.2 ft./sec2
Net Thrust
Net thrust is the effective thrust developed by the engine during flight. All engine, aircraft and
atmospheric forces must be considered when calculating an engine’s net thrust.
Net thrust may be stated basically as “the gross thrust less the aircraft forward airspeed”
Net thrust will initially decrease with aircraft acceleration until the engine inlet begins to
experience “ram effect”. This effect will tend to actually increase nett thrust over and above
a predetermined airspeed. Ram effect will generally commence around 160 MPH.
The formula for net thrust may be stated as”
Where
• Fn = Net thrust, in lbs.
• V2 = Exhaust velocity, in ft./sec.
• V1 = Inlet velocity, in ft/sec.
• g = Gravity acceleration, 32.2 ft./sec2

AA Form TO-18
Choked Nozzle Thrust

As a jet engine’s exhaust gases reach the speed of sound (Mach 1), through the propelling
nozzle, the pressure differential across the nozzle is said to become choked.
When a nozzle is choked, the pressure is such that the gases are travelling through it at the
speed of sound and cannot be further accelerated. Any increase in internal engine pressure
will pass out the nozzle still in the form of pressure.
Even though this pressure energy cannot be turned into velocity energy, it is not lost. The
pressure inside the nozzle is pushing in all directions, but when the neck is open, the air
cannot push in the direction of the nozzle.
The pressure in the other direction continues undiminished, and as a result the pressure of
the gases will push the engine forward.
This extra pressure produces what is known as choked nozzle thrust, and is additional to the
thrust produced by the exhaust gas velocity.
The formula for chocked nozzle thrust may be stated as”
Where:
• Fn = Net thrust in lbs.
• V2 = Exhaust velocity in fps
• V1 = Inlet velocity in fps2
• g = Gravity acceleration in fps
• Aj = Area of jet nozzle in sq. in.
• Pj = Pressure at jet nozzle in psi
• Pam = Pressure ambient

AA Form TO-18
Thrust Distribution
Jet thrust is not solely produced at the engine exhaust or propelling nozzle. It is developed
throughout the engine as a reaction to the forces within the engine.
During the passage of the mass airflow through an engine, changes in airflow velocity and
pressures occur. For instance, in the diffuser section of an axial flow engine, airflow velocity
(kinetic energy) is changed to pressure energy by the diffuser’s divergent shape.
This change produces force in a forward direction. Conversely, at the turbine nozzle section,
pressure energy is converted to velocity and produces force in a rearward direction. Figure
2-3 illustrates these principles.
Thrust distribution is defined as the forces resulting from the changes in the pressure and
momentum of the gas stream reacting on the engine structures and rotating components.
Figure 2-3

AA Form TO-18
Thrust distribution is, in effect, the reaction to the changes in the mass airflow pressure and
velocity throughout the engine. An example of thrust distribution is shown at Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4
Resultant Thrust
In association with thrust distribution produced throughout an engine, it is possible to
calculate the result. This is known as the resultant thrust.
Resultant thrust is the result of thrust forces felt in the rearward direction, deducted from the
thrust forces felt in the forward direction.
The formula for net thrust may be stated as”
Where:
Fr = Resultant t thrust
• A = area of flow section in sq. in.
• P = pressure in lb. per sq. in.
• Wa = weight of airflow in lb. per sec.
• V= velocity of flow in feet per sec.
• I = initial velocity
• g = gravity acceleration 32.2 ft per sec2
Note that in a typical Turbo-Jet engine, the combustion section produces the greatest forward
thrust component.

AA Form TO-18
Thrust Horsepower
To compare the thrust of a turbojet or turbofan engine with the effective horsepower of a
turbopropeller, thrust can be expressed as thrust horsepower (THP).
Thrust horsepower is only calculated in flight. The formula to calculate THP reflects the fact
that an engine’s produced horsepower will increase as airspeed increases.
The conventional formula is:
THP = Fn x Velocity (ft/sec)

550 ft/lb/sec
A more relevant version of this formula targets common flight data:
THP = Fn x Velocity (MPH)

375 MPH
Calculating Thrust Horsepower
When engine thrust is compared to horsepower in flight, 1 lb of thrust equals 1 HP at 375
MPH (325 kts). The following equations are used to calculate thrust horsepower:
Net Thrust  Airspeed

HP 
375 MPH
You can also calculate the THP by using:
Example
Calculate the THP of a turbofan engine that produces 5 000 lb of net thrust at an aircraft
speed of 600 MPH.
5 000  600
THP 
375
= 8 000 lbs

AA Form TO-18
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower

The power produced by turboprops engines is called equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP).
ESHP is defined as the combination of the power supplied to the propeller (SHP) added to
the jet thrust produced by the engine.
The formula for ESHP takes into account that a typical propeller produces 2.5 lb of thrust for
each SHP delivered by the engine at sea level static condition.
ESHP = SHP (at prop) + Fg (gross thrust)

2.5
Calculating Equivalent Shaft Horsepower
In order to calculate the ESHP of a turbopropeller, the engine’s shaft horsepower (SHP) and
net jet thrust (Fn) must be considered. A turbopropeller produces approximately 2.5 pounds
of thrust for each shaft horsepower delivered by the engine under static conditions at sea
level. With this information the ESHP of a turbopropeller engine can be calculated using the
following equation:
Net Thrust
ESHP  SHP +
2.5
Example
Calculate the ESHP of a turbopropeller engine that produces a net thrust of 5 000 lb and
develops a SHP of 6 250 ft.lb.
5 000
ESHP  6 250 +
2.5
= 8 250 ft lbs
Shaft horsepower, (sometimes referred to as thermodynamic horsepower) is defined as “the

total available horsepower of a fixed turbine type turbo-propeller or turboshaft engine as
measured on a dynamometer”. Figure 2-5 shows a typical fixed turbine turbo-propeller
engine.
Figure 2-5

AA Form TO-18
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

SFC is a ratio of fuel consumption to engine thrust by a turbojet or turbofan, or shaft
horsepower produced by a turboprop. This ratio is usually included in any set of engine
specifications and affords a means of comparing the fuel consumption or economy of
operation of one engine to another regardless of its thrust rating. Specifically, it is the amount
of fuel in pounds consumed by an engine
To move an aircraft through the air, a propulsion system is used to generate thrust. The
amount of thrust an engine generates is important. But the amount of fuel used to generate
that thrust is sometimes more important, because the aircraft has to lift and carry the fuel
throughout the flight. Engineers use an efficiency factor, called thrust specific fuel
consumption, to characterise an engine's fuel efficiency. "Thrust specific fuel consumption" is
quite a mouthful, so engineers usually just call it the engine's TSFC.
The fuel consumption of TSFC is "how much fuel the engine burns each hour." The specific
of TSFC is a scientific term meaning "divided by mass or weight." In this case, specific means
"per pound (Newton) of thrust." The thrust of TSFC is included to indicate that we are talking
about gas turbine engines. There is a corresponding brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
for engines that produce shaft power. Gathering all the terms together, TSFC is the mass of
fuel burned by an engine in one hour divided by the thrust that the engine produces. The
units of this efficiency factor are mass per time divided by force (in English units, pounds
mass per hour per pound; in metric units, kilograms per hour per Newton).
Mathematically, TSFC is a ratio of the engine fuel mass flow rate to the
amount of thrust F produced by burning the fuel:
Specific Fuel Consumption

SFC is a ratio of fuel consumption to engine thrust by a turbojet or turbofan, or shaft
horsepower produced by a turboprop. This ratio is usually included in any set of engine
specifications and affords a means of comparing the fuel consumption or economy of
operation of one engine to another regardless of its thrust rating. Specifically, it is the amount
of fuel in pounds consumed by an engine
S.f.c. is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the overall efficiency
of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high pressures which in practice
also means high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure turbo-jet engine this high temperature
would result in a high jet velocity and consequently lower the propulsive efficiency However,
by using the by-pass principle, high thermal and propulsive efficiencies can be effectively
combined by bypassing a proportion of the L.P. compressor or fan delivery air to lower the
mean jet temperature and velocity. With advanced technology engines of high by-pass and
overall pressure ratios, a further pronounced improvement in s.f.c. is obtained.

AA Form TO-18
Engine Efficiency
Engine performance is not solely concerned with engine thrust. The efficient conversion of
the fuel into kinetic energy to produce the thrust is also important.
Engine efficiency is defined as the ratio of work accomplished by an engine to the energy
developed by that engine. Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.
Due to mechanical friction, air leakage and other losses throughout an engine, the overall
engine efficiency is always less than 100 %. Many factors are considered when the
efficiency of an engine is calculated. The following terms relate to engine efficiency:
 Adiabatic efficiency.
 Thermal efficiency.
 Propulsive efficiency.
 Overall efficiency.
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of an engine is the ratio of net work produced by the engine to the
theoretical heat energy the combustion of fuel in the engine can produce.
A ratio of:
 Work capability of fuel.
 To actual work.
Adiabatic Efficiency
The adiabatic efficiency of an engine is the ratio of work required to compress a gas, without
gain or loss of heat, to the work actually accomplished by the turbine.
A ratio of:
 Theoretical work.
 To Actual work.
Propulsive Efficiency
The propulsive efficiency of an engine is a measure of the effectiveness with which energy in
a powerplant is converted to useful work for propelling the aircraft. In other words, it is the
amount of thrust developed by the propelling nozzle compared with the energy supplied to it.
A comparison of propulsive efficiencies with aircraft speed is illustrated by Figure 2-6
Figure 2-6

AA Form TO-18
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of:

 Forward aircraft speed to
 Exhaust gas or propeller stream speed
Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of an engine is the product of its propulsive efficiency times the
engine’s thermal efficiency.
This is a measure of an engine’s ability to use:
 Thrust and
 Fuel.
The overall efficiency of an engine directly relates to SFC and TSFC
TURBOFAN ENGINES
A turbofan engine consists of a multi-bladed ducted propeller driven by a gas turbine engine.
Turbofans were developed to provide a compromise between the best features of the turbojet
and the turboprop.
efficient.
When discussing bypass engines there are three terms you must be familiar with; they are
thrust ratio, bypass ratio, and fan pressure ratio. A turbofan engine’s thrust ratio is a pressure
ratio. A turbofan engine’s thrust ratio is a comparison of the thrust produced by the fan to the
thrust produced by the engine core exhaust.
A turbofan’s bypass ratio refers to the ratio of incoming air that bypasses the core to the
amount of air that passes through the engine core.

AA Form TO-18
TURBOFAN THRUST RATIO

A turbofan engine’s thrust ratio is a comparison of the thrust produced by the fan to the thrust
produced by the engine core exhaust.
Thrust calculation of a fan engine can be accomplished in the same way as the turbojet,
except that the hot and cold stream nozzle thrust values are figured separately and then
added together.
FAN PRESSURE RATIO

Another term you must be familiar with is fan pressure ratio which is the ratio of air pressure
leaving the fan to the air pressure entering the fan. The fan pressure ratio on a typical low
bypass fan is approximately 1.5:1, whereas for some high bypass fans the fan pressure ratio
may be as high as 7:1.
BY-PASS RATIO
A turbofan engine consists of a multi-bladed ducted propeller driven by a gas turbine engine.
Turbofans were developed to provide a compromise between the best features of the turbojet
and the turboprop.
efficient.
When discussing bypass engines there are three terms you must be familiar with; they are
thrust ratio, bypass ratio, and fan pressure ratio. A turbofan engine’s thrust ratio is a pressure
ratio. A turbofan engine’s thrust ratio is a comparison of the thrust produced by the fan to the
thrust produced by the engine core exhaust.
A turbofan’s bypass ratio refers to the ratio of incoming air that bypasses the core to the
amount of air that passes through the engine core.
Turbofans in civil aircraft are generally divided into three classifications based on bypass
ratio:
1. Low bypass (1:1)
2. Medium bypass (2:1 or 3:1)
3. High bypass (4:1 or greater)
Low By-Pass Ratio
Generally, airflow mass in the fan section of a low bypass engine is the same as airflow mass
in the compressor. The fan discharge could be slightly higher or lower depending on the
engine model, but bypass ratios are approximately 1:1. In some engines the bypass air is
ducted directly overboard through a short fan duct. However, in a ducted fan engine, the
bypass air is ducted along the entire length of the engine. – for example, JT8 and RR RB183
Spey.

AA Form TO-18
Full fan ducts reduce aerodynamic drag and noise emissions. ln either case, the end of the
duct usually has a converging discharge nozzle that increases velocity and produces reactive
thrust.
Medium Bypass
Medium or intermediate bypass engines have airflow bypass ratios ranging from 2:1 to 3:1.
These engines have thrust ratios similar to their bypass ratios. The fans used on these
engines have a larger diameter than the fans used on low bypass engines of comparable
power. Fan diameter determines a fan’s bypass ratio and thrust ratio.
High Bypass
High bypass turbofan engines have bypass ratios of 4:1 or greater and use the largest
diameter fan of any of the bypass engines. High bypass turbines offer higher propulsive
efficiencies and better fuel economy than low or medium bypass turbines. Consequently,
they are the engines of choice on large airliners used for long flights. Some common large
high bypass turbofan engines include Pratt and Whitney’s JT9D and PW4000, the Rolls-
Royce RB- 211, and the General Electric CF6. Small bypass turbofan engines PW300

AA Form TO-18
Bypass Ratio
The path of air through a gas turbine engine varies according to the design of the engine. In
turbojet applications, all the air is taken into the engine and passed through the compressor,
combustion chamber and exits via the exhaust.
The principle of the bypass system involves a division in the airflow.
In early bypass systems the air is taken in and compressed by the low pressure (LP)
compressor. A percentage is ducted to bypass the engine core and the remainder is
delivered to the high pressure (HP) compressor (refer Figure 2-7).
In modern turbofans the bypass ratio refers to the percentage of fan duct air relative to the
airflow through the core engine.
With regard to statement of the ratio, the “1” is always representative of airflow through the
core engine which is the name used to describe the Gas Generator or HP Compressor.
The bypass ratio is the ratio of cool air that is bypassed through the duct, to the flow of air
passed through the gas generator.
Figure 2-7
 Low bypass - 1:1 or less

 Medium bypass - 2:1 or 3:1
 High bypass - 4:1 or greater
Engine Pressure Ratio
Engine pressure ratio (EPR) is the ratio between compressor inlet pressure and turbine
discharge pressure. In Figure 2-8, the inlet pressure at the compressor is 10 PSI and the
turbine discharge pressure is 100 PSI. The engine pressure ratio is therefore 10:100 or more
simply put 1:10.
Figure 2-8

AA Form TO-18
The pressures utilised in calculating engine pressure ratio will always be dynamic pressures.
That is, the pressure is representative of not only the static pressure at the sample area but
also the pressure evident due to the velocity of the airflow.
For example: EPR on a twin spool gas turbine engine is calculated at engine stations 2 & 7
and the pressures sampled are referred to as Pt2 & Pt7 respectively.
 “P” representing pressure,

 “t” representing total (or dynamic).
 The number refers to engine station number at the zone being sampled.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
ICAO standard for measuring altitude is in feet.
Atmospheric pressure may be either pounds per square inch (psi) or millibars (mb).
To enable the performance of similar engines to be compared, it is necessary to standardize
in some conventional form the variations of air temperature and pressure that occur with
altitude and climatic conditions.
There are in use several different definitions of standard atmospheres, the one in most
common use being the International Standard Atmosphere (I.S.A.). This is based on a
temperature lapse rate of approximately 1.98 degrees Celsius per 1,000ft, resulting in a fall
from 288.15 deg.K. (15 deg.C) at sea level to 216.65 deg.K (-56.5 deg.C.) at 36,089 ft. (the
tropopause).
Above this altitude the temperature is constant up to 65.617ft.
The I.S.A. standard pressure at sea level is 1013mb or 14.69 pounds per square inch falling
to 0.023 mb or 3.28 pounds per square inch at the tropopause.
Engine Thrust in Flight
In order to determine an engine’s net thrust we need to consider inflight variables:
 Mass airflow.
 Ram effect.
 Air temperature.
 Ram drag.
 Altitude.
 Engine rpm.
 Humidity.
 Engine condition.
 Air speed.

AA Form TO-18
Mass Airflow
Thrust is produced by the reaction to accelerating the mass airflow through an engine.
However, as the density of the air entering the Inlet changes, the mass airflow will change.
This is a result of more, or less, molecules per given volume of air being available to the
engine. If the mass airflow through the engine is decreased, the thrust developed will
decrease. In fact, mass airflow and thrust are directly proportional.
Altitude
As altitude is increased, density decreases. Because air pressure decreases as altitude
increases, the temperature also decreases, but cannot compensate for the loss of density
caused by the increased altitude.
Above 36 000 ft the density decreases more rapidly because the temperature remains fairly
constant above this altitude. For these reasons thrust decreases with increased altitude.
Figure 2-9 shows the effect of altitude on thrust.
Figure 2-9
The altitude effect on thrust can also be discussed as a density and temperature effect. In
this case, an increase in altitude causes a decrease in pressure and temperature. Since the
temperature lapse rate is less than the pressure lapse rate as altitude is increased, the
density is decreased. Although the decreased temperature increases thrust, the effect of
decreased density more than offsets the effect of the colder temperature. The net result of
increased altitude is a reduction in the thrust output.

AA Form TO-18
Air Temperature
Variations in the air temperature entering the engine will effect the air density and therefore
engine performance. When the temperature is lowered, the density of the air is increased.
Increased density increases the mass airflow through the engine and thus increases the
thrust produced. Figure 2-10 shows the effect of air temperature on thrust. An engine
operating under standard day conditions may produce 10 000 lbs thrust, on an extremely cold
day the same engine may produce up to 12 000 lbs thrust. Conversely, on an extremely hot
day the same engine may produce as low as 8 000 lbs thrust.
Figure 2-10
Thrust output will improve rapidly with a reduction in OAT (outside air temperature) at
constant altitude, r.p.m. and airspeed. This increase occurs partly because the energy
required per pound of airflow to drive the compressor varies directly with the temperature,
thus leaving more energy to develop thrust. In addition, the thrust output will increase, since
the air at reduced temperature has an increased density. The increase in density causes the
mass flow through the engine to increase.
Humidity
Humidity is described as the percentage of water vapour in a given volume of air. Because
water vapour displaces some of the air, the air is less dense, therefore an increase in
humidity will reduce an engine’s mass airflow and hence lower engine performance. In other
words, as the humidity increases, the air density decreases with a corresponding decrease in
thrust.

AA Form TO-18
Airspeed
As an aircraft’s forward speed increases, the velocity of the air at the engine Inlet (Vi) is
increased. This results in less acceleration of the mass airflow through the engine ie. (Vj - Vi)
and therefore, less thrust. The effect of increased airspeed may be summarised as; as
airspeed increases, thrust decreases until ram effect restores thrust. Figure 2-11 shows the
effect of airspeed on thrust.
Figure 2-11
As airspeed is increased from static, the ram drag increases rapidly. The exhaust jet velocity
remains relatively constant; therefore, the effect of the increase in airspeed results in
decreased specific thrust.
A rise in pressure above existing outside atmospheric pressure at the engine inlet, as a result
of the forward velocity of an aircraft, is referred to as ram. Since any ram effect will cause an
increase in compressor entrance pressure over atmospheric pressure, the resulting pressure
rise will cause an increase in the mass airflow and jet velocity, both of which tend to increase
thrust.
Although ram effect increases the engine thrust, the thrust being produced by the engine
decreases for a given throttle setting as the aircraft gains airspeed. Therefore, two opposing
trends occur when an aircraft’s speed is increased. What actually takes place is the net result
of these two different effects. An engine’s thrust output temporarily decreases as aircraft
speed increases from static, but soon ceases to decrease; toward the higher speeds, thrust
output begins to increase again.

