A SN T

L evel III
Study Guide
M agnetic P article
Testing M ethod
Published by The A m erican Society for
N ondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 A rlingate Lane
C olum bus, OH 43228-0518
(8(H)) 222-2768

C opyright © 2001 by T he A m erican Society for N ondestructive Testing, Inc. A SN T is n o t responsible for the
authenticity o r accuracy o f inform ation herein. Published opinions and statem ents do not necessarily reflect the opinion
of ASNT. Products o r services that are advertised or m entioned do not carry the endorsem ent o r recom m endation o f
ASNT.

IRRSP. M aterials E valuation. N D T H andbook. The N O T Technician and w w w.asnt.org are tradem arks o f T he A m erican
Society for N ondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT. L evel III Study G uide, N ondestructive Testing H andbook.
Research in N ondestructive E valuation and R N D E and are registered tradem arks o f The A m erican Society for
N ondestructive Testing. Inc.

A SN T exists to create a safer w orld by prom oting the profession and technologies o f nondestructive testing.

ISB N -13: 978-1-57117-070-5

IS B N -10:1-57117-070-7

Printed in the U nited States o f A m erica

L ib r a r y o f C o n g ress C a ta lo g in g -in -P u b lic a tio n D ata

Fenton, John D., 1927-

A SN T level III study guide m agnetic particle testing m ethod / by
John D. F e n to n .- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 1-57117-070-7
I . M agnetic testing. I. Title.
TA417.3 .F46 2001
620.1' 1278—dc21
2001002594

first printing 2001

second printing with revision 01/06
 Foreword

T he A m erican Society for N ondestructive Testing. Inc. (A SN T) has prepared a series of

Level III study guides w hich are intended to present the m ajor areas in each nondestructive
testing m ethod. They can be used to prepare for taking A SN T N D T L evel III tests or an
e m p lo y er's in-house Level III tests. T he Level III candidate should use this study guide as a
preparation tool even though it docs not contain all o f the inform ation an A SN T NDT
Level 111 is expected to know.
In using this study guide, specific references are cited, including page num bers, w here
detailed inform ation can he obtained. The references used in this study guide are listed under
R eferences. Typical Level III questions at the end o f each section serve as a benchm ark for
determ ining the candidate's com prehension o f the m aterial.
A typical use o f this study guide m ight include:

1. Review the questions at the end o f each section to assess your com prehension of the
m agnetic particle m ethod.
2. If the questions in a certain section arc found to be difficult, you should carefully study
the inform ation presented in that section as w,ell as the cited reference m aterial. This
review o f the inform ation in the study guide will refresh your m em ory o f theory and
facts long forgotten.
 Preface
T his study guide presents the m agnetic particle testing m ethod in a logical flow starting
with electricity and m agnetism , and ending w ith indications and interpretations. Supporting
discussions include safety, probability o f detection, how to prepare a m agnetic particle test
procedure, electric currents and the m agnetic fields they produce, how to produce the various
fields in com m on shapes, how to determ ine the strength and direction o f these fields.
The current trend in m agnetic particle testing is to em ploy devices such as Hall effect
gauss m eters, shim s or sim ilar devices w hen establishing m agnetic particle techniques.
Form ulae can be utilized initially for estim ating, then supplem ented w ith a m ore quantitative
m ethod o f determ ining field strength and direction.
 References

The references used to develop this study guide are:

1. Reference A
Betz, C.F... Principles o f M agnetic P article Testing. M agnuflux Corp.. C hicago, Illinois.
1497.

2. Reference B
Schm idt. J. T hom as, and Kerm it Skeie. technical editors. Paul M clntire, editor.
N ondestructive Testing H andbook, second edition. Volume 6. M agnetic P article Testing.
T he A m erican Society tor N ondestructive Testing. Inc.. C olum bus. O hio. 1989.

3. Reference C
A STM E 1444 Standard P ractice f o r M agnetic P article E xam ination. ASTM Book o f
Standards. Vol. 03.03, A STM . West C onshohocken. Pennsylvania. C urrent Edition.

4. R eferen ce D
A STM E 1316 Term inology f o r N ondestructive E xam ination. A S T M Hook o f Standards.
Vol. 03.03, A STM . West C onshohocken. Pennsylvania. C urrent Edition.

5. R efe ren ce E
A STM E 709 Standard G uide fo r M agnetic P article E xam ination. A STM . West
C onshohocken. Pennsylvania. C urrent Edition.

v
 Table of Contents

F o rw a rd ......................................................................................................................................................iii
P re fa c e ........................................................................................................................................................ iv

R e f e r e n c e s ...................................................................................................................................................v
T a b le o f C o n t e n t s ................................................................................................................................vii
C h a p t e r I - I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................................................................. 1
History ..................................................................................................................................................... I
Typical M agnetic Particle Testing Process ..........................................................................1
M agnetic Particle Testing Fundam entals ............................................................................ I
C h a p t e r 2 - M a t e r i a l s a n d th e T h e o r y o f M a g n e ti s m ..................................................... 3
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 3
M aterial C haracteristics ............................................................................................................ 3
D iam agnetic M aterials ...............................................................................................................3
Param agnetic M aterials ............................................................ 3
Ferrom agnetic M aterials ..........................................................................................................3
M agnetic Field C haracteristics ....................................................................................................... 4
E lectric C urrents and M agnetic Fields in C o n d u c to r s ..................................................... 4
M agnetic H ysteresis C urve - Induction by Coil ...................................................................... 5
M agnetic Field - Induction o f Ferrom agnetic M aterials (H ysteresis C urve) .......... 6
Perm eability ................................................................................................................................ 6
M agnetic Flux and Flux D e n s i t y .....................................................................................................7
M agnetization o f F errom agnetic M aterial ................................................................................... 8
Direct M agnetization ................................................................................................................. 8
Indirect M agnetization ............................................................................................................... 8
Perm anent M agnets ..........................................................................................................8
C entral C onductors ............................................................................................................ 8
C oils and Solenoids ..........................................................................................................9
Review Q u e s t io n s ...............................................................................................................................10
C h a p t e r 3 - C u r r e n t s U s e d in th e M a g n e ti c P a r tic le
T e s tin g I n s p e c tio n P r o c e s s ................................................................................................................13
M agnetizing C u r r e n t .......................................................................... 13
A lternating C urrent .................................................................................................................. 13
Direct C urrent ................................................................................................................ 13
H alf W ave R ectified C urrent ................................................................................................ 13
Full W ave R ectified C urrent (Single Phase) .....................................................................13
T hree Phase Full W ave R ectified C urrent ....................................................................... 13
M agnetization ....................................................................................................................................13
U sing Perm anent M agnets to Induce M agnetic Fields .................................................14
U sing Electric C urrents to Induce M agnetic Fields ......................................................14
A lternating C urrent ...........................................................................................................15
D irect C u r r e n t .....................................................................................................................15
H alf W ave D irect C urrent .............................................................................................. 15
Full W ave R ectified Single or T hree Phase ...........................................................15
Review Q uestions .............................................................................................................................. 16
C h a p t e r 4 - F ie ld S t r e n g t h a n d D i s t r i b u t i o n ...................................................................... 17
M agnetization ....................................................................................................................................17
C ircular M agnetization ...........................................................................................................17
Longitudinal M agnetization ................................................................................................... 17
L ow Fill-Factor C oils ......................................................................................................18
C able W rap or High F ill-Factor Coils ........................................................................18
Interm ediate F ill-Factor C oils .......................................................................................19
C alculating the L cngth-to-D iam eter Ratio for a Hollow
o r C ylindrical Part ...........................................................................................................19
P erm anent M agnets ..................................................................................... 20
A lternating C urrent ..................................................................................................................20
Direct C urrent ............................................................................................................................20
Solid and H ollow C ylinders ...................................................................................................20
N onm agnetic M aterial .............................................................................................................21
Central C onductor C arrying D irect C urrent .................................................................... 21
Field D istribution for A lternating C urrent C onductors ................................................ 22
O ther Sym m etrical S h a p e s ..................................................................................................... 23
Rings ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Disks ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 28
C h a p t e r 5 - M a g n e ti c F ie ld D ir e c tio n a n d I n t e n s i t y ..................................................... 31
D irection and Intensity .................................................................................................................... 31
External M agnetic Field M easurem ent ...................................................................................... 31
Field Indicators ......................................................................................................................... 31
Pie G ages ................................................................................................................................... 31
Shim s ...........................................................................................................................................32
Hall Effect M eter (G auss M eter) ........................................................................................ 32
O ther D evices ............................................................................................................................33
Review Q uestions .............................................................................................................................. 34
C h a p t e r 6 - M a g n e ti c P a r t i c l e T e s tin g E q u i p m e n t ........................................................ 3 5
introduction .................................................................................. .35
Portable Equipm ent ..................................................................................................................35
Perm anent M agnet Yokes ..................................................................................................... 35
E lectrom agnetic Yokes .......................................................................................................... 35
Prods ............................................................................................................................................. 35
C oils ............................................................................................................................................. 36
O ther D evices ............................................................................................................................36
Portable P ow er Supplies ............................................................................................. 36
M obile Pow er Supplies ...................................................................................................36
A ncillary Equipm ent ........................................................................................................36
H eavy Duly E quipm ent ..................................................................................................................36
Pow er Supplies ......................................................................................................................... 37
Bench Equipm ent .................................................................................................................... 37
M ultidirectional U nits ..................................................................................................... 37
A utom atic U nits .......................................................................................................................37
Special Purpose U nits .............................................................................................................38
Light .....................................................................................................................................................38
U ltraviolet Light .......................................................................................................................39
Visible Light .............................................................................................................................. 39
A m bient Light ............................................................................................................................39
E xtraneous Light ...................................................................................................................... 40
Review Q u e s t io n s ...............................................................................................................41
C h a p t e r 7 - M a g n e ti c P a r t i c l e T e s tin g M a t e r i a l s ............................................................. 4 3
Inspection M aterials ................................................................. 43
M agnetic P articles ....................................................................................................................43
Dry P articles ..............................................................................................................................43
W et P articles ............................................... 43
Pastes .......................................................................................................................................... 43
C oncentrates ..............................................................................................................................43
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f M agnetic Particles ................................................................. 43
Size ............................................................................................................................................... 43
Shape .......................................................................................................................................... 44
D ensity ........................................................................................................................................44
C ontrast and V isibility ............................................................................................................ 44
M agnetic Perm eability and R etentivity ............................................................................44
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f Petroleum Suspensions ....................................................... 45
Viscosity ..................................................................................................................................... 45
FI am inability ..............................................................................................................................45
O dor .............................................................................................................................................45
C olor .............................................................................................................................................45
Fluorescence ..............................................................................................................................45
R eactive C onstituents ............................................................................................................ 45
C ontam ination ........................................................................................................................... 45
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f W ater S u s p e n s io n s ..................................................................45
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f R ubber S uspensions ............................................................ 46
Review Q uestions ...................................................................................................................... 47
C h a p t e r 8 - M a g n e ti c P a r t i c l e T e s tin g P r a c t i c e s ............................................................. 4 9
M agnetic Particle Test F undam entals ........................................................................................ 49
Dry Particles ..............................................................................................................................49
Wet S uspension .........................................................................................................................49
M agnetic R ubber ...................................................................................................................... 50
Residual M agnetization ..........................................................................................................50
C ontinuous M agnetization .....................................................................................................50
C hoice o f M agnetic Field D irection ................................................................................... 50
C ircular M agnetization ..........................................................................................................51
Longitudinal M agnetization .................................................................................................. 51
C om bination and Variable M agnetic Field A pplications ..............................................51
L evels o f F lux D ensity ..........................................................................................................52
Choice o f E quipm ent and A pplication ......................................................................................52
Perm anent M agnets ...................................................................... 52
Yokes and Coils ......................................................................................................................... 53
Portable P ow er Supplies ....................................................................................................... 53
M obile P ow er Supplies ..........................................................................................................53
Stationary Equipm ent .............................................................................................................53
D em agnetization ...................................................................................................................... 53
R easons for D em agnetizing .................................................................................................. 54
M ethods o f D em agnetization ................................................................................................54
C ontrolling and M easuring D em agnetization ..................................................................54
Effects o f Test O bject Variables .................................................................................................. 54
G eom etric C onsiderations .....................................................................................................54
Surface T reatm ent ....................................................................................................................55
S urface C ondition and C le a n lin e s s ......................................................................................55
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 56
C h a p t e r 9 - I n d ic a tio n s a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ......................................................................61
O verview ............................................................................................................................................. 61
G eom etric and Section C hanges ........................................................................................ 61
Im proper Surface Preparation ............................................................................................. 61
E xcessive M agnetization ....................................................................................................... 61
M agnetic W r i t i n g ...................................................................................................................... 61
Perm eability V ariations ..........................................................................................................61
R esidual and External Fields ................................................................................................ 61
M etallurgical C hanges .............................................................................................................62
D iscontinuities ................................................................................................................................... 62
Surface D iscontinuities .......................................................................................................... 62
S ubsurface D is c o n tin u itie s ..................................................................................................... 62
E ffects o f D iscontinuities on S erviceability .................................................................... 62
D eterm ination o f D iscontinuity D epth ...............................................................................63
M etallurgical E x a m in a tio n ..................................................................................................... 63
Recording Indications .............................................................................................................63
Interpretation and Evaluation o f Test Indications ............................................................ 63
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 64
C h a p t e r 10 - P r o b a b ilit y o f D e te c tio n .................................................................................6 7
D etectability Versus Probability o f D etection ......................................................................... 67
Probability o f D etection ..................................................................................................................67
Reliability ................................................................................................................................... 67
H um an Factors that A ffect Reliability .............................................................................. 67
Reproducibility ......................................................................................................................... 67
C h a p t e r I I - P r o c e s s a n d E q u i p m e n t C o n t r o l s ................................................................ 6 9
C ontrol and Verification o f Equipm ent Functions ..................................................................69
E lectrical System and C ontrols ........................................................................................... 69
M axim um U nit O utput .................................................................................................. 69
Short Test ............................................................................................................................69
A m m eter Check ............................................................................................................... 69
Q uick Break Test .............................................................................................................69
Shot Tim er C heck .............................................................................................................70
System Perform ance C heck .................................................................................. . .70
O ther M achine C hecks ...................................................................................................70
Suspension Control Test ..................................................................................................................70
Particle C oncentration C h e c k ....................................................................................... .70
Particle C ondition C heck ........................................................................................................70
Particle C ontam ination C heck ..............................................................................................70
Vehicle (C arrier) C ontam ination C heck ............................................................................71
Particle Brightness C heck ......................................................................................... 71
M agnetic Panicle C heck ....................................................................................................... 71
W ater Break Check ..................................................................................................................71
V iscosity C heck .........................................................................................................................71
Light Intensity and Integrity .......................................................................................................... 71
M easurem ent o f U ltraviolet Light ......................................................................................71
M easurem ent o f Visible Light ..............................................................................................71
M easurem ent o f A m bient Light ........................................................................................... 71
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 72
C h a p t e r 12 - S p e c if ic a tio n s , P r o c e d u r e s , T e c h n iq u e s a n d S t a n d a r d s ................. 73
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 73
S pecifications ........................................................................................................................... 73
A cceptance C riteria ....................................................................................................... 73
Procedures .........................................................................................................................74
Sam ple M agnetic Particle Testing P rocedure .......................................................... 74
Techniques ................................................................................................................................ 74
O ther Types o f C ontrolling D o c u m e n ts ......................................................................................75
Review Q u e s t io n s ..............................................................................................................................76
C h a p t e r 13 - S a f e t y .............................................................................................................................79
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................79
Personnel ......................................................................................................79
Parts .............................................................................................................................................79
E q u ip m e n t .................................................................................................................................................... 7 9
A p p e n d ix 1 - T e s t P r o c e d u r e E x a m p le ............................................................................... 81
A p p e n d ix 2 - M a g n e tiz a tio n C h a r t ........................................................................................85
Appendix 3 - M aterials P ro p e rtie s .........................................................................87
A p p e n d ix 4 - G lo s s a r y ................................................................................................................... 89
A n s w e r s to R e v ie w Q u e s t i o n s .......................................................................................................95
 Chapter 1
Introduction
History
Around 2000 BC. plentiful deposits of a mineral
called m agnetite (Fe30 4), a type o f hard ferrite, w ere
found in the district o f M agnesia in A sia Minor. These
stones were unique because they naturally attracted iron.
The first perm anent m agnets w ere m ade by rubbing a
sliver o f iron against m agnetite.
M agnetite was the only know n source o f m agnetism
until the nineteenth century. In the 1400s, m agnetite was
used in the com passes o f early navigators. In 1600,
W illiam G ilbert published D eM agnete, the first scientific
study on m agnetism though the law s o f electricity and
magnetism were not form ulated until the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.
In 1819, Hans C hristian O ersted observed that an
electric current in a w ire affected a m agnetic com pass
needle, thus establishing the link betw een electricity and
magnetism . Later, contributions by Faraday, M axw ell,
Hertz and others resulted in the science o f m agnetism
being bom . T heir w ork dem onstrated that m agnetism
and electricity are so intim ately connected that no
intelligent study can be m ade o f one subject without
know ledge o f the other.
In 1900. D rude suggested that electrons w ere the
agents that conducted electricity. By this tim e
considerable theory and m athem atics w ere so ingrained
in the scientific com m unity that today equations and
theory show current flow ing in the opposite direction
than it actually flows.
M odem m agnetic particle testing equipm ent and
techniques w ere first developed in 1928 by A.V. deForest
and F.B. D oane. M agnetic fields and fine iron particles
have been used to form indications o f perm eability
changes in certain m agnetizable alloys for several years.
T he process has developed into a com m on
nondestructive testing m ethod for steel and other
ferrom agnetic m aterials.
Typical Magnetic Particle Testing
Process
The m agnetic particle testing process involves the
review o f specifications and procedures, selection o f
equipm ent, selection o f particles and solutions, selection
o f the proper technique, m agnetization o f parts.
1
application o f particles, and the location, interpretation
and evaluation o f indications.
In order for A SN T N DT Level Ills lo safely and
properly apply this process, they musl have a basic
understanding o f m agnetic fields and the reaction o f
m aterials lo these fields.
Magnetic Particle Testing Fundam entals
If a bar m agnet w ith a north and a south pole is
broken into two pieces, tw o com plete bar m agnets will
result, each having a north and south pole. This process
o f breaking can go on until there are any num ber o f
separate com plete m agnets.
If a m agnet is cracked, but not broken com pletely
into tw o pieces, a som ew hat sim ilar result occurs. A
north and south pole will form at opposite faces o f the
crack, just as if the break were com plete. The strength o f
the m agnetic field at these poles will be different from
that o f the fully broken pieces and the strength is related
to the physical dim ensions (depth, length and w idth) of
the crack, the material characteristics and the strength o f
the applied field.
T he fields in the air space in and above cracks or at
other physical or m agnetic discontinuities on the surface
o f a m agnetized part are called leakage field s. Figure 1.1
show s the leakage field flux lines leaving the material on
one side o f the crack, expanding in air and re-entering
the m aterial on the other side. The flux from the two
poles o f opposite polarity form a bridge over the crack.
M agnetic flux alw ays finds the path o f least resistance.
A ir at the crack has a high reluctance for the passage o f
m agnetic flux. However, w hen a sm all piece o f soft iron
is brought close to the leakage field, the m agnetic flux
2 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing

will attract it because it provides much less resistance to

Figure 1.2: Magnetic particles attracted by
the flow o f m agnetic flux than air, see Figure 1.2.
leakage field
Small particles o f soft iron with high m agnetic
perm eability and low retentivity are attracted to very
P article buildup at le a k a g e field
small leakage fields. As m ore and m ore particles arc
attracted, they pile up, providing a m etallic path o f low
m agnetic reluctance that bridges the crack. The bridge o f
particles can be visually detected and is called an
indication. An indication is not a defect unless it exceeds
the tolerances contained in a specification or standard.
The leakage field strength is controlled by the
m aterial's perm eability, the depth and w idth o f the
discontinuity and the relative strength o f the applied
m agnetic flux. T he size and shape o f the indication
approxim ates the relative size o f the discontinuity. A P article buildup at le a k a g e field

surface discontinuity is distinguishable from a

subsurface discontinuity because a surface crack form s a
narrow, sharp indication [Figure 1.2(a)], w hereas a
subsurface discontinuity such as a slag inclusion will
exhibit a broad, fuzzy indication | Figure 1.2(b)].
Sim ilarly, relatively thin coatings o f paint o r plating on
the surface can cause a surface crack to have the
appearance o f a subsurface indication [Figure 1.2(c)].
T hicker coatings could m ask a discontinuity leaving it
undetected. C oating thickness lim its for general P article buildup at
applications are defined in R eference C.

R eference A
R eference B
Reference C
 Chapter 2
Materials and the Theory of Magnetism
Introduction
All m atter is com posed o f atom s having positively
charged protons in the nuclei and negatively charged
electrons in continual m otion around the nuclei. It is this
motion that generates m icroscopic electric currents
within an atom. An electron m oving in orbit around a
nucleus is an electric current and generates a m agnetic
field exactly as does a current (electron) flow ing in a
conductor. The strength o f the electric current generated
by the orbiting electron is m easured by its m agnetic
m om ent. All electrons in m otion create a current with an
associated m agnetic field. T hese fields respond to the
presence o f an electric current flow ing through the
m aterial, or to an external m agnetic field, in different
ways based on the chem istry and physical condition o f
each m aterial.
Material C haracteristics
W hen m atter is placed w ithin the force field o f an
external m agnetic field, the m agnetic m om ents o f that
m aterial’s electrons m ay becom e reoriented. W hen this
occurs, the m aterial produces its ow n m acroscopic
m agnetic field. T his is know n as F araday's law o f
m agnetic induction. W hen under the influence o f the
external m agnetic field, the m aterial exhibits specific
m agnetic behavior (characteristics). The three m ost
com m only encountered are: diam agnetism ,
param agnetism and ferrom agnetism . For m agnetic
particle testing, ferrom agnetism is the m ost important.
Diam agnetic Materials
Any m aterial with a negative relative perm eability
that is slightly less than one is diam agnetic. W hen such
m aterials are placed in a strong m agnetic field their
induced m agnetism is in a direction opposite to that of
iron. T his very w eak form o f m agnetism is norm ally
m asked by other stronger influences and does not persist
after the applied field is rem oved. Som e exam ples o f
diam agnetic m aterials are m ercury, gold, bism uth and
zinc.
Param agnetic Materials
W hen the internal m agnetic field o f a m aterial is
aligned in the sam e direction as the applied external
field, and the m aterial has a sm all positive susceptibility
3
and a positive relative perm eability that is slightly more
than one, the m aterial is called param agnetic.
M agnetism does nol persist after the applied field is
rem oved. Param agnetism occurs in all atom s and
m olecules that have unpaired electrons (som e rare earth
and transition elem ents). It can also occur in other
substances, such as those m etals o f m agnetic m om ents
associated w ith the spins o f conducting electrons.
E xam ples o f param agnetic m aterials include alum inum ,
platinum , copper sulfate and wood.
Ferrom agnetic Materials
W hen the internal m agnetic field o f the m aterial is
aligned in the sam e direction as the applied external
field, and the m aterial has high positive susceptibility
and high positive perm eability that is m uch greater than
one, the m aterial is called ferrom agnetic. Ferrom agnetic
m aterials consist o f a large num ber o f sm all areas called
d o m a in s, m agnetized lo saturation and dispersed in a
random fashion so that the net m acroscopic
m agnetization is essentially 0. T here m ay be several
dom ains in a grain or they may extend over several
grains.
W hen an external field is applied to ferrom agnetic
m aterials, these m agnetic dom ains align parallel to the
applied fields. T he dom ains are approxim ately 10”’ to
I O'7 m. It is the interchange action betw een ions and the
superposition o f atom ic dom ains that are the cause o f the
vastly increased flux density. If the sam ple has been
prepared w ithout the influence o f any external m agnetic
field, the dom ains will be random ly aligned in discrete
steps w ith no net m agnetic field. In unm agnetized
ferrom agnetic m aterial, the m agnetic dom ains exhibit
random orientation. W hen an external m agnetic field is
applied, som e o f the dom ains are aligned with the field
and increase in size at the expense o f the others. As the
m agnetic field intensity is steadily increased additional
dom ains are aligned. A further increase aligns additional
dom ains. This step m agnetization o f ferrom agnetic
m aterial is know n as the B arkhausen effect or
B arkhausen steps. Eventually all o f the dom ains are
aligned w ith the applied field and the m aterial is said to
he saturated. Som e m agnetization persists after the
applied field is rem oved.
T he only elem ents that are strongly attracted to
m agnetic fields are iron, cobalt, nickel and gadolinium .
4 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
(Even though not an engineering m aterial, gadolinium is
added to m ost lists o f ferrom agnetic m aterials since it is
strongly ferrom agnetic at low er tem peratures.) T hese are
called ferrom agnetic elem ents. M any alloys and oxides
o f these elem ents arc also ferrom agnetic. T here are also
alloys o f copper, m anganese and alum inum that are
ferrom agnetic, as well as various ferrite ceram ics.
M aterials such as iron, w hich have relative perm eability
m uch greater than one. are called ferro m a g n etic
m aterials. A ppendix 3 lists m agnetic properties for a few
com m on m aterials.
M agnetic Field C haracteristics
W hen m agnetic dom ains rem ain aligned or extended
alter rem oval from the influence o f a m agnetic field, the
m aterial is said to be m agnetized. T his residual field is
called rem anence or residual m agnetic fie ld . T he ability
o f m aterials to retain m agnetism after the m agnetizing
force has been rem oved is called retentivity.
A lthough described as m agnetic lines, the m agnetic
field w ithin and surrounding m agnetized m aterials is
continuous. W hen a paper is placed over a m agnet and
fine iron particles are sprinkled on the paper, the iron
particles align with the m agnetic field in distinct lines o f
equipoteniial m agnetic intensity and appear to form
lines. T herefore, the m agnetic field is referred to as lines
or lines o f fo rc e. A lthough these term s seem to contradict
the definition o f a continuous field, they are used for
visualization and m athem atical purposes only. Figure 2.1
illustrates this effect for a bar m agnet. In a perm anent
m agnet m ore o f the m agnetic dom ains rem ain aligned
than are random ly oriented.
All m agnets have tw o poles, north and south. A
perm anent bar m agnet exhibits polarity: if freely
suspended, one end o f the bar will point toward the
earth 's m agnetic north pole. T his north-seeking end o f
the m agnet is called the south pole: the opposite end is
the north pole.
If a bar m agnet is U shaped (horseshoe), the polarity
rem ains but the m agnetic field and the lines o f force are
m ore concentrated in the gap betw een the ends o f the
bar. If the m agnetized bar is form ed into a closed or
fused loop, the m agnetic field is fully contained w ithin a
closed circuit in the m agnetic m aterial and no external
m agnetic field exists.
M agnetic lines o f force have die follow ing properties:
1. They form closed loops.
2. They do not cross one another.
3. T hey seek paths o f least m agnetic resistance.
4. T heir density decreases as distance from the poles
increases.
5. T hey are considered to have direction by
convention, from north to south external to the
magnet.
W hen tw o m agnets are m oved into close proxim ity a
reaction occurs. The m agnets repel one another if like
poles are closest to each oth er and unlike poles attract
one another, as show n in F igure 2.2.
R eference A
Reference B
Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields in
Conductors
M agnetic fields exist in an d around electrical
conductors in which electrical current is flow ing
(Figure 2.3). The French physicist A m pere form ulated
the fundam ental laws o f the m agnetic effects o f electric
currents. Itc theorized that electric current is a positive
charge and flow s from positive to negative in a
conductor.
M odern theory has show n the negatively charged
electron being responsible for electric current, not
A m pere's positive charge. W hen it was discovered in
1900 that the electron w as responsible for electric
current, no attem pt w as m ade to change tw o centuries of
theory and equations therefore. A m p ere's concept still
exists in m odem science.