AA Form TO-18
Ram Effect
Thrust will initially decrease as airspeed increases due to a reduction in the acceleration (V1)
of the mass airflow through the engine. However, as an aircraft’s airspeed increases, air is
being rammed into the Inlet causing an increase in Inlet pressure. This in turn increases the
mass airflow into the engine and thrust is restored. In Figure 2-12, curve A indicates the
initial effect of airspeed, curve B indicates the effect of Ram pressure and curve C indicates
the resultant. Ram effect has the effect of increasing the thrust as the forward speed of the
aircraft increases.
Figure 2-12
Ram Drag
Ram drag, sometimes called Inlet momentum drag, is the drag caused by the momentum of
the air passing into the engine relative to the speed of the aircraft. This type of drag must be
considered when determining an aircraft’s net thrust. In other words, the theoretical
calculation of nett thrust may require a reduction in the figure for forward airspeed to
compensate for any Inlet drag evident.
Engine RPM
For all engines, the thrust increases rapidly as the RPM approaches its maximum design
speed. Figure 2-13 illustrates the effect of engine RPM on performance.
Figure 2-13

AA Form TO-18
Engine Ratings
Turbine engines, both turbojet and turbofan, are thrust rated in terms of either engine
pressure ratio or fan speed and turboshaft lturboprop engines are SHP rated in the following
categories: Takeoff, maximum continuous, maximum climb, maximum cruise, and idle. For
certification purposes, the manufacturer demonstrates to the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) that the engine will perform at certain thrust or shaft horsepower levels for specified
time intervals and still maintain its airworthiness and service life for the user.
These ratings can usually be found on the engine Type Certificate Data Sheets. The ratings
are classified as follows:
 Takeoff Wet Thrust/SHP — This rating represents the maximum power available while
in water injection and is time limited. It is used only during takeoff operation. Engines
are trimmed to this rating.
 Takeoff Dry Thrust/SHP — Limits on this rating are the same as takeoff wet but without
water injection. Engines are trimmed to this rating.
 Maximum Continuous Thrust/SHP — This rating has no time limit but is to be used
only during emergency situations at the discretion of the pilot, for example, during one
engine-out cruise operation.
 Maximum Climb Thrust/SHP — Maximum climb power settings are not time limited
and are to be used for normal climb, to cruising altitude, or when changing altitudes.
This rating is sometimes the same as maximum continuous.
 Maximum Cruise Thrust/SHP — This rating is designed to be used for any time period
during normal cruise at the discretion of the pilot.
 Idle Speed — This power setting is not actually a power rating but, rather, the lowest
usable thrust setting for either ground or in fight operations.
Engine Ratings
Thrust producing turbine engines utilize either the engine pressure ratio trim or the fan speed
trim procedure. If the engine is configured with an engine pressure ratio system, the pilot will
use a cockpit engine pressure ratio gauge to set engine power. In terms of Trimming, the
engine is referred to as an engine pressure ratio rated engine. If the engine does not have an
engine pressure ratio system, it is trimmed in accordance with fan speed and the pilot in this
case uses a tachometer indicator to set engine power. In terms of trimming, this engine is
referred to as a fan speed rated engine.
Some engines are flat rated to only 15oC, others over 30°C. This consideration depends
largely on the needs of the aircraft manufacturer. Generally, flat rating is believed to enable
the engine to produce a constant rated thrust over a wide range of ambient temperatures
without working the engine harder than necessary, in the interest of prolonging engine
service life.
For example, an engine rated at 3,500 pounds thrust at 15oC might be re-rated to 3,350
pounds thrust at 32°C. The aircraft user might not need to utilize 3,500 pounds thrust, nor the
AA Form TO-18
maximum gross weight of the aircraft, and he would like to benefit from increased engine
service life and lower fuel consumption by operating at 3,350 pounds thrust maximum. Flat
rating is an engine manufacturer’s way of re-rating an engine to a lower rated thrust than it
would have at Standard Day temperature. The engine will be able to use that lower rated
thrust over a wider ambient temperature range.
Flat-rating is equally applicable to all types of gas turbine engines, both thrust producing
engines and torque producing engines. The aircraft manufacturer will probably use the
following process, or one very similar, when selecting the flat-rating that best suits his needs.
1) The user decides the take-off power needed for his aircraft configuration, route
requirements, runway lengths, runway altitudes, etc.
2) The user calculates the highest ambient temperature at which required takeoff power can
be obtained.
3) The engine and aircraft manufacturer print all of the flight manuals, operational
instructions, etc., to reflect the selected takeoff power as the maximum usable for normal
operation.
For a flat rated engine care must be taken when carrying out ground runs on a part throttle
engine to avoid advancing the throttle too far exceeding takeoff power limitations. On cold
days this is especially true. An engine may be derated if it is installed in an aircraft that does
not require the engine’s maximum rated power.
Engine Limitations
Engine operating limitations are determined by the turbine and nozzle materials used. With
both limitation exceedances boroscope inspections may need to be performed. Also explain
about N1 and N2 exceedances, maximum allowable oil temp and pressure. Explain also
about vibration limitations and the effects of high vibration.
Limiting factors that require monitoring on gas turbine engines, these are:
• Exhaust Gas Temperature.
• Engine rpm – N1, N2 (and on a 3 spool engine, N3).
• Oil temperature.
• Oil pressure.
• Vibration.

AA Form TO-18
Practice Calculations
1. Calculate the engine thrust produced when;

Vi = 0, Vj = 1 658 lb/sec and W = 172 lb/sec.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Calculate the choked nozzle thrust produced from an engine when;

A = 376 in2, P = 4 PSI and P0 = 0.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Calculate the total engine thrust produced from an engine that develops 8 912 lb from
the engine and 1 504 lb from its choked propelling nozzle.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Calculate the THP of a turbojet engine that produces 7,200 lb of net thrust at an
aircraft speed of 500 kts.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

AA Form TO-18
5. Calculate the ESHP of a turbo-propeller engine that develops 8 000 SHP and
produces a net thrust of 12 000 lb Inflight.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Calculate the Equivalent Specific Fuel Consumption of a turbo-propeller engine that

produces 4 600 ESHP with a fuel flow rate of 2 800 pph.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Calculate the Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption of a turbofan engine that produces a
net thrust of 11 000 lb with a fuel flow rate of 7 200 pph.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.3: INLETS

Inlet Ducts
When a gas turbine engine is installed in an aircraft it usually requires a number of
accessories fitting to it and connections made to various aircraft systems. The engine, jet
pipe and accessories, and in some installations a thrust reverser, must be suitably cowled
and an air intake must be provided for the compressor, the complete installation forming the
aircraft power plant.
The main requirement of an air intake is that, under all operating conditions, delivery of-the
air to the engine is achieved with the minimum loss of energy occurring through the duct. To
enable the compressor to operate satisfactorily, the air must reach the compressor at a
uniform pressure distributed evenly across the whole inlet area.
The air entrance or flight inlet duct is normally considered to be part of the airframe, not part
of the engine. Nevertheless, it is usually identified as Engine Station Number One..
Understanding the function of the inlet and its importance to engine performance makes it a
necessary part of any discussion on gas turbine engine design and construction.
It has been discovered that even a small discontinuity of airflow can cause significant
efficiency loss, as well as many unexplainable engine performance problems. Therefore, it
follows that, if the inlet duct is to retain its function of delivering air with minimum turbulence,
it must be maintained in as close to new condition as possible. If repairs to this inlet become
necessary, expertly installed flush patches are mandatory to prevent drag. Moreover, the use
of an inlet cover is recommended to promote cleanliness and to prevent corrosion and
abrasion.
Inlet Types
Many air inlet ducts have been designed to accommodate new airframe-engine combinations
and variations in engine mounting locations. In addition, air inlets are designed to meet
certain criteria for operation at different airspeeds. Some of the most common locations
where engine inlets are mounted are
 on the engine,
 in the wing, and
 on the fuselage.
In Wing
Some early commercial and military aircraft had engines installed in the wings.
In wing design provided streamlining for the turbojet engines of the era.
The Inlet ducts are constructed from aluminium alloy and built into the wing forming part of
the secondary structure.
Since the introduction of high-bypass turbofan engines this design has become impractical.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Inlet Construction on Wing

Most multi turbojet and turbofan aircraft have the inlet ducts mounted directly onto the front of
the engine.
Some turboprops have engine mounted inlets as part of their powerplant assembly
Inlets are constructed from aluminium alloy and/or composites such as carbon fibre and
Kevlar®.
Typically, turbofan inlets are bolted to the forward flange of the inlet case or fan case.
This allows for short, efficient inlet ducts with minimal internal skin friction.
Inlet Construction On Fuselage

Some multi engine jet aircraft have the engines mounted on the aft fuselage .
The inlet ducts may be mounted directly onto the front of the engine or form part of the
fuselage, engine pylon, or stub wing structure.
Inlets are constructed from aluminium alloy and/or composites such as carbon fibre and
Kevlar®.
Inlets forming part of the aft fuselage may have a long “S” shaped ducts.
E.g. B727.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Inlet Construction In Fuselage

Single engine and some twin engine military aircraft have their engines mounted within the
fuselage.
The inlet may form part of the fuselage structure.
Inlet ducts may be mounted in the nose, under or on both sides of the fuselage.
Single Entry (Pitot) Type Duct

The ideal air Inlet for a turbo jet engine fitted to an aircraft flying at subsonic or low
supersonic speeds, is a single, short, ‘pitot’ type circular Inlet, as illustrated in the figure
below. This type of Inlet makes full use of ram effect on the air due to forward speed, and
suffers the minimum loss of ram pressure with changes in aircraft attitude. However, as
sonic speed is approached, the efficiency of this type of air Inlet begins to fall due to the
formation of a shock wave at the Inlet lip.
Although this short straight duct results in minimum pressure drop, the engine tends to suffer
from inlet turbulence, especially at low airspeed and/or high angles of attack (AoA).
The pitot type Inlet can be used for engines which are mounted in pods, wings, or other flying
surfaces, although the Inlet sometimes require a departure from the circular cross section
due to the area of the surface.
For instance the tail Inlet of a Boeing 737 is oval, others are squared off, and even the wing
pylon mounted engine Inlets of some aircraft are squared due to their proximity to the ground
when the wing is flexed.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
An example of a square Inlet is shown in the figure below.
Single engine aircraft sometimes use a pitot type Inlet, but this involves the use of a long duct
ahead of the compressor, with a resultant drop in pressure. However, smooth airflow into the
compressor is achieved.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Subsonic Inlet Ducts

The inlet duct, such as those found on business and commercial jet aircraft, is of fixed
geometry and has a divergent shape. A diverging duct progressively increases in diameter
from front to back. This duct is sometimes referred to as an inlet diffuser because of its effect
on pressure. Air enters the aerodynamically contoured inlet at ambient pressure and starts to
diffuse, arriving at the compressor at a slightly increased static pressure. Usually, the air is
allowed to diffuse (increase in static pressure) in the front portion of the duct and to progress
at a fairly constant pressure past the engine inlet fairing, also called inlet center body, to the
compressor. The engine, in this manner, receives its air with minimal turbulence and at a
more uniform pressure.
Inlet pressure increases add significantly to the mass airflow as the aircraft reaches its
desired cruising speed. It is here that the compressor reaches its aerodynamic design point
and produces its optimum compression and best fuel economy. At this point the flight inlet,
compressor, combustor, turbine, and tailpipe are designed to be in match with each other. If
any one section does not match the others, for whatever reason, damage, contamination, or
ambient conditions, engine performance will be affected.
The turbofan inlet is similar in design to the turbojet except that it discharges only a portion of
its air into the engine, with the remainder passing into the fan.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Ram Pressure Recovery

When the aircraft engine is operated on the ground, there is a negative pressure in the inlet
because of the high velocity of the mass airflow being drawn into the inlet by the compressor.
As the aircraft begins to move forward, air is rammed into the Inlet and ram recovery takes
place. The resultant increase in inlet pressure cancels the drop in pressure in the inlet and
conditions return to ambient, as shown in the figure.
Ram recovery normally begins to occur at speeds above Mach 0.1 (160 MPH (260 kph)) in
most aircraft. As aircraft speed continues to increase, ram compression increases. The
engine can use this effect to increase the compression ratio and thus create more thrust with
less fuel usage.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Supersonic Inlets
A convergent-divergent inlet duct (fixed or variable) is required on all supersonic aircraft. A
supersonic transport, for example, is configured with an inlet that slows the airflow to
subsonic speed at the face of the engine, regardless of aircraft speed. Subsonic airflow into
the compressor is required if the rotating airfoils are to remain free of shock wave
accumulation, which would be detrimental to the compression process.
In order to vary the geometry, or shape, of the inlet a movable restrictor is often employed to
form a convergent-divergent (C-D) shape of variable proportion. The C-D shaped duct
becomes necessary in reducing supersonic airflow to subsonic speeds. At this point, it is
important to remember that at subsonic flow rates, air flowing in a duct acts as an
incompressible liquid, but at supersonic flow rates air is compressed to the point of creating
the familiar shock wave phenomenon.
The supersonic diffuser type of inlet provides a means of creating both a shock wave
formation to reduce air velocity and a variable convergent- divergent shape to meet the
various flight conditions from takeoff to cruise. Air velocity will drop to approximately Mach
0.8 in back of the final shock wave and then to Mach 0.5 by diffusion.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
The figure below illustrates a movable wedge which provides a similar function of
convergence, divergence, and shock wave formation. It also has a spill valve to dump
unwanted ram air overboard at high speed. Many high performance aircraft have an excess
of mass flow at cruising speeds.
The Concord Inlets, shown below, provide a good illustration of how complicated an Inlet may
have to be to take full advantage of the energy recovery that is possible.
At the speed of sound, half the pressure needed by the engine for combustion may be
provided by ram effect and the other half by compression through the engine.
At twice the speed of sound, pressure ratios in the vicinity of 30:1 are possible, and at three
times the speed of sound, this may rise to 50:1. As aircraft speed increases, the
compression provided by the engine becomes relatively minor and there is no need for
complicated anti-surge devices, (devices to stop pressure fluctuations in the compressor that
can lead to damage and engine failure).
The modest pressure rise over each of the compressor stages is such that control of fuel flow
alone provides sufficient safe guard against surge.
Note in the figure how the wedge has been lowered during supersonic flight to force a
controlled sonic shock wave at the Inlet, this slows air velocity to subsonic. The divergent
area further reduces air velocity, and the open dump valve permits the escape of excessive
pressure.
In subsonic flight the wedge is fully retracted for maximum nozzle area and the dump valve
reversed to act as an air scoop.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Another method used to vary the geometry of an inlet duct utilizes a movable spike, or plug,
which is positioned as necessary to alter the shape of the inlet as aircraft speed changes.
The shape of the spike and surrounding inlet duct combine to form a movable CD inlet.
During transonic flight (Mach .75 to 1.2), the movable spike is extended forward to produce a
normal shock wave, or bow wave, at the inlet. As airspeed increases, the spike is
repositioned to shift the CD duct for optimum inlet shape at the new airspeed. As airspeed
increases to supersonic, the bow wave changes to multiple oblique shock waves extending
from the tip of the spike and a normal shock wave develops at the lip of the inlet.
Subsonic
Bellmouth Inlets
Bellmouth compressor inlets, shown below, are convergent in shape and are commonly
found on helicopters and turbo propeller aircraft. They present a mouth considerably wider in
circumference than the engine compressor inlet, and smoothly converge, funnelling air down
to compressor inlet circumference. You may have seen similar fittings on car or motorcycle
carburettors.
Bellmouths eliminate the ‘necking down’ effect of an air stream passing through a plain
orifice, and allows the engine to draw all the air it can use. They do however, contribute a
large drag factor.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
As the duct losses are very small, bellmouth ducts are often used during ground testing and
calibration, fitted with mesh screens (depicted below) to protect technicians from ingestion
hazards while making trimming adjustments on running engines, screens also provide FOD
protection. . Screens have been tried on aircraft during flight however fatigue and
maintenance trouble created as many problems as the FOD they prevented. They may still
be seen however on some helicopters.
Inlet Screens
The use of compressor inlet screens is usually limited to rotorcraft, turboprops, and ground
turbine installations. This may appear peculiar to the casual observer who realizes the
appetite of all gas turbines for debris such as nuts, bolts, stones, etc. Screens have been
tried in high subsonic flight engines in the past, but icing and screen fatigue failure caused
so many maintenance problems that the use of inlet screens has for the most part been
avoided.
When aircraft are fitted with inlet screens for protection against foreign object ingestion, they
may be located internally or externally at either the inlet duct or compressor inlet.
One type of separator used on some turboprop aircraft incorporates a movable vane which
extends into the inlet airstream. Once extended, the vane creates a prominent venturi and a
sudden turn in the engine inlet. Combustion air can follow the sharp curve but sand and ice
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
particles cannot because of their inertia. The movable vane is operated by the operator
through a control handle in the cockpit.
Another type of particle separator uses several individual filter elements that act as a swirl
chamber. With this type of system, as incoming air passes through each element, a swirling
motion is imparted by helical vanes. The swirling motion creates enough centrifugal force to
throw the dirt particles to the outside of the chamber. The particles then drop to the bottom of
the separator where they are blown overboard by compressor bleed air through holes on
each side of the filter unit. As the foreign particles are swirled out of the intake air, clean air
then passes through the filter into the engine inlet.
Divided Inlet
Divided Inlets, as shown in the figure below, are used on single engine aircraft to avoid using
long Inlet type ducts. Usually the twin divided inlet ducts merge into the wing leading edges
on each side of the fuselage.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
The airflow may remain divided until it reaches the engine compressor, or merge smoothly
before the engine as shown below.
The disadvantage of the divided type of inlet is that when the aircraft yaws, a loss of ram
pressure occurs on one side of the Inlet as shown in the diagram below causing an uneven
distribution of airflow into the compressor,.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Secondary Air Inlet Doors

Some aircraft utilise a system of doors which allow extra air into the inlet duct. Secondary air
inlet doors are designed to react to excess negative pressure within the Inlet. If the pressure
within the Inlet falls below a predetermined pressure, the suck-in doors are pushed open by
the high external air pressure and allow extra airflow to the compressor
The tendency for the doors to open is counteracted by spring tension against the door.
Therefore, the pressure that is required to open the door may be altered by adjusting the
tension of the door spring. As with all aircraft maintenance tasks, any adjustments must be in
accordance with the manufacturers directions.
Inlet Duct Losses