The nuclei o f atom s in m etals hold their outerm ost
orbital electrons so loosely that these electrons drift from
negative to positive. The negatively charged electron,
moving in the negative to the positive direction through
the metal is exactly equivalent to a corresponding
positively charged ion. m oving in the positive to
negative direction. A current m oving through metal will
be ID19 tim es greater than a current through glass
(operating at room tem perature and under the same
conditions).
Dislodging o f the outer electrons leaves positive ions
in the metal, however, there is no flow of positive ions in
metals as there is in gases and liquids.
T h e d ire c tio n o f a m a g n e tic f ie ld s u r r o u n d in g a
straight current-carrying conductor is circular, encircling
and perpendicular to the conductor. M ore im portant is
the concept that the direction o f the m agnetic field has a
perpendicular relationship to the direction o f current
flow.
The m agnetic field surrounding a conductor exists as
long as electric current flows in the conductor, how ever,
for a ferrom agnetic m aterial the field will continue to
exist hut will be less intense w hen the current is
removed. T he intensity o f the m agnetic field is linear
along the length o f the conductor (if the m aterial is
uniform and hom ogeneous. F igure 2.3). is in direct
proportion to the current (am peres) and dim inishes
inversely w ith increasing distance front the conductor.
Figure 2.3: Current versus magnetic field
C ond uctor Di^ l of M ag n e tic Field
Direction of
C u rren t Flow
C hapter 2 - M aterials anti the T heory o f M agnetism / 5
W hen a straight conductor is form ed into a loop or
coil (Figure 2.5) and electric current flow s through it, the
direction o f the m agnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane o f the coil. Because lines o f force form closed
loops, the co il's m agnetic field outside the coil form s a
toroid.
Figure 2.5: Magnetic field in a coil
«/-*■ W-+. VUfc
C u rren t
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
M agnetic H ysteresis Loop -
Induction by Coil
In m agnetic particle testing technology, only
ferrom agnetic m aterials are o f interest. M ost o f the
m agnetic properties o f m aterials o f concern can be
d escribed by exam ining the m agnetic hysteresis loop or
curve.
In Figure 2.6, the flux density B that results from
variations in the m agnetizing force H is plotted. B is the
vertical axis and / / the horizontal axis. / / is the
m agnetom otive force per unit length o f a m agnetic path
having constant cross sectional area, w hich uses the
sam e m aterial throughout. For coils. H is m easured in
am pere turns p er centim eter. If the m agnetom otive force
is given in am peres, then / / is show n in am peres per
meter. B is norm ally show n in teslas.
M agnetic Field - Induction of
Ferrom agnetic Materials (Hysteresis
Curve)
S tarting with a ferrom agnetic m aterial that has not
been previously m agnetized, o r a m aterial that has been
fully dem agnetized (Figure 2.6). as the m agnetizing
force H is increased from 0 to point a. the flux density B
increases lo point a and along the curved dashed line. At
point a alm ost all o f the m agnetic dom ains are aligned
w ith the field. A further increase in the m agnetizing
force produces very little change in B. th e m aterial is
6 /A S N T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing

said to be m agnetically saturated or saturated. As the T he m agnetizing fo rce energy. 0. c, required to reduce
m agnetizing force H is decreased to 0, curve a. b, the rem anence flux density (b. 0 ) to 0 is called the
( norm ally referred to as the field rem oval portion o f the coercive fo rce, or coercivity o f the m aterial. T he m aterial
curve) the m agnetic dom ains begin to change orientation is not com pletely dem agnetized, and will not be until
(direction). The flux density values in the m aterial heated above the C urie point and becom ing diam agnetic
follow the path a to b. H ow ever, when the m agnetizing (the dom ains are again random ly oriented). A s the
force reaches 0. the flux density is only reduced to b. the m agnetizing force is increased to d. the tlux density
m aterial still has a net. o r residual, m agnetic flux, 0. b. again reaches saturation, but in the opposite direction
T his m agnetic flux is called the rem anence o r residual and follow ing the path c. d. The m agnetizing force field
fie ld and is the result o f m agnetic dom ains still aligned is again reduced to 0, the flux density is reduced
in the m agnetized direction that have not all been follow ing the path d, e. W hen the m agnetizing force
reversed. The m agnetizing force is now reversed and reaches 0 at point e, there is a residual field rem aining in
gradually increased. W hen it has been increased to c, the the part. T he value o f this residual field. 0. e. w ill he the
residual m agnetic field, rem anence. is 0. The m aterial sam e as the value, 0, b. but in the opposite direction. The
has no net m agnetic field, there are sim ply as m any m agnetizing field is again reversed and increased to a.
dom ains aligned in one direction as the other, leaving a T he flux density does not follow the path from 0 to a
net flux density o f 0 for the part. (dashed curve), it follow s the path from e to a. This
closed curve (path a. b. c, d. e, f, a) is called the
Figure 2.6: Hysteresis curve hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop. If the m agnetizing
force is decreased, reversed and increased as previously
(Flux density) £ 1+ Saturatio n discussed, the value o f the tlux density will follow (he
a sam e path.
M aterials w'ith closed loops, very sm all b. e
R etentivity ^ (retentivity) and sm all c. f (coercive force), such as
m anm ade ferrites and m agnetic particles, are used in
electronic equipm ent, cores for coils in eddy current
C oercivity /
probes, etc. T hese m aterials have very low retentivity
H- ^ " * 7 / H and very high perm eability. M aterials w ith very open
° j f loops, very high values for b. c and c, f. such as alnico,
/ M ag n etizin g are used for perm anent m agnets. These m aterials have
force very high retentivity and perm eability.
e
Perm eability
d __
As stated previously, m agnetic lines o f force follow
Saturatio n of the path o f least m agnetic resistance. T hey concentrate
opposite polarity 3- (Flux density)
m ore in a piece o f iron placed betw een the poles o f a
m agnet, or w ithin a m agnetic field, than they do in air or
in a nonm agnetic m aterial (Figure 2.7).
Perm eability has been characterized as the ease with
w hich u m aterial can he m agnetized. T he relationship
betw een perm eability, p . m agnetic flux density. B. and
m agnetizing force, H. will be evaluated through the
hysteresis curve. In Figure 2.8. each point along the
curve 0. b represents a different value for the
perm eability o f that m aterial and is dependent on the
intensity o f the applied force H.
P erm eability can be expressed as:
E quation 1

B
 C hapter 2 - M aterials and the T heory o f M agnetism / 7
w here:
H = the m agnetizing force.
B the flux density produced w ithin the
m aterial by H.
T herefore, perm eability p is defined as the slope of
the curve at any point on the curve and varies
continuously along the curve. (See Figure 2.8.) The
value o f and 7/, at point p , is defined as |i max. The
variable p is determ ined by draw ing a line from the
origin. 0. lo a point tangential to the curve, represented
by the dashed line. T he point o f intersection o f the
dashed line and the curve is the m axim um perm eability
o f the m aterial. T herefore, the perm eability at P j. per
E quation 1. is given by:
Mi =
Relative perm eability is defined as:
M, = —
Mo
Equation 2
where:
p () = 4 ji x 10‘'(H * m '1) in SI units,
perm eability o f free space.
In the above exam ple the relative perm eability at
point P | is given by:
Mr. =
Mo
Equation 3
D ifferent ferrom agnetic m aterials (elem ents and
alloys) have w idely differing values o f perm eability.
In Figure 2.8. p = p jn[ before any external field is
applied and p = I the instant the external field is applied
w hen B = H. At any point p is equal to B/H (the slope o f
the curve at that point).
The perm eability norm ally given in texts, tables and
other references is m axim um perm eability, p m.ix. The
m axim um perm eability is the point at w hich the curve is
its steepest, w here it has its greatest slope. A nother value
som etim es given is the initial perm eability, p m|. These
relationships are show n in Figure 2.8.
O ther term s relating to the m agnetic properties o f
m aterials are som etim es encountered. R eluctivity is the
reciprocal o f perm eability. T he Curie paint or Curie
tem perature is the tem perature above w hich m agnetized
Figure 2.8: Permeability (a) initial
magnetization curve for a steel having
relatively low permeability; (b) plot of the
permeability of the steel as a function of H
t/>
£
I
co
5T
e
<
in
.a>
H (A/m)
m aterial becom es com pletely dem agnetized and rem ains
dem agnetized if it is cooled from tem peratures above the
C urie point, uninfluenced by m agnetic fields during
cooldow n. A ppendix 3 provides the C urie points o f some
com m on ferrom agnetic m aterials.
Reference A
R eference B
M agnetic Flux and Flux Density
Previously, the phrase lines o f fo r c e was used to
describe m agnetic fields. In a strict technical sense, lines
o f force are im aginary lines o f equal m agnetic intensity
that enable visualization o f the direction and general
shape o f the field. The term flu x suggests flow, however,
w ith respect to m agnetic fields, nothing should be
thought o f as flow ing. Flux is the term used lo indicate
the n um ber o f lines o f force associated with a m agnetic
field at a specific point or w ithin a defined area. Total
flux is rarely o f any practical concern. Flux density, or
the n um ber o f lines o f flux transverse (perpendicular) to
an area, is o f g reater practical im portance. Because
m agnetic field strength varies throughout the space
8 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
influenced by a m agnetic field, the relative strength o f
the field in various regions o f the affected space is m ore
significant. Thus, flux density is defined as the num ber
o f lines o f flux intercepting an area perpendicular to the
flux. It is calculated using
A m aterial.
Eq uation 4
where:
F = m agnetic flux in W b (1 W b = 10s
lines o f flux).
A area perpendicular to the flux in
square m eters (nrr).
II flux density in W h /n r (1 W b /n r = 1 T).
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
M agnetization of Ferrom agnetic
Material
Ferrom agnetic m aterials can be m agnetized using any
technique that produces a m agnetic field in the pari.
T hese techniques can be collectively classified as either
direct or indirect (induced ) m agnetization.
Direct M agnetization
In direct m agnetization, an electric current is passed
through the part: the part is the conductor o f the electric
current.
W hen the electric current is flow ing through a
conductor, such as a rod. wire or portions o f a com plex
shaped part, an encircling m agnetic field is established
both within and outside the conductor. If the conductor is
Of uniform cross section and straight, the field (the
num ber o f m agnetic tines o f force) will be uniform along
its length. Externally, the force decreases with increasing
radial distance from the conductor. T he external strength
o f the field is directly proportional to the current flow
(that is. the num ber o f am peres) and inversely
proportional to the distance perpendicular to the axis o f
the conductor. The lines o f force assum e concentric
circular paths both w ithin and around the conductor.
T hus, the field is circular and aligned, norm ally at 90
degrees to the axis o f the conductor or direction o f
current flow. (See Figure 2.3.)
W hen the conductor is a ferrom agnetic m aterial, the
high p r tends to concentrate the m agnetic flux w ithin the
conductor. Figure 2.7. The m agnetic field in the
conductor is called a circular fie ld because it circulates
around the axis o f the conductor. A m agnetizing current
can be applied directly to ferrom agnetic m aterials with
heads, prods, clam ps, or other form s o f electrical
contacts.
W hen using direct m agnetization techniques,
precautions m ust be taken to ensure good electrical
contact, w hich prevents arcing and/or burning o f the
Reference A
Reference B
R eference C
Indirect M agnetization
Indirect (induced) m agnetism results when a
ferrom agnetic m aterial is influenced by an external
m agnetic field. T he external field can be created by a
perm anent m agnet or electrom agnetic devices such as
central conductors, coils and yokes.
Permanent Magnets
P erm anent m agnets can m agnetize ferrom agnetic
m aterials that are brought into close proxim ity to. or into
direct physical contact with, the m agnet. If a bar m agnet
is used, an opposite m agnetic pole is established in the
m aterial being m agnetized. At the point o f contact or at
the point o f nearest approach, the induced lines o f force
will seek to close with the pole at the opposite end o f the
inducing m agnet. H ence, the field direction is considered
longitudinal (parallel to the axis o f the part) if the
m aterial being m agnetized is bar shaped. I f on e end o f a
bar m agnet (single pole) is used to m agnetize a plate or
sim ilarly large area, the field will be radial aw ay from
the m ag n et's pole.
M ore com m only, perm anent m agnets used for
m agnetic induction are U shaped and referred to as
horseshoe m agnets. T he induced field is essentially
straight betw een the tw o poles.
Central Conductors
A circular m agnetic field can be induced into a
hollow cylinder by placing a current-carrying conductor
inside the cylinder. T he circular m agnetic field around
the conductor induces a circular field in the m agnetic
m aterial o f the cylinder. T he strength o f the m agnetic
field is controlled by adjusting the electrical current in
the conductor. The entire volum e o f the cylinder can be
m agnetized by this technique.
Coils and Solenoids
C oils are conductors form ed by a num ber o f loops.
Solenoids are coils w here the length is greater than the
diam eter. The m agnetic fields around each turn o f a coil
combine, or link, to form a unified field, as show n in
Figure 2.5. The m agnetic field w ithin the coil is
essentially parallel to die axis o f the coil and strongest
on the inside surface o f the coil. Parts placed within the
coil are m agnetized in a direction parallel to the coil's
magnetic field. Parts are norm ally placed in the coil so
that the longitudinal axis o f the part is parallel to the axis
of the coil: hence the term longitudinal m agnetization. A
longitudinal m agnetic field produced by a coil induces a
longitudinal field into a bar o f m agnetic m aterial that is
placed w ithin the coil and parallel to the center line o f
the coil (indirect m agnetization). This field is essentially
perpendicular to the circular field produced by passing
the current directly through the part (direct
m agnetization).

R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
1(1 / A SN T I.evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing

Review Q uestions 2.7 In ferrom agnetic m aterials, the m agnetic

dom ains are:
2.1 A perm anent m agnet is a m aterial with m agnetic a. aligned with the m agnetizing field.
dom ains that: b. aligned only w hen the m agnetizing current is
a. are held in fixed positions w ith directions flow ing.
that cancel out. c. random ly oriented at all tim es.
b. are in fixed positions with a preponderance d. alw ays aligned perpendicular to the
o f the m agnetic dom ains aligned in one m agnetizing field.
direction.
c. fluctuate in random positions so that they are 2.8 T he m agnetic field in a coil or solenoid is
aligned to attract a m agnetic m aterial. greatest:
d. reverse polarity with each reversal o f applied a. w hen the current is first turned on.
current. h. on the im m ediate outer surface o f the coil.
c. on the inside o f the coil and adjacent to the
2.2 All bar m agnets have: inner surface.
a. tw o poles. d. at the center o f the coil.
b. circular flux lines w ithin the m aterial only.
c. little or no external m agnetic field. 2.9 The v alue o f perm eability is:
d. a totally external m agnetic field. a. a fixed value depending on the type o f
m aterial.
2.3 M agnetic lines o f force do N O T : b. betw een I and 100 for all ferrom agnetic
a. form closed loops that do not cross. m aterials.
b. increase in density as the distance from the c. dependent on the value o f H.
poles o f a perm anent m agnet increases. d. dependent on the am ount o f m agnetizing
C. have direction. force necessary to overcom e saturation.
d. seek paths o f greatest m agnetic resistance or
least reluctance. 2.10 The coercive force o f the m agnetic material
w hose hysteresis loop is show n in Figure 2.6 is
2.4 If the like poles o f two m agnets are brought into given by the:
close proxim ity, the m agnets will: a. value o f II at point d.
a. attract one another. b. value o f B at point e.
b. change polarity. c. product o f B and 11 at point f.
c. repel one another. d. negative value o f H at point c.
d. not be affected. e. area enclosed w ithin the hysteresis loop.

2.5 The m agnetic field surrounding an electrom agnet 2.11 W hen I f is reduced, the associated values o f B
containing a ferrom agnetic test part is the follow the curve a to b in Figure 2.6. The field at
strongest: b is called the:
a. im m ediately after the current ceases to flow. a. rem nant flux density.
b. w hen the m agnetizing current is flowing. b. saturation.
c. at the tim e the m agnetic particles are applied c. hysteresis.
to the part. d. characteristic perm eability.
d. just before current reversal. e. initial perm eability.

2.6 A solenoid is a coiled conductor that: 2.12 In m agnetic particle testing, the only m aterials
a. contains up to one loop. that can be tested are:
b. contains a num ber o f loops. a. ferrom agnetic.
c. contains a nonm agnetic metal core. b. param agnetic.
d. is used to induce circular m agnetism inside c. diam agnetic.
the coil. d. ferri m agnetic.
 C hapter 2 - M aterials and the T heory o f M agnetism / 11

.13 W hen considering the hysteresis curve:

a. H is the ilux density,
h. B is the m agnetizing force.
c. both B anil II are constant for a specific
m aterial.
d. none o f the above.

The term retentivity is the characteristic o f a

m aterial that allow s it to:
a. be m agnetized.
b. form an external m agnetic field.
c. retain m agnetism alter the current lias been
rem oved.
d. be dem agnetized.

Matinetic tlux is:

a. the direction o f current flow in an
electrom agnet.
b. the num ber o f lines o f force associated with
a m agnetic field.
c. the m anner by w hich m agnetism flows
through space.
d. found in perm anent m agnets only.

Flux density is defined as:

a. 10* lines o f llux (1 W b).
b. the num ber o f lines o f force associated with
a m agnetic field.
c. the num ber o f lines o f flux that intercepts an
area that is parallel w ith the flux.
d. the num ber o f lines o f tlux that intercept an
area that is perpendicular to the flux.
e. none o f the above.

.17 M agnetism applied to a ferrom agnetic part by a

perm anent m agnet is called:
a. direct m agnetization.
b. direct current m agnetization.
c. induced m agnetization.
d. reversed polarity m agnetization.
 Chapter 3
Currents Used in the Magnetic Particle Testing
Inspection Process
Magnetizing Current
Several types o f current are used to produce m agnetic
fields within ferrom agnetic m aterials: alternating current,
direct current, half w ave rectified current, full w ave
rectified current and three phase full w ave rectified
current.
Alternating Current
Using alternating current is very desirable from a
practical standpoint because alternating current is
supplied directly to hom es and factories through pow er
lines. In the U nited Slates, com m ercially supplied
alternating current reverses its polarity 60 tim es per
second (60 Hz). T he inductive effect o f current reversal
lends to produce a high density o f electric current near
the surface o f a ferrom agnetic conductor. This
characteristic is called the skin effect. Because
alternating current follow s the surface and the contours
of the part, this is an excellent method for detecting
fatigue cracks. Direct current does not have this effect.
Alternating current flows from 0 to positive m axim um
voltage, then returns to 0. proceeds to a negative voltage
peak (opposite polarity and equal value), and then
returns to 0 voltage. This process com pletes one cycle.
Figure 3.1 illustrates the current cycle curve com m only
referred to as a sine w ave. T he prim ary advantage o f
alternating current is its availability. Its prim ary
disadvantage is its lim ited depth o f penetration.
Direct Current
A lternating current is also used to m ake direct current
through the use o f rectifiers. Direct current is useful for
Figure 3.1: Single phase alternating current
wave form
13
m agnetization because the current flow s continuously in
one direction at a constant voltage, w hich establishes
strong m agnetic fields in the conductors and coils. Direct
current passed through the test part produces a m agnetic
field in a solid ferrom agnetic conductor that ranges from
0 (lux at the center to a m axim um at the surface. Direct
current can be provided by using rectifiers lo convert
alternating current to direct current, by batteries or by
direct current generators. Rectified current is norm ally
used as h alf w ave rectified, full w ave rectified or three
phase full w ave rectified.
Half Wave Rectified Current
A half w ave rectifier will clip off all o f the negative
voltage peaks and leave only the positive peaks as
show n in Figure 3.2. T hese peaks provide a pulsed direct
current that has the advantages o f direct current.
Full W ave Rectified Current (Single
Phase)
Full w ave direct current rectification inverts the
negative current to positive current. This rectification
leaves som e ripple. The current is then filtered lo rem ove
m ost or all o f the ripple, as show n in Figure 3.3.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified
Current
A lternating current is also available in three phase
currents. T his provides three currents superim posed that
follow each oth er at intervals, phase angle o f 60 degrees.
W hen this current is full w ave rectified, a very sm ooth
direct current is obtained. T his current can be filtered to
elim inate any ripple, as show n in Figure 3.4.
Reference A
Reference B
Reference C
M agnetization
A SN T N D T Level III personnel are responsible for
selecting the type o f equipm ent used to induce
m agnetism . T his is an im portant responsibility because a
p roper inspection is highly dependent on the type.
14 / A SN T Level 111 Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
direction and strength o f the electric current used to
produce m agnetic fields in lest items.
Using Perm anent M agnets to Induce
Magnetic Fields
In m agnetic particle testing, applications involving
perm anent m agnets are lim ited, m ainly because the
strength o f the field that can be induced is relatively low.
Som e perm anent m agnet yokes have adjustable legs that
allow the induced flux level to be varied by changing the
distance betw een the contacts. The prim ary value o f
perm anent m agnets is in their portability w ith no need
for external power. 'They are usually used to lest small
areas o f parts w here fatigue cracks frequently occur. The
induced field is longitudinal because the m agnet is
positioned so the field betw een the m ag n et's poles is
perpendicular to the direction o f the discontinuities.
T he m agnetic particles used w ith perm anent m agnets
should be suspended in an approved liquid carrier
because a perm anent m agnet provides a static m agnetic
field: the flow o f the solution provides m obility to
particles. Dry particles require pulsed, changing or
alternating fields to becom e mobile.
F or m axim um visibility o f an indication, it should be
located in the are a betw een the tw o pole pieces o f the
m agnet. T he long axis o f the indication should be
positioned 90 degrees ± 45 degrees w ith a line betw een
the poles. T he flux is stronger nearer to the poles than it
is in the center o f the gap. M axim um contact betw een
the pole and the test surface should be m aintained.
Using Electric Currents to Induce
M agnetic Fields
W hen m aking recom m endations for the procurem ent
o f costly inspection equipm ent, the A SN T N D T Level 111
 C hapter 3 —C urrents Used in the M agnetic P article Testing Inspection Process / 1 5
must consider the advantages o f different pow er
supplies, the pow er available at inspection sites, the need
for portability and a projection o f the pow er required for
future production. The type o f pow er required influences
each o f the above considerations. A detailed
understanding o f the advantages and disadvantages o f
different m agnetizing currents is very im portant.
Alternating Current
A lternating current is the pow er source supplied by
utility com panies and m uch o f the direct current is
derived from it. No rectifiers are required so the w'eight
o f the equipm ent is reduced. A lternating current is also
used for d e m a g n e tiz e s. A utotransform crs and saturable
rectifiers transform alternating current into a w ide
selection o f current requirem ents. B ecause transform ers
are not needed in alternating current equipm ent, the
equipm ent is lighter and less expensive than m ost other
pow'er supplies.
As previously show n, alternating current does not
penetrate deeply into m etal. T his lim itation is actually an
advantage w hen inspecting inservice parts: the skin
effect o f alternating current em phasizes fatigue cracks,
w hich alw ays start at the surface. Irrelevant subsurface
variations, w hich m ay distract the inspector, are not
detected by the m inim ally penetrating current. H ow ever,
if deeper penetration is desired, alternating current is not
a good choice.
Direct Current
D irect current has alw ays been the prim ary type o f
pow er used for m agnetization for m agnetic particle
testing. Initially, production inspection equipm ent used
w et-cell batteries connected in parallel to fulfill the high
current requirem ents. B ecause batteries require constant
m aintenance to ensure they are adequately charged, their
frequent replacem ent w as a continuing expense. The
advantage o f battery-pow ered inspection equipm ent was
that it could be operated on low current line battery
chargers. Using dry plate rectifiers to obtain direct
current directly from alternating current pow er proved
much more practical because alternating current is
alw ays available as line pow er furnished by a utility
com pany. D irect current pow er supplies for m agnetic
particle testing are available with outputs up to
20 000 A: 6000 A is standard lo r stationary equipm ent
w here three phase alternating current pow er is available.
However, up to 5000 A direct current is available from
single phase alternating current. D irect current is feasible
in low current yokes because small solid slate diodes are
available. T hese yokes and prew rapped coils need only
120 V alternating current sources.
A m ajor advantage o f direct current for m agnetization
is its deep penetrating ability in metal, w hich enables
subsurface discontinuities to be revealed. D irect current
from batteries or full w ave rectified alternating current is
used w ith the wet particle technique because full wave
direct current does not provide m obility for dry powder.
A nother prim ary advantage o f direct current
m agnetization is that it leaves residual m agnetism that
holds an indication longer, allow ing m ore tim e for the
inspector to delect and evaluate indications.
Half Wave Direct Current
H alf w ave direct current results from rectification of
single phase alternating current by clipping off the
negative voltage peaks o f the wave. (See Figure 3.2.)
H a lf w ave direct current has the penetrating
characteristics o f direct current w ith the added advantage
that the pulsing current provides good m obility for dry
m agnetic particle pow der. P ortable h alf w ave direct
current pow er sources are available for low current
applications because current can be obtained from one
dry plate rectifier or from solid state diodes. H alf w ave
direct current can also be used w ith a wet particle
suspension to provide good sensitivity for revealing fine
surface cracks. For detecting subsurface discontinuities,
h a lf w ave direct current used w ith dry pow der is
considered to be the best com bination. For this reason,
h alf w ave direct current is a prim ary pow er source for
w eld and casting inspection. Because h alf w ave direct
current leaves a part in a partially m agnetized state, most
h alf w ave direct current equipm ent provides
d em agnetization options, cither alternating current,
reversing direct current or both. Up to 1500 A output is
readily available in portable units and 6000 A in m obile
units.
Full Wave Rectified Single or Three Phase
Full w ave rectified alternating current provides the
m ost efficient conversion o f alternating current pow er to
direct current (Figures 3.3 and 3.4). Full w ave rectifiers
are dry plate rectifiers set up in a bridge circuit. Instead
o f clipping o ff the negative going h alf cycle, the bridge
rectifier converts it to positive going h alf cycle. Most
full w ave rectified alternating current equipm ent also
uses three phase power. T he three phases provides very
low ripple direct current that closely m atches the direct
current output o f a battery.
Three phase full w ave rectified alternating current is
norm ally used in units that provide from 3000 to
10 000 A o f current.
16 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic P article Testing

Review Q uestions 3.7 H a lf w ave direct current is:

a. pulsed direct current.
3.1 D irect current can be obtained from: b. used with dry powder.
a. batteries. c. used for inspecting w elds.
b. rectified alternating current. d. all o f the above.
c. generators.
d. all o f the above. 3.8 Full w ave, three phase rectified alternating
current:
3.2 The source that supplies the m ost pow er for a. produces low ripple direct current.
m agnetizing is: b. uses a single bridge rectifier.
a. three phase alternating current, full w ave c. is used in low current equipm ent.
rectified. d. is not practical as a source o f m agnetizing
b. single phase alternating current, full w ave current.
rectified.
c. alternating current unrectified.
d. single phase alternating current, h a lfw a v e
rectified.

3.3 An advantage o f alternating current is that:

a. it is m ost readily available.
b. equipm ent can be m ade lighter,
c it leaves the part dem agnetized,
d. all o f the above.

3.4 A disadvantage o f alternating current is that it:

a. cannot be used with dry powder.
b. has poor penetrating power.
c. can only provide low flux densities.
d. can be used for residual m agnetic particle
testing.

3.5 An advantage o f direct current from batteries is

that:
a. batteries require little m aintenance.
b. dem agnetization is accom plished by sim ply
reversing polarity.
c. batteries never require replacem ent.
d. batteries can operate on line voltage to a
charger and provide a high current output.

3.6 H alf w ave direct current is obtained front:

a. batteries.
b. single phase alternating current power.
c. a full w ave rectifier.
d. three phase direct current power.
 Chapter 4
Field Strength and Distribution
M agnetization
With the exception o f the few instances when
perm anent m agnets are used, any o f the form s o f electric
current discussed in C hapter 3 may be used to m agnetize
parts. B attery-pow ered equipm ent has not been
m anufactured for m any years and will not be discussed.
Specialized techniques, such as m ultidirectional, w ill not
be covered.
Parts can he m agnetized using circular or longitudinal
m agnetization. C ircular m agnetization is produced either
by passing a current directly through the part (direct
m agnetization) o r by passing current through a central
conductor running through a hollow part (indirect
m agnetization). L ongitudinal m agnetism uses an external
m agnetic field to produce (induce) m agnetism (indirect
m agnetization). A lternating current or direct current can
be used for either technique depending on factors
discussed in C hapter 3 and diagram ed in A ppendix 2.
Circular M agnetization
C ircular fields are produced by passing current
through the part as show n in Figure 4.1 or by passing
current through a central conductor as show n in Figure
4.2. A circular field exists in and around the conductor. It
should be noted that the field is perpendicular
(90 degrees) to the current flow for sim ple parts such as
rods, nuts, bolts, etc. W hile the current is tlow ing there
is a much stronger field inside a ferrom agnetic conductor
than inside a non ferrom agnetic conductor, how ever, the
fields surrounding these tw o conductors are the sam e.
If a central conductor is used to induce a circular field
in a hollow cylinder, as in Figure 4.2. the placem ent o f
the conductor becom es im portant. T he field around the
Figure 4.1: Relationship of current to
magnetic field
C u rren t
M a g n e tic field
i
Test article
17
cy lin d er is sym m etrical if the conductor is in the center:
how ever, if the conductor is placed adjacent lo the inner
circum ference, the field strength is m uch stronger at the
cylinder wall nearest to the conductor. D epending on the
diam eter, rotating the pail and evaluating several
sections o f the length m ay be necessary per AST.Vl E
1444.
R ecom m ended values for circular m agnetization vary.
A general rule-of-thum b is to use 800 to 1000 A per
25 mm (1 in.) o f d iam eter or cross section with direct
current and 500 to 600 A per 25 m m ( I in.) with
alternating current.
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
Longitudinal M agnetization
L ongitudinal m agnetization can be perform ed in a
coil, as show n in Figure 4.3. T he strongest m agnetic
field is near the inside surface o f the coil and the flux
density decreases tow ard the center o f the coil.
If a part is relatively uniform in perm eability and
cross section, it can be assum ed that the flux density will
be uniform over the cross section except at each end o f
the part. H ow ever, for com plex parts the flux density
will not be uniform . T he quick break feature was
Figure 4.2: Field produced by using a
central conductor
M aanetic
There is disagreement between common practice and
electrical theory regarding current polarity. Therefore, the
current polarity is not shown.
18 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Figure 4.3: Coil showing relationship of
current, magnetizing field and induced field
M ag n etic field
Coil
There is disagreement between common practice and
electrical theory regarding current polarity. Therefore, the
current polarity is not shown.
designed to help com pensate for the decreased tlux
density at the ends o f the part.
W hen using coils and calculating am perages, the
num ber o f turns in the coil, the location o f the part
within the coil (edge or center), the length and diam eter
(cross section diagonal) o f the part, the radius o f the coil
and a fill-factor constant m ust be considered.
Several em pirical equations w ere developed to
determ ine the current values for m agnetization. T hese
rule-of-thum b relationships must be used w ith caution
and should be backed up with another device such as the
Hall effect meter. T hey do not take into consideration the
perm eability, part configuaration and other factors.
The rule-of-thum b E quation 5 was reduced by
experim ent to:
45000
Nf -
LID
E quation 5
where:
N the num ber o f turns in the coil,
I the current (given in am peres), and.
u n = the length-to-diam eter ratio o f the part to
be m agnetized.
Equation 5 can be used to determ ine am pere turns
needed for longitudinal m agnetization using an
encircling coil with the part adjaceni to the inside surface
o f the coil.
O ther equations specified in ASTM Practice E 1444
are also rule-of-thum b equations. T hese equations
assum e the part placed in the coil with the longitudinal
axes parallel to the field o f the coil, the
length-to-diam eter ratio and the perm eability within the
lim its previously specified.
T hese equations are as follows:
Low Fill-Factor Coils
W hen the cross sectional area o f the coil is ten or
m ore tim es the cross sectional area o f the part being
tested, the product o f the num ber o f coil turns N and the
current in am peres through the coil I shall be as follows:
For parts positioned to the side o f the coil:
Nl ( ± 10 %)
1.1 n
E quation 6
w here:
K = 45 000 am pere turns,
L length o f the part, and
D = diam eter o f the part (m easured in the
sam e units as the length).
For parts positioned in the center o f the coil:
KR
N l- - (± 1 0 % )
(6 L I D ) - 5
E quation 7
w here:
R radius o f the coil, mm (or inches).
K - 1690 am pere turns per mm
(43 000 am pere turns per inch if R is
m easured in inches).
L length o f the part, and
D diam eter o f the part (m easured in the
sam e units as the leneth).
If the part has hollow portions, replace D with Deff as
in E quations 10 and 11. These form ulas hold only if U D
is 2 to 15 inclusive. I f I YD is less than 2. pole pieces
(pieces o f ferrom agnetic material w ith the sam e diam eter
as the part being tested) are placed on each end o f the
part to effectively increase U D to 2 or greater. If U D is
greater than 15. the value o f 15 shall be substituted for
UD.
Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils
W hen the cross sectional area o f the coil is less than
tw ice the cross sectional area (including hollow portions)
o f the part under testing, the product o f the num ber o f
coils turns N and the current in am peres through the coil
I shall be as follow s:
 C hapter 4 - Field Strength and D istribution I V)

where:
Nl = (+ 10%) A{ - total cross sectional area o f the part, and
(L / D + 2)
A hn - cross sectional area o f the hollow portions
E q uation 8 o f the part.
where:
K = 35 000 am pere turns, For cylindrical parts, this is equal to the following:
L length o f the part,
D diam eter o f the part (m easured in the
same units as the le n g th ). 0,r=[(ODf-(rof]‘
E quation 11
If the part has hollow portions, replace D with /) .ff as
in Equations 10 and 11. T hese form ulas hold only if L/L)
is greater than 2 and less than 15. If L/L) is less than 2. Figure 4.4: Magnetic field distribution in
pole pieces (pieces o f ferrom agnetic m aterial with the ferromagnetic material using alternating
same diam eter as the part being tested) shall be placed current (solid material)
on each end o f the part to effectively increase the I /D to B
2 or greater. If the I /D is g reater than 15. the value o f 15
shall be substituted for L/D.
O)
c w here:
<D
Intermediate Fill-Factor Coils R = R adius
W hen the cross sectional area o f the coil is between S , = M ax im u m field strength
tw o and ten tim es the cross sectional area o f the part S2 = Field strength at surface
being tested, the product o f the num ber o f turns N and
the current through the coil I shall be as follow s:

l O - r 'l ^ r
N I = ( N I ) I^ + (N I),

Eq uation 9

w here:
(N l), = value o f N l calculated for low fill-lacto r
coils,
(Nl),, = value o f N l calculated for high fill-factor
coils, and Figure 4.5: Magnetic field distribution in
ratio o f the cross sectional area o f the coil ferromagnetic material using alternating
to the cross sectional area o f the part. For current (hollow material)
exam ple, if the coil is 254 m m (10 in.) in
diam eter and the part is a rod 127 mm B
(5 in.) in diam eter
sz
r=i5*£ L 4 c
a>
o
w here:
R = R adiu s
( i t x 2 .5 " | V)
B, 2 S , = M ax im u m field strength
1 0) B2 = F ield strength a t surface
Ll
Calculating the Length-to-Diameter Ratio for a ,
Hollow or Cylindrical Part 1
W hen calculating the length-to-diam eter ratio fo r a a / '^ D is t a n c e
1 ♦ _ Z ---------------------------------------------------------- ». r
hollow or cylindrical part D shall be replaced with an
effective diam eter D efr calculated using the follow ing: W r -J

f) = 2 (A,-\ )
'c l I Z-
K

E q uation 10
20 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing

where: Figure 4.6: Field distribution in and around

OD = outside diam eter o f the cylinder, and a solid magnetic conductor carrying direct
ID = inside diam eter o f the cylinder. current
B
R eference A
Reference B w here:
R eference C
Ft = R adiu s
B = Field streng th at surface
Perm anent Magnets Bs/ 2 = Field strength at 2 R , etc.
Perm anent m agnets are rarely used because the
T h e n 2 R from the c e n te r of
m agnetic field cannot be lurned o ff and on. T his m akes the field will be B /2 , etc.
them difficult to properly place and rem ove, especially
w hen high strength m agnets are used. A lso, to obtain the
equivalent field strength o f an electrom agnet, the
perm anent m agnet w ould be very heavy and aw kw ard to
handle. The placem ent and use o f perm anent m agnets is
the sam e as that for alternating current or direct current
yokes.
J I 1 I ►r
Alternating Current 2R 3R
A lternating current is used prim arily to detect surface D is ta n c e -------------- ►
discontinuities because the depth o f penetration o f the
m agnetic field is very shallow as illustrated in
Figures 4.4 and 4.5. A lternating current pow er is
excellent for locating fatigue cracks because they are
alw ays open to the m etal's surface. N ote that in Figures
4.4 and 4.5 the field at the center o f the solid conductor
and at the inside surface o f the hollow conductor is very
low and rises sharply, nonlincarily. from the inside o f the
m etal to near the surface. N ear the surface the field rises
very rapidly. The field strength at the outer surface o f the
conductor (hollow or solid) is about the same.
T here is no field inside o f the hollow conductor. The
external m agnetic field is greatest at the outer surface
and decays w ith distance from the surface.

Direct Current
Direct current is used in stationary units, large
portable units and m ost yokes, and is used for
applications with prods, clam ps, leeches, coils, etc. As
noted in C hapter 3. direct current can be h a lf w ave
rectified, full w ave rectified or three phase full w ave
rectified.

Solid and Hollow Cylinders

W hen passing current through a part to be
m agnetized, the m agnetic field will be at 90 degrees to
the direction o f the current path. The length o f the part
does not affect the strength o f the circular field, but a
larger diam eter w ill decrease the field strength at the
surface: therefore, to m aintain the sam e flux density at
surface, higher current m ust be used as the diam eter or
cross section is increased. T he current density J in a
conductor is equal to the am perage / divided by the cross
 C hapter 4 - Field Strength and D istribution / 21

sectional area o f the part (section being m agnetized). If
the cross sectional area is increased, current density
decreases and m agnetic flux density decreases. To
maintain a constant flux density, the am perage m ust be
increased as the cross sectional area is increased.
B ecause o f the field-concentrating effects o f m agnetic
perm eability, the field strength is m uch greater within a
m agnetic co n d u cto r carrying current as com pared to a
nonm agnetic conductor. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 represent the
field strength in solid and hollow' m agnetic conductors
carrying direct current. R em em ber that the field strength
outside the conductor is the sam e for both solid and
hollow cylinders, and it will also be the sam e as the field
strength outside nonm agnetic conductors. The field
strength will be 0 at the center o f the solid conductor and
at the inside surface o f the hollow conductor. There is no
field inside the hollow area o f the conductor.

Nonm agnetic Material

Figures 4.8 and 4.9 represent the field distribution in
and around solid and hollow nonm agnetic conductors.
N onm agnetic conductors are used as central conductors
for som e hollow parts and, therefore, the external field is
o f prim ary im portance. T he external field w ill be the
sam e for both solid and hollow conductors, but in both
cases the field m ust be calculated from the center o f the
cylinder. If the radius o f the bar is R and the field at the
surface is B. then the field at a distance 2R from the
cen ter will be B/2. as shown.

Figure 4.10: Field distribution in and around

a hollow magnetic cylinder with central
conductor carrying direct current

Figure 4.9: Field distribution in and around

a hollow nonmagnetic conductor carrying
direct current

R | 2R 3R
( l *j D is ta n c e ►

T V /\ I w here:

y /A R = R adiu s
r y //j B = F ield strength at surface
'/ / y B s/2 = Field strength at 2 R , etc.
22 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
Figure 4.11: Field distribution in and around
a solid magnetic conductor carrying
alternating current
P e a k flux density
at b ar surface
Direct curren t flux distribution
inside solid b ar
A lternating curren t flux
distribution inside solid b ar
D istan ce from c e n te r of b a r = r
S te e l b ar
Figure 4.12: Field distribution in and around
a hollow magnetic conductor carrying
alternating current
P e a k flux density
at b ar surface
D irect current flux density
inside hollow bar
A lternating current flux
distribution inside hollow bar
j______ i______ i______ i______ i____ *. i
D is ta n c e from c e n te r of b ar = r
S te e l bar
Central C onductor Carrying Direct
Current
As show n in Figure 4.10, a m agnetic Field in the
central conductor will rise from 0 at the center on the
conductor to a m axim um , a. at the ou ter surface o f the
central conductor. It will drop slightly in the space
betw een the central cond u cto r and the part. a. b. If the
part w ere not present, the field o f the central conductor
w ould follow the path b. c. d. H ow ever, w ith a part
surrounding the central conductor, the field will rise
sharply to a m axim um at e, at the inside surface o f the
part. T he field will then drop through the part to an
intensity o f f. Im m ediately outside the part surface the
intensity will drop sharply to c. From this point the field
external to the part will follow the sam e path o f the
central co n d u cto r field if the part w ere not present, c to
d. In com paring this figure with Figure 4.8. the path 0. a.
b. c. d is sim ilar lo Figure 4.8. In Figure 4.10 a path f, c.
d. is sim ilar to the path outside the part in Figure 4.6.
Field Distribution for Alternating
Current Conductors
Up to this point, all field strength and distribution
curves show n have been for either alternating current or
direct current. M ost o f these rules will not hold true for
both types o f m agnetizing current. A lternating current
tends to flow near the surface o f a conductor, w hich is a
Figure 4.13: Field strength versus current
Field strength a t ce n te r
Field strength at of e ach fa c e = B
c o rn e r = B /2
X m m (in.)
Field strength on entire
curved surface = B

phenom enon know n as the skin effect. The field
distribution curves for solid and hollow m agnetic
conductors carrying both alternating current and direct
current are show n in Figures 4.11 and 4.12. A lternating
current provides a m uch greater field density in the outer
layers o f the conductor, but the field strength outside the
conductor is exactly the sam e as w hen direct current is
used as the m agnetizing force. The difference is that the
alternating current is constantly varying, both in strength
and direction.
Reference A
R eference B
Other Sym m etrical Shapes
The direction o f a m agnetic field is quite predictable
as long as the item being m agnetized is constant and
sym m etrical in cross section, such as a square, a ring or
a disk. W hen m agnetizing shapes other than solid or
hollow' round objects, configuration and cross section
must be considered. For exam ple, a m agnetic particle
testing inspection on a square bar will require m ore
am perage than the sam e test on a round bar. The
m agnetic field in the square bar is greatest along the
center o f the face and drops to about half that value on
the long com er. T he field distribution is uniform on the
curved surface o f the round bar. B ecause o f this, the
diam eter o f the part is taken as the greatest distance
between any two points on the outside circum ference o f
the part, as show n in Figure 4.13.
Also, as shapes becom e m ore com plex, it may be
extrem ely difficult o r im possible to predict the field
intensity in specific areas. For com plex shaped parts,
m easuring devices are used to determ ine the m agnetic
field intensity in specific areas.
If the square bar in Figure 4.13 is 50 m m (2 in.) per
side, the diagonal dim ension is 71 mm (2.82 in.). If the
square bar is circularly m agnetized with direct current,
the 2540 A per m illim eter diam eter (1000 A per inch
diam eter) rule w ould require 2820 A to m agnetize a
50 m m (2 in.) square bar. A 50 m m (2 in.) round bar
w ould require only 2000 A for m agnetization because its
diagonal is 50 mm (2 in.).
A nother approach to determ ining the current needed
for m agnetizing irregularly shaped bars requires the
com parison o f the perim eter o f the cross section o f the
bar with a bar having the sam e diam eter. If the cross
sectional perim eter o f the bar in Figure 4.13 is 483 mm
(10 in.) the diam eter o f a round bar w ith a 483 mm
(19 in.) circum ference is 483( 19 in .)/3 .1416 = 154 mm
(b in). This suggests that a 5000 A current is adequate.
U sing the perim eter approach, the equivalent diam eter
for a 51 mm (2 in.) square bar w ould be 20.32/3.1416 =
6.47 (2.5 in), w hich is quite close to the 72 m m (2.8 in.)
C hap ter 4 - Field Strength and D istribution / 23
diagonal. A fiat bar having the sam e area o f 102 m m 2
(4 in.2) could be 13 m m x 203 mm (0.5 in. x 8 in.). The
perim eter o f this bar is 432 mm (17 in.). T he diam eter of
a round bar w ith a 432 mm (17 in.) circum ference is
432 mm (17 in .)/3 .1416 = 137 mm (5.4 in.). Thus, to
m agnetize a square b ar w ith a 102 m m 2 (4 in.2) cross
sectional area w ould require about 2500 A. w hereas a
flat bar with the same cross sectional area could require
m ore than tw ice that current. T his approach is based on
the fact that m agnetism is a surface-oriented condition,
as Figures 4.4 through 4 . 12 show ; therefore, if the
surface for the sam e cross sectional area is doubled, the
surface m agnetic field (and hence the m agnetizing
current) should be in the sam e ratio.
T he study that yielded this approach included surface
flux density m easurem ents that closely approxim ated the
expected flux. U sing this approach. Equation 12 gives an
approxim ation o f the current required for direct contact
m agnetization o f oddly shaped uniform cross sections:
/ = — x 1000
n
Equation 12
where:
/ = m agnetizing current, am peres direct
current,
P = perim eter o f cross section, centim eters.
7t = 3.1416.
A single part with m ultiple sections o f different
diam eters requires that different m agnetizing current
levels be selected fo r each section. The section requiring
the least am perage should be m agnetized and evaluated
first. T he section requiring the next highest am perage
should be m agnetized and evaluated next and so on. If
the highest am perage section is m agnetized and
evaluated first, all sm aller sections requiring less
am perage w ould be overm agnetized, resulting in false
indications and other problem s. If the largest section
m ust be m agnetized first, the part m ust be dem agnetized
betw een m agnetizing operations. T his can be very time
consum ing and can cau se problem s in other areas.
R eference A
R eference B
Rings
A ring is another sym m etrical shape that can be
m agnetized both in the circular direction and in the
longitudinal direction. T he directions o f flux for rings
reflect a different concept than for a bar. C onceptually, a
ring is a bar bent into a circle. T he longitudinal flux
2 4 / A SN T L evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing

Figure 4.14: A ring as a slice of a cylinder along the length o f the bar now travels around the bent
bar to form the circle.
C e n tral Test articles A nother concept is that the ring is a slice cut from a
conductor hollow cylinder as show n in Figure 4.14. The
longitudinal flux in a ring flow s around the circle in the
sam e direction as the circular field flow s in the cylinder.
T herefore, to produce longitudinal m agnetization in a
ring, it is m agnetized using a through central conductor.
T his can be used for nuts, bearing races, w ashers, etc.
It is often desirable to have a longitudinal field in a
large ring, how ever, because o f size and w eight it is not
feasible to use a central conductor. O ne alternate
technique is to place it in a coil with the ring in a plane
p erpendicular to the plane o f the coil. A s show n in
Figure 4.15, the field will flow along tw'o sides o f the
ring in a longitudinal direction. In this instance, the ring
C entral Test m ust be rotated 90 degrees to evaluate the other two
conductor articles quadrants. A 60-degree rotation and three separate
inspections is preferred.
O ne technique for obtaining a circu lar field in a ring
Figure 4.15: A ring magnetized in a coil is by the direct m agnetizing m ethod o f flow ing the

Coil housing Figure 4.17: Longitudinal magnetization of

rings
Coil con du cto r M ag n etic
field
M ag n etic field direction
S.

C urrent
Test article
\ ^
flow
direction

article

Figure 4.18: Induced current technique of

magnetizing ring-shaped parts

Figure 4.16: Direct technique for Prim ary

magnetizing rings '• ''m a g n e t ic field
M ag n etizin g
Induced
C ircu lar m ag n etic field coil
edd y
currents

D efects
in part

M ag n etizin g
current Torodial
D efects
J M ag n etizing

r
m ag netic
current
Iron core field

current through the ring as a conductor. Figure 4.16
shows a ring clam ped betw een tw o contacts w ith the
current flow ing around each side o f the ring. For
com plete m agnetization, the ring should be rotated at
least 90 degrees. Tw o additional m agnetizations (three
total), rotating the part 60 degrees for each subsequent
m agnetization is recom m ended.
One w ay to induce a longitudinal field into a large
ring is to w rap a cable coil around the ring. T his allow s a
high tlux density to be created in the ring, because the
cable coil can have a num ber o f turns. Figure 4.17 show s
the flow o f the current and flux in a ring with a w rapped
coil. T his technique is often applied on large ring
Figure 4.19: Disk inspection
Head
Field
Field Discontinuity
C hapter 4 - Field Strength and D istribution / 25
forgings. Several m agnetizations are required to
com pletely m agnetize and test the ring.
Rings also can be m agnetized in the circular direction
by induced m agnetism . Figure 4 . 18 show s this
technique, using a toroidal m agnetic field. This allow s
the com plete ring to be m agnetized in one operation,
depending on the diam eter o f the ring and the size o f the
bar. instead o f the tw o steps required by the direct
contact technique illustrated in Figure 4 .I6 w hich is very
susceptible to bum s.
Disks
T he disk is another sym m etrical shape often found in
m achinery com ponents such as w heels, gears and
circular saw blades. C onceptually, the disk is sim ilar to a
round fiat plate. T he through central conductor. Figure
4.19(a). provides a flux in the circum ferential direction
around the disk to locate radial discontinuities. Using the
disk as a conductor, as show n in Figures 4 . 19(b) and
4.19(c), a flux is provided across the disk to detect
discontinuities that are generally perpendicular to the
radius or circum ferential. For com plete m agnetization
Figure 4.21: Shapes of varying cross
section
13 mm (0.5 in.)
26 / A SN T Level H i Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
and inspection, the disk must be rotated 90 degrees after
the first shot is inspected, as show n in Figure 4.19(c).
T herefore, the disk w ould be m agnetized
[Figure 4 . 19(b)J. inspected and then rotated 90 degrees
from its original position [Figure 4.19(c)!. m agnetized
and inspected again. T he flux crosses the opposite part
(quadrants) o f th e disk. The toroidal m agnetic field can
be used for saw blades w here contact cannot be m ade
with the saw teeth. Caution m ust be exercised to ensure
that the bottom side is w etted with the bath and tested.
A s the cross section or shape o f a part becom es m ore
com plex, it becom es increasingly m ore difficult to
predict the probable path o f the m agnetic field.
C om plicated shapes may require experim entation and
separate coil m agnetization on various projections o f the
part to ensure the proper field direction at all locations.
To avoid false indications on parts that have varying
diam eters, the low est current value should be applied
first.
Figure 4.22: Use of yokes and prods
C u rren t ^
M ag n et
field
Yoke
C u rren t ^
W eld M ag n et
field
(b )
There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory regarding current polarity. Therefore, the current polarity
is not shown.
In a part shaped like the one in Figure 4.20 that is
m agnetized in a coil, a longitudinal field will flow out
into the upset portion o f the m agnetized bar. The field
will tend to becom e radial along the surface B. C. This
varying field direction provides advantages and
disadvantages in locating discontinuities. T he probable
path should alw ays be considered w hen m agnetizing an
irregularly shaped part.
W here the cross section o f a part varies greatly, as in
F igure 4 .2 1, the 1000 A per 25 m m (1 in.) rule will not
be practical. If the 1000 A rule w ere used to circularly
m agnetize the part in Figure 4.21. the recom m ended
current w ould be unrealistically high. A ssum ing that the
distribution o f the m agnetizing current is uniform over
the cross section, the resultant m agnetic field distribution
will not be uniform . H ow ever, using the 1000 A rule,
each 13 mm (0.5 in.) cross sectional elem ent o f the w eb
show n in F igure 4.21 w ould require som ew hat m ore than
500 A for proper current density for a total o f som ew hat
m ore than 2000 A. Because current density is uniform
C urrent
C urrent
(d)
through the cross section o f the part, this w ould indicate
a need for 8000 A in each o f the 1250 m m 2 (2 in.2)
sections lo obtain the sam e current density. A dding
8000 A for each edge and 2000 A fo r the w eb, an
unrealistically high total current o f 18 000 A w ould be
required.
As show n in Figure 4.21, only 6000 A is actually
required to adequately perform the test on the / shaped
part. Because the field distribution is not uniform in a
square or rectangle, the field strength at the center o f the
face (web) is m ore than adequate.
As the size o f the part being m agnetized increases,
the sim ple rules-of-thum b governing m agnetization often
become im practical. R ules-of-thum b should only be used
on objects o f uniform cylindrical shape.
Prods or yokes, as show n in Figure 4.22. are often
used to secure high strength fields w ithout the need for
extremely high currents. For exam ple, to test a w eld, it is
not necessary to m agnetize the w hole w cldm ent. The
magnetic field set up by a yoke is essentially
longitudinal to a line draw n betw een the contact points.
The m agnetic field set up by a pair o f prods is
essentially circular, o r perpendicular to a line draw n
between the contact points, as show n in Figure 4.22.
With the yoke positioned as show n in Figure 4.22(a),
the m agnetization is longitudinal and perpendicular to
the axis o f the weld. W ith the prods positioned as show n
in Figure 4.22(b), the m agnetization is circular and
parallel to the axis o f the weld. T he field set up by the
yoke is essentially longitudinal to the axis o f the w eld,
as illustrated in Figure 4.22(c). and rotated about
90 degrees for circular m agnetization.
Regardless o f the technique used for establishing the
magnetic field, it is essential to know', as near as
possible, the intensity o f the m agnetic field in the area o f
interest. T his is especially true w hen processing parts
w ith com plex shapes. Equations can be used as
reasonable estim ates for sim ple shapes, how ever,
mechanical or electronic devices are required for
com plex configurations.