Inlet duct losses can occur if the aircraft or conditions exceed expected flight attitudes such
as very high angles of attack or sideslipping where the smooth inlet airflow into the inlet duct
is disrupted. Sometime these condition can lead to a compressor stall
During ground running, cross winds can disrupt the inlet airflow and increase the angle of
attack of the air into the compressor, causing compressor stall. Some aircraft are more prone
than others to this phenomenon which is why it is important to face an aircraft into the wind
before carrying out an engine ground run. B747’s are very susceptible to cross wind induced
compressor stall with power settings above idle.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
The engine inlet duct must provide a uniform supply of air to the compressor if the engine is
to perform at optimum efficiency. To do this, the duct must create as little resistance as
possible. To aid in the prevention of intake drag or resistance, the duct should be kept
smooth and clean, and any damage in the intake area must be immediately repaired in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Curves or bends must be minimal and
carefully blended.
The design of the intake should be such that it reduces the turbulence to a minimum. This
will ensure that the engine receives its air at a uniform pressure across the face of the
compressor. If a curve is necessary it must be as gentle as possible. The walls of the duct
must have flush rivets or fasteners if fitted. The seal or joint between engine and duct must
be as accurate as possible.
The inlet duct leading edge is susceptible to damage by bird strikes or hail.
Damage to internal acoustic lining may be caused by bird strike, stones and mishandling, e.g.
dropped tools, careless handling of fan blades or failing to use a protective mat when
entering the intake.
Inlet Duct Anti-Ice Systems
Icing of the engine and the leading edges of the intake duct can occur during flight through
clouds containing supercooled water droplets or during ground operation in freezing fog. Icing
conditions however are most prevalent when operating the engine at high speeds on the
ground. Ice can form in the inlet up to 40°F ambient temperature in relatively dry air and up to
45°F in visibly moist air, due to the cooling effect of high inlet airflow velocities.
Protection against ice formation may be required since icing of these regions can
considerably restrict the airflow through the engine, causing a loss in performance and
possible malfunction of the engine. Additionally, damage may result from ice breaking away
and being ingested into the engine or hitting the acoustic material lining the intake duct.
The ambient temperature is well below 5°F at all cruise altitudes for a gas turbine powered
aircraft, and ram pressure will not raise inlet temperature sufficiently above freezing.
However, most of the flight time will be above cloud level and anti-icing will not be required.
When required, the usual method of initiating anti-icing is to select one engine, then watch
the engine parameters stabilize, after which the remaining engine(s) are selected in a similar
manner.
On takeoff, climb-out, descent, and landing, the pilot will have to carefully assess the need for
anti-icing according to the prevailing weather conditions. To prevent engine malfunction or
damage, the operator will have to make the same assessment when running the engine on
the ground.
Ice chunk, when dislodged, could cause damage to the compressor or fan blades and the
inlet duct itself. ( although ice ingestion is a consideration in engine design.)
Inlet Anti-ice Turbofan
Anti-ice air is directed radially inward at the engine inlet case to heat all the surfaces upon
which ice might form. Unlike certain de-ice systems on wing leading edges and propellers,
this system does not allow ice to form. If the anti-ice system is inadvertently used to de-ice
the inlet area by being turned on after compressor stalls occur from ice formation, the impact
forces of ice on compressor blades and vanes can severely damage the engine or even
cause the engine to fail completely.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
During flight the anti-icing system is turned on before entering the icing condition. Anti-icing
heat is required when visible moisture is present in the form of clouds or precipitation and the
true air temperature (ambient plus ram effect) in the inlet is typically between 40°F and 5°F.
Below 5°F ambient air is dry, ice is not likely to form, and anti-ice will be used at the
discretion of the pilot.
Inlet Anti-ice Turboprop

Some smaller turboprop and turboshaft engines use electric heat strip systems classed as
electro-thermal anti-icing systems. They are constructed of electrical resistance wire
embedded in layers of reinforced neoprene materials and located primarily at the lip of the
nacelle flight inlet. Other possible locations are the engine inlet case and the engine inlet
struts.
Like the hot air anti-ice systems, the electro-thermal systems are cycled on and off as
required by ambient conditions. They are designed to operate only when the engine is
running, since operating the strip without air passing over it would tend to overheat the strip
and the part of the engine it is attached to.
One systems uses hot engine or reduction gear box oil to anti ice the engine and inlet.
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
Page Intentionally Left Blank
B1-15.3: Inlets
AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.4: COMPRESSORS

Compressor Section
The compressor section houses the compressor rotor and works to supply air in sufficient
quantity to satisfy the needs of the combustor. Compression results when fuel energy of
combustion, and mechanical work of the compressor and turbine, are converted into potential
energy. The compressor is part of the ‘Cold Section’ of the engine.
Compressors operate on the principle of acceleration of a working fluid followed by diffusion,
to convert the acquired kinetic energy to a pressure rise. The primary purpose of the
compressor is to increase the pressure of the mass of air entering the engine inlet and
discharge It to the diffuser, and then to the combustor section, at the correct velocity,
temperature, and pressure.
Compressor efficiency is based on the principle of maximum compression with the least
temperature rise.
In the compressor, temperature rise is caused by:
• Compression, and
• friction
The colder the air entering the combustor the greater the temperature rise during
combustion.
The problems associated with these requirements can be realized if one considers that some
compressors must flow air at a velocity of 120 to 150 metres per second (400 to 500 feet per
second) and raise its static pressure perhaps 20 to 30 times in the space of only a metre or
so (a few feet) of engine length.
In early compressors which were less efficient than what we have today, a given amount of
work input produced air at a lower pressure and at a higher temperature. To improve on
laminar air flow over hundreds of small airfoils at high velocity and pressure, compressors
have been undergoing constant development through the years to achieve optimum
efficiency. Presently, this efficiency is said to be in the 85 to 90% range. Compressor
efficiency is based on the principle of maximum compression with the least temperature rise.
Laminar flow minimizes friction- induced heat in the air.
A secondary purpose of the compressor section is to supply Engine Service Bleed Air to cool
hot section parts, to pressurize bearing seals, and to supply heated air for inlet anti-icing and
fuel system heat for de-icing. Another secondary purpose is to extract air for aircraft uses,
and this is usually referred to as Customer Service Bleed Air. Common uses for this air
include aircraft cabin pressurization, air conditioning systems, pneumatic starting, and
various other incidental functions that require clean pressurized air.
B1-15.4: Compressors
AA Form TO-18
Compressor Types
There are two basic types of Compressors:
• Centrifugal flow
• Axial flow.
Some engines use both types. - These are referred to as centri-axial flow.
Centrifugal Flow Compressors

The centrifugal flow compressor, is the oldest design and is still in use today.
Many smaller engines, as well as the majority of auxiliary power units (APU’s), use this
design.
Advantages are:
• light weight
• ease of construction
• ruggedness
The centrifugal flow compressor, sometimes referred to as a radial out-flow compressor, is
the oldest design and is still in use today.
A centrifugal flow compressor assemblies consist of:
• an impeller rotor
• a diffuser, and
AA Form TO-18
• a manifold.
The impeller is usually made from aluminum alloy or titanium alloy and can be either single or
dual sided. The diffuser provides a divergent duct in which the air spreads out, slows down,
and increases in static pressure. The compressor manifold distributes the air in a turbulence
free condition to the combustion section. The single sided impeller, benefits from ram effect
and less turbulent air entry. It is for this reason that this type of impeller is well suited to many
aircraft installations.
The single stage dual-sided impeller design, allows for a narrower overall engine diameter
and high mass airflow. For this reason, it was favored in many flight engines in the past. This
design does not, however, receive the full benefit from ram effect because the air has to turn
radially inward from a plenum chamber into the center of the impellers.
Centrifugal Flow Impellers

Single stage, dual-sided impellers were used in some early turbo jet engines.
They provided the same compression ratio and mass air flow with a smaller impeller
diameter. Disadvantage is turbulent side air entry and inefficient ram recovery.
AA Form TO-18
They were replaced by single-sided two stage, centrifugal compressors.

Impellers incorporate Inlet guide vanes - called rotating guide vanes or, inducers.
They may be part of, or attached to, the impeller. They induce rotation of the air into the eye
of the impeller.
Inlet guide vanes (inducers or rotating guide vanes) are sometimes formed by inclining the
front sections of the impeller vanes to impart a whirl motion in the direction of impeller
rotation. This is to ease the change of airflow from the axial to the radial direction. The
curved sections may be integral with the radial vanes or formed separately for easier and
more accurate manufacture.
If inlet guide vanes are not utilised, stationary pre-swirl vanes will be situated immediately
prior to compressor entry.
Diffuser
High velocity air from the impeller is slung into divergent ducts within the diffuser.
The purpose of the diffuser is to convert velocity energy into pressure energy.
The diffuser is typically made from either:
• Aluminium alloy, or
• Steel alloy.
AA Form TO-18
Manifold
After exiting the diffuser, the high pressure air enters the manifold.
The purpose of the manifold is to:
• change the airflow direction
• deliver air to the combustion chambers
Turning vanes or, cascade vanes, within the manifold straighten the airflow.
Commonly made from aluminium alloy, magnesium alloy, or steel alloy.
The compressor manifold distributes the air in a smooth flow to the combustion section. The
manifold has one outlet port for each combustion chamber so that the air is evenly divided. A
compressor outlet elbow is bolted to each of the outlet ports. The elbows act as air ducts and
are often referred to as outlet ducts, outlet elbows, or combustion chamber inlet ducts. These
outlet ducts change the radial direction of the airflow to an axial direction. To help the elbows
perform this function in an efficient manner, turning vanes or cascade vanes are sometimes
fitted inside the elbows. These vanes reduce air pressure losses by presenting a smooth,
turning surface.
Centrifugal Flow Compressor Operation
Tip speed of centrifugal impellers reaches approximately Mach 1.3. Radial airflow, however,
remains subsonic. The pressure within the compressor casing is capable of preventing
airflow separation at low supersonic rotor speeds and causing a high energy transfer to the
airflow.
Air enters the eye, or the center, of the fast-rotating impeller and is accelerated to a high
velocity as it is slung to the outer edge by centrifugal force. The high- velocity air then flows
into the diffuser which fits closely around the periphery of the impeller. There it flows through
divergent ducts where some of the velocity energy is changed into pressure energy. The air,
which has slowed down and has had its pressure increased, flows into the manifold through a
series of turning vanes. From the manifold, the air flows into the combustion section of the
engine.
The design of the centrifugal compressor is such that the mass airflow and pressure rise are
governed by the rotational speed of the compressors impeller.
AA Form TO-18
The centrifugal compressor is commonly used in conjunction with the axial flow compressor
but seems only to meet the needs of smaller flight engines. All larger engines today are of the
axial flow type.
Compression ratios are about the same for single sided and dual-sided single stage
impellers. Ratios as high as 10:1 from a single centrifugal compressor. Compression can be
boosted to about 15:1 by a second compressor stage.
More than two stages of single entry is impractical because of:
• Airflow energy loss when making the turns from one impeller to the next
• High weight per stage
• High drive power extraction
Compression ratios attainable are about the same for both previously mentioned single stage
types of impellers. However, as seen more than two stages of single entry type are
considered impractical. The energy loss to the airflow (slowing down) when making the turns
from one impeller to the next, the added weight, and the drive shaft power extraction all seem
to offset the benefit of additional compression with more than two stages.
The main consideration in the many design features one sees, such as types of impeller,
shapes of inlets, shapes of outer casings, etc., usually lies in the fact that one design fits the
needs of a particular aircraft better than another design.
The most commonly seen centrifugal compressor is the single sided type in either one or two
stages. It is most often used in small engines, to include turboshaft, turboprop, and turbofan.
AA Form TO-18
It is not found in large gas turbine engines because it would impose a serious limitation on
mass airflow.
A resurgence of the use of centrifugal compressors can be seen. Recent developments have
produced compression ratios as high as 10:1 from a single centrifugal compressor. Formerly,
only axial flow compressors could attain this level of compression. The centrifugal
compressor is shorter in length than an axial compressor and that is its main advantage.
Centrifugal Compressor Multi Spool
Some centrifugal flow turboprop engines have two separate rotating assemblies as their gas
generator unit:
• NL compressor and turbine
• NH compressor and turbine
Referred to as dual-spool or, two-spool engines.

At one time, the word spool was only used when describing an axial flow compressor, but
many manufacturers today also use the word spool when describing a centrifugal flow
compressor. The Pratt and Whitney 100 series turboprop (Figure above), for example, has
two separately rotating centrifugal compressors plus a power turbine and is described as a
three shaft, two spool engine.
• NL compressor and turbine = low pressure of low speed
• NH compressor and turbine = high pressure of high speed
The engine above has a free power turbine to drive the propeller - NP
The advantages of the centrifugal compressor are:
• High pressure rise per stage: Up to 10:1 and 15:1 in a dual stage
• Good efficiency (compression) from idle to full power
• Simplicity of manufacture and low cost, compared to the axial compressor
• Low weight overall
AA Form TO-18
• Low starting power requirements

• A Relatively high FOD tolerance.
Disadvantages are:
• Large frontal area for a given mass airflow
• More than two stages is not practical.
Axial Flow Compressors
In an axial compressor, airflow and compression occur parallel to the rotational axis.
There are three types of axial flow compressors: single-spool, dual-spool, triple-spool.
The single-spool was common in the past for small and large engines, but today it is typically
found only in small turboshafts and turboprops. The dual-spool is the most common design
currently being used in large turbofan and turboprop engines. The triple-spool, a more recent
technological development, is used on some large and medium size turbofan engines.
TRIPLE SPOOL ENGINE
In a basic axial flow compressor, the compressor and turbine are connected by a single shaft
and rotate as a single unit. Since there is only one compressor unit, the compressor is
commonly referred to as a single- spool compressor. While single-spool compressors are
relatively simple and inexpensive to manufacture, they do have a few drawbacks. For
example, in a long axial compressor the rear stages operate at a fraction of their capacity,
while the forward stages are typically overloaded. Furthermore, the large mass of a single-
spool compressor does not respond quickly to abrupt control input changes.
SINGLE SPOOL ENGINE
AA Form TO-18
The rotors of a Dual-spool engine are NOT mechanically connected together.

They have two units:
• Low Pressure (LP or, N1) system.
• High Pressure (HP or, N2) – Gas generator system.
LP compressor boosts compression into the HP compressor. As HP rotor speed increases,
LP increases, but not in direct proportion. The fan is part of the LP system and supplies the
first stage of compression. Dual and triple-spool axial compressors were developed for the
operational flexibility they provide to the engine in the form of high compression ratios, quick
acceleration, and better control of stall characteristics. This operational flexibility is not
possible with single spool, axial flow engines. For any given power lever setting, the high
pressure compressor speed is held fairly constant by a fuel control governor.
Assuming that a fairly constant energy level is available at the turbine, the low pressure
compressor(s) will speed up and slow down with changes in aircraft inlet conditions resulting
from atmospheric changes or flight maneuvers. The varying low pressure compressor
output, therefore, provides the high pressure compressor with the best inlet condition within
the limits of its design. That is, the N1 compressor tries to supply the N2 compressor with a
fairly constant air pressure for a particular power setting.
To better understand when the low pressure compressor speeds up and slows down,
consider that when ambient temperature increases, the air’s molecular motion increases. In
order to continue to collect air molecules at the same rate as temperature increases, the
compressor would have to change either its blade angles, which it cannot do, or its speed,
which it in fact does.
Additionally, the speed of the low pressure compressor increases with altitude as the
atmosphere rarefies from barometric pressure density loss. Conversely, as the aircraft
descends, the speed of the low pressure compressor will decrease as the air becomes more
dense and easier to compress. As N2 rotor speed increases, N1 increases, but not in direct
proportion. While the rotors are not mechanically connected together, as has been previously
stated, they are linked by an aerodynamic couple.
In high bypass engines the N1 compressor is often referred to as the “booster” stage
because it supercharges the N2.
The rotors of a Triple-spool engine are NOT mechanically connected together.

They have two primary units:
• Fan
• Gas generator.
AA Form TO-18
The fan is the LP system, driven by its own power turbine.The fan supplies the first stage of
compression into the gas generator. The gas generator contains intermediate-pressure (IP)
compressor and the High Pressure (HP) compressor. As HP (N3) rotor speed increases, IP
(N2) and LP (N1) increases, but not in direct proportion.
Note the fan is a separate assembly with its own power turbine and operationally is similar to
a free turbine turboprop. The fan is still the first stage of compression.
The triple-spool, a more recent technological development, is used on some large and
medium size turbofan engines. Some engines, notably the new generation of large Rolls-
Royce turbofans, have three spools. The fan, which is referred to as the low-pressure (LP)
compressor, the intermediate-pressure (IP) compressor, and the high-pressure (HP)
compressor are all driven by separate turbines. The fan which turns at a relatively low speed
requires a great deal of torque, therefore its turbine has three stages.
All axial flow compressor have two main components:

• Rotor
• Stator
A rotor followed by a stator, make up a compressor stage. Several stages make up the
complete compressor. Compression ratio is about 1:1 to 1:2 per stage. An axial flow
compressor will normally have from 10 to 18 stages of compression.
Each rotor consists of a set of blades fitted into a disk, which move air rearward through each
stage. The speed of the rotor determines the velocity present in each stage and, with
increased velocity; kinetic energy is transferred to the air. The stator vanes are placed to the
rear of the rotor blades to receive the air at high velocity and act as a diffuser, changing
kinetic energy to potential energy (pressure). The stators also have a secondary function of
directing airflow to the next stage of compression at the desired angle.
AA Form TO-18
Each rotor consists of blades and a disk or, drum.

Blades are aerofoils fitted into the disc and move air rearward through each stage.
Rotor rpm determines airflow axial velocity in each stage.
Blades are normally made from stainless steel alloy or titanium alloy.
Discs are made from nickel steel alloy or titanium alloy.
Some compressor rotors have one piece blade and rotor units. The blades are forged as part
of the disc. These one piece units are called ‘Blisks’, commonly used in small turbo-prop and
turbo shaft engines. A blisk is a one piece blade and disk unit rather than an assembly of
many separate blades fitted to the rim of a separate disk. Forged blisk technology is being
applied to many smaller fans, compressor rotors and stators, and to some turbine
components. The engine used in the current F/A- 18 Hornet airplane has a traditional 3 stage
fan, with separate disks and blades. A new design for its engine, called the EDE (enhanced
durability engine), has a two stage fan on the drawing board utilizing blisk technology.
Compressor Blades
Compressor blades are constructed with a varying angle of incidence, or twist, similar to that
of a propeller. This design feature compensates for the effect on airflow caused by
differences in airflow over the different stations of each blade from the base to the tip.
The blades also reduce in size from the first stage to the last to accommodate the converging
or tapering shape of the compressor housing in which they are rotating. The need for a
AA Form TO-18
converging duct within the compressor is explained in a subsequent paragraph entitled

“Compressor Taper Design”.
There are several reasons for the shapes of compressor airfoils. The length, chord,
thickness, and aspect ratio (ratio of length to width) are calculated to suit the performance
factors required for a particular engine and aircraft combination.
Some design aspects common to both compressor and fan blades are:
1) A twist is present (called a stagger angle) from base to tip to maintain exit velocity of
airflow at the same value along the blade length;
2) The base area has more camber than the tip area, again to increase axial velocity of
airflow and maintain base to tip exit velocity;
3) The trailing edge is knife-edge thin to minimize turbulence and provide the best
aerodynamic efficiency.
The base, or root of a rotor blade often fits loosely into the rotor disk. This loose fit allows for
easy assembly and vibration damping. As the compressor rotor rotates, centrifugal force
keeps the blades in their correct position, and the airstream over each blade provides a
shock absorbing or cushioning effect. Rotor blade roots are designed with a number of
different shapes such as a bulb, fir tree, or dovetail. To prevent a blade from backing out of its
slot, most methods of blade attachment use a pin and a lock tab or locker to secure the
coupling.
The tip of a compressor blade is most important. Some blade tips are squared off, and others
have the tip thickness reduced. These tips with reduced thickness are called profile tips. The
thinner tips have a high natural resonant frequency and are therefore not subject to the
vibrations that would affect a blade with a squared tip. The profile tip also provides a more
aerodynamically efficient shape for the high-velocity air moved by the blade. These profile
tips often touch the housing and make a squealing noise as the engine is shut down. For this
reason profile tips are often called squealer tips.
Air leakage between profile tips and the compressor housing cause compressor efficiency
loss.
AA Form TO-18
Loss is prevented by zero running clearance.