Reference A
Reference B
R eference C
28 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Review Q uestions
4.1 W hen using a central conductor, placem ent o f
the cylinder in the field o f the central conductor
is critical because:
a. the m agnetic field o f the central conductor is
sym m etrical.
b. the strength o f the m agnetic field is greatest
at the surface o f the conductor.
c. the strength o f the m agnetic field is the sam e
the length o f the central conductor.
d. all o f the above.
4.2 Direct current is used in:
a. m ost w et horizontal units.
b. m ost portable units.
c. m ost yokes.
d. all o f the above.
4.3 W hen the current is passed through a part:
a. the m agnetic field is perpendicular to the
current flow.
b. the m agnetic field is uniform for all sections
o f the part.
c. the m agnetic field current density is uniform
in all sections o f the part.
d. none o f the above are true.
4.4 T he lines o f flux or force in a circularly
m agnetized ferrom agnetic bar:
a. are aligned through the piece from the south
to the north pole.
b. are aligned through the piece from the north
to the south pole.
c. leave the south pole and enter the north pole.
d. are contained w ithin and around the part.
4.5 W hen com paring the m agnetic fields surrounding
a hollow conductor and a solid conductor o f the
sam e size, sam e diam eter and w ith the sam e
current passing through them , the external
m agnetic field surrounding a solid conductor is:
a. not com parable to that o f the hollow
conductor.
b. greater than that o f the hollow conductor
because there is m ore metal.
c. about the sam e as the hollow conductor
field.
d. nonlinear.
4.6 The type o f m agnetization in w hich current is
passed directly through the part, thereby setting
up a m agnetic field at right angles to the current
flow is called:
a. longitudinal m agnetization.
b. coil m agnetization.
c. central conductor m agnetization.
d. all o f the above.
e. none o f the above.
4.7 W hich o f the follow ing is F A L S E concerning a
m agnetic field in and around a hollow conductor
as com pared to that o f a solid conductor o f the
sam e outside diam eter w hen both are o f the same
m agnetic m aterial and w hen the applied current
is the sam e?
a. T he field im m ediately outside the outer
surface o f the hollow co nductor is greater.
b. The field gradient inside the hollow
conductor is steeper.
c. T he fields outside the conductors are the
same.
d. T he fields are the sam e at the center.
4.8 T he field in a section o f ferrom agnetic pipe that
is m agnetized by a central conductor is strongest
at the:
a. ends o f the pipe.
b. outer surface o f the pipe.
c. inside surface o f the pipe.
d. m iddle o f the pipe wall.
4.9 W hen m agnetizing a 38 m m ( 1.5 in.) outside
d iam eter tube w ith a 3 m m (0.13 in.) wall
thickness using direct conduction and direct
current at 1500 A. the field strength at the
internal diam eter is:
a. 0.
b. the sam e as at the outside diam eter.
c. 50 percent o f the theoretical field strength.
d. none o f the above.
4 .10 The external m agnetic field surrounding a
ferrom agnetic co n d u cto r i s ________the field
surrounding a nonferrous conductor o f the same
size and w ith the sam e current.
a. about the sam e as
b. greater than (because there is m ore m etal)
c. not com parable to
d. nonlinear to
 C hapter 4 - Field Strength and D istribution / 29

4 .11 T he m agnetic field at the surface o f a conductor 4.16 F igure 4.23 show s a ring form ed from 75 mm
carrying alternating current i s ________ the field (3 in.) diam eter bar stock. The ring is 419 mm
in a conductor carrying direct current. (16.5 in.) in diam eter. T he current required to
a. about the sam e as m agnetize the ring is (use equations in
b. greater than C hapter 4):
c. not com parable to a. 1000 A.
d. nonlinear to b. 3000 A.
c. 5500 A.
4.12 A cylindrical part is to be tested using circular d. 16 500 A.
m agnetization. T he part has three different
diam eters along its length. A rule-of-thum b for
current values for each diam eter provides three
current levels. T he current value that should be
applied first is:
a. the highest value.
b. the m edian value.
c. the low est value.
d. it does not m atter w hich is applied first.

4.13 W hen a square b ar is circularly m agnetized, the

field strength: 4 . 17 In Figure 4.17 the m agnetic flux in the 75 mm
a. rem ains uniform through the cross section o f (3 in.) diam eter bar form ing the ring is being
the part. m agnetized in:
b. will be greater at the com ers, causing false a. the longitudinal direction.
indications. b. the circular direction.
c. will be greater at the center o f the face on c. the clockw ise direction.
each side o f the square. d. none o f the above.
d. is relatively unim portant w hen selecting the
proper current. 4.18 A bar that is 50 mm (2 in.) by 100 mm (4 in.) by
e. is inversely proportional to the current 305 m m (12 in.) is being m agnetized in the
density. circular direction. The am perage required using
the perim eter approach is:
4 . 14 The 1000 A per 25 m m (1 in .) diam eter rule can a. 2200 A.
be applied: b. 4500 A.
a. only to parts that are to be longitudinally c. 3800 A.
m agnetized. d. none o f the above.
b. only to parts that are to be circularly
m agnetized. 4.19 In Figure 4.23. the type o f m agnetism being
c. only to solid cylindrical parts that are to be applied to the ring is:
circularly m agnetized. a. direct circular.
d. only to hollow cylindrical parts that are to be b. indirect circular.
circularly m agnetized. c. longitudinal.
e. to round, square, rectangular or shaped parts d. all o f the above.
if the diagonal dim ension is considered.
4 .20 W hen a yoke is used, as in Figure 4.22(a). the
4.15 W hen calculating the am perage for odd-shaped, resulting m agnetic field is a:
nonsym m etrical parts, consideration m ust be a. circular field.
m ade for: b. longitudinal field.
a. cross section and length. c. depends on placem ent o f the contacts.
b. cross section and configuration. d. none o f the above.
c. configuration and past m agnetic history.
d. past m agnetic history o f the part.
30 / A SN T Level i l l Stu dy Guide: M agnetic P article Testing

4.21 In Figure 4.24, a disk is being m agnetized. T he 4.26 A five-turn coil will be used on a part that is
disk is made o f a plate 25 mm ( I in.) thick and 457 m m (18 in.) long and 38 m m (1.5 in.) in
the diam eter is 133 mm (5.3 in.). T he am ount o f diam eter. W hat is the length-to-diam eter ratio o f
current required for circular m agnetization is: the part if 5000 A o f m agnetizing current is
a. 6000 A. used?
b. 4000 A. a. 90
c. 8000 A. b. 12
d. none o f the above. c. 16.5
d. 1.8
e. N one o f the above.

O ne disadvantage o f using a perm anent m agnet

for m agnetic particle testing inspections is that:
a. perm anent m agnets o f practical size prov ide
relatively low m agnetic flux levels.
b. perm anent m agnets are portable and handy
to use.
c. perm anent m agnets require no electrical
4.22 A ring can be circularly m agnetized: power.
a. in a coil. d. perm anent m agnets can induce flux fields
b. betw een the heads. with easily controlled flux densities.
c. by using a coil and an iron core.
d. by all o f the above. 4.28 The best type o f current for delecting fatigue
cracks is:
4.23 The recom m ended am perage range per 25 mm a. h alf w ave direct current.
( I in.) o f diam eter generally used for circular b. alternating current.
m agnetization o f parts using a direct current c. direct current.
source is: d. HAWK.
a. 500 to 700 A.
b. 800 to 1000 A.
c. 1200 to 1400 A.
d. the m axim um available to ensure total
m agnetization.

4.24 How m any turns o f a coil will be needed to

establish a longitudinal field in a steel shaft that
is 229 mm (9 in.) long with 75 mm (3 in.)
diam eter? A m agnetizing current o f 3000 A is
available and it is desired to m agnetize the part
in accordance with the form ula
N l = 45 (KM)K U D ).
a. I
b. 3
c. 5
d. 7

4.25 How m any am pere turns are required to

m agnetize a part that is 406 mm (16 in.) long
and 50 m m (2 in.) in diam eter?
a. 9000 am pere turns
b. 5625 am pere turns
c. 2812 am pere turns
d. 40 am pere turns
e. None o f the above.
 Chapter 5
Magnetic Field Direction and Intensity

quantitative indicator o f field strength. T he actual

Direction and Intensity
The direction and intensity o f a m agnetic field is very
important in determ ining if discontinuities can be
detected. If the field intensity is too low or the direction
is incorrect, indications will not he form ed. II the field
intensity is too high, nonrelevant indications may be
formed that could m ask relevant indications and increase
the exam ination tim e needed to evaluate the nonrelevant
indications. Because there is no practical way to m easure
the actual strength or direction o f the internal m agnetic
field (the m agnetic field w ithin the part), it is necessary
to evaluate the features o f the external m agnetic field.
Any device inserted into the part to m easure the internal
field produces a discontinuity and the field m easured is
essentially an external field in a gap. Therefore, all
devices used to determ ine internal field strength m easure
the external field. O f all the devices available, the Hall
effect device com es the closest to m easuring the actual
internal field.
External M agnetic Field
M easurem ent
External fields produced by a m agnetized part are
residual field in ferrom agnetic m aterial will be less than
w hen the current is flowing. In nonferrom agnetic parts
the m agnetic field is 0 when the current is not flow ing.
In both instances an indication will show' on the
pie gage.
T he pie gage is fabricated from eight pieces o f very
low retentitivity ferrous m aterial that are shaped like pie
slices. T he pieces are brazed together and attached to a
handle as show n in Figure 5.1. T he braze lines are
discontinuities betw een the w edge sections. W hen the
pie gage is placed against a part being m agnetized,
indications are form ed on tire copper plating or shim.
T he brazed section show ing the strongest indication is
the one that is m ost perpendicular to the m agnetic flux.
Pie gages are placed fiat on the section o f the part
being m agnetized. T he current and solution are applied
in the norm al m anner and the indications form ed at the
junction betw een the pie sections are observed. T he field
direction is roughly 90 degrees to the strongest
indications. The residual field in the pie gage is not a
m easure o f the residual field in the part, nor is it a
Figure 5.1: Pie g age
Eight low carbo n steel pie

evaluated by one o f the follow ing devices: field .ections furnac 3 b razed
o g e th e r & copp >er plated
indicators, pie gages, shim s. Hall effect m eters or other
devices. Because these devices are affected solely by the ?
external field surrounding the m agnetized object,
ferrom agnetic and nonferrom agnetic fields are indicated
as the current is flow ing. T hese devices are used
3/4" to 1 "

(1.91 to
A t / \

7 (\
extensively when developing technique cards and
sparingly for verification purposes for each setup. / / I

Field Indicators
Field indicators are sm all handheld devices used to A / M
Monferrous handles
m easure the external residual field after dem agnetization.
}f con venient
They norm ally read in tesla (gauss) and are reasonably
accurate to 0.002 T (20 G). Field indicators norm ally
read from ±0.001 T (0 to ±10 G ) or ±0.002 T (0 to 1/32" M ax
t x ength and sh a p e

Nonfe rrous tru n io n s

■ (0 .0 7 9 cm )

I
±20 G). - C o p p e r sh im
. f
Pie Gages 0 .1 2 6 O // I
The pie gage w as developed in G erm any to indicate
the direction o f a m agnetic field— it is not a good t -------------

31
32 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic Particle Testing

Figure 5.2: Basic shim configuration (AS 5371)

f~7w
y~pr ~ y ~ }j .••• / CZ>:
S e c tio n A -A S ection B-B S ection C -C

m easure o f the part's field intensity. The pie gage m ust

be dem agnetized follow ing each use.

Shims
These devices are thin, low -retentivity ferrom agnetic
indicators that have been w idely used in Japan for som e
tim e. Use o f the shim is grow ing in the U nited States as
a result o f new fabrication technology, an im petus for
m ore accurate, easier-to-apply techniques and the quest
for a m ore universal indicator. Figure 5.2 illustrates three
basic notch configurations. The notches illustrated are
controlled by Society o f A utom otive E ngineers
specification AS 5 3 7 1 and usage is specified in
A STM F 1444. The shim s are norm ally bonded or glued
to the part, with the notches facing the part. D epending
on the method o f attachm ent and the care w ith which
they are rem oved, they may be used m ore than once.
Shim s can be used on any part configuration as long as m eets the 0.003 to 0.006 T (30 to 60 G) required. The
they can be placed in contact with the surface o f the part probe is placed on the part perpendicular to the part
being m agnetized. Several shim s can be used at the sam e surface. (See A STM Ei 1444. A nnex X 3.) It should be
tim e on various sections o f the part. These devices are a understood that this device only m easures external field
relatively good indicator o f field strength and a good that passes through the elem ent.
indicator o f direction. T he relationship o f the external field and the voltage
generated is given by:
Hall Effect M eter (Gauss Meter)
In the early 1900s. Edw in Hall noticed that som e v _ V fl,
m aterials developed a potential difference \'H at right b
angles to both the current / passing through the material
and an externally applied m agnetic field R (Figure 5.3). E q u a tio n 1 3
This production o f an electrom otive force w ithin a
conductor o r sem iconductor through w hich a current is where:
flow ing w hen there is a strong transverse m agnetic field VH = potential difference.
is the Hall effect. An elem ent reacting in this m an n er is / applied direct current.
the heart o f the H all effect probe. B com ponent o f applied field at right angle
The Hall device is a very effective technique for to current (W b /n r).
m easuring the tangential or norm al field direction and b thickness o f Hall elem ent in field
intensity when m agnetizing a part. However, only direction.
tangential or norm al field direction and intensity should R„ = Hall coefficient.
be m easured when determ ining if the field intensity
 C hapter 5 - M agnetic Field D irection and Intensity / 33

It can be seen from Figure 5.3 that the face o f the

probe m ust be perpendicular to the field being m easured.
Positioning is critical. C are m ust be exercised when
using these devices to ensure that the probe (elem ent) is
perpendicular to the m agnetic flux o f the part and on the
surface o f the part. T his may require repositioning the
probe to ensure proper field orientation and a strength o f
0.003 to 0.006 T (30 to 60 G).

Other Devices
O ther devices that can be used to m easure external
fields are sim ilarly configured parts w ith discontinuities
in critical locations, other shim configurations,
m agnetom eters and flux m eters. N one are com m only
used.

R eference B
R eference C
R eference E
34 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing

Review Q uestions

5.1 An estim ate o f the direction and intensity o f the

m agnetic field is N O T determ ined by:
a. the pie gage.
b. shims.
c. Hall effect m eter (G auss meter).
d. a field indicator.

5.2 The pie gage is so nam ed because:

a. it is m ade from soft steel.
b. the readings are m ushy and not predictable.
c. it is m ade o f pie-shaped sections.
d. it is round and fiat.

5.3 Shim s are:

a. sm all, thin devices used to ensure good
contact betw een the head plates and the part.
b. small thin devices used to separate parts on a
central conductor to keep them from
touching the conductor.
c. sm all, thin devices used to determ ine if
particles are still acceptable.
d. sm all, thin devices used to indicate field
direction and to som e extent intensity.

5.4 A Hall effect m eter is used to:

a. show the direction o f current flow.
b. show field direction and intensity.
c. set the unit's tim ing device.
d. show that the particle concentration level is
acceptable.

5.5 Shim s are to be used:

a. w ith the sm ooth side adjacent to the part.
b. with the grooved side adjacent to the part.
c. with either the sm ooth or the grooved side
adjacent to the part.
d. w hen all other devices will not work.
 Chapter 6
Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment
Introduction
The best source o f data about specific test equipm ent
is from the equipm ent supplier. A lso, data can be
obtained from equipm ent show s, industry specifications
and m ilitary specifications. The A SN T N D T Level III
should evaluate specification sheets carefully to
determ ine w hat equipm ent is needed to satisfy the
em ployer's quality requirem ents.
Portable Equipm ent
Portable pow er supplies are m anufactured as small
units that can be carried by hand and as larger units
(mobile units) that are norm ally attached to w heels and
pushed o r tow ed from place to place.
Stationary and portable pow er supplies (except for
perm anent m agnets) are designed to produce low voltage
and high current. O hm ’s law show s the relationship o f
current and voltage, as follow s:
V = IR
E quation 14
where:
/ = current (am peres),
V = voltage (volts),
R = resistance (ohm s).
T herefore, the total circuit resistance— cables,
connectors, etc.— m ust be very low. At low resistance
levels, all term inals m ust be clean and tight. External
cables act as resistors and cause line voltage drop, w hich
is m easured in ohm s per m eter (feet). T he longer the
cable, the more resistance that exists and less am perage
is available fo r m agnetizing the part. A lternating current
coiled and crossed cables act as inductors and further
reduce current flow. T herefore, it is advisable to keep the
cable as short as practical.
Perm anent M agnet Yokes
Perm anent m agnet yokes are infrequently used during
m agnetic particle testing inspections. T heir field strength
is low w hen com pared to that o f an electrom agnetic
yoke. They are valuable for perform ing inspections
w here there is no available electric pow er and in
explosive environm ents w here only special electrical
equipm ent can be used. A wet technique w ith a squeeze
bottle or spray can o f particles is generally used in
conjunction with perm anent m agnets. Yokes are
norm ally used on sm all localized areas and are not
recom m ended for general inspection applications.
Electrom agnetic Yokes
T he electrom agnetic yoke is a practical item with
m any applications. Its use is rapidly expanding,
especially for field inspections and w here sm all areas of
large parts are being inspected. Yokes create a field
prim arily along a line betw een the poles (Figure 4.22).
T hey are safe for use on heat-treated parts because they
will not burn the test surface. Yokes provide either
alternating currenl or alternating cu rren t/h alfw av e direct
current output from 120 V, or 240 V alternating currenl
single phase. T he direct current yoke is useful for weld
inspection because it provides adequate penetration w ith
eith er half w ave direct currenl o r pulsed direct current.
E lectrom agnetic yokes can be used w ith either dry or
w et particle techniques. Most yokes are also equipped
with alternating current, w hich can be used for either
dem agnetization with dry particle techniques or for
alternating current inspection. Som e yokes have
articulated legs that can be adjusted to change the
distance betw een the legs, w hich varies the flux density.
Such articulation also provides an adjustm ent to fit
com plex shapes. For m axim um effectiveness the legs
m ust be in good contact with the part.
An auxiliary' unit that is som etim es used with yokes is
a preform ed coil m olded in rubber. The yoke and coil are
supplied either individually or in a kit, which includes a
carrying case with room for spray cans, dry powder,
tow els and other small, useful items.
Prods
Prods that apply current to the m etal surface are
typically 19 mm (0.75 in.) diam eter copper bars that are
152 to 203 mm (6 to 8 in.) long to w hich a handle and
cable are fastened. O ne prod has a trigger sw itch that
applies the current. M aterials that are heat treated to high
strength and m aterials w ith very sm ooth or bright
finishes should not be tested with prods because o f (he
possibility o f arcing or burning.
36 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
The surface o f the prod tip should be inspected
frequently and all scale and pits should be rem oved w ith
a file. The tips should alw ays be bright, w hich reduces
arcing to a m inim um and provides a m axim um ,
low -resistance contacting area. Dual prods, in w hich
both prods are m ounted on a single handle, are also
available. A dual prod allow s the inspector to hold both
prods with one hand w hile the other is free to apply
pow der or wet suspension. The dual prod is m ost
frequently used on w eld inspections.
Coils
Coils are cables w rapped around the test p an . T hey
can be preform ed or m ade with flexible cables. Wet
horizontal m agnetic units norm ally have a preform ed,
copper b ar enclosed w ith a nonferrom agnetic m aterial.
T hese coils are norm ally five turns. C ables wrapped
around the part are m ade w ith the num ber o f turns
required to produce the proper flux density w hile using a
m inim um am ount o f cable. A m perage is norm ally
expressed in am peres o r am pere turns. A m pere turns is
the m agnetizing current as show n on the am p meter,
tim es the num ber o f turns. For exam ple. 3000 am pere
turns can be obtained with a three-turn coil carrying
1000 A. o r a five-turn coil carrying 600 A. N orm ally the
w raps are kept as close together as possible.
Other Devices
C urrent is also applied using other devices such as
m agnetic contacts (leeches) and spring or screw' clam ps,
when an edge is available. These devices are used for
special applications and are usually used w ith a portable
or m obile pow er supply.
Portable Power Supplies
Portable pow er supplies require cables and contact
devices to apply the pow er for m agnetization. The cables
used are norm ally 00 (2/0) extra flexible and ()()()() (4/0)
extra flexible cable w ith connectors covered w ith rubber.
The 4/0 cables are recom m ended to carry the current
from the m achine to the inspection area: 00 cables can
then be used to form coils or to be attached to the prods.
G enerally, a m axim um o f about 9 m (30 ft) o f cable
length can be used w ith a pow er supply and still provide
current w ithin 100 to 150 A o f its m axim um rated
output. W hen alternating current output is being used,
the cables should be kept at least 457 mm (18 in.) apart
to m inim ize im pedance losses resulting from mutual
induction. The cables should not form loops o r coils
because large drops in line voltage will occur due to
im pedance losses.
The small portable pow er supply can be carried by
hand and operates on either 120 V or 240 V circuits.
D epending on the m odel, these units provide up to
1500 A o f half w'ave direct current or alternating current
m agnetizing pow er. O utput o f the sm aller units are
norm ally rated w ith 4.5 m (15 ft) o f 4 /0 cable. L onger or
sm aller diam eter cables are m ore resistive and. therefore,
reduce the am perage available for m agnetizing the part.
T hese portable units can be handled by one person
clim bing up a ladder, and will fit through a ITS. Navy
specification m anhole. They are designed to be used
w ith flexible cables attached lit prods, clam ps, central
conductors or preform ed coils. A lso, the portable pow er
supplies can be used w ith a sm all bench to provide an
inexpensive horizontal unit that can be used w ith cither
w et o r dry particles.
Mobile Power Supplies
Because o f their w eight, the larger m obile units are
m ounted on w heels and are tow ed or rolled w here
needed. T hese units norm ally operate on 240 or 480 V
alternating current circuits and provide both alternating
c u n e n t and half w ave direct current output up to 6000 A.
M obile units are rated for their m axim um output using,
norm ally. 9 m (30 ft) o f 4 /0 cable. L onger or sm aller
diam eter cables are m ore resistive and reduce the
am perage available for m agnetizing the part. These units
can be used with m odular bench units, but it is not a
com m on practice.
W here m obile pow er supplies are to be used, a survey
o f the pow er receptacles throughout the facility should
be m ade to ensure they are properly located, adequate in
size and all o f a standard configuration.
Ancillary Equipment
Portable kits include spray cans o f m agnetic particle
aerosol suspensions, pow der b low er bulbs and dry
pow der. Solvents and other cleaning m aterials are also
included in m ost portable kits.
M agnetic rubber kits are com m ercially available. In
addition to all o f the necessary supplies and equipm ent,
they contain m olding clay for m aking dam s around a test
area, and m agnetizing yokes with adjustable current
input.
R eference B
R eference C
Heavy Duty Equipm ent
Stationary equipm ent is usually referred to as heavy
duty because o f its size and output capabilities. Pow er
supplies, bench equipm ent, m ultidirectional units,
autom atic units and special purpose units are all
m anufactured in heavy duty styles.
 C hapter 6 - M agnetic Particle Testing and E quipm ent / 37
Power Supplies
A large range o f heavy duty pow er supplies that
generate up to 20 000 A full w ave direct current output
can be purchased. T hese types o f units have an input o f
240/480 V three phase alternating current pow er w ith an
input current o f 100 A per phase o r more. T hey can be
used for cable inspection in the norm al m anner and
provide a basic pow er supply that can be shared with a
num ber o f autom atic units o r special application
m agnetizers. T hese units are used prim arily w ith large
stationary and special equipm ent designed to test large,
heavy parts.
Personnel with the responsibility lo purchase a large
pow er supply should be sure that the proposed w ork area
has a sufficient pow er source with the proper phase,
voltage and capacity.
Bench Equipm ent
Bench m achines are designed to be used prim arily as
wet general purpose equipm ent. They are rugged
production m achines that are especially useful for batch
lots w here a fully autom atic m achine is not econom ical.
The bench m achine consists o f a tank that collects and
holds the m agnetic suspension and a pum p that
recirculates the suspension and delivers it to a hose at
bench level. D ow n the center o f the table top is a double
rail that supports the m ovable tailstock and a prew rapped
coil. The tailstock can be locked at any location. The
headstock is usually air-operated to provide a solid
contact betw een the electrodes and the part. E ither a bar
m ounted on the front o f the unit or a fo o t sw itch is
provided to operate the headstock. This frees the
o p erator’s hands to hold parts as they are clam ped
betw een the heads. T he coils on the bench m achine
usually have five turns and can be purchased in a variety
o f sizes. To accom m odate a variety o f test objects, the
coil can be positioned anyw here along the center track.
The electrical system o f the bench m achine is also
very versatile with many options that can be selected.
Input pow er required is 220 V o r 440 V alternating
current and either single phase or three phase depending
on the m odel. These units may require 100 A or m ore
per phase, depending on the desired output. For
m agnetizing, the output can be alternating current, half
w ave direct current or full w'ave direct current.
D em agnetizers are provided on all units (either standard
o r optional) and may be alternating current, reversing
direct current or both depending on the m odel. A lso,
these units may have m agnetizing capability utilizing
contact heads, coils and proprietary circuits for both
conventional and m ultidirectional m agnetization.
The sw'itch gear provides for quick changes from
alternating current to direct current, from m agnetize lo
dem agnetize and from contact to coil. T he shot tim er is
typically adjustable from 0.5 to 1.0 s. though it is usually
set betw een 0.6 and 0.9 s. Because the tim ing device
used to calibrate the tim er has an accuracy o f ±0.1 s. it is
bypassed w'hen a prod control sw itch is plugged into the
rem ote control receptacle.
Som e m agnetizing controls provide m ultiposition
sw itches to taps on the autotransform er (tap switch).
O thers have a continuous control system (rheostat) that
uses saturable reactors. Cables can be used with
stationary equipm ent by placing a noneonductive
spreader betw een the head contact plates and bolting
cables to copper contacts on each end o f the spreader.
M ost stationary m achines are equipped with a receptacle
into w hich a rem ote sw itch can be plugged. T he rem ote
sw itch circuit bypasses the shot tim er and provides
continuous operation as long as the sw itch is closed.
R eference B
Multidirectional Units
M ultidirectional units are basically w et horizontal
units that are specially designed to produce circular and
longitudinal fields in the part at the same tim e. Because
m agnetization is critical, the fields m ust be balanced
and. norm ally, special coils are used. M ultidirectional
units use full w ave direct current, h alf w ave direct
current and alternating current and are equipped w ith
reversing, decaying direct current and decaying
alternating current for dem agnetization. Output ranges
up to 20 000 A are available for standard units and
higher am perage is available for special units.
Autom atic Units
A utom atic m agnetic particle testing units are special
purpose m achines designed for the m ass inspection o f
identical item s. Som e autom atic units can be adjusted to
handle sim ilar item s o f different dim ensions. O ne o f the
m ost im portant reasons for using an autom atic m achine
is that it will provide the correct test in a reproducible
fashion.
Before an autom atic m achine is ordered, the
configuration o f the part should be available in the final
design stage. The type o f m aterial and the critical, high
stress areas m ust be know n and the m anufacturing
technique determ ined. A prototype part is necessary for a
d em onstration o f the m achine.
T he visual inspection for m agnetic particle testing
indications obtained w ith autom atic m achines is still
prim arily accom plished by inspectors. T here are some
m achines that have been developed for special
applications that provide fully autom ated inspections,
including analyses o f the detected indications. These
system s use different lighting and view ing system s that
38 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic Particle Testing

incorporate photocells connected to scanning m irrors.
Som e scanners use a laser for illum ination w here very
small discontinuities arc to he detected.
M aintenance o f autom atic m achines is an im portant
consideration. W hile the m agnetizing units are quite
rugged, autom atic m echanism s require specialized
m aintenance. If at all possible, an inhouse m aintenance
capability is desirable because the autom atic system is
usually a unique m achine. Inspection personnel rely on
autom atic system s to handle high production volum es
and when autom atic system s becom e inoperative, total
production capability can be lost.
Special Purpose Units
Special purpose units may be m anual, autom atic or
sem iautom atic m achines. They are designed for one
specific part or a class o f items. T he m agnetizing system
and handling devices are designed for specific material
or part configurations. M agnetizing features are designed
to m inim ize handling o f large or heavy parts and provide
for sufficient localized flux density to ensure that critical
discontinuities o f certain types and sizes are detected.
Specialized m achines can be designed to control the
m ethod and reproducibility level o f the test at specific
quality levels.
Reference C
Light
Light is o f prim ary im portance to the m agnetic
particle testing inspector during the testing process. The
types o f light include visible light, am bient light and
ultraviolet light. U ltraviolet light and visible light (as
applicable) are used during the testing/inspection
process: visible light is used during the evaluation
process, if needed; am bient and extraneous light are
undesirable visible light during the inspection process.
T he electrom agnetic spectrum defines radiant energy
by w avelengths from several m eters long (very long) to
w aves m illionths o f a m illim eter long (very short). For
convenience, this spectrum is divided into several
regions including long and short radio w aves,
m icrow aves (radar w aves), infrared w aves, visible
w aves, ultraviolet w aves, long and short X -rays, gam m a
rays and cosm ic rays as show n in F igure 6 . 1.
T he term light norm ally refers to the small portion o f
the electrom agnetic spectrum that includes infrared
(below red), visible and ultraviolet (above violet). The
hum an eye can detect o nly the visible portion o f the
spectrum — red through violet. Infrared and ultraviolet
are included in the light spectrum because
electrom agnetic frequencies in these regions react
prim arily the sam e to optical devices as visible light.
Longer frequencies (m icrow aves and radio w aves) do
not react in the sam e m anner to transparent optical
devices. S horter frequencies (X -rays an d gam m a rays)
penetrate these devices w ithout reaction. R adiation in
infrared, visible and ultraviolet ranges are norm ally
m easured in centim eters and are referred to as centim eter
w aves.
F requencies at the bottom end o f red are about
720 ntn and the upper end o f violet is about 400 nm.
U ltraviolet ranges from about 290 to 400 nm. w hich is a
m uch longer region than visible light.

Figure 6.1: The electrom agnetic spectrum

i “ TT i
1 11 i
i 1 IJ i
\ G am m a i X -rays i Ultra- lB Infrared i Radio
) Rays i i Violet l3 i
i r\ i
/ ' : i i i i EHF SHF IH F VI IF HF MF LF VLF
i i
i i
o.m o.i i to o.i v C ' v io too o.oi o.i t l in 100 i 10 100
nm nm nm nm /<m /<mN N //I ik //m mm mm m m m m m km km km
W avelength

380 770
nanometers
 C hap ter 6 - M agnetic Particle Testing and Equipm ent / 39
The ultraviolet region divided according its effect on
the skin includes: near field. 320 to 400 nm (UV-A);
intermediate field. 290 to 320 nm (UV-B): and far field.
230 to 290 nm (UV-C). T he portion o f the ultraviolet
range that inspection lights transm it is the near field
(UV-A). T hough this range is not considered harm ful to
the eyes o r skin, and is used clinically to treat vitam in D
deficiencies, psoriasis and other skin conditions, it is
recom m ended that exposure he lim ited, especially to the
eyes.
Ultraviolet Light
U ltraviolet lights are used in conjunction with
fluorescent particles. U ltraviolet lights norm ally consist
of a high pressure m ercury-vapor lamp, a filter and a
transformer. T he lamp provides high-intensity light w ith
a w ide spectral range that includes several spectral lines
in the ultravoilet region that peaks at 365 nm. T he filter
limits the light to 320 to 400 nm. The transform er
supplies pow er to the lamp. T he hum an eye cannot
detect radiation in this range. L am ps producing light in
this region are com m only referred to as fluorescent
lights. Som e tuhular fluorescent lights produce light in
this range.
Fluorescent m agnetic particle testing system s require
an ultraviolet light source in the above range w hen using
particles with a dye coating that absorbs light in this
region and em its visible light. T he dye on the fluorescent
m agnetic particles readily absorbs ultraviolet light in the
365 nm range and em its visible light in the green-yellow
range o f the visible spectrum (520 to 550 nm).
W hile the frequency o f the exciting source and the
em itted light determ ines the color o f the particles,
another im portant consideration involves the brightness
or intensity o f the energy radiated by the lamp. The
intensity o f the em itted light is a function o f the intensity
o f the ultraviolet source. T he intensity o f ultraviolet light
is not specified in term s o f lux (footcandles) like visible
light and the intensity cannot be m easured with visible
light m eters because o f the spectral response o f the
meters. T he intensity o f visible light is com pared to the
light produced by one candle, w hereas the intensity o f
ultraviolet light is m easured in term s o f energy.
U ltraviolet light m eters are calibrated in m icrow atts per
square centim eter (pW /cm -). T he radiation sensing
device in both the visible and ultraviolet light sensors is
basically the sam e— the difference is the spectral
response. A ccording to A STM E 1444. the intensity level
that is typically used for purchasing and m onitoring the
intensity o f ultraviolet lights is 1000 p W /c n r m inim um
at 381 mm (15 in.) from the part surface. T he tubular
lam ps used at w ash stations do not supply sufficient
energy.
T he intensity to be used is determ ined by code or
specification. The referencing docum ent is required to
determ ine correct intensity. M any specifications require
a m inim um intensity o f 1200 p W /c n r at the test surface
w hereas MIL-1 landbook-333 U SA F recom m ends
1500 p W /c n r . T hese recom m endations have an
econom ical advantage because an aging light that is
losing its intensity m ay be held closer than 381 mm (15
in.) to the test surface and still produce the proper
lighting. W ith regard to the data in specifications and
som e publications, m ost inspectors hold the light less
than 381 m m (15 in.) from the part for inspections. The
intensity o f a good ultraviolet light at 127 mm (5 in.) can
exceed 5000 p W /c n r in a dark area.
All specifications require a daily inspection o f the
filter for cleanliness and integrity (cracks, chips, etc.).
T his is an im portant requirem ent because cracked and/or
chipped filters may leak visible light and dilute the
integrity o f the evaluation.
It is also im portant that the ultraviolet light does not
em it an excessive am ount o f visible light. Som e
com panies require that the visible light em itted by an
ultraviolet light be m easured and lim its have been
established.
T he I00W mercury' vapor lamp bulb used for testing
is a prefocused spot bulb with a m edium screw base. A
transform er m ust be used w ith this bulb to provide the
proper voltage. A 400W ultraviolet light is available and
is good for illum inating the entire inspection booth to an
acceptable intensity level.
Visible Light
W hen using visible dye particles (red. black, etc.) the
light intensity m ust be bright enough to see the
indication but not so bright that glare from the test
surface o r reflections from nearby objects or structures
interfere w ith results. Per A STM E 1444 the norm ally
accepted m inim um intensity is 1000 Ix (100 ftc). There
is no established m axim um .
A lso per E 1444, visible light (1000 Ix. 100 ftc) is
required in the area to aid in the evaluation o f indications
w hen using fluorescent particles.
A m bient Light
A m bient light (background light) should be as low as
possible. The m axim um acceptable am bient light for
m ost specifications is 20 Ix (2 ftc) at the test surface,
m easured w ith the ultraviolet light on. A hooded booth in
a shop area should have no light leaks that w ould distract
the inspector o r otherw ise interfere w ith the inspection
process. A sm all am ount o f light in the inspector's line
o f sight could adversely affect the inspector’s eyes or be
a distraction.
4(1 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing

Extraneous Light
Light from sources such as reflections, holes in
curtains or w alls and other sources, m ust he kept to a
m inim um and under no circum stances should they
interfere w ith the inspection or distract the inspector.

R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
 C hapter 6 - M agnetic Particle Testing and Equipm ent / 41

Review Q uestions 6.6 It is norm al procedure to use three cable wraps

with alternating current/direct current portable
6.1 A SN T N D T Level 111 personnel should be and m obile pow er supplies for longitudinal
capable o f evaluating m agnetic p an icle testing m agnetization. A 1000 A output m achine can
equipm ent for the capabilities that meet their provide 5000 am pere turns w ith five w raps using
requirem ents. T hese data are obtained from: direct current. This capability is not used
a. suppliers' specification sheets. because:
b. m ilitary specifications. a. standard practices dictate a m axim um o f
c. equipm ent shows. three turns.
d. all o f the above. b. the cable is usually too short for more than
three turns.
6.2 The prim ary advantage o f a perm anent m agnet c. the sam e m achine could not be used to
yoke is that it: dem agnetize the part because the im pedance
a. needs no power. due to the self-induction o f a five-turn coil
b. is portable. w ould lim it the alternating current to less
c. can be used with the wet continuous m ethod. than 1000 A.
d. can be used w ith the dry continuous m ethod. d. it is not true that a five-turn coil can produce
5000 am pere turns with 1000 A direct
6.3 A lternating current/direct current yokes designed current.
lor 6 A on alternating current will require how-
m uch current on direct current? 6.7 Prods should not be used:
a. 6 A a. on m etal heat treated to a high strength
b. 12 A condition.
c. 60 A b. on m aterial w ith a sm ooth finish.
d. 120 A c. if the prod lips are dull.
d. on any o f the above.
6.4 Som e yokes have flexible legs and no input or
output current control. T he flux density in the 6.8 O ne o f the problem s in the use o f pow er supplies
metal being m agnetized w ith such yokes: and cables is the line drop produced by the
a. depends on w hether the poles are m aking a cables. T he resistance o f the cables can be
good contact. m inim ized by:
b. depends on the distance betw een the poles. a. coiling the cables to m ake them shorter.
c. both a and b above. b. rem oving all coils and keeping them at least
d. cannot be changed because the yoke alw ays 457 mm (18 in.) apart if alternating current
puts out the sam e am ount o f flux. is used.
c. spacing the prods closer together.
6.5 3000 am pere turns are being provided by a d. using larger coils.
portable 220 V pow er supply and a cable wrap.
To provide the sam e am ount o f m agnetism , a 6.9 T he current shot tinier on a bench m agnetizer is
prew ound coil w ith an output o f 120 V at 6 A typically set from:
w ould require: a. 0.2 to 0.5 s.
a. 27 turns. b. 0.5 to 1.0 s.
b. 36 turns. c. I .0 to 1.5 s.
e. 500 turns, d. a variable interval.
d. 720 turns.
6.10 T he glass filter used with m ercury-vapor
ultraviolet lights provides peak transm ission
nearest:
a. 256 nm.
b. 356 nm.
c. 365 nm.
d. 555 nm.
e. none o f the above.
42 / A SN T Level Hi Stu dy G uide: M agn etic P article Testing

6 . 11 For detecting sm all indications, per A STM
E-1444. the com m only recom m ended m inim um
ultraviolet light intensity at the test surface is:
a. 900 pW /cm - at the part surface,
h. 1000 p W /c n r at the part surface.
c. 2000 p W /c n r at the part surface.
d. 3000 p W /cm - at the part surface.
6 . 12 The latest revision o f specification
ASTM E 1444 requires that the w hite light
intensity for testing with visible m agnetic
particles be:
a. 900 lx (90 ftc) at the lest surface.
b. 1000 lx (100 ftc) at the lest surface.
c. 1250 lx ( 125 ftc) at the test surface.
d. 2000 lx (200 ftc) at the test surface.
6.13 Heavy duly pow er supplies are norm ally used
with:
a. special equipm ent.
b. large stationary units.
c. cables.
d. all o f the above.
6.17 W hen m agnetizing with m ultidirectional
equipm ent:
a. the currenl is applied in both directions at
the sam e tim e.
b. the current m ust be balanced for both the
longitudinal and the circu lar m agnetizations.
c. it is not critical that the fields be balanced.
d. the current m ust be on when the particles are
applied.
6.18 W hen using an ultraviolet light, am bient light:
a. is the visible light background in the review
areas.
b. m ust be m aintained at 20 lx (2 ftc) or less.
c. reduces the visibility o f fluorescent
indications.
d. all o f the above.

Bench units are designed to be used prim arily as

a. w et units.
b. batch lots.
c. nonautom ated units.
d. all o f the above.

A utom ated equipm ent is designed:

a. for sim ilar parts o f different dim ensions.
b. to test interm ixed m ultiple configurations.
c. to reduce costs by elim inating an operator.
d. for the testing o f noncritical parts.

M ultidirectional equipm ent:

a. requires the part to be tested betw een
longitudinal and circular m agnetization.
b. does not require separate testing betw een
longitudinal and circular m agnetization.
c. uses half w ave direct current and full w ave
direct current only.
d. cannot be used for dem agnetization o f parts
that have been m agnetized in both
directions.
 Chapter 7
Magnetic Particle Testing Materials
Inspection M aterials
Inspection m aterials consist o f the particles and the
suspension liquid for wet applications. Both are critical,
must be controlled and m ust m eet the requirem ents
specified in the A erospace M aterials Specifications
docum ents listed in A STM E 1444. T hey are used dry or
mixed in a carrier to form a suspension (carrier +
particles).
Magnetic Particles
M agnetic particles m e very fine ferrom agnetic
particles with low retentivity, low coercive force and as
high a perm eability as practical. They are specially
prepared and dyed to increase contrast and visibility.
M ultiple colored particles are used under visible light
whereas fluorescent colored particles are used under
ultraviolet light. Particles are supplied in dry pow der
form for dry applications, m ixed in a carrier for wet
applications as a paste, or in concentrates. The properties
o f m agnetic particles that affect their ability to form
indications are: size (dim ension), shape (elongated o r
globular), density (w eight per unit volum e) and m agnetic
characteristics (perm eability and retentivity).
M agnetic particles are ju s t as im portant as the proper
m agnetizing equipm ent and m agnetizing techniques.
Powders that are not sensitive enough arc too m obile and
will not properly form indications. E xcessive clum ping
prevents the m agnetic particles from m oving readily to
leakage fields and form ing indications.
The advantages and disadvantages o f each m ust be
considered depending on the application. T he A SN T
N D T Level III m ust understand these variables, be able
to choose suitable particles and ensure that they are
providing the desired sensitivity and reliability.
Dry Particles
Dry m agnetic particles are required to have the
necessary m agnetic properties and m ust be light and
mobile. If pow der consists only o f elongated particles, it
will not be free flow ing; therefore, globular particles
must also be used. If the particles are too fine they cause
false indications or too m uch background, m asking
indications. If they are too large, the leakage fields will
not hold the particle. In actual application, the fine
globular particles link tog eth er lo form elongated chains.
The best m eans for providing m obility to dry pow ders is
43
to use pulsating m agnetic fields such as half w ave direct
current.
Wet Particles
Wet particles should have the sam e basic properties
as dry particles, but because they are suspended in a
light oil. w ater or other suitable and approved carrier,
they can be m ade o f even finer pow ders. The sm aller
particles still link up in chains because o f their m agnetic
properties.
Pastes
In the past, m agnetic particles w ere m illed in oil to
get the proper size and consistency. It w as difficult to
break this paste dow n and work it into a heavy slurry
(w ithout lum ps) that could be m ixed w ith the light
distillate carrier. Since the developm ent o f dry pow der
concentrates, many suppliers no longer produce pastes.
Concentrates
M agnetic particles used in concentrates are coated
w ith w etting agents that allow them to com bine readily
w ith the carrier. T he particles are received in pow der
form and can be poured directly into the tank o f the
m achine at the pum p inlet w ithout prem ixing. Som e
particles can be used in both oil and w ater if a wetting
agent, usually a type o f detergent, is added to the water.
C haracteristics and Control of
M agnetic Particles
T he basic characteristics o f m agnetic particles are
size, shape, density, contrast and visibility, and
perm eability and retentivity.
Size
M agnetic particles are produced in a range o f sizes so
they w ill be attracted to different leakage field strengths,
rem ain in the leakage field, and not cause false
indications. M agnetic particles used in w'et system s
range in size from 60 to 40 p m (about 0.0025 to
0.0015 in.). They can be as fine as 0.125 pm
(0.000005 in.).
4 4 /A S N T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Shape
T he shape o f the particle is im portant. E longated
particles can have length-to-distance ratios sufficient
enough to result in m agnetic polarization. Spherically
shaped particles do not tend to clum p together because
definite poles are not form ed and sustained. A m ixture o f
spherical and elongated particles provides adequate
m obility and the ability to bridge sm all leakage fields,
thus form ing visible indications.
Density
The density o f m agnetic particles affects m obility.
T he m etallic and oxide types o f pow der are about seven
tim es as dense as water; therefore, in w ater and oil baths,
the particles will settle out if not agitated. H ow ever, if
the viscosity o f the carrier is too high the m obility o f the
particles may be inhibited. T herefore, the com bination o f
size, shape and density of the particles com bined with
the viscosity o f the suspending carrier m ust be
considered, as well as the type o f m agnetization used.
Light oil carriers are quite com patible with 60 cycle
alternating current and the 0.5 and 1.0 s interval o f the
stationary m agnetizers. On the other hand, m agnetic
rubber, because o f its high viscosity, m ay require 10 to
30 m inutes o f m agnetizing tim e. A ir-suspended pow ders
can form indications alm ost im m ediately because their
m obility in air is practically uninhibited.
Contrast and Visibility
C onditions o f high contrast provide the best visibility
for the human eye. Black print against a w hite page is an
exam ple o f a high contrast system . W hile and gray
pow ders on the silvery gray of a sand casting are
difficult to see. but red pow ders provide good contrast.
Som e form s o f iron oxide are naturally black w hereas
others are reddish. Som e suppliers coat their particles
with brilliantly colored dyes to provide even better
contrast than the natural colors.
Particles coated with fluorescent dye provide
m axim um contrast because the dye, when placed under
ultraviolet light, em its visible light. T he ultraviolet light
produces very little background visible light. W hen used
in a darkened area it produces very high contrast. The
background will not be totally dark because the particles
suspended in a slurry provide a general low level
background fluorescence. This is relatively dim when
com pared w ith the brightness o f an indication.
Fluorescent dyes produce low level background
fluorescence because:
I. T he background is covered with a thin coating o f
particles that provides a brightness level near the
brightness threshold o f the human eye. H igher
particle concentrations provide a brighter background.
2. T he single photon o f light from one atom o f dye can
cause o th er nearby atom s o f dye to fluoresce and
boost the overall brightness. In a slurry', the m agnetic
particles are relatively farther apart than when
clinging to a leakage field, m inim izing the boosting
affect o f proximity.
M agnetic Perm eability and Retentivity
T he tw o main characteristics o f all ferrom agnetic
m aterials are perm eability and retentivity. Perm eability is
the ease w ith w hich a m aterial can be m agnetized and
retentivity is the ability o f the m aterial to retain residual
m agnetization.
T he hysteresis curves o f bulk pow der pressed into
tubular holders is sim ilar to the curve discussed in
Figure 2.6, C hapter 2. except the loop is alm ost closed.
Particles w'ith high retentivity (identified by open curves)
are easily m agnetized. Low retentivity (identified by an
alm ost closed loop) allow s the particles to be easily
rem oved from the test o bject because very little
m agnetization is retained. A disadvantage o f low
retentivity particles is that an indication might slide o ff a
test surface. T his is especially true with alternating
current m agnetization, w hich leaves so little residual
m agnetism that strong indications m ay not be held. To
counteract these conditions, inspections should be
perform ed during the m agnetizing cycle. S om etim es a
long m agnetizing tim e is required to com plete the
inspection.
Wet red pow der builds a larger indication than
fluorescent pow der during the sam e length o f tim e. The
slope o f the w et red pow der hysteresis curve is steeper
than that o f the fluorescent pow der, w hich indicates that
it absorbs m agnetism faster and has a higher attraction to
a leakage field. A lso, because the concentration o f a
visible pow der is about ten tim es greater than that o f a
fluorescent pow der, there are ten tim es m ore visible
particles near a leakage field that can be attracted to
form a larger indication.
T he concentration and higher perm eability o f the
visible pow der are com plim entary, w hich provides a
larger indication than is needed for a fluorescent
indication.
T here is no ultim ate m agnetic particle testing m ethod
w here everything is optim ized and the system is able to
detect a w ide range o f discontinuities in steels that have
a w ide range o f m agnetic properties and surface
conditions. M agnetic particle testing requires a com bined
tradeoff o f density, perm eability, retentivity. type of
m agnetization and m agnetization tim e to develop a
w orkable testing system .
A great advantage o f the m agnetic particle testing
process is that techniques can be tailored to m eet a
specific set o f conditions. Sim ply by m ixing and

matching the different types o f m agnetic particles,
magnetizing techniques and procedures, the inspection
capabilities o f the m ethod are changed.
Characteristics and Control of
Petroleum S uspensions
Oil is the m ost desirable liquid in w hich to suspend
magnetic particles because it provides good w etting for
metal parts. H ow ever, other characteristics that must be
considered w hen using oil are viscosity, fiam m ability.
odor, color, fluorescence, reactive constituents and
contamination.
Viscosity
For new oil the kinem atic viscosity at 38 °C (100 °F)
should not exceed 3 m m ’/s (3 cenlistokes) as specified in
AMS 2641. T his w ould provide about 5 m trr/s
(5 cenlistokes) at room tem perature w hich is the
maximum viscosity for good particle m obility.
Fiammability
Oil suspensions arc flow ed openly over parts,
collected in shallow pans and drained into the m ostly
open tanks o f stationary m agnetizing equipm ent
typically used in shop areas. D istillates having a
minimum closed cup flashpoint o f 57 °C (135 °F) are
desirable to provide the low est practical fiam m ability
threshold for oils o f the desired viscosity. O ils that flash
below this m inim um also have a low vapor pressure and
evaporate more rapidly, w hich requires m ore frequent
replenishm ent o f the oil.
Odor
O dorous oils are objectionable to m any operators who
must work over the open oil bath all day. O dors can also
be an indication o f undesirable contam inants, such as
sulfur.
Color
C olors may also be an indication o f sulfur content; a
Saybolt reading o f Plus 25 is recom m ended fo r the oil
bath.
Fluorescence
Because m ost wet suspensions use fluorescent
particles and many oils are also naturally fluorescent, an
oil with a low level o f natural fluorescence is desirable.
Oils should be procured in accordance w ith AM S 2641,
Type I. Type II m ay be used because the only difference
in the two is the flash point. Type II has a low er flash
point and, therefore, burn s m ore easily.
C hapter 7 - M agnetic Particle Testing M aterials / 45
Reactive Constituents
The w et suspension m ust not react w ith the materials
being tested. At the present lim e, this is not a great
problem with m agnetic particle testing.
Contam ination
Wet suspensions becom e contam inated with dirt, lint
and oil that is w ashed off o f test parts. The contam inants
are then pum ped onto subsequent test parts w here they
can cause false indications. By causing false indications,
contam ination results in increased inspection time. The
contam inants can settle out in the settling test,
som etim es m aking it hard to read the exact level o f the
sedim ent. Oil contam inants can raise the fluorescence of
the oil and provide a high background fluorescence
during the test.
T he oil contam inants can increase the viscosity o f the
oil above 3 m u r /s (3 cenlistokes) at 38 ( ' (100 F).
R eference A
R eference B
R eference ( '
C h aracteristics and Control of
W ater Suspensions
W ater has becom e a popular suspension for m agnetic
particles because o f the fiam m ability o f open tanks o f
oil. Even though the developm ent o f high flash point
m aterials has greatly reduced this problem , w ater has
rem ained a popular suspension. W hen w ater was first
used as a suspension, it w as treated with a detergent that
enhanced the surface w etting o f the metal and broke
dow n rem nant shop oil on the surface. An antifoam
agent w as added to reduce foam ing during pum ping.
Rust inhibitors w'ere also incorporated to inhibit
corrosion o f the test objects and tanks o f the m agnetizing
equipm ent.
O bviously, w ater suspensions m ust be used only
w hen the tem perature is above freezing. The equipm ent
m ust be well grounded because w ater is a good electrical
conductor. W ater also evaporates m uch faster than
suitable oils and should therefore be checked daily. A
w'ater break test should also be perform ed, at least daily,
to ensure there is sufficient w elling agent in the
suspension. Particles settle out o f w ater faster than oil
prim arily because o f differences in viscosity o f the two
carriers.
W ater suspensions are not necessarily less expensive
than oil suspensions because the additives and constant
checking o f the w ater suspension increase the cost.
R eference B
R eference C
46 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic Particle Testing

C haracteristics and Control of

Rubber Suspensions
M agnetic rubber consists o f a tw o-part synthetic
rubber system . The particles are prem ixed in the rubber
com ponent o f the system . Fine black particles are most
com m only used. T he directions for m ixing the rubber
and activator show w hat proportions are needed to
control the curing tim e o f the rubber. A m bient
tem perature and hum idity can also affect the curing tim e
o f the rubber, so it is difficult to determ ine the exact tim e
needed for curing.
M agnetic rubber is used only one tim e, so there is no
m aintenance of the system . Because the rubber
constituent ages in the can, a large supply should not be
stocked.