Zero clearance is obtained by contact and wear between either:
• The profile tip and abradable compressor casing
• Compressor casing and abradable blade tips
Contact is greatest during run-in.
Dale Crane Turbine Engines THEORY & CONSTRUCTION Chapter 10 says:
Air leakage around the tips of compressor blades causes a loss of compressor efficiency.
There are several methods used to prevent this loss.
In some engines, the compressor blades have their profile tips so close to the case that they
actually touch an abradable strip in the compressor housing. When the tip touches the strip, it
abrades part of it away and provides a fit that minimizes the air losses. Other blades have
abradable tips that are designed to wear away when they touch the housing, which provides
an extremely close fit.
Jeppesen Powerplants chap 3-16 says:
On some newer engines the profile tipped blades are designed with tight running clearances
and rotate within a shroud strip of abradable material. Since rotor blades are usually made of
a stainless steel alloy, the shroud strip wears away with no loss of blade length if contact
loading takes place. Sometimes after engine shutdown, a high pitched noise can be heard as
the rotor coasts to a stop. The noise is caused by contact between the blade tip and shroud
strip and is the reason why profile tip blades are sometimes referred to as squealer tips.
FYI - Some large turbofan engines have a critical cool down period between shutdown and
restart (for example, early P&W JT9). Severe blade rub and compressor blade damage can
occur if a restart is attempted during this critical period. Blade rub is caused by the
compressor casing cooling quicker than the compressor rotor, and shrinking onto the
compressor blades.
Another blade design that increases compressor efficiency utilizes a localized increase in
blade camber, both at the blade tip and blade root. The purpose of this design is to
compensate for the friction caused by the boundary layer of air near the compressor case.
The increased blade camber helps overcome the friction and makes the blade extremities
appear as if they were bent over at each corner, hence the term end bend.
Stator Vanes
Stator vanes are the stationary blades located between each row of rotating blades in an
axial flow compressor. As discussed earlier. the stator vanes act as diffusers for the air
coming off the rotor, decreasing its velocity and raising its pressure. In addition, the stators
help prevent swirling and direct the flow of air coming off each stage to the next stage at the
appropriate angle. Like rotor blades, stator vanes have an airfoil shape. In addition, the angle
of attack of stator vanes can be fixed or variable. Stator vanes are normally constructed out
of steel or nickel because those metals have high fatigue strength. However, titanium may
also be used for stator vanes in the low pressure and temperature stages.
AA Form TO-18
Stator vanes may be secured directly to the compressor casing or to a stator vane retaining
ring, which is secured to the compressor case. Most stator vanes are attached in rows with a
dovetail arrangement and project radially toward the rotor axis. Stator vanes are often
shrouded at their tips to minimize vibration tendencies.
Commonly made from stainless steel alloy or nickel steel alloy. The set of stator vanes
immediately in front of the first stage rotor blades are called inlet guide vanes. These vanes
direct the airflow into the first stage rotor blades at the best angle while imparting a swirling
motion in the direction of engine rotation. This action improves the aerodynamics of the
compressor by reducing the drag on the first stage rotor blades. Some axial compressors
with high compressor pressure ratios utilize variable inlet guide vanes plus several stages of
variable stator vanes. These variable inlet guide vanes and stators automatically reposition
themselves to maintain proper airflow through the engine under varying operating conditions.
Inlet Guide Vanes
Air entering the first stage of the compressor is turned by the inlet guide vanes (IGVs).
Inlet guide vanes are similar to the stator vanes. They direct the air at the correct angle to be
picked up by the compressor blades. IGVs have a minimum effect on the velocity or
pressure. IGVs are mostly fixed but may be variable on some engines. Air entering the first
stage of the compressor is turned by the inlet guide vanes so that it flows in the correct
direction to be picked up by the rotor blades.
Inlet guide vanes are similar to the stator vanes, but they are designed to have a minimum
effect on the velocity or pressure of the incoming air.
Axial Flow Compressor Operation
Unlike a centrifugal compressor, which is capable of compressor pressure ratios of 15:1, a
single stage in an axial flow compressor is capable of producing a compressor pressure ratio
of only 1.25:1. Therefore, high compressor pressure ratios are obtained by adding more
compressor stages.
The task of an axial compressor is to raise air pressure rather than air velocity. Therefore,
each compressor stage raises the pressure of the incoming air while the air’s velocity is
alternately increased then decreased as airflow proceeds through the compressor.
The rotor blades slightly accelerate the airflow, then the stator vanes diffuse the air, slowing it
and increasing the pressure. The overall result is increased air pressure and relatively
constant air velocity from compressor inlet to outlet. As air passes from the front of an axial
flow compressor to the rear, the space between the rotor shaft and the stator casing
gradually decreases. This shape is necessary to maintain a constant air velocity as air
AA Form TO-18
density increases with each stage of compression. To accomplish the convergent shape,
each stage of blades and vanes is smaller than the one preceding it
Compressor Pressure Ratio

Compressor Pressure Ratio of a gas turbine engine is an extremely important design
consideration. In general, the higher the compression, the more remarkable the advantage to
the operating cycle in terms of greater thermal efficiency.
The compressor designer strives to achieve the highest possible compressor pressure ratio
(Cr) and the lowest mass airflow (Ms) and yet obtain the desired engine power output. This
will produce an engine with the least flow area, smallest physical size, and lowest weight for
a given power output. The compressor designer has to make some trade-offs, however,
when considering the optimum Cr and Ms relationship.
In actual practice, the greater the pressure ratio for a given mass airflow and thrust, the lower
the engine fuel consumption. If both pressure ratio and mass increase, thrust will increase.
But engine weight also goes up as strength of materials is increased.
Very high pressure ratios mean considerable expense will be incurred when manufacturing
with exotic construction materials required to produce the desired compressor strength.
Again, higher pressure ratio benefits the engine most when turbine inlet temperature is also
high. This prompts an additional expense in the use of higher heat strength super alloys in
the engine combustor and turbine areas.
In the modern compressor for business jets, a moderate compression pressure ratio and an
implied lower manufacturing cost can be seen. Very high compression engines, which are
very expensive, will be found in airliners, whose success depends on the lowest operating
expense over many thousands of operating hours.
A gas turbine engine in a business jet has a compression ratio rating in the order of 6:1 in
older models, and up to 24:1 in newer designs. By comparison, the engine of a modem wide-
body jumbo jet will compress the air up to 40 atmospheres, or 40:1.
The greater the pressure ratio for a given mass airflow and thrust, the lower the engine fuel
consumption. If both pressure ratio and mass airflow is increased, thrust will increase. A
stronger and heavier engine is needed. Compressor design is a compromise between:
AA Form TO-18
• pressure ratio
• mass airflow
• engine weight
• construction costs.
Compressor pressure ratio is determined by measuring the total pressure, after the last stage
of compression, and dividing it by compressor inlet total pressure. Assuming no velocity
change between the two points, static pressures could be used to calculate compressor
pressure ratio.
If ambient pressure is 14.7 pounds absolute per square inch and the inlet has 100 percent
duct recovery, compressor inlet pressure total (Pt) will also be 14.7 psia. Considering an inlet
air velocity of 500 feet per second at sea level rated power, static pressure will be 12.63 psia
and ram pressure will be 2.07 psi, giving a total pressure of 14.7 psi.
Observe that when compressor inlet total pressure is 14.7 psia and compressor discharge
total pressure is 97.0 psia, the compressor pressure ratio is expressed as 97 divided by 14.7,
or 6.6 to 1, as indicated in Figure above. In this discussion about “compressor pressure ratio”
the expression “compression ratio” is not used. This is because compression ratio, by
definition, is a ratio of air density rather than air pressure.
The compressor pressure ratio of a compressor is also described in terms of pressure ratio
per stage. For example, a business jet may have a small turbofan with an overall
compression ratio of 6.6:1 over eight stages.
If we calculate the 8th root of 6.6 we would find it to be 1.266 or a 1.266:1 pressure ratio per
stage. The fan, if it is a single stage, would probably have a compression ratio of between 1.5
and 1.7 to 1. Towards the hub where the fan blades become the first stage compressor
blades, compression would be 1.266:1. The twist in the blades accomplishes this
compression ratio change.
8
6.6  1.266
A turbofan engine, also called a bypass engine, has a set of lengthened blades in the first
stage or stages of the low-pressure compressor. Most of the air that flows through the fan
section of the engine bypasses, or flows around the outside of the core engine. Depending
upon the bypass ratio, the amount of thrust produced by the fan can be as high as 85% of the
AA Form TO-18
total thrust. The fan supplies the first stage of compression. This boosts the airflow into the
LP system of a dual-spool turbofan or into the IP system of a triple-spool turbofan.
Fan compression ratios for single low bypass fans are approximately 1.5:1 and for high
bypass fans as high as 1.7:1.
Compressor Taper
As pressure builds in the rear stages of the compressor, velocity tends to drop, in accordance
with Bernoulli’s Principle. This is not desirable because, in order to create thrust, the gas
turbine engine operates on a principle of velocity change in airflow. Velocity rising and falling
through the successive stages of the compressor, but maintaining approximately the same
inlet and outlet velocity. Even though the pressure is rising dramatically, the velocity is held
relatively constant.
In order to stabilize the velocity, the shape of the compressor gas path converges, reducing
to approximately 25% of the inlet flow area. This tapered shape provides the proper amount
of space for the compressed air to occupy.
If the compressor blades were all the same length, and the air flowed through a constant-
area duct, its velocity would decrease as its pressure increased.
To keep the air velocity relatively constant as its pressure is increased, the rear blades of the
compressor are shorter than those at the front, and the passage through which the air flows
become smaller as the pressure increases.
There are two ways of decreasing the size of the airflow passage: by holding the outside of
the compressor housing constant and increasing the diameter of the drum or disks on which
each stage of rotor blades are mounted, or by keeping the disks or drum the same diameter
and decreasing the outside diameter of the compressor case. Both methods are used.
AA Form TO-18
Cascade Effect
So, why does the airflow through a axial flow compressor flow from a low pressure to a higher
pressure?
The axial compressor is described as containing sets of airfoils in cascade. This means that
the airfoils are arranged in series, which influences air under low pressure in the front stages
to flow into an area of higher pressure.
The ability of air to flow rearward against an ever increasing pressure is similar to forcing
water to flow uphill.
Pressure must be constantly applied to achieve the correct flow. The idea of the constantly
applied pressure is explained in the following narrative and drawings above.
The figure above shows that if a slight positive angle of attack exists, a relatively high
pressure is present on the bottom of the airfoil in relation to the pressure on the top of the
airfoil. These high and low pressure zones apply to both the rotating airfoils (rotor blades)
and to the stationary airfoils (stator vanes).
These high and low pressure zones allow the air in one set of airfoils to come under the
influence of the next set. This is the cascade effect.
The Figure depicts high pressure zone air of the first stage blade being pumped into the low
pressure zone of its stator.
Notice that the stator’s leading edge faces in the opposite direction of the rotor blade’s
leading edge, thereby causing the pumping action to occur. The high pressure zone of the
first stage stator vane then pumps into the low pressure zone of the second stage rotor blade.
This cascade progress continues through to the last stage of compression.
When observing the Figure, it might appear that the rotor blade high and low pressure zones
might cancel each other out as they blend together; but the overall effect of the divergent
shape of the flow path results in a net decrease in velocity and an increase in static pressure.
AA Form TO-18
Compressor-Diffuser Section
The engine section between the compressor and combustor sections is known as the
compressor-diffuser because it provides additional space in which air coming from the
compressor spreads out. It is a diverging duct and is usually a separate section that is bolted
to the compressor case.
The Diffuser case also contains HP compressor discharge bleed ports and fuel nozzles.
The diffuser is known as the point of highest pressure in the gas turbine engine. The high wall
of pressure it provides, in effect, gives the combustion products something to push against.
The point of highest pressure idea needs some interpretation in reference to pressure total
(Pt) or pressure static (Ps). At the diffuser inlet, for example, if total pressure (Pt) is 200
pounds per square inch absolute, at the exit of the diffuser, Pt is also 200 pounds per square
inch absolute. The diffusing action that takes place as air moves from the inlet to the exit of
the diffuser section creates an increase in static pressure (Ps) at the expense of velocity.
Static pressure (measured as either absolute pressure or gauge pressure) will be higher at
the diffuser exit, and this is the point of highest static pressure (Ps) in the engine.
If the now familiar (Pt/Ps) formula were used to calculate Ps at the diffuser inlet when airflow
Mach = 0.5 (an average value engine to engine), Ps would be approximately 169 pounds per
square inch - absolute. The remaining 31 psig would be in the form of ram pressure. At the
diffuser outlet if airflow drops to Mach = 0.35 (another average value), Ps would be
approximately 184 pounds per square inch absolute, leaving 16 pounds per square inch
absolute as ram pressure. What is evident here is that the total pressure (Pt) of 200 does not
change if mass flow does not change and that only static and ram pressure values change.
Low velocities are desirable at the combustor entrance, but if the Mach number is allowed to
drop too low in a divergent duct, there enters a serious aerodynamic problem as airflow starts
to separate from the walls creating turbulence. Therefore, Mach 0.35 is presently the mean
low limit.
AA Form TO-18
Compressor Stall
Angle of attack (AOA) of the compressor blade is the result of:
• inlet air velocity
• compressor RPM
The two forces combine to form a vector, - the angle of attack of the airfoil. Compressor stall
is an imbalance between the two vector quantities. A compressor stall, is a condition all gas
turbine engines experience from time to time.
One of the characteristics of a gas turbine engine is its tendency to stall under certain
operating conditions. Compressor stall occurs in many different types of gas turbine engines.
Depending on the operating conditions, stall or surge can occur in various forms and
intensities. Compressor stall or surge, in its most violent stage, can cause engine damage
and a loud audible noise. Surge is the airflow velocity in the rear of the compressor slowing
down to the point of restricting airflow into the compressor. Compressor stalls can be initiated
at both the entrance to and the exit from the compressor. Careful inlet designs minimize the
chance of an intake induced stall.
As Figure above shows, the angle of attack of the compressor blade is the result of inlet air
velocity and the compressor RPM effect on airflow.
The two forces combine to form a vector, which is the actual angle of attack of air
approaching the airfoil. A compressor stall, a condition all gas turbine engines experience
from time to time, can be described as an imbalance between the two vector quantities, inlet
velocity and compressor RPM.
Compressor stalls cause air flowing through the compressor to slow down, to stagnate (stop),
or to reverse direction, depending on the stall intensity.
Until the fuel flow is correct for the engine condition, the cycle will repeat itself many times
over. A disruption of airflow will cause the air velocity over the blades to slow, which will
cause the blades to stall because of a high angle of attack.
Stall conditions can usually be heard, and range in audibility from an air pulsating, or
fluttering type sound in their mildest form, to a louder pulsating type sound, to a sound of
violent backfire or explosion.
Quite often the cockpit gauges do not show a mild stall condition, called a transient stall.
These stalls are not usually harmful to the engine and often correct themselves after one or
two pulsations. Severe stalls, called hung stalls, can significantly decay engine performance,
cause loss of power, or can even damage or cause the engine to fail.
Another way to describe stall phenomena in a compressor is by way of a stall or surge
margin curve. A stall is defined as a localized condition whereas a surge occurs across the
whole compressor. Every compressor has a best operating point for a particular compression
ratio (Cr), compressor speed (RPM), and mass airflow (Wa), which is commonly called the
design point.
AA Form TO-18
The surge-stall line is a series of connecting points on the graph that are plotted during the
development stage of the compressor.
This line represents the maximum Cr and Wa that the compressor is capable of maintaining
at a particular RPM. When the three factors are proportionately matched, the engine operates
comfortably on the normal operating line.
This line is well below the surge-stall line to give a margin for changes which occur in the
atmosphere, the aircraft’s flight attitude, and the engine’s fuel schedule during acceleration
and deceleration.
If for any reason Cr increases or decreases, the design point will shift up or down and out of
sync with RPM.
If Ms increases or decreases, the design point will move to the right or left and out of
symmetry with RPM. Wa.
The normal operating line indicates that the engine will perform without surge or stall at the
various compressor pressure ratios, engine speeds, and mass airfiows along the length of
the line, the line falling well below the surge-stall zone.
The surge stall margin is the operating zone between the ‘normal operating line’ and the
‘surge stall line’.
The margin decreases as compressor efficiency deteriorates.
The design point is the point on this line at which the engine will operate during most of its
service life, that is, cruise speed, at altitude.
Stall conditions are generally cyclic and result from many causes, the most common of which
are as follows:
1) Turbulent or disrupted airflow to the engine inlet (reduces the velocity vector);
2) Excessive fuel flow caused by abrupt engine acceleration (reduces the velocity vector by
increasing combustor back pressure);
3) Excessively lean fuel mixture caused by abrupt engine deceleration, (increases the
velocity vector by reducing combustor back pressure);
4) Contaminated or damaged compressor(s) (increases the velocity vector by reducing
compression);
5) Damaged turbine components, causing loss of power to the compressor and low
compression (increases the velocity vector by reducing compression);
6) Engine operation above or below designed RPM (increases or decreases the RPM vector).
AA Form TO-18
NOTE: Flames do not often occur during either a surge or stall – flame in the inlet would most
likely happen with a complete reversal of flow.
Exhaust flames may occur when a stall or surge causes a momentary stagnation of mass
airflow followed by an over rich condition in the combustor.
The compressor blades and vanes are airfoils. If the angle of attack becomes too great or if
the velocity of air flowing over an airfoil is too low, airflow separation occurs and the airfoil
stalls. This results in a loss in compressor efficiency, compressor pressure ratio (CPR), and a
reduction in airflow velocity. CPR is the pressure differential between the inlet pressure and
the compressor outlet pressure. Recall that in order to produce engines with superior fuel
consumption, it is necessary to operate with as high a compressor pressure ratio as possible.
COMPRESSOR BLEED SYSTEM
The ability of the compressor to pump air is a function of r.p.m. At low r.p.m., the compressor
does not have the same ability to pump air as it does at higher r.p.m. In order to keep the
angle of attack and air velocity within desired limits, it is necessary to unload the compressor
in some manner during starting and low-power operation.
The compressor has less restriction to the flow of air through the use of a compressor
surge/stall bleed air valve system. This air is not used for aircraft systems and is dumped
directly back to the atmosphere.
The pressure within the compressor must be relieved or, unloaded. An anti-stall system
unloads the compressor by dumping the unwanted air or restricting the inlet airflow during :
• starting, low-power operation and , when a pending stall is sensed during any
operating condition.
The compressor anti-stall bleed system, as with the variable vane system, is installed on
some gas turbine engines to minimize compressor acceleration and deceleration stall
problems at low and intermediate speeds. Rather than exclude unwanted air, as is the case
with the variable vane system, the compressor bleed system automatically dumps away
unwanted air.
Except at cruise rpm and higher, some compressors cannot handle the amount of air passing
through the engine without an air bleed system. For example, in a compressor with a 30:1
compressor pressure ratio, during starting a compression ratio of only approximately 2:1
exists. In this condition, the flow outlet area of the compressor would have to be about 80% of
its inlet area in order to move the air without a drastic slow down in its velocity. The average
outlet area being only about 25% of the inlet area necessitates the use of a compressor bleed
air system.
Another way of describing this situation is that in some engines at low and intermediate
speeds, a relationship between compressor rotor RPM and airflow cannot be maintained to
give the rotating airfoils the correct effective angle-of-attack to the oncoming airstream unless
some of the compressor air is being bled away.
At high rotational speeds, the compressor is designed to handle maximum airflow without
aerodynamic disturbance so the bleed system is scheduled closed.
AA Form TO-18
A Comparison Of The Variable Vane System And The Compressor Bleed System.
• At the low end of the compressor speed range the variable vane system allows less
air to enter. This in turn keeps compression low and prevents piling up of air
molecules in the rear stages which tend to block airflow.
• At the low end of the compressor speed range the compressor bleed system bleeds
away the excess of air molecules in the rear stages, which in effect accomplishes the
very same results.
On larger engines, one or more bleed valves fitted to the compressor’s outer case are used
to dump unwanted air either into the fan duct or directly overboard.
On smaller engines, it is more convenient to use a sliding band which uncovers bleed ports to
bleed away unwanted air.
On large engines, a combination of bleed valves and variable vanes may be used. The higher
the compression ratio, the greater the need for systems which control the stall margin.
Generally, stall/surge bleed valves are either fully open or fully closed.
The bleed valve is fully open when the engine is:
• Shutdown
• Starting
• At idle to intermediate power.
The bleed valve is fully closed when the engine is:
• At takeoff
• At cruise power.
The bleed band system is incorporated to control the stall margin of the engine. The band is
positioned so that it will dump air from a selected rearward stage of compression that will
result in the best operating condition of that engine. At low and intermediate speeds, the band
is fully open. In the cruise to takeoff power range, the band is fully closed. This system does
not meter bleed air, it is either fully open or fully closed.
AA Form TO-18
The VBV system lets a part of the LPC discharge air to enter the HPC
During a fast deceleration the VBVs prevent LPC stall. At low rpm and during reverse the
VBVs open to keep unwanted debris such as water or gravel out of the HPC.
A VBV systems commonly have up to 12 doors. The doors or, valves are operated by fuel
pressure via piston or rotary type actuators. Piston type actuators operate the valves via a
unison ring and linkage assembly, rotary type actuators drive the valves via a teleflex drive.
There are two actuators, each driving half the VBVs.
In general, during steady state operation, the VBVs will go more closed as N1 increases. The
VBVs are closed above 80% N1.
The EEC commands the VBV to be more open during
• Rapid deceleration.
• Thrust reverser operation.
• Potential icing conditions.
AA Form TO-18
The bleed band system is incorporated to control the stall margin of the engine. The band is
positioned so that it will dump air from a selected rearward stage of compression that will
result in the best operating condition of that engine.
At low and intermediate speeds, the band is fully open. In the cruise to takeoff power range,
the band is fully closed. This system does not meter bleed air, it is either fully open or fully
closed.
Operation is controlled by the fuel control unit HMU, EEC or by a airflow sensing transmitter
(F28/RR Spey)
AA Form TO-18
Internal VBVs are modulated open and closed. They open when the engine is:
• Shutdown
• Starting
• At idle to intermediate power
The valve will move towards closed as HP (N2) increases, it will be fully closed at high power.
AIRFLOW CONTROL
Where high pressure ratios are required it becomes necessary to introduce airflow control
into the compressor design. This may take the form of variable inlet guide vanes for the first
stage plus a number of stages incorporating variable stator vanes for the succeeding stages.
As the compressor speed is reduced from its design value these static vanes are
progressively closed in order to maintain an acceptable air angle of attack onto the following
rotor blades.
AA Form TO-18
At the low end of the compressor speed range the variable vane system allows less air to
enter. This in turn keeps compression low and prevents piling up of air molecules in the rear
stages which tend to block airflow.
The system shown is typical of many smaller gas turbine engine anti-stall systems, wherein
only the inlet guide vanes have a variable angle capability. The compressor stator vanes are
all of the fixed angle type.
This system is fuel pressure operated by command of the power lever. It is controlled by fuel
signals from the fuel control for its operating schedule in the manner of the large engine anti-
stall system mentioned in the first part of this chapter.
At idle speed, the vanes are scheduled closed, and, to provide a stall free rapid acceleration
of the engine, the vanes move toward their open position as engine speed increases. This
action maintains the correct angle-of-attack relationship between inlet airflow and
compressor speed.
The variable stator vane actuating system is incorporated on many gas turbine engines,
especially on engines with high compression, or those in which the compressor may have
inherent compressor stall problems during acceleration or deceleration at low or intermediate
speeds. The variable vane system automatically varies the geometry (area and shape) of the
compressor gas path to exclude unwanted air and maintain the proper relationship between
compressor speed and airflow in the front compressor stages. At low compressor speeds the
variable stator vanes are partially closed.
As compressor rotor speed increases, the vanes open to allow more and more air to flow
through the compressor. In effect, varying the vane angle schedules the correct angle-of-
attack relationship between the angle of airflow approaching the rotor blades and the rotor
blade leading edges. A correct angle-of-attack allows for a smooth and rapid engine
acceleration.
Another way of viewing this situation is that the deflection of airflow imposed on the airstream
by varying vane angles slows the airstream’s axial velocity before it reaches the rotor blades.
Thus the low RPM of the rotor blade and the low axial velocity of the airstream are matched.
To control compressor stall and surge this high bypass fan engine uses:
• Variable Bleed Valves (VBV)
• Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV)
• Variable Stator Vanes VSV
• HPC Bleed Valve (TBV Transient Bleed Valve)
AA Form TO-18
Centri-axial Compressor
The centrifugal compressor is commonly used in conjunction with the axial flow compressor
but seems only to meet the needs of smaller flight engines (business jets and helicopters).
All larger engines today are of the axial flow type. However, a resurgence of the use of
centrifugal compressors can be seen. Recent developments have produced compression
ratios as high as 10:1 from a single centrifugal compressor. Formerly, only axial flow
compressors could attain this level of compression. The centrifugal compressor is shorter in
length than an axial compressor and that is its main advantage.
Fan Blades
Low bypass engines have high aspect ratio fan blades.
Normally without mid-span shrouds. Made from:
• aluminium alloy
• titanium alloy
Moment weight is not critical.
A turbofan engine produces thrust similar to that produced by a combination of turbojet and
turboprop engines.
Some high bypass engines (those with fan bypass ratios of 4:1 and above) are designed with
high aspect ratio blades. That is, they are long and have a narrow chord. Low aspect ratio
(wide chord) blades are coming into wider use today because of their tolerance to foreign
objects, especially bird strike damage. In the past, low aspect ratio blades have not been the
choice of most designers because of their high weight. Recently, hollow titanium blades with
composite inner reinforcement materials have been developed. These blades have no
stabilizing support shrouds and thus produce more mass airflow as a result of the greater
flow area.
Many blades used on large, high-bypass-ratio engines are described as high-aspect-ratio
(long and skinny). Some of these high-aspect-ratio blades have mid-span shrouds, or
snubbers, that form a ring around the fan at the mid portion of the blade to stiffen it and
prevent flutter. The high by-pass ratio fan blade only became a design possibility with the
availability of titanium, conventional designs being machined from solid forgings. A low
weight fan blade is necessary because the front structure of the engine must be able to
withstand the large out of balance forces that would result from a fan blade failure. To
achieve a sufficiently light solid fan blade, even with titanium, required a narrow chord (high
aspect ratio). However, with this design, the special feature of a mid-span support (’snubber’
or ’clapper’) is required to prevent aerodynamic instability. This design concept has the
disadvantage of the snubber being situated in the supersonic flow where pressure losses are
greatest, resulting in inefficiency and a reduction in airflow.
Latest high bypass engines have low aspect ratio fan blades known as ‘wide chord’ blades.
Normally without mid-span shrouds, they produce a higher mass airflow. Made from titanium
with composite cores. Each blade has a pre-determined moment weight etched on the root.
With the introduction of the large fan blade, moment weighing of blades has assumed a
greater significance. This operation takes into account the mass of each blade and also the
position of its centre of gravity relative to the centre line of the disc into which the blade is
assembled. The mechanical system of blade moment weighing may be integrated with a
computer, which will automatically optimise the blade distribution.
The moment weight of a blade in units i.e. g.mm. or oz.in., is identical to the unbalance effect
of the blade when installed into a disc.
AA Form TO-18
The recorded measurement of blade moment weights enables each blade to be distributed
around the disc in order that these unbalances are cancelled.
On fans with even numbers of blades, blades with similar moment weight are replaced 180
degrees apart.
Spare blades are grouped in pairs of similar moment weights. (no more than about 200 cm.g
difference)
Blade moment weight of two blades does NOT need to be exactly the same; but must be
within the range set out by the manufacturer, correction of the imbalance is carried out by
adding different weight balance screws to the fan spinner cone.
Trim balance can be determined by calculating the following:
• Record the moment weight of the removed blade.
• Record the moment weight of the blade to be installed.
• Install the blade
• Calculate the difference between the moment weights of both blades. E.G,
‘Old’ blade moment weight 162750 cm.g. ‘new’ blade moment weight 163296
cm.g. 163296 – 162750 = 546 cm.g
• Select balance screws closest to this difference. Refer engine manufactures
IPC
• Locate the balance screw location:
 installs screws 180 degrees opposite the ‘new’ installed blade if it is
heavier than the ‘old blade’
 installs screws close to the ‘new’ installed blade if it is lighter than the
‘old’ blade.
This procedure provides satisfactory correction to return the fan to its initial balance
condition. Other solutions are used from time to time such as computer and manual vector
graph calculations.
If a similar moment weight blade is NOT available, replace the damaged blade and the blade
180 degrees opposite.
Ground running is necessary to determine if a balance correction will be needed.
AA Form TO-18
On fans with odd numbers of blades, blades with similar moment weight are replaced 120
degrees apart. Spare blades are grouped in threes of similar moment weights. (no more than
about 200 cm.g difference) Blade moment weight of the three blades does NOT need to be
exactly the same; but must be within the range set out by the manufacturer, correction of the
imbalance is carried out by adding different weight balance screws to the fan spinner cone. In
a similar procedure to even blade number fans.
AA Form TO-18
Trim balance is a procedure used to reduce the engine vibration level. This procedure must
be performed whenever the engine vibration reaches the level ( about 8.0 mils) set-out in the
manufactures aircraft maintenance manual. Usually vibration of this magnitude can be felt in
the aircraft cabin.
High engine vibration can lead to rapid loss of the engines EGT margin and engine damage.
Engine ground running and fan balance checks are necessary following fan blade
replacement, trim balance procedures may be required if vibration levels approach the limit.
Balance correction is carried out on the spinner. A fan trim balance calculation is required
when engine vibration reaches the manufacturers limit.
This can occur following:
• Engine deterioration
• Blending of fan blade damage
• Fan blade replacement.
Balance is corrected by installing heavier or lighter weight screws in the fan spinner. The
exact location and weight of the screws must be determined by plotting vector quantities on a
polar graph.
Always number fan, compressor or turbine blades counter-clockwise, forward looking aft.
(clockwise, as viewed from the rear) using an approver felt tip maker. Never use a lead pencil
or ball point pen.
Failure to number the fan blades in the correct direction will cause problems when trying to
calculate trim balance.
All fan components are index marked to ensure correct assembly and to maintain balance.
Never scratch, punch or etch your own index marks, damaging highly stressed components
in this manner will render them unserviceable as it could lead to catastrophic failure of the
component.
AA Form TO-18
Axial Advantages
There are several advantages of the axial flow compressor. They are:
1) High peak efficiencies (volume) created by its straight through design;
2) Higher peak efficiencies (compressor pressure ratios) attainable by the use of additional
stages of compression;
3) Higher mass airflow for a given frontal area and a low drag coefficient.
The disadvantages of the axial flow compressor are:
1) Difficulty and high cost of manufacture;
2) Relatively high weight;
3) High starting power requirements;
4) Low pressure rise per stage (currently around 1.4 to 1, but as high as 1.5 to 1.6 to 1 in
newer engines being developed);
5) Good compression in the cruise to takeoff power range only? – but isn’t that its operating
range?
The low pressure rise per stage occurs in the axial blade design where inlet and exit
velocities are held at about the same values. By comparison, the centrifugal compressor has
a much higher airflow exit velocity as compared to its inlet velocity and can achieve much
higher compression per stage.
AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.5: COMBUSTION SECTION