Reference C
 C hap ter 7 - M agnetic P article Testing M aterials / 47

Review Q uestions 7.7 W hen com pared with dry particles, wet particles
should:
7.1 M agnetic particles should have: a. have considerably different properties.
a. asym m etric hysteresis. b. have basically the sam e properties.
b. low perm eability. c. have opposite properties.
c. high retentivity. d. have som e equal properties.
d. low retentivity.
7.8 A bout ten tim es m ore red or black pow der must
7.2 W hich o f the follow ing is not true? be used in a slurry than is needed using
a. M agnetic particles can be too sensitive. fluorescent particles because:
b. E xcessive clum ping reduces the ability o f a. fluorescent particles do not have to build as
particles to form indications. large o f an indication to be seen, because
c. P articles are available in colors to im prove they provide greater contrast.
contrast. b. red and black pow ders do not have as high
d. All particles are elongated to keep them o f a perm eability as fluorescent particles.
from rolling o ff the part. c. red and black pow ders have more globular
particles than fluorescent particles.
7.3 T he particle content o f m agnetic rubber is: d. red and black pow ders have a higher density
a. checked by a settling test. than fluorescent particles.
b. prem ixed to the proper proportions.
c. variable, depending on how often the spray 7.9 The prim ary reason for using w ater as a
can is shaken. suspension is that:
d. checked w ith a centrifuge. a. w ater is cheaper than oil.
b. a w ater suspension is easier to rem ove from
7.4 Fluorescent m agnetic particle testing is preferred the part.
over visible m agnetic particles: c. w ater is not as flam m able as oil.
a. when parts are big and bulky. d. w ater wets the test surface better.
b. to take advantage o f the fluorescent lights
that are norm ally used in plants. 7.10 A disadvantage o f using w ater suspensions is
c. if the parts are for railroad applications. that:
d. to increase the speed and reliability o f a. a w etting agent (surfactant) m ust be added to
detecting very sm all discontinuities. the w ater so that it will wet the particles and
the test surface.
7.5 The viscosity o f the suspension oil should be as b. a defoam er m ust be used to reduce the foam
low' as possible to provide m obility to the in the suspension tank that is caused by
particles. T he suspension should be discarded agitating the bath.
when: c. the tanks o f the m achine m ust be treated to
a. the viscosity equals 3 m i r / s (3 centistokes) reduce rust.
at 38 C (100 °F). d. all o f the above are disadvantages.
b. the viscosity exceeds 3 m m 2/s
(3 centistokes) by the closed cup test. 7.11 C oncentrates are:
c. the viscosity exceeds 5 m rn’/s a. particles that are highly concentrated in
(5 centistokes) at 38 °C (100 UF). slurry.
d. it has a reddish color. b. particles that have been pressed together for
shipping purposes.
7.6 An oil suspension with a high flashpoint is c. particles that are coated w ith a wetting
desirable to provide: agent.
a. low flam m ability. d. particles in a w'et paste.
b. high flam m ability.
c. good mobility.
d. a pleasant odor.
48 / A SN T Level 111 Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing

7.12 A physical property o f m agnetic particles is:

a. size.
b. density.
c. m agnetic characteristics.
d. all o f the above.

7 . 13 M agnetic particles settle in w a te r __________than

in oil.
a. faster
b. slow er
c. about the sam e
d. about seven tim es faster

7.14 The curing tim e for m agnetic rubber is least

affected by the:
a. tem perature o f its environm ent.
b. percentage o f activator used in the m ixture.
c. am bient humidity.
d. am ount o f m agnetism that is applied.
 Chapter 8
Magnetic Particle Testing Practices
Magnetic Particle Test
Fundam entals
If a bar m agnet having tw o poles, north and south at
opposite ends, is broken at som e place along its length,
two com plete bar m agnets will result, each having a
north and south pole. This process o f breaking can go on
until there are four, eight or any other num ber o f
separate com plete m agnets.
If the m agnet is cracked but not broken com pletely in
two pieces, a som ew hat sim ilar result occurs. A north
and a south pole will form at opposite sides o f the crack,
just as though the break had been com plete. The strength
of the m agnetic field at these poles will be different from
that o f Lhe fully broken pieces and will be a function o f
the depth and w idth o f the crack at the surface.
The fields set up at cracks or at other physical or
magnetic discontinuities in the surface o f a m agnetized
part are called leakage field s.
Figure 1.1 show s the leakage field flux lines leaving
the crack arcing over the air gap and reentering the
material on the opposite side o f the crack. T he flux from
the tw o poles o f opposite polarity form a m agnetic field
bridge over the crack. M agnetic flux will alw ays try to
find the path o f least resistance. A ir at the crack has a
high reluctance, very low perm eability, therefore, resists
the passage o f m agnetic flux m ore than the
ferrom agnetic m aterial. If a sm all piece o f soft iron is
brought close to the leakage field, the m agnetic flux will
attract it because the iron provides m uch less resistance
to the flow o f m agnetic flux than air. Sm all, high
magnetic perm eability pan icles o f soft iron are attracted
to quite small leakage fields. As m ore and more panicles
are attracted, they pile up on one another, providing a
m etallic path o f low m agnetic reluctance to bridge the
crack. F igure 1.2a. T he bridge o f particles visually
detected is called an indication. It m ust be rem em bered
that an indication is not a defect unless it exceeds the
specification or standard. T he leakage field strength is
controlled by the m aterials' perm eability, depth and
width o f the discontinuity and the relative strength o f the
applied m agnetic flux. T he size and shape o f the
m agnetic p anicle indication can approxim ate the relative
size o f the discontinuity. W hether the discontinuity
breaks the surface o f the m agnetized metal o r not often
49
can be determ ined— a surface crack form s a narrow,
sharp indication (Figure 1.2a) w hereas a subsurface
discontinuity in the m aterial, such as a slag inclusion,
will show a broad, fuzzy indication. Figure 1.2b.
Sim ilarly, relatively thin coatings o f paint or plating on
the surface can cause a surface crack to have the
appearance o f a subsurface indication. Figure 1.2c.
T hicker coatings could m ask a discontinuity. Som e parts
may be tested using m agnetic particle testing after a
coating is applied, others m ust be tested before coating,
and som etim es parts tire tested both before and after
coating, depending on the type and thickness o f the
coating.
Dry Particles
D ry pow der is dusted onto the surface o f the test item
as the item is m agnetized. A pulsating m agnetic field
m ust be used to provide m obility to the pow'der.
Dry pow der is used prim arily with portable or m obile
m agnetizing equipm ent during the inspection o f rough
surfaces. W hile dry pow ders drift into the roughness o f
the surface like w et suspensions, they provide much
greater sensitivity. T he prim ary applications for dry
pow ders are unground w elds and raw sand castings.
A disadvantage o f dry pow ders is that w hen used
outdoors, breezes can cause the pow der to blow around.
A nother disadvantage is that dry pow der does not
norm ally provide adequate sensitivity for the detection
o f fine surface cracks, especially if they are on a sm ooth
surface that is not horizontal.
Dry pow ders are prim arily used to detect subsurface
cracks with h alf w ave direct current. The detection o f
lack-of-root penetration in w elds is often a critical test
and dry pow'der w ith half w ave direct current is the best
m agnetic particle testing approach. For large castings
that m ust be tested on the foundry floor for hot tears,
cracks or shrinks, h a lfw a v e direct current with prods
and dry pow der is a frequent application.
Wet Suspension
M agnetic particles can be suspended in a light,
petroleum -based distillate or in w ater w ith a w etting
agent additive. T he w et m ethod has many advantages
o ver the dry' particle m ethod and is the prim ary
technique used in industry'. The wet suspension can be
5 0 /A S N T Level III Stud> G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
applied on any surface and it is easy to determ in e that
the surface has been covered. W hile w et suspensions can
be applied on rough surfaces, they are not as effective as
dry powder. Wet suspensions are best for detecting very
sm all discontinuities. Small leakage fields require tim e
to attract enough particles to form an indication and w et
suspensions hold the particles on the surface and allow
the particles to float to small leakage fields.
W et-suspended particles can be pum ped through a
hose, applied by hand or applied by autom atic m achines.
By using nonfiuorescing oils, wet suspensions can be
used to apply fluorescent particles. Suspensions can be
applied as sprays and arc available as prem ixed solutions
in spray cans. Spray cans arc used prim arily in field
applications in conjunction w ith portable or m obile
m agnetizing units.
Wet particle suspensions are best used with residual
m agnetization testing m ethods because the residual field
is w eaker than the field w hen the current is flowing. The
suspension helps to hold the particles on the pail and the
suspension provides som e mobility.
Magnetic Rubber
M agnetic rubber w as introduced in 1970 as a
technique for detecting very fine cracks in critical steel
aircraft com ponents. U sing m agnetic rubber has several
advantages: it reveals finer cracks than other m agnetic
particle testing techniques, the plugs can be rem oved and
exam ined under ideal conditions and m agnification
optics can be used to locate sm aller indications.
In this technique, m agnetic particles are suspended in
an uncured (liquid state) silicon-type rubber. T he rubber
that cures at room tem perature contains low volatiles and
noncorrosive activators. The viscosity o f liquid rubber is
much higher than that o f typical light oil suspensions.
T he m ixture o f rubber, activator and m agnetic particles
is applied directly to the area w here a crack is suspected
o r has been ground out. such as in a bolt hole or other
critical area o f the structure. An energized
electrom agnetic yoke is applied across the puddle until
the rubber is partially cured. T his takes from 10 to
30 m inutes, depending on the type o f rubber used and
the w ay that the rubber and activator are mixed.
In som e instances, a dam o f m odeling clay is m ade
around the area to be tested and the liquid rubber is
poured into the mold. D rilled holes and even threaded
holes can be filled with the m agnetic rubber follow ed by
the application o f a m agnetic field to the area o f the
hole(s). A fter the rubber is cured, it is rem oved from the
part and inspected visually, som etim es w ith a
m icroscope if very sm all cracks are to be detected. The
rubber conform s to the surface contour, provides a
replica o f the surface condition and provides a
perm anent record o f the inspection. A paper or m etal lag
can be cast into the rubber to perm anently identify the
specim en.
T he disadvantages o f m agnetic rubber are that it is a
slow process, it is im practical for large areas and it
requires control and precision that is difficult to obtain
under m any conditions.
Residual M agnetization
T he residual m agnetization technique is the
application o f current (m agnetization) follow ed by the
application o f m agnetic particles. High carbon steels that
have been heat treated and have relatively high
retentivity can be evaluated adequately using this
technique. T h e pace o f the testing process can be
increased considerably if only one m agnetizing unit is
used to m agnetize parts. T he parts containing residual
m agnetism are suspended in a w ell agitated m agnetic
particle bath or passed through a spray station on a
conveyor before arriving at the inspection booth. The
entire process can be autom ated and closely controlled to
provide good reproducibility and reliability. The residual
technique is applied prim arily to bolts, piston pins,
bearing races and sim ilar item s produced in large
quantities.
Continuous M agnetization
In the continuous m agnetization technique, current is
applied (m agnetization) w hile the suspension is on the
part. M agnetism is applied in a short pulse or shot
(typically 0.5 to 1 s in duration), as the suspension is
being applied. Tw o or three m ore shots are m ade
im m ediately after the application o f the suspension. For
parts being m agnetized by alternating current or h alf
w ave direct current, the m agnetizing current is turned
on. the suspension is applied and the inspection is m ade
before the current is turned off.
C ontinuous m agnetization provides the m ost
sensitivity because the flux density is the greatest w hile
the current is being applied. C ontinuous m agnetization is
used with both w et and dry particle techniques and is
essential for the m agnetic rubber technique.
Choice of M agnetic Field Direction
D eterm ining the proper direction for the m agnetic
field is critical for the successful developm ent o f a
m agnetic particle testing technique. The reason flux
direction is so im portant is because only discontinuities
with principal dim ensions relatively transverse
(perpendicular) to the m agnetic field are detected. The
configuration o f the part, know ledge o f past failures or
know ledge o f the stress levels in different areas o f the
part are helpful when determ ining the appropriate
direction o f the m agnetic field. For direct (circular)
m agnetization, the m agnetic field is 90 degrees to the

current flow and is parallel to the applied m agnetic field
for indirect (longitudinal) m agnetization.
Circular Magnetization
In circular m agnetization, the m agnetic field is
directed around the circum ference o f the pan. C ircular
magnetization is applied by passing the current through
the part using heads, clam ps, prods or w ith central
conductors. C ircular m agnetization is used to detect slag
inclusions and seam s in bars (round, square and
rectangular) and other sim ilar stock and parts. It is also
used to determ ine the cleanliness o f steel forging stock
in accordance with nationally recognized standards.
Rings, nuts and other angular item s arc m agnetized on
central conductors to detect transverse discontinuities
(discontinuities parallel to the axis o f the central
conductor). Bolt holes and other types o f fastener holes
and bearing bosses for cross shafts are critical high stress
areas w here fatigue cracks initiate on inservice parts.
These holes are best tested on central conductors to
detect radial cracks.
With the direct m ethod o f passing current through the
part, or the indirect m ethod o f m agnetization using a
central conductor, the flux density is proportional to the
current because a bar carrying current can be considered
to be a finite elem ent o f a one-turn coil. Both alternating
current and direct current can be used to produce circular
m agnetization using either w et or dry particles.
Longitudinal Magnetization
In longitudinal m agnetization, the m agnetic field is
directed parallel to the axis o f the coil. (C hapter 2) and
therefore, the induced field is parallel to the co il's axis.
Cracks in a direction w'ithin ±45 percent o f the co il’s
axis are leasi detectable, those perpendicular to the co il's
axis are m ost readily detectable. Longitudinal
m agnetization is applied by electrom agnetic induction
using coils, cable w raps and yokes. T he flux density
resulting from longitudinal m agnetization is controlled
by the current, the num ber o f turns in the coil (m ost coils
on com m ercially supplied stationary m agnetic particle
testing m achines have five turns), the air gap betw een
the coil and the part, and other factors. B ecause o f these
param eters, procedures should specify the orientation
and position o f the part with respect to the coil.
The am ount o f current needed as a function o f the
length-to-diam eter ratio and the m anner in w hich various
shapes are m agnetized w as discussed in C hapter 4. The
length-to-diam eter ratio m ust be considered; how ever, a
part that is shorter Ilian its length (based on the direction
in w hich the m etal was form ed) can be m agnetized in a
coil at very high flux densities by increasing its m agnetic
length, as shown in Figure 8.1.
C hapter 8 - M agnetic Particle Testing Practices / 51
T he flux collector (extension) increases the m agnetic
length o f a part and enables the production o f the desired
direction o f flux in this special application.
Longitudinal m agnetization is the principal technique
used for detecting fatigue cracks because fatigue cracks
are usually form ed transverse to the centerline o f a part,
w hich is often in the m ost critical alignm ent.
C om bination and Variable Magnetic
Field Applications
C ircular and longitudinal m agnetism can be com bined
w hen m agnetizing a part lo continuously vary the
direction o f the m agnetic field. The circular and
longitudinal fields are induced into the part in rapid
sequence. A utom atic equipm ent is required for these
techniques.
Special m agnetization equipm ent is designed lo
m agnetize parts with com plex configurations. These
m achines are very com plicated and expensive, but if the
part quality is critical or if a large quantity must be
tested, they are worth the cost.
T he configuration o f a com plex part must be analyzed
to determ ine the type and location o f m agnetization
needed to ensure that the flux density is sufficient and
that the direction is correct lo delect the type of
discontinuities that are likely to occur in the part.
A line draw ing o f the basic part configuration should
be m ade. The location o f each coil shot and the required
current are noted for each location. T he location o f each
inspection area using direct circular m agnetization
should be noted and the current requirem ent indicated. If
cable w raps. through conductors, prods or if other
devices w ill be used to ensure that the flux has the
proper direction and m agnitude, special notes should be
m ade on the draw ing. C om plex parts may also require a
specific sequence o f operations to ensure that leakage
fields from a heavy area that requires high flux will not
m ask indications in fillets or other adjacent areas o f
lesser cross section.
Figure 8.1: Longitudinal magnetization with
a flux collector to increase the length of the
part
52 / A SN T L evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
Levels of Flux Density
The level o f flux density is critical in m agnetic
particle testing applications. Serious part failures can be
the result o f not finding an anom aly because o f an
im proper level o f m agnetic flux density. T here are som e
inexpensive, sim ple devices that are placed on the
surface o f a part to determ ine the approxim ate qualitative
(lux density and/or direction.
O ne such device is the pie gage. A pie gage consists
o f triangular segm ents o f soft iron brazed into a single
bar. A slice cut from the end o f the bar looks like a sliced
pie. W hen placed in a m agnetic field, indications arc
form ed at the brazed joints, as show n in Figure 8.2. The
brazed section show ing the strongest indication is the
one that is m ost perpendicular to the m agnetic flux. T he
line at a 45-degree angle collects few er particles to
produce a sm aller indication. The longitudinal jo in t
collects no particles.
Pie gages should not be used as flux density
indicators because they are affected not only by fluxes in
the m etal being tested, but also by external fluxes.
Flux m eters, w ith small perm anent m agnets that are
constrained with a spring, can give a crude relative
m easure o f field strength near the surface during
m agnetization. Som e flux m eters have a coil that
contacts the surface and provides a relative m easure o f
the m agnetic field strength but not the flux density.
These coil style instrum ents can also be used to
determ ine flux direction. Instrum ents using Hall effect
transducers can also provide a m easure o f the field near
the surface and show direction.
T hese m eters and indicators can be useful tools by
using com parisons with parts that are know n to be
adequately m agnetized. T he ideal technique o f
m easuring flux density w ould perm it m easurem ent o f the
llux density w ithin the metal. H ow ever, any technique
for attem pting internal m easurem ents produces
variations in perm eability that affect the relationship o f
H and B in that area during m agnetization.
W hen the surface o f a m agnetized part com es into
contact w ith an eddy current differential probe, an
indication is obtained on the instrum ent. T he indication
will increase or decrease w ith the llux density in the
part. These investigations show that the eddy current
instrum ent can be calibrated to m easure flux density by
circularly m agnetizing a steel bar w ith the same
chem istry and heat treatm ent as the lest object. The
circular direct m agnetization technique provides a
uniform field that is directly related to the m agnetizing
current. W ith a calibrated am m eter on the m agnetizing
m achine, a graph can be plotted that show s eddy current
instrum ent readings as a function o f the m agnetizing
current. The eddy cu rren t probe is placed in contact with
die surface o f the part being m agnetized. Variations in
the m agnetizing current result in variations o f the eddy
current instrum ent readings.
A differential probe w ith side-by-side coils can also
indicate flux direction. T his technique o f llux density
m easurem ent uses off-the-shelf eddy current instrum ents
and m easures both llux density and direction with no
effect from static external fluxes. L ongitudinal
m agnetism and circular m agnetism induced w ith a
through co nductor is also m easured by this technique.
A very practical procedure for determ ining relative
flux density w as prepared by an aircraft engine
m anufacturer for use by their overhaul agencies. T he
m anufacturer m ade a set o f rings from AISI 4340 steel
that w as heat treated to a specific hardness characteristic
o f certain engine parts. The rings w ere also the same
thickness and width as the actual engine parts. N otches
o f differing paths and thicknesses were m achined into
the inside diam eter o f the ring. T he rings w ere placed on
a copper through cond u cto r and the current control on
the m agnetic particle testing m achine w as raised in small
increm ents until the notch o f that ring w ould ju st barely
produce an indication. F or each engine part and each
area o f the part to be m agnetized, the inspection standard
specified w hich ring to use to set the current for that test.
T he advantage o f such a procedure is the uniform ity and
reproducibility that is achieved on the sam e part by
different inspection facilities.
C hoice of Equipm ent and
A pplication
In the developm ent o f testing procedures, an A SN T
N D T Level III m ust have a com prehensive know ledge of
the types o f equipm ent available and the recom m ended
uses.
Perm anent Magnets
In m agnetic particle testing, applications involving
perm anent m agnets are lim ited m ainly because the
strength o f the field that can be induced is relatively low.
Som e p erm anent m agnet yokes have adjustable legs that

allow the induced flux level to be varied by changing the
distance betw een the contacts. T he prim ary value o f
permanent m agnets is in their portability with no need
for external pow'er. T hey are usually used to test small
areas o f parts w here fatigue cracks frequently occur. The
induced field is neither circular nor longitudinal because
the magnet is positioned so the field betw een the
magnets is perpendicular to the direction o f the
discontinuities, as show n in Figure 4.22 a and b for
yokes.
The m agnetic particles used w ith perm anent m agnets
should be suspended in oil because the perm anent
magnet provides a static m agnetic field. Dry particles
require pulsed, changing or alternating fields to becom e
mobile.
For m axim um visibility o f an indication, the
indication should be located in the area betw een the two
pole pieces o f the m agnet. T he long axis o f the
indication should be positioned 90 degrees ± 45 degrees
with a line betw een the poles. The flux is stronger nearer
to the poles than it is in the center o f the gap. A flat
surface is desirable so that the m axim um contact
between the pole and the test surface can be m aintained.
Yokes and Coils
Permanent m agnets. 120 V alternating current
electrom agnetic yokes and prew ound coils are the m ost
portable types o f m agnetic particle testing equipm ent.
Yokes are shaped like a U or a C. Som e have flexible
legs (articulating) that provide contact w ith com plex
shapes. They provide an induced longitudinal m agnetic
field betw een the pole pieces. Som e yokes provide both
h alfw a v e direct current and alternating cu n e n t. thus
providing both deep penetration and dem agnetization
capabilities. T hey can be used w ith dry pow der or
w et-suspended particles. Prew ound coils that operate on
120 V alternating current are circular and perform better
on cylindrical objects such as spindles and shafts. These
yokes and coils are available in portable kits and may
contain dry pow der or pressurized cans o f suspended
m agnetic particles.
Portable Power Supplies
Portable pow er supplies are available with outputs
from 100 to 1000 A w ith an input o f 120 V single phase
alternating current. A 120 V alternating current unit with
outputs from 100 to 700 A is also available and provides
both alternating current and h alf w ave direct current
outputs. The output pow er can also be applied to prods
with heavy cables for w eld inspection, as well as for
other applications w here a localized field is desired.
Because arc burns often occur w here the prod tips
contact the surface o f the test object, the prods should be
periodically dressed w ith a file to rem ove pits and
C hap ter 8 - M agnetic P article Testing Practices / 53
burned copper. This is especially im portant w hen
inspecting highly heat-treated pails or parts with a finely
ground surface. The cables can also be w rapped around
parts form ing a coil to provide longitudinal
m agnetization. Dry pow der is norm ally used with
portable equipm ent because the availability o f both
pulsed h a lfw a v e direct current and alternating current
provides the necessary dry pow der mobility. Wet
suspensions, as provided in pressurized spray cans, are
also used w ith this equipm ent. This type o f equipm ent
typically w eighs from 16 to 34 kg (35 to 75 lbs) and can
be handled by one person.
Mobile Power Supplies
M obile pow er supplies are equipped w ith w heels that
allow m obility, how ever, they typically cannot be lifted
w ithout m echanical assistance. They range in outputs
from a lew hundred up to 20 000 A. U nits up to 6000 A
have alternating cu n e n t and h alf w ave direct current
outputs w ith line pow er requirem ents o f 220/440 V
single phase alternating current. The output pow er is
applied by coils or prods and both dry pow der and
w et-suspended particles can be used.
Stationary Equipm ent
Stationary equipm ent is perm anently installed for use
in a shop o r laboratory. These m achines have headsiock
and tailstock contacts for circular m agnetization and a
prew ound coil for longitudinal m agnetization. They
norm ally use an oil o r w ater suspension o f wet particles
contained in a reservoir w ith a tank to collect the ru n -o ff
o f suspension. A pum p is used to agitate the suspension
and to d eliver it to a hose or spray nozzle. These
m achines provide the necessary instrum ents and controls
to provide from eight to thirty-tw o discrete current
levels. S om e have continuous controls so that any
desired level o f current can be obtained.
T hese m achines are designed for high production
environm ents. A flip o f a sw itch changes the output from
alternating current to direct current. Direct m agnetization
is accom plished by clam ping the part betw een the
hcadstock and tailstock contacts. A sw itch routes the
current from the contacts to the prew ound coil w ithout
the need for m oving the part. Som e also have built-in
30-point d e m a g n e tiz e s that are actuated by pressing a
button. A spreader bar w ith a cable attached to each end
fits betw een the contacts and allow s the cables be used
externally.
Specialized production m achines and autom atic
testing equipm ent are com m ercially available.
Dem agnetization
M etal is m agnetized by aligning the negative and
positive polarities to its atom ic structure.
54 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
D em agnetization is the rem oval o f this unidirectional
orientation o f the atom ic polarity. R educing the strength
o f the field to an acceptable level is the purpose o f
dem agnetization. Reversal o f the m agnetic field as it is
reduced helps to rem ove the orientation o f the atom ic
polarity.
A com m on technique o f dem agnetization is to place
the m etal in an alternating current coil that rapidly
reverses the polarity. G radually rem oving the metal from
the coil w hile the coil is still energized has the effect of
gradually reducing the induced m agnetism . A nother
technique is to hold the part stationary and gradually
reduce the current in the coil.
D irect current can be used for dem agnetization by
reversing direction o f the current and at the sam e tim e
reducing its strength.
Reasons for Dem agnetizing
D em agnetization o f parts is often needed before the
final com ponent is assem bled. Highly m agnetized parts
can induce fields in adjacent parts and can cause a
variety o f m alfunctions. For exam ple, m agnetism in
engine parts can attract metal particles into bearings,
leading to early bearing failure. A high residual field
near an aircraft com pass can substantially affect its
accuracy.
At one tim e, dem agnetizing parts betw een
longitudinal and circular m agnetizing cycles was
considered to be a necessity: how ever, experience has
show n that it is not alw ays true. In som e cases, it is
advantageous not to dem agnetize when changing
m agnetizing directions can em phasize indications that lie
in off-axis orientations.
Parts that are to be electric arc w elded m ust be
dem agnetized because residual m agnetic fields can
attract the arc and cause it to wander, not follow ing the
joint. This is especially a problem w hen an autom atic
w elding m achine is used because it cannot com pensate
for the shift in the arc as a w elding operator can during
m anual welding.
Methods of Dem agnetization
The m ost com m on method o f dem agnetization uses
an alternating current coil from w hich the part is
rem oved or, on large parts, a coil that is m oved aw ay
from the part w hile the pow er is still on. It is desirable to
begin the dem agnetization process using a stronger field
than that used during the initial m agnetization o f the
part.
The m ultiple step-dow n, reversing direct current
dem agnetizer w orks sim ilarly to the alternating current
step-dow n system . Because o f the difficulty in reverse
sw itching o f direct current, the equipm ent is m uch m ore
com plicated than that used for alternating current and
therefore, is m ore expensive. T he reversing direct current
provides deeper penetration than the alternating current
and thus has an advantage in applications on thicker
parts and for parts that are difficult to dem agnetize.
Yokes can be used in the alternating current mode to
reduce the m agnetism in localized areas o f large
com ponents.
O ne advantage o f m agnetization w ith alternating
current is that it does not leave a strong residual field in
a part so that, in a sense, it is selfdem agnetizing.
C ontrolling and Measuring
Dem agnetization
T he initial dem agnetizing field should be higher than
the highest m agnetizing current applied during m agnetic
particle testing. C aution should be taken to avoid
burning the part w here direct conduction
dem agnetization is being undertaken.
A m agnetic field strength m eter should be used to
m easure the retained m agnetism . Sm all m eters, the size
o f a pocket w atch, are available that read in relative
units: they are useful for com parative m easurem ents.
Because m agnetic leakage fields are strongest at an edge
or corner o f a part, these are the best places to m easure
for dem agnetization.
Effects of Test O bject Variables
O ne reason that a surface field strength m eter is
valuable is that parts o f different chem istry and heat
treatm ent can have significantly different m agnetic
properties. Each part to be tested using m agnetic particle
testing should have a specific technique established to
ensure that the tlux density is adequate. W hen a flux
m eter is not available, the part should be m agnetized to a
point w here the particles start to stand on end on the
edges o f the part. T he m agnetizing current should then
be reduced slightly from this level and the inspection
perform ed. A lim itation in this approach during the use
o f direct conduction is that parts can be overheated and
burned by too m uch current at the contact points. Ferritic
stainless steels can be tested this way. but m uch higher
currents m ust be used in com parison with the currents
used on carbon steels.
G eom etric Considerations
C om plex parts m ust be studied to provide sufficient
tlux at about 90 degrees to the expected orientation o f
discontinuities. Various flux densities m ay be necessary
to ensure that a leakage field in a radius does not m ask a
critical stringer, forging lap or other discontinuity. A
through conductor in holes can detect radial anom alies
w here overall circular and longitudinal m agnetization
does not provide sufficient flux or the proper direction of
flux. Many very large parts w ith openings, such as
trusses, w eldm ents. forgings and rings, may he too large
to fit in a stationary m achine o r the m achine may not
have enough pow er to m agnetize the entire part. For
these types o f parts, cable w rap techniques will reduce
the current requirem ents and increase the flux density in
local areas.

Surface Treatment
Surface coatings, such as plating, paint or cladding,
can affect the sensitivity o f m agnetic particle testing. For
field inspections and overhaul, and repair very thick hard
surface oxides, paint, or plating up to 0.03 mm
(0.001 in.) thick can be tolerated at no increase o f
amerage over that o f bare metal. C oatings thicker than
0.03 mm (0.001 in.) require additional am perage.
Caution m ust be exercised since these thicker coatings
can easily m ask defects. C oatings cause indications from
surface defects to appear as indications from subsurface
defects in uncoated m aterial. C oatings are not perm itted
on new parts prior to m agnetic particle testing in
accordance with E 1444 except for electroplated
coatings. M ost cadm ium o r zinc electroplating does not
norm ally exceed 0.13 m m (0.005 in.) in thickness, and
during field inspections and overhaul and repair are
generally ignored. Hot dip plating, such as galvanic
coating, can be quite thick. If the coating cannot be
readily rem oved, the m agnetizing current should be
increased accordingly. Hard chrom ium plating on w ear
surfaces can exceed 0.13 mm (0.005 in.). O ne problem
with hard plated parts is that they are som etim es ground
after plating. The grinding can cause burning o f the steel
under the plating. T hese fine grinding cracks arc very
light and shallow. Special techniques are necessary to
detect these cracks.
Because paint is not a conductor, it m ust be rem oved
from areas w here electrical contact is to be m ade for
m agnetization.

Surface Condition and Cleanliness

Surface conditions are very im portant to the proper
application o f m agnetic particle testing. A sm ooth
surface allow s m obility o f the dry and w et particles. Oil.
grease, scale and other com m on shop soils will hold dry
particles and prevent them from m oving. Som e o f these
soils are som ew hat w ashed off by oil suspensions o f
m agnetic particles, but they contam inate the suspension
and raise its viscosity beyond desirable lim its. R ust and
paint chips should be rem oved as well as w elding flux. It
is often necessary to use a chipping ham m er and a wire
brush to rem ove heavy soils.
56 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic Particle Testing

Review Q uestions 8.7 A n advantage o f m agnetic rubber is that:

a. it can be used on nonferrom agnetic
m aterials.
8 .1 The type o f m agnetic field that can be induced in b. it can be stripped o ff the surface and
parts using perm anent m agnet yokes is: exam ined using m agnification.
a. circular. c. it is a very rapid test technique.
b. longitudinal. d. the m aterials used are less expensive than
c. neither circular nor longitudinal. dry powder.
d. both a and b.
8.8 A critical problem w as found w here fatigue
8.2 Paint will not adversely affect the detection o f a cracks w ere initiating from the roots o f a
crack if: threaded hole. To locate sim ilar discontinuities:
a. the paint is thick and the discontinuity is a. use m agnetic rubber and direct current
subsurface. m agnetic yoke.
b. the paint is thin and the crack is parallel to b. fill the hole w ith a w et suspension and use a
the direction o f m agnetization. borescope.
c. the crack is open to the surface and the paint c. use X -rays.
is thin. d. use an eddy current bolt hole probe.
d. all o f the above.
8.9 A long run production o f piston pins and wrist
8.3 A crack show s the strongest indication w hen it is pins w as contracted for an aircraft engine.
located: C racking w as found on the inside bore o f these
a. under the yoke. pins after heat treating. The m anufacturer had a
b. parallel to a line from prod to yoke. stationary m agnetic particle testing m achine but
c. perpendicular to a line from prod to yoke. could not keep up with production to m eet the
d. in the plane o f the coil. contract deadline. Testing tim e w ould be reduced
by using:
8.4 W hen a m agnetic particle testing indication is a. alternating current.
sharp and very fine, the discontinuity is: b. residual m agnetism techniques and
a. a subsurface scam. additional inspectors.
b. a shallow , tight surface crack. c. m agnetic rubber.
c. porosity. d. m agnetizing coils and a through conductor.
d. a deep crack. e. higher current.

8.5 A piece o f bar stock in the yard o f a fabricating 8.10 C ontinuous m agnetization provides the most
shop w as tested for inclusions using clam ps and sensitivity because:
cables. The m agnetism in the bar was: a. the m agnetic particles are present w hile the
a. induced circular. part is being m agnetized.
b. longitudinal. b. the m agnetic field is greatest w hile the
c. direct longitudinal. m agnetizing current is on.
d. direct circular. c. both a and b above.
d. none o f the above.
8.6 A particular field inspection for fatigue cracks
requires that a wet particle suspension be used. 8.11 T he sensitivity o f m agnetic particle testing is
Wet particle suspensions can best be applied greatest w'hen the discontinuity is:
w ith a: a. parallel to the direction o f the m agnetic flux
a. fine cam el hair brush. lines.
b. spray can. b. perpendicular to the flow o f the m agnetizing
c. swab. current.
d. pow der bulb. c. perpendicular to the direction o f the
m agnetic flux.
d. perpendicular to the line betw een prods.

8.12 M agnetic particle testing is used to determ ine the
cleanliness o f steel bars and the num ber and
length o f discontinuities in forging stock. The
type o f m agnetization to be used is:
a. circular.
b. longitudinal.
c. tangential.
d. toroidal.
8.13 To provide reliability and reproducibility in
m agnetic particle testing, w ritten procedures
should include:
a. the location o f the coil and current for each
m agnetization.
b. the requirem ents for am m eter calibration.
c. the type and concentration o f the particles.
d. all o f the above if applicable.
8.14 Flux density is a m easure o f the num ber o f
m agnetic flux lines perpendicular to a unit area
o f cross section. If a discontinuity is in the plane
o f the unit area, the largest m agnetic particle
testing indication will be form ed w hen the
discontinuity is:
a. 45 degrees to the flux lines.
b. parallel to the flux lines.
c. 90 degrees to the flux lines.
d. 135 degrees to the flux lines.
e. none o f the above.
8.15 Prods are used to m agnetize a w eld area. W hen
dry pow der is dusted onto the surface, there is no
m obility o f the particles. T he m ost probable
reason for this observation is that:
a. the m agnetizing current is not high enough.
b. the flux density is too low.
c. direct current is being used.
d. all o f the above.
8.1ft The current from portable, high am perage units
can be applied to the test object using:
a. prods.
b. cable coils.
c. prew rapped coils.
d. all o f the above.
8.17 A torsion bar suspension spring failed. An
investigation show ed that the failure initiated
from the surface. A possible reason could be:
a. that the current w as too high in direct
circular m agnetization.
b. that the probe coil that w as used burned the
surface.
c. that prods w ere used to detect fatigue.
d. none o f the above.
C hapter 8 - M agnetic P article Testing Practices / 57
8.18 W hich o f the follow ing is not an advantage of
m obile m agnetic particle testing pow er units?
a. T heir w heels allow them to be used
anyw here in a shop.
b. They use single phase pow er with high
current and voltage.
c. D ry or w et continuous m ethods can be used.
d. They can be equipped with an autom atic
step-dow n dem agnetizer.
8.19 A shop has a num ber o f autom atic screw
m achines that produce thousands o f small pins
and other parts that m ust be tested. The best type
o f dem agnetizer for these parts w ould be:
a. an alternating current coil.
b. an alternating current step-dow n
dem agnetizer.
c. an alternating current yoke.
d. a reversing direct current step-dow n
dem agnetizer.
8.20 T he 1000 am pere-per-inch diam eter
rule-of-thum b should be used with caution
because:
a. it does not take into account part shape.
b. it does not account for differences in
perm eability.
c. it may not provide adequate flux densities
for detecting small discontinuities.
d. all o f the above.
8.2 1 C ircular m agnetization at 1000 am pere-per-inch
diam eter o f cross section:
a. provides proper flux densities in com plex
parts.
b. will not provide proper tlux direction in
com plex parts.
c. is best used on round bar stock.
d. is a rule-of-thum b for applying current in
any application involving circular
m agnetization.
8 .2 2 A cable w rapping procedure:
a. can induce a higher circular field in a part at
a low er current.
b. can increase the coil fill factor.
c. can conduct the sam e m axim um am ount of
alternating current as direct current.
d. cannot be used for dry pow der inspections.
58 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
8.23 A large 152 mm (6 in.) diam eter shaft o f
heat-treated, high alloy steel m ust be
dem agnetized. The best results are produced by:
a. a reverse direct current step-dow n
dem agnetizer w ith a cable w rapped around
the shaft fo r its full length.
b. placing the shaft north and south in an
alternating current coil and tapping it
repeatedly with a sledge hammer.
c. using an alternating current step-dow n
dem agnetizer w ith a cable w rapped around
the shaft for its full length.
d. m oving an alternating current coil along the
length and extending it past the ends o f the
shaft.
8.24 From a production standpoint, sm all item s
should be dem agnetized:
a. w ith a 30-point dem agnetizer.
b. in a basket using a m agnetic coil.
c. in a coil, one at a lime.
d. all o f the above, depending on how difficult
it is to dem agnetize the items.
8.25 To determ ine if parts have been adequately
dem agnetized, they should be tested by:
a. bringing a suspended paper clip near the
m iddle o f the part.
b. using a sm all horseshoe shaped perm anent
m agnet.
c. using a sm all m agnetom eter held at a co m er
o f the part.
d. sprinkling som e m agnetic particles on the
part.
8.26 A heat-treated bolt w as tested for quench cracks
and m ust be dem agnetized. Using die boll as a
conductor, the dem agnetizing current:
a. should be high enough to m agnetically
saturate the part.
b. need not exceed the m agnetizing current.
c. should som ew hat exceed the original
m agnetizing current.
d. is irrelevant because dem agnetization is not
necessary on heat-treated parts.
8.27 T he com ponents o f a helicopter transm ission
m ust be tested for discontinuities at overhaul.
T he proper procedure is to:
a. use the inspection procedure originally
suggested by the m anufacturer.
b. review the part configuration and failure
data and develop test techniques based on
this analysis.
c. let the inspector use a standard procedure.
d. perform only visual inspection with a lOx
m agnifier.
8.28 Hall effect generators used to m easure llux
density are:
a. unreliable.
b. not capable o f m easuring the H com ponent
o f m agnetization in air.
c. capable o f m easuring the II com ponent of
m agnetization.
d. not affected by perm eability variations in the
part.
8.29 Eddy current instrum ents used for flux density
m easurem ents:
a. require differential coils.
b. are com m ercially available.
c. m ust be calibrated if quantitative
m easurem ents are desired.
d. all o f the above.
8.30 Eddy current instrum ents used for flux density
m easurem ents:
a. m easure the B com ponent o f m agnetization.
b. can indicate flux direction.
c. m easure the H com ponent o f m agnetization.
d. satisfy both a and b above.
e. satisfy a, b and c above.
8.31 T he statem ent "m agnetic particle testing can be
applied to plated and painted parts":
a. is true regardless o f the thickness o f the
coaling.
b. may be true if flux densities are increased to
com pensate for the coating thickness.
c. is true only for circular m agnetism .
d. is not true under any circum stances.
 C hapter 8 - M agnetic P article Testing Practices / 59

8.32 M agnetic particle testing is required before

chrom ium plating. It is also required after plating
to detect:
a. cracks in the base metal because o f the
plating process.
b. grinding cracks in the steel under the plate.
c. cracks in the plating.
d. w hether the proper plating thickness was
achieved.
 Chapter 9
Indications and Interpretations
Overview
Evaluations should he m ade through logical thought
processes so that a proper interpretation can be m ade o f
the condition causing the indication. T he first step is to
determ ine if the indication is caused by a discontinuity
(relevant indication) o r another condition (nonrelevant
indication). If the indication is caused by a discontinuity,
the next step is to determ ine if it is relevant or
nonrelevant.
The inspector should alw ays rem em ber the grouping
of m agnetic particles is an indication that som ething is
different in that area. T he indication is a w arning to the
inspector to evaluate and determ ine its cause and
severity with respect to geom etric and section changes,
im proper surface penetration, excessive m agnetization,
m agnetic w riting, perm eability variations, residual and
external fields, and m etallurgical changes.
Geom etric and Section Changes
T he m ost prevalent type o f nonrelevant indications
are caused by geom etric or section changes o f the part.
C onstrictions such as internal splines, subsurface holes
and the space betw een tw o holes or kevw ays are typical
exam ples o f changes in cross section that cause a
leakage field (m ore flux lines are forced into a thinner
section). T hese indications can he very pronounced and.
especially in the case o f splines and keyw ays. they can
m ask fatigue cracks or other discontinuities that may
form at these sharp section changes. These indications
are repeated on all sim ilar item s but cannot be ignored
by the inspector. W here fatigue cracks are expected in an
area o f a nonrelevant indication, a low er m agnetization
should be used. This reduces the size o f the nonrelevant
indication and still reveals a crack, if present.
Im proper Surface Preparation
Oil. grease, dirt, scale o r other contam inates on the
surface o f a part will hold particles and provide a
distracting indication that can m ask relevant indications.
The difference in perm eability betw een the scale and
base metal will cause a nonrelevant indication at the
edge o f the scale. Scale is especially prevalent on fusion
w elds and should be rem oved before testing. Patches o f
paint that are not rem oved will also trap particles and
show nonrelevant indications. A rough m achined or
61
as-cast surface finish on a part can trap the particles,
cause a high background and restrict the m obility o f the
particles. A clean, sm ooth surface is essential to obtain
the m ost reliable test.
Excessive M agnetization
E xcessive m agnetization can cause leakage fields on
the edges, corners and ends o f parts. This is m ost
prevalent with longitudinal m agnetization. The
indications that result can m ask fatigue cracks that may
start at abrupt section changes. O ften, these particle
buildups at section changes are indicative o f excessive
m agnetizing current.
M agnetic Writing
W hen tw o m agnetized parts are rubbed together, a
local difference in polarity at the points o f contact can
form indications called m agnetic writing. The indications
are different in location and shape from the norm ally
expected indications. W hen this condition is suspected,
the parts should be dem agnetized and retested. A
m agnetic w riting indication will not reappear after
dem agnetization.
Perm eability Variations
C hanges in perm eability are a m ajor source of
nonrelevant indications. T he heal affected zone on each
side o f som e nickel w elds can produce indications as a
result o f changes in local perm eability induced by the
heal o f w elding. A flush ground w eld area can often be
detected by the difference in perm eability between the
w eld metal and the parent metal. If tw o m etals having a
different chem istry are joined by electron beam welding,
flash butt w elding, friction o r ultrasonic w elding, these
very narrow fusion lines can be detected after the flash
has been rem oved because o f the differences of
perm eability in the w eld zone. A careful exam ination
must be m ade in such areas to differentiate between
relevant and nonrelevant indications.
Residual and External Fields
Residual fields are prevalent w here prods have been
used w ith a high current level. This is com m on in weld
inspection w here the prods are cross stepped along the
bead. Sim ilarly, w hen m agnetic yokes are used, residual
poles m ay be left w here the yoke contacted the surface.
62 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
T hese can be confusing to the inspector because they
may or may not show a full recognizable pattern. The
only effective technique fo r elim inating such indications
is to dem agnetize the area and retest it.
Metallurgical Changes
M etallurgical changes produce sim ilar problem s in
the form o f perm eability variations. T hese are com m on
in w eldm ents because the weld metal has a different
m etallurgical structure from the heal affected zone.
M etallurgical changes also include areas w here the
tem per is draw n, decarburized areas, strain lines from
cold form ing, or stretch form ing w here the metal is
m oved in the plastic range. O ther m etallurgical changes
that can produce nonrelevant indications are cold
w orking (flow ing the m etal rather than cutting it), grain
boundaries (norm ally in large grain m aterials) and flow'
lines in forgings. Many o f these are only seen at very
high levels o f m agnetism .
R eference A
Reference B
Reference C
Discontinuities
D iscontinuities detectable by m agnetic particle testing
are either on the surface or close to the surface.
Surface Discontinuities
Surface indications are characterized by their sharp,
fm elinc definition. A surface discontinuity has certain
physical characteristics including depth, w idth and
length, that cause the form ation o f the indication. A light
discontinuity may be so narrow that it can only be seen
w ith a m icroscope. A typical discontinuity is alm ost
alw ays deeper than it is wide. C lear indications generally
occur when the depth is five tim es greater than the
width.
The length o f the indication, its orientation and its
direction in relation to the way the metal w as w orked
and form ed are all good indicators o f the cause o f the
discontinuity. The shape o f the indication (straight,
curved or irregular) is also important.
Subsurface Discontinuities
Subsurface discontinuities arc detectable if they are
not loo deep. The m axim um depth cannot be slated
specifically because size and orientation are im portant
factors. A procedure using the penetrating capabilities of
direct current must be used if subsurface discontinuities
are to be detected. H ow ever, using the sam e procedure at
a high am perage could cause high overall surface
background and m ask the presence o f a surface
discontinuity. A subsurface discontinuity is characterized
by an indication that is broader and fuzzier than that o f a
surface discontinuity. T he features o f the tw o indications
arc basically the sam e except that the indication details
are less distinguishable as the depth o f the discontinuity
increases.
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
Effects of D iscontinuities on
Serviceability
D iscontinuities located during m agnetic particle
testing can be gross enough to directly affect the strength
o f m aterials and pints; they can also act as stress risers
that can result in fatigue cracks. A discontinuity can
produce a notch effect that will allow its size to grow by
fatigue loading. A discontinuity that is subjected to a
corrosive environm ent m ay allow corrosion to propagate
in an unexpected m an n er and cause problem s more
rapidly than expected.
M any serviceable parts are scrapped because the
effects o f d iscontinuities are m isunderstood. Scrapping
may be the m ost econom ical approach w here the cost o f
the part is low and w here its failure could cause a larger
subassem bly to fail.
The effect o f a discontinuity on strength is based on
the safety facto r used by the designer. If the part is
designed overstrength and if the discontinuity is not in a
high stress area w here it can act as a stress riser, it may
be entirely acceptable. W here possible, a part that is
expensive or in short supply may be salvageable by
rew orking. T he design engineering function provides
data on item s with critical loading factors that show how
deeply an area can be ground and in w hat direction.
G rinding out a discontinuity w ith proper filleting to
equalize the loading o f the area is often used to salvage a
part after appropriate engineering analysis. G rinding out
discontinuities in castings and repair w elding is quite
acceptable in many cases, how ever, docum entation o f
such repairs is norm ally required. R epair w elding a
forged part is generally not acceptable because the
w elding is essentially cast metal and can adversely affect
the strength o f the parent forged metal.
Periodic testing and continued operation is standard
procedure for aircraft structures. M any tim es, a small
crack will not continue to grow during inservice usage.
The nondestructive testing program s used by airlines and
the U.S. Air Force are indispensable m aintenance tools
that provide a m eans o f checking critical areas to
determ ine w hen fatigue has begun and then lo follow the

indication's grow th until it reaches a specific subcritical
size.
The high cost o f an industrial breakdow n or shutdow n
caused by a broken part is intolerable in most cases. In
industry, m achinery can be m aintained by periodic
inservice tests. B ecause it may take m onths to fabricate
critical com ponents, such as large gears for industrial
machinery, periodic inservice tests help to elim inate
machinery com ponent failures.
Fracture m echanics, a science that studies how cracks
grow, has developed an o th er param eter in the strength o f
materials called fra c tu re toughness. Fracture m echanics
is a great asset to industry because this technique allow s
engineers to determ ine the size o f a crack in a critical
part that w ould cause the part to fail. It is not necessary
to apply fracture m echanics to all item s, but when a
critical item is designed (i.e.. a pressure vessel, boiler or
cryogenic container) a fracture m echanics analysis could
be very im portant during the design stage. C rack siz.e
tolerances arc becom ing part o f the contractual
requirem ents for new aircraft. T hese requirem ents
essentially specify that a critical com ponent m ust have
sufficient toughness that a crack that grow s to a
detectable size is still below the critical crack size.
Critical crack size is the m inim um length o f a crack that
would cause catastrophic failure.
Determ ination of Discontinuity Depth
The norm al destructive m ethod for determ ining crack
depth is by filing, chipping o r grinding a groove to
measure the depth o f the indication. T here are electronic
instrum ents available to m easure crack depth
nondestructively. but they are expensive and their
accuracy is questionable. U ltrasonic shear w aves and
surface w aves can be used in som e cases to estim ate
crack depth, but the part configuration regularly lim its
the application o f such techniques.
Many tim es, a discontinuity is ground out and
retested to determ ine that it has been rem oved
com pletely. C are m ust be taken during the reinspection
to use a m ore sensitive test technique to guarantee the
discontinuity is rem oved. Also, care m ust be taken so
that the am ount o f m aterial rem oved does not reduce the
cross section below allow able tolerances.
Metallurgical Exam ination
O ften, it is im portant to determ ine the cause o f a
discontinuity that has been detected by m agnetic particle
testing. Exam ination o f the discontinuity surfaces often
reveals its cause or source. U sing the m agnetic particle
testing indication to show the extent o f the discontinuity,
a specim en containing the discontinuity can be cut from
the test object. Saw' cuts tow ard the discontinuity area
can be used to reduce the cross sectional area o f the
C hapter 9 - Indications and Interpretations / 63
specim en. Breaking the specim en at the reduced cross
section will allow the discontinuity to be seen on the
fracture face. Exam ination o f the fracture face can reveal
m uch inform ation to the trained failure analyst about the
d iscontinuity’s origin.
A cut across an indication can reveal the cross
sectional shape o f the discontinuity and. in the case o f a
crack, show its depth. The specim en can be polished and
view ed under m agnification. T he specim en itself can
also be rem agnetized to show the depth o f the crack.
Som etim es it is im portant to determ ine if a
discontinuity is caused by an im proper forging practice.
T he forging can be cut across the discontinuity and deep
etched. The deep etch will show the How lines o f the
m etal and often reveal the cause o f the discontinuity.
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
Recording Indications
R ecording indications for project books or reports is
often very im portant. It is also desirable to record
indications w hen parts are tested and retained in use. If
desired, a history o f the part can be m aintained to show
crack grow'th. T here are a num ber o f techniques that can
be used for recording indications, such as tape transfers,
lacquer fixing and photography (either co lo r or black
and w hite). T he details o f these procedures are presented
in considerable detail in the references.
R eference C
Interpretation and Evaluation of Test
Indications
Reliable interpretation and evaluation o f test
indications is affected by hum an factors. For the
interpretation and evaluation process to rem ain reliable,
tests must be reproducible and indications m ust be
recorded. See C hapter 10. P robability o f D etection.
64 / A SN T L evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing

Review Q uestions 9.6 The cope side o f a casting show ed a hazy group
o f indications in about a 75 m m (3 in.) area. The
9.1 N onrelevant indications are caused by: probable cause o f the indication is:
a. brazed joints. a. porosity.
b. grain boundaries. b. shrinkage.
c. joints betw een dissim ilar m etals. c. both a and b above.
d. all o f the above. d. that such indications arc alw ays nonrelevant
on the cope side o f castings.
9.2 An indication w as noted during a test using
direct current m agnetization. To determ ine if the 9.7 A forging test revealed that som e indications
discontinuity is surface or subsurface: with irregular sharp lines were enclosing an area.
a. dem agnetize the part and retest it with T hey could be caused by:
alternating current. a. hard scale on the surface.
b. retest the part with surging current. b. slag on the surface.
c. increase the voltage. c. paint on the surface.
d. dem agnetize the part and use dry powder. d. porosity.