The combustion section is typically located directly between the compressor diffuser and
turbine section.
All combustion sections contain the same basic elements:
• one or more combustion chambers (combustors or cans)
• a fuel injection system
• an ignition source
• fuel drainage system.
The combustion chamber, or combustor, is where the fuel and air are mixed and burned.
The fuel injection system supplies the fuel through the fuel nozzles into the combustors.
A typical ignition source is the high-energy capacitor discharge system.
A fuel drainage system accomplishes the important task of draining the unburned fuel after
engine shutdown.
The combustion section or burner, as it is called, consists basically of an outer casing, an
inner perforated liner, a fuel injection system, and a starting ignition system. The function of
this section is to add heat energy to the flowing gases, thereby expanding and accelerating
the gases into the turbine section
One way to think about combustion is that, when fuel heat is added, the volume of the gas is
increased and, with flow area remaining the same, this causes an acceleration of gases to
occur.
This process is referred to as combustion at constant pressure - pressure at exit does not
alter significantly to entry pressure.
The combustion chamber or combustor in a turbine engine is where the fuel and air are
mixed and burned. A typical combustor consists of an outer casing with a perforated inner
liner. The perforations are various sizes and shapes, all having a specific effect on the flame
propagation within the liner.
The fuel injection system meters the appropriate amount of fuel through the fuel nozzles into
the combustors. Fuel nozzles are located in the combustion chamber case or in the
compressor outlet elbows. Fuel is delivered through the nozzles into the liners in a finely
atomised spray to ensure thorough mixing with the incoming air. The finer the spray, the
more rapid and efficient the combustion process.
A typical ignition source for gas turbine engines is the high-energy capacitor discharge
system, consisting of an exciter unit, two high-tension cables, and two spark igniters, This
ignition system produces 60 to 100 sparks per minute, resulting in a ball of fire at the igniter
electrodes. Some of these systems produce enough energy to shoot sparks several inches,
so care must be taken to avoid a lethal shock during maintenance tests.
A fuel drainage system accomplishes the important task of draining the unburned fuel after
engine shutdown. Draining accumulated fuel reduces the possibility of exceeding tailpipe or
turbine inlet temperature limits due to an engine fire after shutdown. In addition, draining the
unburned fuel helps to prevent gum deposits in the fuel manifold, nozzles, and combustion
chambers which are caused by fuel residue.
B1-15.5: Combustion Section

AA Form TO-18
Combustion Chambers
The combustion chamber (combustor) has the task of burning large quantities of fuel
(supplied through fuel burners) with extensive volumes of air (supplied by the compressor)
and releasing the heat in such a manner that the air is expanded and accelerated to give a
smooth stream of uniformly heated gas under all conditions to the turbine. To accomplish the
task of efficiently burning the fuel/air mixture a combustion chamber must
1. mix fuel and air effectively in the best ratio for good combustion.
2. burn the mixture as efficiently as possible.
3. cool the hot combustion gases to a temperature the turbine blades can tolerate.
4. distribute hot gases evenly to the turbine section.
This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in pressure and with the maximum
heat release for the limited space available.
There are currently three basic types of combustion chambers, the multiple-can type, the
annular or basket type, and the can-annular type. Functionally they are the same, but their
design and construction is different.
Multiple-Can Type
The multiple-can type combustion chamber consists of a series of individual combustor cans
which act as individual burner units. This type of combustion chamber is well suited to
centrifugal compressor engines because of the way compressor discharge air is equally
divided at the diffuser. Each can is constructed with a perforated stainless steel liner inside
the outer case.
The inner liner is highly heat resistant and is easily removed for inspection once the
combustion can is removed from the engine. Each combustion can has a large degree of
curvature which provides a high resistance to warpage. However, the shape is inefficient in
terms of the amount of space required and the added weight.

AA Form TO-18
The individual combustors in a typical multiple- can combustion chamber are interconnected
with small flame propagation tubes. The combustion starts in the two cans equipped with
igniter plugs, then the flame travels through the tubes and ignites the fuel/air mixture in the
other cans. Each flame propagation tube is actually a small tube surrounded by a larger tube
or jacket. The small inner tube carries the flame between the cans and the outer tube carries
airflow between the cans that cools and insulates. There are 8 or 10 cans in a typical
multiple-can combustion section. The cans are numbered clockwise when facing the rear of
the engine on most American-built engines, with the number one can being on the top. All the
combustor cans discharge exhaust gases into an open area at the turbine nozzle inlet.

AA Form TO-18
Can-Annular Combustor
The can-annular combustor is more common to older commercial aircraft powered by Pratt &
Whitney engines (B727). This design consists of an outer case containing multiple liners
located radially about the axis of the engine. The liners take air in at the front and discharge it
at the rear. Flame propagation tubes are utilized to connect the liners and provision is made
for two igniter plugs in the lower cans.
In the figure below, eight liners are used. Each liner has its own fuel nozzle cluster supporting
the liner at the front end, and a device with eight apertures, called an outlet duct, supporting
the liner at the back. An advantage of this combustor is that it is designed for ease of on-the-
wing maintenance. The outer case is made to slide back to facilitate liner inspection.
Each combustor liner is annular in shape. A cluster of fuel nozzles support the liner at the
front. A multiple aperture exhaust outlet supports the rear. Flame propagation tubes are
utilized to connect the liners. Ignition is provided in two liners by igniter plugs.
They may be removed for inspection and replacement without splitting the engine. Their short
length provides lower pressure drop. Combining the gases from all of the cans provides a
uniform temperature at the turbine.

AA Form TO-18
Annular Combustor
Today, annular combustors are commonly used in both small and large engines. The reason
for this is that, from a standpoint of thermal efficiency, weight, and physical size, the annular
combustor is the most efficient. An annular combustion chamber consists of a housing and
perforated inner liner, or basket. The liner is a single unit that encircles the outside of the
turbine shaft housing. The shroud can be shaped to contain one or more concentric baskets.
An annular combustor with two baskets is known as a double-annular combustion chamber.
Normally, the ignition source consists of two spark igniters similar to the type found in
multiple-can combustors.
In a conventional annular combustor, airflow enters at the front and is discharged at the rear
with primary and secondary airflow much the same as in the multiple-can design. However,
unlike the can type combustors, an annular combustor must be removed as a single unit for
repair or replacement. This usually involves complete separation of the engine at a major
flange.
Reverse Flow Annular Combustor
Some annular combustors are designed so the airflow can reverse direction.
These reverse-flow combustors serve the same function as the conventional flow type,
except the air flows around the chamber and enters from the rear. This results in the
combustion gases flowing in the opposite direction of the normal airflow through the engine.
This idea was first employed by Whittle in his early designs. In a typical reverse-flow annular
combustor, the turbine wheels are inside the combustor area rather than downstream, as with
the conventional flow designs. This allows for a shorter and lighter engine that uses the hot
gases to preheat the compressor discharge air. These factors help make up for the loss of
efficiency caused by the gases having to reverse their direction as they pass through the
combustor. 25 to 35 percent of the incoming air is designated as primary and 65 to 75
percent becomes secondary.

AA Form TO-18
PT6 shown below.
Combustion Air Flow

In order to allow the combustion section to mix the incoming fuel and air, ignite the mixture,
and cool the combustion gases, airflow through a combustor is divided into primary and
secondary paths. Approximately 25 to 35 percent of the incoming air is designated as primary
while 65 to 75 percent becomes secondary.

AA Form TO-18
Primary, or combustion air, is directed inside the liner in the front end of a combustor. As this
air enters the combustor, it passes through a set of swirl vanes, which gives the air a radial
motion and slows down its axial velocity to about five or six feet per second. The reduction in
airflow velocity is very important because kerosene - type fuels have a slow flame
propagation rate. Therefore, an excessively high velocity airflow could literally blow the flame
out of the engine. This malfunction is known as a flameout. A vortex created in the flame area
provides the turbulence required to properly mix the fuel and air. Once mixed, the combustion
process is complete in the first third of a combustor.
The secondary airflow in the combustion section flows at a velocity of several hundred feet
per second around the combustor’s periphery. This flow of air forms a cooling air blanket on
both sides of the liner and centers the combustion flames so they do not contact the liner.
Some secondary air is slowed and metered into the combustor through the perforations in the
liner where it ensures combustion of any remaining unburned fuel. Finally, secondary air
mixes with the burned gases and cool air to provide an even distribution of energy to the
turbine nozzle at a temperature that the turbine section can withstand.
Liquid fuels must be converted from their liquid state to a vapour before they will burn. In
addition, the ratio of fuel vapour to oxygen in the air must be chemically correct for complete
combustion. A stoichiometric mixture is a perfectly balanced air/fuel mixture of 15 parts of air
to 1 part of fuel, by weight. An air/fuel mixture that is leaner than 15:1 has less fuel in the
air/fuel mixture, while a rich mixture has more fuel. Combustible air/fuel ratios range from 8:1
to 22:1. A gas turbine engine will experience a rich to lean mixture of about 10:1 during
acceleration and 20:1 during deceleration.
Quite often one can see the air-fuel ratio expressed as 60:1. When this occurs, the writer is
expressing the air-fuel ratio in terms of the total airflow rather than of primary combustor
airflow. If primary airflow is approximately 25 percent of total airflow, then 15:1 is 25 percent
of 60:1. A gas turbine engine will experience a rich to lean mixture of about 10:1 during
acceleration and 20:1 during deceleration. If the engine is using 25 per cent of its total airflow
in the combustion zone, the mixture, when expressed in terms of total airflow, will be 48:1 on
acceleration and 80:1 on deceleration.

AA Form TO-18
Flame Stabilisation
The flame in the combustor is stabilised by reducing axial velocity of the air. Air exits the
compressor at about 200 metres per second (700 ft/s) where it is then diffused. Its axial
velocity drops to approximately 150 metres per second (500 ft/s). The air velocity is further
reduced by using swirl vanes in the combustion chamber.
It is desirable to anchor the flame as close as possible to the fuel nozzle. It must have a
region of low velocity air in the combustor. The swirl vanes slow the gas and the fuel is
introduced in fine particles. This prevents overheating in the chamber and stops the flame
actually touching the metal wall of the combustor. The fuel also has a spin imparted to it from
the fuel nozzle. This is achieved by inducing a swirl into the fuel and air entering the
combustor. The swirl also assists atomisation of the fuel. Also, air holes in the liner primary
zone are shaped to induce a toroidal vortex, similar to a smoke ring, which stabilises and
anchors the flame. Low velocity air is required for flame stabilisation. (flame could blow out).
Flame Temperatures
The primary combustion temperature is about 1,800° to 2,000°C. Flame stabilisation, cooling
and dilution air, keeps the gas temperatures within the tolerance of the turbine materials at
approximately 900°C.
Fuel Nozzles
Fuel nozzles, are the terminating point of the fuel system. They are located in the inlet of the
combustion liner. Some mix air with fuel in correct proportions to atomise or vaporise the
fuel. Air shrouds direct cooling air over the spray nozzle to aid atomisation. The highly
polished nozzle delivers a precisely patterned, highly atomised spray. Fuel cannot be burned
in a liquid state. It must first be mixed with air in correct proportions by atomisation or
vaporization.
a. Fuel Nozzles (Pressure-Atomising Type)
The pressure-atomising type of nozzle receives fuel under high pressure from a manifold and
delivers it to the combustor in a highly atomised, precisely patterned spray. The cone
shaped, atomised spray pattern provides a large fuel surface area of very fine fuel droplets.
This optimises fuel-air mixing and ensures the highest heat release from the fuel. The most
desirable flame pattern occurs at higher compressor pressure ratios. Consequently, during
starting and other off-design speeds, the lack of compression allows the flame length to
increase.
If the spray pattern is also slightly distorted, the flame, rather than being held centred in the
liner, can touch the liner surface and cause a hot spot, or even burn through. Another
problem that distorts the spray pattern is contaminant particles within the nozzle, or carbon
build-up outside the nozzle orifice. This can cause hot streaking, which is an un-atomised

AA Form TO-18
stream of fuel which forms and tends to cut through the cooling air blanket and impinge on
the liner or on downstream components such as the turbine nozzle.
Simplex Fuel Nozzles
The simplex design is basically a small round orifice which provides a single spray pattern
and incorporates an internally fluted spin chamber to impart a swirling motion and reduce
axial velocity of the fuel to provide atomisation as it exits the orifice.
The internal check valve, present in the simplex nozzle shown below, is there to prevent
dribbling of fuel from the fuel manifold into the combustor after shutdown. Some fuel systems
with simplex nozzles as their main fuel distributors, incorporate a second smaller simplex
nozzle, called a primer or starting nozzle, which sprays a very fine atomised mist for
improved light-off. After light-off, start/primer systems are generally turned off.
Another configuration with simplex nozzles is called “sector burning”. The engine is started
on one-half or more of the fuel nozzles and operated in that manner up to ground idle speed.
Then, at approximately flight idle speed, fuel pressure is sufficiently high to overcome a
check valve, which allows the remaining fuel nozzles to flow.
Fuel flow through the nozzle is proportional to the square root of the pressure drop across it
and is referred to as a ‘square law’ fuel spray nozzle. Excellent atomisation at high pressure
but ineffective atomisation at low pressure.
The reason for this is that the Simplex was, by the nature of its design, a ‘square law’ spray
nozzle. The flow through the nozzle is proportional to the square root of the pressure drop
across it. This meant that if the minimum pressure for effective atomisation was 30 PSI, the
pressure needed to give maximum flow would be about 900 PSI. The fuel pumps available at
that time were unable to cope with such high pressures so a variable port spray nozzle was
developed in an effort to overcome the square law effect.
The simplex fuel nozzle was used on early jet engines and is still used on modern small
engines such as those used as APU’s. This fuel nozzle gives good atomisation at the higher
fuel flows, that is, at the higher burner pressures, but was unsatisfactory at the low pressures
required at low engine speeds and especially at high altitudes.
Because Simplex are effective only at high pressure/high rpm they are commonly used in
constant speed applications, such as in APU’s.

AA Form TO-18
Spill Type Fuel Nozzles

On some turbine engines that supply high pressure fuel to the fuel nozzles at all times, spill-
type nozzles may be used. A spill-type nozzle is basically a Simplex nozzle with a passage
leading away from the spin chamber. This passage is referred to as a spill passage and is
required to return the excess fuel supplied during low power output operations back to the
nozzle inlet. The advantage of supplying fuel at high pressure to the nozzle at all times is
improved atomisation at all engine speeds. One disadvantage of this type of nozzle is the
extra heat generated by recirculating large amounts of fuel at low engine speeds.
Duplex Fuel Nozzles
Duplex fuel nozzles have two separate fuel flows:
• Primary
• Secondary
Primary (pilot flow) flow has a wide spray pattern used for engine start up to idle. Secondary
fuel flows with primary above idle. Combined primary and secondary flow has a narrow
pattern. Narrow pattern ensures that the flame will not impinge on the combustion liner.
The duplex burner, as shown below, requires a primary and a main fuel manifold and has two
independent orifices, one much smaller than the other. Initial fuel flow is through the smaller
orifice (primary), the larger orifice (main) opens to discharge fuel at higher fuel flows.
Able to give effective atomisation over a wider flow range than the simplex spray nozzle.
Two categories of duplex fuel nozzles:

• Single line
• Dual Line
The Single-Line duplex nozzle referred to as a single-line duplex type, receives its fuel at one
inlet port and becomes a flow divider to distribute fuel through two spray orifices.
Dual-Line Duplex Fuel Nozzles A second type of duplex nozzle, called a dual line duplex type
is quite similar to the single line except that it contains no flow divider check valve to separate
primary and secondary fuel.

AA Form TO-18
The duplex nozzle referred to as a single-line duplex type, receives its fuel at one inlet port
and becomes a flow divider to distribute fuel through two spray orifices. Often, as shown
below, the round centre orifice, called the pilot, or primary fuel, sprays at a wide angle during
engine start and acceleration to idle. The annular outer orifice, referred to as main or
secondary fuel, opens at a preset fuel pressure to flow along with the pilot fuel. Fuel of much
higher volume and pressure flowing from this outer orifice causes the spray pattern to narrow
so that the fuel will not impinge on the combustion liner at higher power settings. Primary
(pilot flow) flow is used for engine start up to idle. Secondary fuel flows with primary from idle.
A second type of duplex nozzle, called a dual line duplex type is quite similar to the single
line except that it contains no flow divider check valve to separate primary and secondary
fuel. The check valve in this system is located in the Pressurizing and Dump Valve and is
labelled “Pressurizing Valve”. The pressurizing valve acts as a single, main flow divider for all
of the fuel nozzles, whereas in the single-line duplex nozzle, each has its own flow divider in
the form of its check valve.

AA Form TO-18
Only primary fuel is supplied for starting and low-flow conditions. This fuel comes from a flow
divider. Fuel sprays out from the center primary orifice in a wide spray. The air shroud directs
cooling air over the spray nozzle. Cooling air from compressor discharge also aids
atomisation of the fuel. Fuel is discharged from both primary and secondary orifices for high
speed conditions.
Air Blast Fuel Nozzles

The air blast fuel nozzle is a newer design and is being more widely used in various sized
engines because it enhances the atomisation process and produces finer fuel droplets. This
nozzle is said to be more effective during starting when low fuel pressure causes atomisation
problems. By using a high velocity airflow, air blast nozzles more completely atomise the fuel
than can be accomplished with fuel under pressure alone. This nozzle also has an advantage
in that it utilizes a lower system working pressure than the basic atomising types of nozzles.
High velocity compressor discharge air flow enhances atomisation and aeration of the fuel at
the spray orifice produces finer fuel droplets. More effective during starting when fuel
pressure is low.

AA Form TO-18
Vapourising Fuel Nozzles

The Vapourising fuel nozzle shown in Figure below connects to a fuel manifold in an
arrangement similar to the atomising type. Instead of delivering the fuel directly into the
primary air of the combustor, as the atomising type does, the Vapourising tube premixes the
primary air and fuel. Combustor heat surrounding the nozzle causes the mixture to vaporize
before exiting into the combustor flame zone.
The tee-shaped vaporizer, shown in figure below is one of a set of eleven utilized in some
models of the Lycoming T-53 turboshaft engine. Because Vapourising nozzles do not provide
an effective spray pattern for starting, the T-53 incorporates an additional set of small
atomising type spray nozzles which spray into the combustor during starting. After light-off,
start fuel is terminated on spool-up to idle. This system is generally referred to as a primer or
starting fuel system. The Rolls Royce Olympus engine in the Concorde SST, and several
other engines, utilize the Vapourising fuel nozzle and primer fuel nozzle systems, but these
systems are not in wide use throughout the industry.
These nozzles vaporise, instead of atomise the fuel. They produce a stable combustion in
some engine designs. Two types of Vaporiser nozzles:
• Tee shaped – dual outlets
• Cane shaped – single outlet.
System relies on separate spray nozzles for starting.

AA Form TO-18
The Vaporising fuel nozzle shown in figure above connects to a fuel manifold in an
arrangement similar to the atomising type. Instead of delivering the fuel directly into the
primary air of the combustor, as the atomising type does, the Vaporising tube premixes the
primary air and fuel. Combustor heat surrounding the nozzle causes the mixture to vaporize
before exiting into the combustor flame zone.
Whereas the atomiser nozzle discharges in the downstream direction, the vaporizer
discharges in the upstream direction and the mixture then makes a 180 degree turn to move
downstream. This arrangement provides a slow moving, fine spray over a wide range of fuel
flows and is said to produce more stable combustion in some engines than can be achieved
by atomising nozzles, especially at low revolutions per minute. Some vaporisers have only
one outlet and are referred to as cane-shaped vaporizers.
Pressurising and Dump Valve

A pressurising and dump valve (P and D valve) is used along with a duplex fuel nozzle of the
dual inlet line type. Rather than providing a flow divider in each nozzle, as with the single line
duplex fuel nozzle, this arrangement allows for one central flow divider, called a pressurizing
and dump valve. The term “pressurizing” refers to the fact that at a pre-set pressure, a
pressurizing valve within the P and D valve opens and fuel flows into the main manifold as
well as through the pilot manifold.
The term dump refers to a second internal valve which has the capability of dumping the
entire fuel manifold after shut-down. Manifold dumping is a procedure which sharply cuts off
combustion and also prevents fuel boiling as a result of residual engine heat. This boiling
would tend to leave solid deposits in the manifold which could clog the finely calibrated
passageways.
A pressure signal from the fuel control arrives at the P and D valve when the power lever is
opened for engine start. This pressure signal shifts the dump valve to the left, closing the
dump port and opening the passageway to the manifolds. Metered fuel pressure builds at the
inlet check valve until the spring tension is overcome and fuel is allowed to flow through the
filter to the pilot manifold. At a speed slightly above ground idle, fuel pressure will be
sufficient to overcome the pressurizing valve spring force, and fuel will also flow to the main
manifold.
The tension on the pressurizing valve spring is normally adjustable as a line maintenance
task. A valve opening too early can give an improper fuel spray pattern and create hot starts
or off-idle stalls. A late opening valve can cause slow-acceleration problems. To delay the
opening of the secondary manifold and eliminate hot start or off-idle stalls, the adjusting
screw would be turned in to increase tension on the pressurizing valve spring. Conversely, to

AA Form TO-18
cause early fuel flow to the secondary manifold and enhance acceleration, the adjuster would
be turned outward.
To shut off the engine, the fuel lever in the cockpit is moved to off. The fuel control pressure
signal is then lost, and spring pressure will shift the dump valve back to the right, opening the
dump valve port. At the same time, the inlet check valve will close, keeping the metered line
flooded and ready for use on the next engine start.
Primary (Starting and idle)
Secondary (above idle)
Dumps (drains) the fuel from the nozzle manifold on shut down

AA Form TO-18
Dump fuel, in years past, had been allowed to spill onto the ground or siphon from a drain
tank in flight. Current international regulations, however, prohibit this form of environmental
pollution, and now the drain tank fuel must be captured, perhaps by hand draining. To
prevent hand-draining, several types of recycling systems have recently evolved. One such
system returns fuel to the aircraft fuel supply. Another type of system pushes fuel, which
formerly would have been dumped, out of the fuel nozzles by introducing bleed air into the
dump port. This prolongs combustion slightly until fuel starvation occurs. In the system shown
in the figure below, a full tank causes a float valve to actuate and drain the tank via an
eductor type flow system.
Rolls Royce

AA Form TO-18
Combustor Drain
The combustor drain valve shown in the figure below is a mechanical device located in the
low point of a combustion case. It is closed by gas pressure within the combustor during
engine operation and is opened by spring pressure when the engine is not in operation. This
valve prevents fuel accumulation in the combustor after a false start or any other time fuel
might tend to puddle at the low point.
A false start in this case is a no-start condition or hung- start condition which results in a fuel
soaked combustor and tailpipe. Draining of fuel in this manner prevents such safety hazards
as after-fires and hot starts. This drain also removes un-atomised fuel which could ignite near
the lower turbine stator vanes causing serious local overheating during starting, when cooling
airflow is at the lowest flow rate.
As mentioned in the P and D valve discussion, if the dump line is capped off as an ecology
control, the fuel manifolds will drain through the lower nozzles and fuel will evaporate in the
combustor or exit the combustor via the mechanical drain valve into an aircraft drain
receptacle. Maintenance personnel will periodically drain this tank as a pollution control
measure before it spills over onto the ramp.

AA Form TO-18

AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.6: TURBINE SECTION

Turbines
The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories and
in the case of engines that do not make use solely of a jet for propulsion, of providing shaft
power for a propeller or rotor.
Operating Principles
The turbine carries out the task of extracting energy from the hot gases released from the
combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. The energy is
extracted by passing the airflow over a set of aerofoil shaped blades. High stresses are
involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may rotate at
speeds up to 1 300 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which the turbine is
exposed may have an entry temperature between 700 and 1 300o C, and may reach a
velocity of 2 000 feet per second in parts of the turbine.
Axial Turbine
The basic components of the turbine are (Figure 6-1):
 Turbine Case,
 stator, called the nozzle
 shroud
 rotor.
A disc and a number of turbine blades make up a turbine rotor
A nozzle followed by a rotor, make up a turbine stage
Figure 6-1.
The rotating assembly is supported on bearings mounted in the turbine casing. A turbine
shaft may be common to the compressor shaft or by connection via a self aligning coupling.
The location of a typical turbine assembly is highlighted in Figure 6-2
B1-15.6: Turbine Section

AA Form TO-18
Figure 6-2.

AA Form TO-18
Case
The turbine casing encloses the turbine rotor and stator assembly, giving either direct or
indirect support to the stator elements. A typical case has flanges on both ends that provide a
means of attaching the turbine section to the combustion section and the exhaust assembly.
The perimeter of some turbine cases is encircled by several tubes, or passages. These
passages are used to route cooling air around the turbine case to control thermal expansion.
For example, during cruise flight, cool air is routed around the case to reduce the amount the
case expands. This, in turn, decreases the clearance between the case and the turbine
blades making the turbine section more efficient. This is known as active tip clearance
control, or ACC.
Turbine casings are typically made from nickel based alloys such as Inconel Figure 6-3
Figure 6-3.
Turbine Stator
A stator element is most commonly referred to as the turbine nozzle; however, you may also
hear the stator elements referred to as the turbine guide vanes, or the nozzle diaphragm. The
turbine nozzle is located directly aft of the combustion section and immediately forward of the
turbine wheel. Because of its location, the turbine nozzle is typically exposed to the highest
temperatures in a gas turbine engine. They are typically made from nickel based alloy,
advanced NGV’s designs are ceramic or are nickel alloy with ceramic coatings.

AA Form TO-18
Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGV)

The design of nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades is based broadly on aerodynamic
considerations. To obtain optimum efficiency compatible with compressor and combustor
design, the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades are of a basic aerofoil shape (Figure 6-4).
The main purpose of NGV’s is to direct the exhaust gasses onto the turbine blades at the
optimum angle of attack for efficient operation, another purpose may be to decrease pressure
and increase velocity of the gas onto the turbine blade.
Figure 6-4.
NGV’s require extremely high heat resistant properties and are generally constructed from
alloys of cobalt nickel and chrome
A typical NGV assembly may, depending on the size of the engine, be manufactured as a
complete ring of vanes, segments of a ring or individual vanes (Figure 6-5).
When vanes are riveted or welded into segmented shrouds, the gaps between shroud
segments allow for thermal expansion. Nozzle guide vanes types are matched to the turbine
blade types
Figure 6-5.
.

AA Form TO-18
Blade Configuration
There are three types of turbine blade and nozzle configurations in common use today. They
are:
 Impulse.
 Reaction.
 Impulse-Reaction.
Impulse Turbine and Nozzle

In the impulse type of blades, as shown in Figure 6-6, the total pressure drop across each
stage of turbine occurs in the nozzle guide vanes, which, because of their convergent shape,
increase the gas velocity whilst reducing the pressure. The gas is then directed onto the
blades which experience an impulse force caused by the impact of the gas on the blade.
Impulse blades are commonly used on cartridge and air starters. The diagram shows the
bucket-like shape of the turbine blades.
Figure 6-6.

AA Form TO-18
Reaction Turbine and Nozzle

In the reaction type of blades (Figure 6-7) the fixed nozzle guide vanes are designed to
alter the gas flow direction without changing the pressure. The converging blade passages
experience a reaction force resulting from the expansion and acceleration of the gas.
Normally gas turbine engines do not use pure impulse or pure reaction
Figure 6-7.
Impulse/Reaction Turbine and Nozzle
Impulse/reaction blades are a combination of the impulse and the reaction types of blades as
shown in Figure 6-8.Normally, gas turbine engines do not use either pure impulse or pure
reaction turbine blades.
With the impulse turbine, the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the fixed nozzle
guide vanes and the effect on the turbine blades is one of momentum only. With the reaction
turbine, the total pressure drop occurs through the turbine blade passage.
With impulse/reaction turbine, the proportion of each principle incorporated in its design is
therefore largely dependant on the type of engine in which the turbine is to operate, but in
general it is about 50% impulse and 50% reaction.
The turbine is driven by the impulse of the gas flow and its subsequent reaction as it
accelerates through the converging blade passage.
Figure 6-8.
AA Form TO-18
Impulse – Reaction Turbine Blades

To more evenly distribute the workload along the length of the blade, most modern turbine
engines incorporate impulse-reaction turbine blades. With this type of blade, the blade base
is impulse shaped while the blade tip is reaction shaped. This design creates a uniform
velocity and pressure drop across the entire blade length.
Gas Path through the Turbine

In the impulse type the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the fixed nozzle guide
vanes which, because of their convergent shape, increase the gas velocity whilst reducing
the pressure. The gas is directed onto the turbine blades which experience an impulse force
caused by the impact of the gas on the blades. Impulse-type turbines are used for cartridge
and air starters.
On impact with the turbine blades, the gas imparts energy to the blades to drive the turbine to
high speeds, as illustrated in Figure 6-9. The gas then passes to the exhaust system of the
next stage of NGVs.
Figure 6-9.
Energy Transfer
The nozzle and blades of the turbine are twisted, the blades having a stagger angle that is
greater at the tip than the root, as shown in Figure 6-9.
The reason for this twist is to make the gas flow from the combustion section do equal work
at all positions along the length of the blade, and to ensure that the flow enters the exhaust
system with a uniform axial velocity.

AA Form TO-18
Blades
Turbine blades are either open at the tip or fitted with interlocking shrouds, It is common to
see both types in one engine, with the high speed wheel containing open tip blades and the
lower speed wheel shrouded tip blades.
Tip loading from rotational forces often limits the use of shrouds to lower speed locations,
such as low pressure turbines in turbofan engines. This is also true of LP turbines in
turboshaft engines, where all the energy is designed to be absorbed by the turbine blades,
and energy remaining in the tailpipe as a result of tip losses would be completely lost to the
engine.
Turbine blades can be open or shrouded at their ends. Open ended blades are used on high
speed turbines, while shrouded blades are commonly used on turbines having slower
rotational speeds.
With shrouded blades, a shroud is attached to the tip of each blade. Once installed, the
shrouds of the blades contact each other, thereby providing support. This added support
reduces vibration substantially. The shrouds also prevent air from escaping over the blade
tips, making the turbine more efficient. However, because of the added weight, shrouded
turbine blades are more susceptible to blade growth.
The turbine blades, shown in Figure 6-10, are of an aerofoil shape designed to provide
passages between adjacent blades that give a steady acceleration of air up to the throat
(where the area is smallest and the velocity reaches that required to produce the required
degree of reaction).
Figure 6-10.

AA Form TO-18
Turbine Shrouds and Seals

Purpose
To reduce the loss in efficiency due to leakage across the blade tips, a shroud or turbine seal
may be fitted, as illustrated in Figure 6-11. This is formed by forging a small segment at the
end of each blade, so that when all the blades are fitted to the disc, the segments form a
peripheral ring around the blade tips.
Figure 6-11.
Knife edge seals are often mounted on the tip shrouds (Figure 6-12). They also reduce air
losses across the tips and keep the airflow in an axial direction to maximise the impact force
of the flowing gases onto the blades. The seals fit in close tolerance to the shroud rings
mounted in the turbine case.
Figure 6-12.

AA Form TO-18
Turbine Blade Construction

Conventionally Cast Blades (Figure 6-13)
Turbine blades and vanes are either forged by newer powder metallurgy technique or by
traditional methods, or investment cast from nickel-base alloys. These materials have very
high temperature strength under centrifugal loads and are highly corrosion resistant.
Figure 6-13.
Directionally Solidified Cast Blades (Figure 6-14)
Turbine blades are also cast from high temperature nickel based ‘super alloys’. An
advancement in technology was directional solidification of the casting. They are directionally
solidified to improve their strength longitudinally, which increases creep resistance.
Directional solidification (called a columnar crystal structure) aligns the metal grains or
crystals in one direction.
Figure 6-14.

AA Form TO-18
Single Crystal Blades (Figure 6-15)

Single Crystal blades are made from alloys that are cooled very slowly to form large ‘grains’
or crystals (large enough to make a blade). A ‘grain’ is a group of atoms that form (during
cooling) into a very orderly pattern. Therefore the atomic structure of a single crystal blade is
very uniform – which enhances strength and temperature resistance.
single crystal casting in which only one grain of material forms in the mold rather than millions
of grains bound together, as is the case with traditional casting. With only one grain and no
grain boundaries, corrosion due to expansion is all but eliminated.
Figure 6-15.

AA Form TO-18
Blade and Vane Thermal Barrier Coatings

Ceramic and aluminium alloy thermal barrier coating of super alloy parts and some titanium
parts are also processes which give high surface strength and resistance to corrosion. These
coatings are generally referred to as plasma sprays and, when applied under high heat, melt
into the surface of the base metal. This coating is said to give the best protection against the
scaling type corrosion or erosion which occurs at high gas temperatures. Scaling is a
condition caused by sodium (salt) in the air and sulfur in the fuel reacting chemically with the
base metals.
Blade Attachment Methods

The methods of attaching turbine blades to the turbine disc is of considerable importance,
since the stress in the disc around the attachment point or in the blade root has an important
bearing on the limiting rim speed. Rim speed is the velocity of the rim of the disc. The
design of the attachment point must be such that the accumulation of stresses does not lead
to failure in the blade or disc.
Fir tree fixing is now used on the majority of gas turbine engines. This type of fixing involves
very accurate machining to ensure that the loading is shared by all the serrations. The blade
is free in the serrations when the engine is stationary and is stiffened in the root by centrifugal
loading when the turbine is rotating.
If you were to rotate an engine by hand, you would hear a sharp tinkling sound as the blades
move around in their seats. This is quite normal. Fir tree blades are locked in place by
special tabs or locking plates (Figure 6-16).
Figure 6-16.

AA Form TO-18
Various other methods of blade retention have been used, as seen in Figure 6-17, but are not
common now.
Figure 6-17.
Discs
Discs are machined forgings with an integral shaft or a flange onto which a shaft can be
bolted. The disc has provision for the attachment of blades around its perimeter as shown in
Figures 6.18a and 6.18b
A stage of a turbine consists of one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of
rotating blades.
Figure 6-18.a Figure 6-18.b

AA Form TO-18
Sealing Methods
The most common methods of sealing turbines are abradable shroud ring and knife edge tips
shown in Figure 6-19.
The shrouds are small segments at the tips of the blades to prevent leakage across the tips.
When shrouded tips are not used, a snug fit between the tips and the turbine casing is
ensured by either abradable blade tips or an abradable lining fitted to the case.
The rotor assembly fits easily into the turbine casing when assembled, but expansion due to
heating and centrifugal forces during operation causes the blades to cut their own seat and
ensure the best possible fit.
Shrouded turbines have the advantage of minimising the loss of efficiency due to leakage of
gas across the blade tip, and extra strength. They do however, suffer the disadvantage of
being susceptible to blade creep due to the increased centrifugal loading caused by the
increase in peripheral mass of the blade. Because of the extra weight, shrouded blades are
better suited to low speed turbines.
Figure 6-19.

AA Form TO-18
Power Extraction (Figure 6-20)

As the high velocity gases pass through the turbine nozzle and impact the turbine blades, the
turbine wheel rotates. In some engines, a single turbine wheel cannot absorb sufficient
energy from the exhaust gas to drive the compressor and accessories. Therefore, many
engines use multiple turbine stages, each stage consisting of a turbine nozzle and wheel.
Once the turbine has extracted enough power to run the compressor, the exhaust gas uses
its remaining energy to add to the reactive force of thrust. A turbojet engine relies on the
exhaust stream velocity to contribute significantly to thrust.
Figure 6-20.
Dual-Spool Turbofan (Figure 6-21)

The fan requires a lot of power to drive it therefore the Fan and the LP compressor have the
greater number of turbine stages. – The higher the bypass ratio the greater number of turbine
stages that are needed.
Figure 6-21.

AA Form TO-18
Triple-Spool Turbofan (Figure 6-22)

Like a dual-spool turbofan. The three spool fan requires a lot of power to drive it, therefore it
has the greater number of turbine stages. – The higher the bypass ratio the greater number of
turbine stages that are needed. The IP and HP compressor do not need so much power
therefore they have fewer stages.
Figure 6-22.
Turboprop Engine (Figure 6-23)

A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine that drives a propeller to produce thrust.
Turboprops, like all gas turbine engines, have a compressor section, combustion section,
turbine section, and exhaust section. These sections carry out the same functions as if they
were installed in a turbojet engine. However, a turboprop engine is designed with a few
differences. For example, the turbine of a turboprop engine extracts up to 85 percent of the
engine’s total power output to drive the propeller. To do this, most turboprop engines utilize
multiple stage turbines. In addition, the turbine blades in a turboprop engine are designed to
extract more energy from the exhaust gases than the blades found in a turbojet engine.
Figure 6-23.

AA Form TO-18
On some turboprop and turboshaft engines (Figure 6-24), driving torque is derived from a
free-power turbine. This method allows the turbine to run at its optimum speed because it is
mechanically independent of other turbine and compressor shafts.
Figure 6-24.
Turboshaft Engines
Turboshaft engines are gas turbine engines that operate something other than a propeller by
delivering power to a shaft. Turboshaft engines are similar to turboprop engines, and in some
instances, both use the same design. Like turboprops, turboshaft engines use almost all the
energy in the exhaust gases to drive an output shaft. The power may be taken directly from
the engine turbine, or the shaft may be driven by its own free turbine. Like free turbines in
turboprop engines, a free turbine in a turboshaft engine is not mechanically coupled to the
engine’s main rotor shaft, so it may operate at its own speed. Free turbine designs are used
extensively in current production model engines. Turboshaft engines are frequently used to
power helicopters and auxiliary power units aboard large commercial aircraft.
Turbine Loads and Stresses

To fully utilise the power available from the combustion gases, turbines are operated at the
highest tolerable temperature and blade tip speed.
The high tip speeds, (up to 1 200 feet per second), impart high centrifugal loads on the
blades and discs.
Temperatures in the turbine can also be in the region of 1 450oC and gas velocity may be
around 1 800 feet per second.
The turbine environment is extremely hostile. This hostile environment can lead to design
and longevity problems.

AA Form TO-18
Blade Creep
‘Creep’ occurs when high stresses are applied to the turbine at a high temperature. It is a
gradual increase in blade length or disc diameter with time, leading eventually to a failure of
the blade or rubbing of the blade tip against the casing. The time elapsed before failure
depends on the load applied and the temperature.
Figure 6-25 indicates typical variations in the creep strain of a turbine blade. There is in
general, a fairly rapid initial increase in length or disc diameter, followed by a long period
during which the increase is approximately linear with time.
Finally there is a period during which the increase in blade length is rapid, leading to total
blade failure. This last condition should never be experienced in the life of an engine.
However, in the event of severe overspeeding or high temperature, this excessive creep can
occur. If high temperatures or overspeeding have occurred, blade creep checks are then
used to check that excessive blade creep has not occurred.
Figure 6-25.
Creep Checks
At intervals laid down in the maintenance manual, or when an engine is operated outside its
working limits (ie. over temperature or overspeeding) a turbine check is required. There are
two methods of carrying out a creep check:
 Measure each blade individually.
 The second is to measure the distance between the turbine blade tip and the shroud
ring.
The measurements obtained are then compared to the last creep check measurements, and
an indication of blade creep can be ascertained.
Of the two methods of carrying out turbine blade checks, measuring each blade individually is
the most accurate as it is not effected by such variables as turbine disc growth or turbine
shroud warpage. However, to carry this check out, the turbine assembly must be removed
from the engine, to give the fitter access to the blades.
Although not as accurate, measuring the distance from the tip of the turbine blade to the
shroud ring is a more convenient and practical method of ascertaining the turbine condition at
short notice. If the measurements obtained during this check are out of tolerance, then the
engine would be removed for more detailed inspection.

AA Form TO-18
Blade Tip to Shroud Clearance Check

The method used to check the clearance between the tips of the turbine blades and the inner
diameter of the shroud is as follows:
 Insert feeler gauges into the gap between the turbine blade tips and the turbine
shroud at the 12 o’clock position.
 Rotate the disc to find the blade which gives the least clearance.
 Mark this blade with an approved hot end marking pencil.
 Insert the feeler gauges between the marked blade and the turbine shroud at sixteen
places around the shroud circumference.
 The sixteen clearances which were measured should be recorded on a clock face
diagram.
 The measurements are then compared to previous tip clearance checks and the
maintenance manual to check any abnormal growth or out of tolerance clearances.
From the measurements recorded it is possible to determine whether the shroud ring has
warped or excessive blade creep has occurred.
Radial Inflow Turbine
Radial inflow turbines are sometimes used in ancillary equipment such as gas turbine
compressors (GTC), auxiliary power units (APU), air turbine motors (ATM) and some types of
turbo superchargers. The design and construction of the turbine centres around a disc having
radially disposed vanes machined into its face and is similar in design to the impellers used in
centrifugal compressors.
The main difference is the fitting of a set of vanes to the rear face of the turbine wheel. These
vanes are known as exducer vanes as illustrated in Figure 6-26. The purpose of the exducer
vanes is to increase the length of the turbine vanes and by doing so increase the efficiency of
the turbine. The gas flow through the turbine first enters through a ring of stationary nozzle
guide vanes which apportion the gas flow equally around the turbine and direct the gas flow
onto the periphery of the turbine wheel at the optimum angle of attack. It then flows to the
eye of the turbine, across the exducer vanes (to extract the remaining energy from the gas
flow) and exits at atmospheric pressure through the jet pipe
Figure 6-26.

AA Form TO-18

AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.7: EXHAUST

Gas Turbine Engine Exhaust
The design of a turbojet engine exhaust section exerts tremendous influence on the
performance of an engine. For example, the shape and size of an exhaust section and its
components affect the temperature of the air entering the turbine, or turbine inlet
temperature, the mass airflow through the engine, and the velocity and pressure of the
exhaust jet. Therefore, an exhaust section determines to some extent the amount of thrust
developed.
After the gas flow leaves the turbine it enters the exhaust section. A turbojet engine exhaust
section influences the performance of an engine.
For example, the shape and size of an exhaust section effects:
 turbine inlet temperature
 the mass airflow through the engine
 the velocity and pressure of the exhaust jet.
The purpose of an exhaust section is to collect the gas flow, straighten it and increase its
velocity. A typical exhaust section extends from the rear of the turbine section to the point
where the exhaust gases leave the engine. An exhaust section is comprised of several
components including the exhaust cone, exhaust duct or tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle.
B1-15.7: Exhaust Section

AA Form TO-18
Exhaust Cone
A typical exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer duct, an inner cone, or exhaust cone,
three or more radial hollow struts, and a group of tie rods that assist the struts in centering
the inner cone within the outer duct. The outer duct is made of stainless steel and attaches to
the rear flange of the turbine case.
The purpose of an exhaust cone assembly is to channel and collect turbine discharge gases
into a single jet. Due to the diverging passage between the outer duct and inner cone, gas
velocity within the exhaust cone decreases slightly while gas pressure rises. Radial struts
between the outer shell and inner cone support the inner cone, and help straighten the
swirling exhaust gases that would otherwise exit the turbine at an approximate angle of 45
degrees.
The purpose of an exhaust cone assembly is to channel turbine discharge gases into a single
jet. The passage between the inner cone and outer duct is divergent in shape. Gas velocity
within the exhaust cone assy. decreases while pressure increases. The hollow radial struts
support the inner cone, straighten the swirling exhaust gases and provide a conduit for
sensing lines and plumbing.
The exhaust cone assembly is commonly made from stainless steel or nickel alloy.
Tail Pipe
A tailpipe is an extension of the exhaust section that directs exhaust gases safely from the
exhaust cone to the exhaust, or jet nozzle. The use of a tailpipe imposes a penalty on an
engine’s operating efficiency due to heat and duct friction losses. These losses cause a drop
in the exhaust gas velocity and, hence, the thrust. Tailpipes are used almost exclusively with
engines that are installed within an aircraft’s fuselage to protect the surrounding airframe.
Engines installed in a nacelle or pod, however, often require no tailpipe, in which case the
exhaust nozzle is mounted directly to the exhaust cone assembly.

AA Form TO-18
Exhaust Nozzle
An exhaust, or jet nozzle, provides the exhaust gases with a final boost in velocity. An
exhaust nozzle mounts to the rear of a tailpipe, if a tailpipe is required, or to the rear flange of
the exhaust duct if no tailpipe is necessary.
Two types of exhaust nozzle designs used on aircraft are the converging design, and the
converging- diverging design. On a converging exhaust nozzle, the nozzle diameter
decreases from front to back. This convergent shape produces a venturi that accelerates the
exhaust gases and increases engine thrust.
The diameter of a converging-diverging duct decreases, then increases from front to back.
The converging portion of the exhaust nozzle accelerates the turbine exhaust gases to
supersonic speed at the narrowest part of the duct. Once the gases are moving at the speed
of sound they are accelerated further in the nozzle’s divergent portion, so the exhaust gases
exit the nozzle well above the speed of sound.
On fan or bypass type engines, there are two gas streams venting to the atmosphere. High
temperature gases are discharged by the turbine, while a cool air mass is moved rearward by
the fan section. In a low by-pass engine, the flow of cool and hot air are combined in a mixer
unit that ensures mixing of the two streams prior to exiting the engine. High bypass engines,
on the other hand, usually exhaust the two streams separately through two sets of nozzles
arranged coaxially around the exhaust nozzle. However, on some high bypass engines, a
common or integrated nozzle is sometimes used to partially mix the hot and cold gases prior
to their ejection. An exhaust nozzle opening can have either a fixed or variable area. The two
exhausts are referred to as the hot and cold streams. In a low by-pass engine, the flow of
cool and hot air are combined in a mixer unit that ensures mixing of the two streams prior to
exiting the engine.

AA Form TO-18
An exhaust nozzle opening can have either a fixed or variable area. A variable geometry
nozzle is sometimes necessary on engines that utilize an afterburner. Variable nozzles are
typically operated with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric controls.
Afterburners are used to accelerate the exhaust gases, which in turn, increases thrust. An
afterburner is typically installed immediately aft of the last stage turbine and forward of the
exhaust nozzle. The components that make up an afterburner include the fuel manifold, an
ignition source, and a flame holder.

AA Form TO-18
The addition of an afterburner to a gas turbine engine is made possible by the fact that the
gases in the tailpipe still contain a large quantity of oxygen. If you recall, approximately 25
percent of a compressor’s discharge air is used to support combustion, while the remaining
75 percent is used for cooling. Once the cooling air passes through an engine, a portion of it
is mixed with the exhaust gases at the rear of the turbine section. The tailpipe entrance is
fitted with a fuel manifold, consisting of a set of afterburner fuel nozzles, or spray-bars, that
inject fuel into the tailpipe. The fuel and air mix, then ignite and burn in the afterburner. The
additional heat generated by combustion accelerates the exhaust gases and creates
additional thrust.
To ensure thorough fuel-air mixing, a tubular grid or spoke-shaped obstruction, called a flame
holder, is placed downstream of the fuel nozzles. The presence of the flame holder creates
turbulence, causing the approaching gases to swirl and thoroughly mix.
The use of an afterburner dramatically increases the temperature, gas volume and thrust
produced by an engine. Therefore, when an afterburner is being used, the area of the
exhaust nozzle must be increased. If this is not done, an area of back pressure at the rear of
the turbine would be created which could increase the turbine temperature beyond its safe
level. By increasing the size of the exhaust nozzle, the exhaust gas temperature can be
reduced to tolerable limits.
Afterburning is used primarily on military aircraft to assist in takeoff or produce rapid climb-out
speeds. Afterburners can provide as much as a 100 percent increase in thrust at the expense
of fuel flows three to five times higher than normal.
Turboprop Exhaust
In a typical turboprop exhaust system, the exhaust gases are directed through a tail pipe
assembly from the turbine section of the engine to the atmosphere. The exhaust arrangement
used depends on the type of engine. Turboprop engines utilizing a through-flow burner
typically expel the gases straight out the back of the engine and out the nacelle. This extracts
the maximum amount of thrust from the velocity of the hot gases. Engines using a reverse
flow combustor may exhaust the hot gases near the front of the engine. This design collects
the exhaust gases and vents them overboard through exhaust stacks. There is very little
additional thrust provided by this type of exhaust.
Helicopter tailpipes are often divergent in shape to nullify any thrust produced. This
enhances hover stability. The power required to drive the rotors is extracted through the
turbines, but any residual thrust from the tailpipe would produce a thrust on the aircraft.
Typically, the exhaust system is designed to produce no thrust.

AA Form TO-18
Exhaust Insulation
Engine insulation blankets are used to shield portions of an aircraft’s structure from the
intense heat radiated by the exhaust duct. In addition, the use of blankets reduce the
possibility of leaking fuel or oil coming in contact with hot engine parts and accidentally
igniting. Common places where insulation blankets may be used include the combustion,
turbine, and exhaust sections.
Aluminium, glass fibre, and stainless steel are among the materials used in the manufacture
of engine insulation blankets. Several layers of fibreglass, aluminium foil, and silver foil are
covered with a stainless steel shroud to form a typical blanket. The fibreglass is a low-
conductance material and the layers of metal foil act as radiation shields. Each blanket is
manufactured with a suitable covering that prevents it from becoming oil-soaked. Although
insulation blankets were used extensively on early engine installations, they are typically not
required with modern turbofan engine installations.
Engine Noise
Noise is best defined for gas turbine engine purposes as “unwanted sound” because it can be
both irritating and harmful. The sound level of the average business jet or airliner during
takeoff, as heard by persons on the airport near the end of the runway, would probably be in
the range of 90 to 100 decibels. This noise level would be similar to a subway train noise as
heard from the boarding platform. Right at the aircraft the noise level could be as high as 160
decibels and painful to the ears.
Even the lower level of noise (90 to 100 effective perceived noise decibels) is felt by many
people to be excessive and harmful. The industry has reacted to this by continually improving
noise reduction techniques on every new generation of engine and aircraft to satisfy the
public’s need for more effective noise abatement.
Effective perceived noise decibels (Epndb) is a standard measure of the loudness (sound
pressure) combined with the frequency and duration of sound and is used specifically for
aircraft noises in the atmosphere. Epndb can also be an estimated value where atmospheric
absorption prevents completely accurate measurement, such as an aircraft flying overhead
where wind, temperature, moisture, etc., could interfere with accuracy.
Noise absorbing materials convert acoustic energy (air pressure) into heat energy. However,
one can still find what looks like the old style noise suppressor being fitted to some newer
engines to meet the new noise standards.

AA Form TO-18
Noise generated as the exhaust gases leave the engine is at a low frequency level, such as
from a ship’s fog horn, and in the same way carries for long distances. It is this low frequency
noise that tends to be most bothersome to people who live close to airports.
The noise generated by a turbofan engine is much less than that generated by a turbojet.
This is principally because the turbofan will generally employ more turbine wheels to drive the
compressor and the fan. This, in turn, causes the hot exhaust velocity and noise level to be
lessened. The figure shows an old style hot stream noise suppressor, called an “increased
perimeter” or “multi- lobed” design.
Most fully ducted turbofan engines are designed with what is termed exhaust mixing to blend
the fan and hot airstreams more effectively and lessen the sound emission coming from a
common exhaust duct. On these engines the sound from the inlet is likely to be louder than
from the tailpipe.
Types of noise suppression units used on older gas turbine engines are:
 Multiple tube nozzle
 Lobe type nozzle
 Corrugated nozzle
All these designs mix cooler ambient air into the hot gas stream.
These devices all operate under the principle of increasing the mixing rate of the exhaust
gases with the atmosphere thus reducing the larger ‘eddies’ within the exhaust stream. This
has the effect of dampening low frequency sound. This is accomplished by increasing the
contact area of the atmosphere with the exhaust gas stream through lobes and corrugated
nozzles.
Because of the characteristic of low frequency noise to linger at relatively high volume, noise
reduction is achieved by raising the frequency. Frequency change is accomplished by
increasing the perimeter of the exhaust stream, which provides more cold and hot air mixing

AA Form TO-18
space. This reduces the tendency of hot and cold air molecules to shear against each other
and also to break up the large turbulence in the jet wake which produces the low frequency
(loud) noise.
In other words, reducing large eddy turbulence to fine grain turbulence changes the
frequency of noise to a higher frequency, which is more readily absorbed by the atmosphere.
The noise is then lessened for any given distance from the noise source and the effective
perceived noise reading on a decibel meter will be lower.
Frequency change is accomplished by increasing the cold and hot air mixing space. This
increases the perimeter of the exhaust stream.
Multi-lobe and Multi-tube nozzles reduce large eddy turbulence to fine grain turbulence.
Noise suppression units are not generally required on new business jets or airliners today,
but regulations around the world requires their use on many older commercial jet aircraft.
Newer aircraft have inlets and tailpipes lined with noise attenuating materials to keep sound
emission within the established effective perceived noise decibel limits. These noise
absorbing materials convert acoustic energy (air pressure) into heat energy. However, one
can still find what looks like the old style noise suppressor being fitted to some newer engines
to meet the new noise standards.
Noise suppression units (hushkits) are not generally required on new aircraft today.
Worldwide regulations require their use on many older commercial jet aircraft. Hushkits
include a multi-lobe exhaust mixer to induce fan bypass air into the hot stream. Or ejectors
combine the old style multi- lobed and multi-tubed designs.

AA Form TO-18
Newer aircraft have inlets and tailpipes lined with noise attenuating materials. These keep
sound emission within the established effective perceived noise decibel (Epndb) limits.
Noise attenuating linings are fitted to engine inlet, fan and exhaust ducts.
Thrust Reversers
Airliners powered by turbojets and turbofans, most commuter aircraft, and an increasing
number of business jets are equipped with thrust reversers to aid in braking and directional
control during normal landing, and reduce brake maintenance. To provide braking and
directional control during emergency landings and balked takeoffs and to back an aircraft out
of a parking spot in a “power back” operation.
While some thrust reversers are electrically powered, most large transport-category aircraft
use hydraulically actuated reversers powered by main system hydraulic power, or by
pneumatic actuators powered by engine bleed air. Thrust reversers are controlled by a
cockpit lever at the command of the pilot. In a typical system, the power levers are retarded
to ground idle, then reverse thrust is selected. The pilot then advances the power levers to
takeoff power as required to slow the aircraft.
Thrust reversers redirect the flow of cold and/or hot exhaust to provide thrust in the opposite
direction.
Thrust reversers provide approximately 20 percent of the breaking force under normal
conditions (wheel brakes provide the other 80%). Reversers must be capable of producing 50
percent of rated thrust in the reverse direction. However, exhaust gas exits a typical reverser
at an angle to the engine’s thrust axis. Because of this, maximum reverse thrust capability is
always less than forward thrust capability. Operating in reverse at low ground speeds can

AA Form TO-18
cause re-ingestion of hot gases and compressor stalls. It can also cause ingestion of fine
sand and other runway debris. The most frequently encountered thrust reversers can be
divided into two categories, the mechanical-blockage type and the aerodynamic-blockage
type. They can again be divided into two groups:
 Hot stream
 Cold stream
Most aircraft use a combination of mechanical and aerodynamic blockage reversers.
Thrust reversers can be further divided into two types:
 Pre-exit – Reverser is located before the exhaust nozzle
 Post-exit – Reverser is located after the exhaust nozzle
Some aircraft use a combination of these for cold and hot stream reversers.
Mechanical blockage is accomplished by placing a movable obstruction in the exhaust gas

stream either before or after the exhaust exits the duct. The engine exhaust gases are
mechanically blocked and diverted to a forward direction by an inverted cone, half-sphere, or
other device. The mechanical blockage system is also known as the “clamshell” thrust
reverser because of its shape. On the selection of reverse thrust, the doors rotate to uncover
the ducts and close the normal gas stream exit. Cascade vanes then direct the gas stream in
a forward direction so that the jet thrust opposes the aircraft motion. May be either pre-exit or
post-exit. Normally pneumatically operated.

AA Form TO-18
Another system similar to thrust reverse is a thrust spoiler. It looks like a clamshell hot stream
reverser, but the blocker panels direct the gases out radially rather than turning them forward.
The spoiler system is used where reversal of the hot jet nozzle gas interferes with the
aerodynamics of the fan section or causes hot gas re-ingestion into the flight inlet.
Thrust spoiler type places a movable obstruction in the hot gas stream. It is a post-exit type
that directs the exhaust radially instead of forward. Similar to “bucket” thrust reversers. They
are used where a conventional reverser is not practical or where re-ingestion is a problem.
Pneumatically operated.
Cold stream mechanical-blockage type places a movable obstruction in the pre-exit fan air
stream. The blocker doors open to redirect the fan airflow forward. As they open they
mechanically block the normal gas stream exit. Hydraulically operated.
The aerodynamic-blockage type of thrust reverser uses thin airfoils or obstructions placed in
the gas stream, which in turn causes a rearward thrust. Some aircraft may use a combination
of the aerodynamic-blockage and the mechanical-blockage type reversers. Mixed exhaust
turbofans are configured with one reverser, while unmixed or bypass exhaust turbo-fans
often have both cold stream and hot stream reversers. Some high bypass turbofans will have
only cold stream reversing because most of the thrust is present in the fan discharge and a
hot stream reverser would be of minimum value and become a weight penalty.
Thin airfoils or obstructions placed in the gas stream are referred to as “cascades” and turn
the escaping exhaust gases to a forward direction. Normally used in combination with
mechanical-blockage type reversers.

AA Form TO-18
Hot Stream Thrust Reverse
Hot stream mechanical clamshell doors with cascade vanes are placed before the exhaust
exits the duct. (pre-exit) The “clamshell” doors rotate to uncover the cascade vanes and
mechanically block the normal gas stream exit. Cascade vanes then direct the gas stream in
a forward direction. The same principle is used for hot stream and cold stream reversers. Hot
stream reversers tend to be pneumatically powered.
Cold Stream Thrust Reverse
Cold stream mechanical blocker doors with cascade vanes of the pre-exit type are used on
high bypass engine thrust reverser system.
As the thrust reverser sleeve moves rearwards, blocker doors close and the cascade vanes
are exposed. The blocker doors mechanically block the normal air stream exit. Cascade
vanes then direct the air stream in a forward direction. Pneumatically driven ballscrew
actuators. The normal method of operation of this system is to apply reverse as soon as the
aircraft is firmly on the runway and then to apply as much reverse power as is needed for
existing conditions of wetness, ice, etc. Then as the aircraft slows to approximately 80 knots,
power is reduced back to reverse-idle and then to forward thrust as soon as practical.
Operating in reverse at low ground speeds can cause re-ingestion of hot gases and
compressor stalls. It can also cause ingestion of fine sand and other runway debris that can
abrade gas path components and even find its way through main bearing air-oil seals into oil
sumps. The normal operating procedure for thrust reverse is to select reverse after
touchdown at ground idle speed and re-apply power to approximately 75% N2 speed (100%
in emergencies.

AA Form TO-18
For ground test high power application of reverse is not recommended. High bypass fan
engines are normally limited to 70% N1.
Re-ingestion of hot gasses can occur in reverse thrust if high power thrust reverse is
deployed during a ground running or at low forward speeds. Re-ingestion of hot gases can
cause FOD , even compressor stall or surge.
While some thrust reversers are electrically powered, most large transport-category aircraft
use hydraulically actuated reversers powered by main system hydraulic power, or by
pneumatic actuators powered by engine bleed air. Thrust reversers are controlled by a
cockpit lever at the command of the pilot. In a typical system, the power levers are retarded
to ground idle, then reverse thrust is selected. The pilot then advances the power levers to
takeoff power as required to slow the aircraft. The power levers are then retarded to ground
idle and thrust reverse is deselected. The thrust reverser lever commonly acts as throttle in
reverse thrust except for FADEC airbus aircraft.
Cockpit indicators show thrust reverser status – unlocked and deployed. Safety devices
prevent deployment while the aircraft is in flight. Warning lights and tones alert the crew to an
unlocked thrust reverser in flight.

AA Form TO-18

AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 15.8: BEARINGS, SEALS AND ACCESSORY GEARBOXES

The combination of compressor and turbine rotors on a common shaft make up the main
engine power, or rotor shaft, which must be adequately supported. Engine main bearings are
assigned that critical function of support and are located along the length of the rotor shaft.
The number of bearings necessary is determined, in part, by the length and weight of the
rotor shaft. For example, since a split-spool axial compressor typically has a greater number
of rotating components it requires more main bearings than a centrifugal compressor. The
main bearings of a gas turbine engine are either ball or roller anti-friction types. Ball bearings
ride in grooved inner race and support the main engine rotor for both axial (thrust) and radial
(centrifugal) loads. The roller bearings ride on a flat inner race. Because of their greater
surface contact area than the ball bearings, they are positioned to absorb the bulk of the
radial loading and to allow for axial growth of the engine during operation. For this reason,
tapered roller bearings are seldom used. Ball bearings support both the radial and thrust
loads. Roller bearings support the bulk of the radial loads and allow for engine thermal
growth.
Plain bearings are not used as main bearings in turbine engines, as they are in reciprocating
engines, because turbines operate at much higher speeds and friction heat buildup would be
prohibitive. Plain bearings (bushings), however, are used in some minor load locations such
as in accessories. The primary loads acting on main bearings are from the following sources:
 Weight of the rotating mass (compressor and turbine) magnified many thousands of
times by radial G forces.
 Axial forces from power changes and thrust loading.
 Gyroscopic effect of heavy rotating masses trying to remain in place as the aircraft
changes direction.
 Compression and tension loads between the stationary casings and the rotor system
caused by thermal expansion.
 Vibrations induced by the airstream, the airframe and the engine itself.
B1-15.8: Bearings, Seals and Accessory Gearboxes

AA Form TO-18
The main bearings support the rotor assemblies and then transfer the various loads through
the bearing housings and support struts to the outer cases of the engine, and ultimately into
the aircraft mountings.
The number of main bearings varies from one engine model to another. One manufacturer
might prefer to install three heavy bearings and another five or six lighter bearings to
accommodate the same load factors. The bearings are made up of an inner and outer race,
with the cage holding the rollers or balls. This cage keeps the roller or balls aligned between
the two races, which support the turning shaft. Straight roller bearings can accept only radial
loads and will not support the shaft under thrust (axial loads). The thrust load is carried by the
ball bearing, which can carry radial and thrust loads.
Each engine configuration differs, but a common method is using one ball bearing and one or
more roller bearings per spool shaft. Remember that a spool consists of a turbine wheel,
shaft, and compressor. In order to support the spool, a series of bearings are generally
needed. A minimum of one ball bearing is required in each assembly that generates or is
subjected to a thrust load. Roller bearings offer a larger bearing contact surface than ball
bearings and are the preferred bearing where thrust loads are not present. The use of one
ball bearing to handle the thrust load and roller bearings as additional supports where
needed is the most common design. This configuration of bearings allows the engine
flexibility when it expands and contracts due to temperature changes while operating.
Disadvantages of both ball and roller bearings include their vulnerability to damage caused
by foreign matter and tendency to fail without appreciable warning. Therefore, proper
lubrication and sealing against entry of foreign matter is essential. Commonly used types of
oil seals are labyrinth, helical thread, and carbon.
Main engine bearings are housed in a bearing support or housing. The support forms a
chamber which separates the bearing from the engine core cavity. Bearing seals keep the
lubricating oil and oil mist from entering the engine core. Oil leakage into the core cavity will
enter the airflow and gas stream.

AA Form TO-18
Labyrinth seals are commonly used for main bearing chamber sealing. They have no
contacting parts. They prevent oil leakage out by controlling opposing air leakage into the
chamber. Air flows from the outside to the inside of the chamber. Compressor bleed air
pressure is greater than bearing chamber vent pressure. Air cooling of the engine bearing
chambers is not normally necessary since the lubrication system is adequate for cooling
purposes. Additionally, bearing chambers are located, where possible, in the cooler regions
of the engine. In instances where additional cooling is required, it is good practice to have a
double skinned bearing housing with cooling air fed into the intermediate space.
This type of seal is widely used to retain oil in bearing chambers and as a metering device to
control internal airflows. There are several variations of labyrinth seal design.
A labyrinth seal used as an air seal comprises a finned rotating member with a static bore
which is lined with a soft abradable material, or a high temperature honeycomb structure. On
initial running of the engine the fins lightly rub against the lining, cutting into it to give a
minimum clearance.
The clearance varies throughout the flight cycle, dependent upon the thermal growth of the
parts and the natural flexing of the rotating members. Across each seal fin there is a pressure
drop which results in a restricted flow of sealing air from one side of the seal to the other.
Labyrinth Bearing Seal.
When this seal is used for bearing chamber sealing, it prevents oil leakage by allowing the air
to flow from the outside to the inside of the chamber. This flow also induces a positive
pressure which assists the oil return system.
Seals between two rotating shafts are more likely to be subject to rubs between the fins and
abradable material due to the two shafts deflecting simultaneously. This will create excessive
heat which may result in shaft failure. To prevent this, a non-heat producing seal is used
where the abradable lining is replaced by a rotating annulus of oil. When the shafts deflect,
the fins enter the oil and maintain the seal without generating heat. Labyrinth air/oil seals
have greater fin clearance than air seals. This prevents heat build-up due to seal rub caused
by shaft flexing. A non-heat producing seal is used where the abradable lining is replaced by
a rotating annulus of oil. When the shafts deflect, the fins enter the oil and maintain the seal
without generating heat.

AA Form TO-18
The fins on thread type labyrinth seals form a helical path similar to a screw thread. As the
seal rotates it ‘threads’ the oil back into the bearing chamber. As with labyrinth seals, fins
allow for a metered amount of compressor air to flow into the bearing chamber. Pressure
within the bearing chamber is maintained slightly above atmospheric.
Hydraulic seals
This method of sealing is often used between two rotating members to seal a bearing
chamber. Unlike the labyrinth or ring seal, it does not allow a controlled flow of air to traverse
across the seal. Hydraulic seals are formed by a seal fin immersed in an annulus of oil which
has been created by centrifugal forces. Any difference in air pressure inside and outside of
the bearing chamber is compensated by a difference in oil level either side of the fin.

AA Form TO-18
Ring seals
A ring seal comprises a metal ring which is housed in a close fitting groove in the static
housing. The normal running clearance between the ring and rotating shaft is smaller than
that which can be obtained with the labyrinth seal. This is because the ring is allowed to
move in its housing whenever the shaft comes into contact with it.
Ring seals are used for bearing chamber sealing, except in the hot areas where oil
degradation due to heat would lead to ring seizure within its housing.
Carbon seals
Carbon seals consist of a static ring of carbon which constantly rubs against a collar on a
rotating shaft. Several springs are used to maintain contact between the carbon and the
collar. This type of seal relies upon a high degree of contact and does not allow oil or air
leakage across it. The heat caused by friction is dissipated by the oil system.
Carbon seals are brittle and need to be handled carefully. Special care should be taken not to
damage the polished sealing surfaces.
Carbon ring seals consist of a static ring of moulded carbon which is spring-loaded to
maintain contact with a race.
The seal race is mounted on the rotating shaft.

AA Form TO-18


B1 15aGasTurbineTheorySR

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

B1 15aGasTurbineTheorySR

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Student Resource

Copyright © 2008 Aviation Australia

Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 1 of 6

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 2 of 6

Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 3 of 6

Aircraft Powerplants Fifth Edition R.Bent, and J.McKinley (1985).

Aviation Maintenance Technician Series – POWERPLANT D.Crane (1996).

Aircraft Powerplants Seventh Edition M.Kroes. and T.Wild (1995).

The Jet Engine. Rolls Royce plc (1996).

Aircraft Gas Turbine Technology Third Edition. I.Treager (1996).

B1-15a Student Handout

Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 4 of 6

On completion of the following topics you will be able to:

Topic 15.1 Fundamentals

Topic 15.2 Engine Performance

Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 5 of 6

Topic 15.3 Inlet.

Topic 15.4 Compressors

Topic 15.5 Combustion Section

Topic 15.6 Turbine Section.

Topic 15.7 Exhaust

Topic 15.8 Bearings and Seals

Issue B: January 2008 Revision 2 Page 6 of 6

TOPIC 15.1 – FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

The History of Jet Propulsion

Four Types Of Jet Engines;

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

The Rocket Engine

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

The Gas Turbine

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

Expressed simply, power is the rate at which work is performed.

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law

Newton’s Second Law

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

Compression & Expansion Processes

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

Gas Turbine Basic Construction

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

The Brayton Cycle

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles

B1-15.1: Fundamental Principles