9.3 To determ ine w hether an indication is a crack or 9.8 W hen a part w as m agnetized, a broad but very
a nonrelevant indication: distinct indication was found along the edges.
a. rem agnetize the part w ith half w ave direct T his indication could be caused by a:
current. a. subsurface burst.
b. w ipe off the indication and apply more b. seam on the edge.
suspension. c. nonrelevant indication caused by excessive
c. dem agnetize the part and apply more current.
suspension. d. crack.
d. use higher m agnetizing current.
9.9 A group o f indications, som e sharp and some
9.4 A seam -w elded pipe that had the w eld ground broad and hazy, w ere found on an area o f a small
flush show ed broad, fuzzy indications near the forging. D em agnetization and retesting
toes o f the w eld that extended the com plete elim inated these indications. The probable cause
length o f the pipe. T he probable cause o f the was:
indication is: a. a forging lap.
a. m agnetic w riting. b. m agnetic writing.
b. the geom etry o f the weld. c. a change in perm eability.
c. a surface crack. d. a subsurface variation.
d. a perm eability change in the base m etal at
the heat affected zone. 9.10 M etallurgical variations can cause changes in
perm eability. An exam ple o f a m etallurgical
9.5 A large nonrelevant indication caused by a indication is:
leakage field that w as bridging the fillet radius a. luder lines.
could be covering a fatigue crack in this critical b. heat affected zone alongside a weld.
area. The m ost effective test to detect the c. grain boundaries in som e large grain
presence o f fatigue cracks is: m aterials.
a. to increase the current gradually. d. all o f the above.
b. to reduce the level o f m agnetization below
that w hich causes the leakage field. 9 . 11 A surface indication on bar stock is fine and
c. to dem agnetize and rem agnetize with sharp and runs lengthw ise. This is m ost likely a:
alternating current. a. fatigue crack.
d. all o f the above. b. burst.
c. stringer.
d. heat-treat crack.
 C hapter 9 - Indications and Interpretations / 65

9.12 A forged and draw n bar show s a num ber o f 9.18 A subsurface indication is located ju st outside the
transverse subsurface indications along its w eld in the parent metal. T his discontinuity is
length. The condition that causes this type o f m ost likely related to:
indication is: a. lack o f fusion.
a. heat-treat cracks. b. slag inclusion.
b. chevron cracks. c. the heat affected zone.
c. inclusions. d. undercut.
d. flakes.
9.19 An interm ittent subsurface indication at the toe
9.13 M agnetic particle testing w as used on the edge o f o f a fillet w eld w as located along the length o f
the plate w ith prods and a discontinuity was the weld. T his discontinuity is m ost likely:
found in the plate about halfw ay through the a. lack o f fusion.
thickness. T he discontinuity is probably a: b. slag inclusion.
a. lam ination. c. transverse cracks in the heal affected zone.
b. stringer. d. heat crack.
c. seam.
d. burst. 9.20 A surface indication is detected along the length
o f a restrained w eld bead in the center of the
9.14 A short, very sharp indication w as found in an bead. This discontinuity is most likely:
axle at the corner o f a spline; it runs at about a. stress cracking.
45 degrees to the centerline o f the shaft. T his b. slag indications.
discontinuity is m ost likely a: c. heat-treat cracking.
a. fatigue crack. d. lack o f fusion.
b. plating crack.
c. scam . 9.21 M ultiple surface indications are detected
d. stringer. transversely across a w eld that had been part o f a
bridge deck. This discontinuity is m ost likely:
9.15 M agnetic particle testing o f the first pass in a a. flakes.
U groove butt w eld show ed a large fuzzy b. heat cracks.
indication at short intervals along the center o f c. fatigue cracks.
the weld. T his discontinuity is m ost likely: d. linear porosity.
a. lack o f fusion.
b. a crater crack. 9.22 A punch press die w as surface ground. The
c. a stringer. m agnetic particle testing conducted before heat
d. lack o f root penetration. treatm ent show ed short, very fine cracks on the
ground surface o f the die. Som e o f the cracks are
9.16 A star-shaped surface indication is seen on the in clusters. T hese discontinuities arc m ost likely:
cover pass o f a w eld. This discontinuity is m ost a. stringers.
likely: b. grinding cracks.
a. a cooling crack. c. seam s.
b. a crater crack. d. forging laps.
c. slag inclusion.
d. lack o f fusion. 9.23 A forging die has large cracks in the com ers o f
the die cavity after it w as rem oved from the
9.17 Two longitudinal subsurface indications are seen forging press. The m ost likely cause o f these
running side-by-side along the length o f the cracks is:
cover pass o f a w eld. This discontinuity is m ost a. exposure o f the die to excessive heat and
likely: pressure during service.
a. lack o f root penetration. b. im proper heat treatm ent.
b. porosity. c. forging laps that enlarged during forging.
c. cooling cracks. d. shrinkage in the casting from w hich the die
d. slag inclusions. w as made.
66 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agn etic P article Testing

9.24 D uring m agnetic particle testing, a precipitation
hardening steel part appears to he covered with
very sm all, sharp, linear indications.
Exam ination under high pow er m agnification
reveals no surface discontinuities. T he most
likely cause o f these indications is:
a. im proper grinding procedures,
h. lam inations.
c. im proper m achining procedures.
d. a m etallurgical m icrostructure inherent in
som e precipitation hardening steels.
9.29 M agnetic particles bunch in som e fillet areas and
stand on end on the edge o f the part being
m agnetized. T hese observations indicate that the:
a. particle concentration is too low.
b. flux density is excessive.
e. llux has the im proper orientation.
d. flux density is too low.
e. m agnetizing current should be changed from
alternating current to direct current.

9.25 A forging has a surface indication along the edge

o f the parting line. T his indication is typical of:
a. an irrelevant indication.
b. a strin g e r.
c. a seam .
d. a flashline shear tear.

9.26 A cast crankshaft has a surface indication along

the length o f a m achined bearing surface. The
most probable cause o f this indication is a:
a. fatigue crack.
b. cold shut.
c. seam.
d. grinding crack.

9.27 An extruded seam less tube has a long indication

along the length o f the inside diam eter. The
possible cause o f this indication is:
a. incom plete penetration in the weld.
b. an irrelevant indication from the seam w eld
m etallurgical structure.
c. an irrelevant indication caused by the
tendency o f the m agnetic particles to collect
at the bottom o f the inside diam eter.
d. a draw mark.

9.28 A crack is in a critical area o f an expensive part.

The first plan o f action is to save the part. W hat
action should be taken?
a. Put a w eld bead over the crack and polish
off the surface.
b. Grind a notch across the crack to determ ine
if it can be ground out.
c. Take a radiograph o f the cracked area.
d. Cut a section out o f the part for m etallurgical
evaluation.
 Chapter 10
Probability of Detection
D etectability Versus Probability of
Detection
The A SN T N D T Level III m ust be sufficiently
fam iliar with the m agnetic particle testing process to
know, generally, the size and basic location o f
discontinuities that can be detected by a m agnetic
particle testing m ethod for genetic part configurations.
Very sm all discontinuities may not be detectable. If they
are detectable by the m agnetic particle testing process
the probability o f detecting them increases as the
discontinuity size increases. Probability o f detection
varies by inspectors, part processing, inspection
technique, m aterial and other factors. T herefore, the
quality o f the m agnetic field is critical. This is norm ally
controlled by a technique to ensure consistent
processing, view ing and interpretation.
Probability of Detection
Because indications m ust be visually detected, length
is the m ost im portant characteristic. A 0.3 mm ( 0 .12 in.)
long indication can be seen, how ever, how reliably can it
be seen? A study was done in 1970 to determ ine the
answ er to this question. A fter testing over 100 inspectors
using a 95 percent confidence level, it w as found that
indications with a length o f 0.3 m m (0.12 in.) were
detected only 45 percent o f the tim e. T he study further
revealed that indications had to be at least I mm
(0.39 in.) long to be detected 90 percent o f the tim e at a
95 percent confidence level.
Reliability
R eliability has achieved prom inence as a result o f the
space age. All com ponents o f a space vehicle m ust
continue to be operational for a specified length o f time.
Even seem ingly insignificant com ponents m ust be
reliable: the failure o f one critical diode could abort an
entire m ission. Redundant system s are som etim es
provided, how ever, there are lim its from the standpoint
o f w eight, size and com plexity.
For m ost critical com ponents, a reliability
dem onstration program is required using fatigue-cracked
specim ens w ith cracks o f know n sizes. The test
procedures to be used on production parts are applied lo
67
the specim ens and quantitative estim ates o f reliability
are derived.
Human Factors that Affect Reliability
The hum an elem ent is the m ost im portant factor in
the interpretation and evaluation o f m agnetic particle
testing indications. Indications revealed by m agnetic
particle testing provide the evaluator w ith sizes and
shapes and a specific location. T he inspector and other
personnel involved in the evaluation m ust have a wide
background in m aterials and fabrication technology.
T h ey should also have a broad know ledge o f metals
production, a basic understanding o f m etallurgy, a
know ledge o f metal w orking and m anufacturing m ethods
and experience in the w ays different m etals perform in
service.
In addition, inspection personnel must have good
eyesight because the indication must first be seen to be
detected. Inspectors must be conscientious and have
tem peram ents to w ithstand the boredom o f testing many
parts w ithout becom ing careless. A fter m any parts have
been tested without detecting a discontinuity, it is a
natural hum an tendency to becom e less alert.
M anagem ent m ust be aw are o f such factors and select
and qualify inspection personnel very carefully.
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
Reproducibility
N ondestructive testing personnel are encouraged to
develop reliability into their tests to provide reproducible
testing m ethods and practices. The best w ay to do this is
to use quality control practices on the nondestructive
testing m ethods to ensure that the tests are reproducible.
T his includes strict adherence to established practices
and diligence that the many variables in the m agnetic
particle testing m ethod are in control. Periodic
unannounced audits are also used to ensure that all o f the
param eters are u nder control.
C hecks for reproducibility m ust include continuous
observation to detail. If sm all details are allow ed to slide
into a m arginal tolerance level, an inspection process
w ill slow ly slip out o f control.
68 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic P article Testing

It is necessary to establish a schedule o f process

control consisting o f equipm ent m aintenance. Ketos ring
tests and m eter calibrations. Test item s having known
discontinuities can be injected into the system , how ever,
these som etim es go by undetected and get lost in a large
inventory.
A nother elem ent in reliability is the developm ent of
testing technique control. A m ethod procedure covering
each pair or group o f sim ilar parts should be on file and
used lo r setting up each batch o f parts (single o r m ultiple
part batches) for testing.
 Chapter 11
Process and Equipment Controls
Control and Verification of
Equipm ent Functions
The m agnetic particle testing process is not reliable if
the equipm ent or other parts o f the process are not
adequately m aintained, m onitored and controlled.
T he process can be broken dow n into variables o f the
system and each evaluated separately. T hese variables
are:
1. electrical system and controls.
2 m echanical com ponents.
3. instrum entation.
4. suspension vehicle.
3. m agnetic particles and bath, and
6. ultraviolet lights.
All equipm ent checks, suspension checks and
calibrations shall be conducted in accordance w ith and at
intervals specified in R eference C. or as specified in the
contract or purchase order. E valuation o f the data
received from m agnetic particle testing checks and
calibrations should be m ade at regular intervals to
observe trends and ensure that data are being properly
collected and recorded w hen recording is required by
custom er specification. Strict adherence to a quality
program is the only way to m aintain an inspection
system 's reliability. All calibrations shall be traceable to
N ational Institute o f S tandards and Technology and the
certification o f calibration m ust be available for review.
All calibrations are conducted in accordance w ith a
nationally recognized calibration specification such as
ANSI Z -540 or ISO 10012. Som e older contracts may
still require M 1L-C-45662.
Electrical System and Controls
The electrical system and controls consist o f
m axim um unit output, short test, am m eter check, quick
break test, shot tim er check, system perform ance check
and other m achine checks.
Maximum Unit Output
The m axim um output o f the unit’s electrical system is
checked by placing a copper o r alum inum bar betw een
the contacts w ith the current control set at m axim um
output and the fu n ctio n sw itch set at contact. W hen the
m agnetize sw itch is pressed, the am m eter should show
69
the m axim um am peres capable o f being produced by the
unit. This test should be perform ed daily and the results
should be com pared to the certified/calibrated output o f
the unit and the actual am m eter reading. The ASN T
N D T Level 111 should be notified o f a gradual decay in
the m axim um output o f the unit. T he results may require
recording.
Short Test
W ith either nothing or a nonconductor clam ped
betw een the heads o f the unit, and w ith the function
sw itch set at contact, the am m eter should read 0 when
the m agnetize sw itch is pressed. Any m ovem ent o f the
am m eter pointer indicates a shorted electrical system.
T his lest should be perform ed daily and the results may
require recording.
Ammeter Check
T he am m eter should be calibrated periodically to
ensure that readings are accurate. The direct current
am m eter o f a bench m achine is checked for accuracy by
clam ping a calibrated shunt/am m eter com bination
betw een the contact heads. The readings o f the am m eter
connected to the shunt are com pared with the am m eter
on the m achine. T he tw o readings should be within
±10 percent or other contractually specified values.
Purchasing a spare analog am m eter from the
m anufacturer o f the equipm ent is recom m ended. A nalog
am m eters are designed with very little dam ping in the
m ovem ent, w hich allow s them to react to the short rise
tim e o f a m agnetizing shot.
T he am m eter o f a portable or m obile pow er supply is
checked by connecting the shunt to the end o f a 6 m
(20 ft) length o f cable from each o f the direct current and
com m on term inals.
T he shunt/am m eter and the unit am m eter should be
calibrated at least once a year o r as otherw ise specified
and both the unit and shunt m eter readings m ust be
recorded.
Quick Break Test
T his test, as previously stated, is to determ ine if the
quick break circuit on the coil is functioning properly.
T he test is perform ed with a quick break tester and
should be conducted at least once every six months.
70 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Shot Timer Check
T he duration o f current flow for each m agnetizing
shot must be at least 0.5 s, w ith a m axim um o f I s to
prevent parts from burning. T he tim er should be
calibrated at least twice a year with a calibrated tim ing
device that m easures to at least ±0.1 s accuracy. T he unit
tim er should be set to at least 0.6 s to ensure at least
0.5 s unit on-tim e because the tim ing device accuracy is
± 0. i s.
The test is perform ed with a calibrated tim ing device
and should be conducted at least once every six m onths.
System Performance Check
A nother quick way to show that the system is
functioning properly and suspension has sufficient
sensitivity is to use a Ketos ring test. T his test, first
required by MIL-1-6868 in 1972, requires that a copper
bar central conductor. 25 mm (1 in.) w ide and 457 mm
(18 in.) long, be placed through the 31 m m (1.25 in.)
hole in the Ketos ring. C lam p the bar betw een the
contacts o f the machine. Locate the four holes closest to
the outside o f the ring on the top o f the bar. C over the
ring with suspension and circularly m agnetize it at
am perage levels specified in R eference C. or other
contractual docum ents. Particles should show a
m inim um num ber o f holes on the outside edge o f the
ring depending on the am perage used. T he steel used is
Ketos tool steel, a com m on tool steel that is heat treated
to a Rockw ell B-90 to B-95 hardness as specified in
AS 5282. The type o f steel, its hardness, and the type of
annealing process are critical for reproducible results.
The Ketos ring test should be perform ed daily and the
results may require recording.
Other Machine Checks
O ther com ponents o f the m achine should also be
checked for proper operation. A ccum ulations o f particles
should be cleaned o ff the track and other areas o f the
unit. T he entire tank should be thoroughly cleaned each
tim e the bath is changed and the inlet screen o f the pum p
should be checked for clogs and holes.
Suspension Control Test
O ils used as the carrier vehicle for m agnetic particles
should be procured in accordance w ith AM S 2641,
Type I. Type II m aterials may be used, but arc not
recom m ended and may not be perm itted by som e
specifications. The difference betw een Type I and Type
II is the flash point, with Type II being the low er flash
point. If there is a question as to w hether or not the oil is
the proper kind, a sam ple o f the new oil should be sent
to a chem ical laboratory for analysis. Tests for
suspension control are required by R eference C. W hen
initially charging or replacing the suspension, a sam ple
o f the new suspension m ust be saved for later
com parison during suspension tests. These checks are
not required for aerosol can solutions.
W ater may be used as the carrier w hen perm itted by
the custom er. W ater has advantages and disadvantages
com pared to oil. W ater is cleaner to w ork w ith, is readily
available and is less expensive than oil.
T he follow ing tests are conducted for both w ater and
oil: particle concentration, particle condition, particle
contam ination, vehicle (carrier) contam ination, particle
brightness and m agnetic properties. W ater also requires a
pH check and w ater break test w hereas oils m ay require
a viscosity check.
Particle Concentration Check
T he concentration o f particles in the suspension is
critical and m ust be controlled closely. For fluorescent
particles, the concentration shall be betw een 0.1 m L and
0.4 m L/100 mL. inclusive. For nonfiuorescent particles,
the concentration shall be betw een 1.2 m L and
2.4 m L /100 mL. inclusive.
The follow ing procedure is used to test the
concentration o f particles in a suspension bath:
1. A gitate the solution for a m inim um o f 30 m inutes.
2. Take a 100 m L sam ple o f the suspension from the
hose or tank in a 100 m L pear-shaped centrifuge
lube.
3. D em agnetize the solution.
4. Place the tube in a tube holder and allow it to settle
for a m inim um o f 30 m inutes.
5. Read the am ount o f settled particles in the stem o f
the tube.
Particle Condition Check
A fter the particles have settled, they should be
evaluated for agglom eration and brightness. Fluorescent
solutions are evaluated under ultraviolet light and visible
solutions are evaluated under visible light. Solutions are
com pared to the sam ple saved w hen the suspension was
initially mixed. T he particles should be loose and not
lumpy, the brightness o f the tw o sam ples should be
relatively the sam e. If not, either further evaluation
should be conducted or the suspension should be
changed.
Particle Contam ination Check
This test is to ensure that foreign particles, dirt and
other contam inates do not exceed 30 percent o f the
solids in the graduated portion o f the tube. Look for
striations or bands and differences in color or appearance
o f the particles. If contam ination exceeds 30 percent, the

suspension should be changed. T his test should be
perform ed w eekly and the results m ay require recording.
Vehicle (Carrier) Contam ination Check
for Fluorescent Baths
C hecking for contam ination is necessary because
contam ination changes the color o f the suspension and
may mask or prevent indications from form ing. This test
is perform ed by exam ining the liquid above the
precipitate w ith ultraviolet light. If the liquid
significantly fluoresces, the suspension should be
changed. T his test should be perform ed w eekly and the
results may require recording
Particle Brightness Check
Brightness o f the particles is evaluated by com paring
the in-use particles that have settled out in the centrifuge
tube to those in the unused suspension saved w hen the
solution was mixed. T his test should be perform ed
w eekly and the results m ay require recording.
M agnetic Particle Check
T he m agnetic properties o f the particles are
determ ined by a test part or the K etos ring (AS 5282).
S ensitivity is checked on a test part that has a
representative tine crack. The part is m agnetized to a
specific technique for each test. If the Ketos ring is used,
the num ber o f holes observed for three or more
am perages is recorded. The K etos ring and the test part
must be periodically cleaned to rem ove surface
contam ination that m ay interfere with the lest.
Water Break Check
A w ater break test should be perform ed periodically
to determ ine if the w ater suspension will wet parts
properly. A w ater break test is perform ed by laying a Hat
sheet o f polished m etal on the bench o f the m agnetizing
equipm ent and running a stream o f suspension over it.
T he surface o f the plate should be covered from edge to
edge. The suspension should not roll up like w ater on a
w axed surface, but should be even and in a continuous
layer. T his test should be perform ed daily and the results
recorded.
Viscosity Check
The viscosity check, if required, should be perform ed
in accordance with AM S 2641. T he viscosity should be
no greater than 5 m m /s- (5 centistokes) at room
tem perature or 3 m m /s2 (3 centistokes) at 38 °C
(100 °F). T his test should be perform ed m onthly and the
actual viscosity value recorded.
C hapter 11 - Process and Equipm ent C ontrols / 71
Light Intensity and Integrity
U ltraviolet, visible and am bient light are all used in
the evaluation o f m agnetic particle testing indications.
M easurem ent of Ultraviolet Light
T he intensity and integrity o f ultraviolet lights shall
be checked w ith an ultraviolet m eter that m easures light
in the range o f 320 to 380 nm. The norm ally accepted
intensity is 1000 p W /cm : at the test surface.
M easurem ent is norm ally conducted at 381 mm (15 in.)
because m ost inspections are conducted w ith the light
closer than 381 m m (15 in.) to the surface being
evaluated. T his m easurem ent is m ade daily and the
actual intensity value may require recording.
Lenses o r filters are visually checked to ensure they
are free from dirt, oils and other contam inants that may
inhibit light transm ission. A lso, they arc checked for
cracks or chips that may allow visible light to interfere
with the evaluation process. Som e specifications require
the m easurem ent o f visible light em itted by the
ultraviolet light. T his test should be conducted daily and
recording o f the value may be required.
M easurem ent of Visible Light
F or adequate evaluation, light intensity should be
1000 Ix (100 fte) at the lest surface when inspecting with
visible m agnetic particles. Som e specifications require
1000 lx (100 ftc) to be available when evaluating
indications detected by fluorescent particles. Intensity o f
the visible light should be checked w eekly and recording
o f the intensity value m ay be required.
M easurem ent of Am bient Light
The m axim um am bient light (background visible
light) perm itted is 20 Ix (2 ftc). M easurem ents are made
in the area w here ultraviolet light is used to evaluate the
part. This m easurem ent should be perform ed w eekly or
w hen lighting conditions are changed. The actual
intensity may require recording. T he enclosed or
darkened area m ust be free o f extraneous light that may
be distracting to the inspector o r that may affect adapted
vision.
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
72 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing

Review Q uestions 11.6 T he K etos ring test provides inform ation about:
a. the m agnetic properties o f the particles.
11.1 The am m eter should be checked against a b. the particle concentration.
calibration shunt/am m eter: c. the functioning o f the m agnetizing machine.
a. at the start o f each shift. d. all o f the above.
b. daily.
c. weekly. 11.7 A settling test show s that the m agnetic particle
d. annually o r as otherw ise specified. bath is too high in particle content. To correct the
situation:
11.2 T he m agnetizing current am m eter should be a. turn o ff the circulating pum p for 30 min and
calibrated by: recheck; continue this procedure until the
a. a field strength meter. bath concentration is w ithin lim its.
b. nothing - installed am m eters are considered b. dem agnetize the bath sam ple in the
to be accurate unless dam aged by overload centrifuge tube and recheck.
or accident. c. add suspension vehicle o r solvent, as
c. a calibrated am m eter and m aster shunt appropriate, to achieve an allow able particle
placed betw een the m achine’s current content.
contacts. d. continue to circulate the bath until an
d. a calibrated galvanom eter and bridge circuit allow able concentration is achieved.
connected across the installed am meter.
11.8 T he test used to check the strength or
11.3 The alternating current am m eter should be concentration o f the w et m ethod is called the:
checked: a. hardness test.
a. with a shunt and a m aster alternating current b. sensitivity test.
am meter. c. settling test.
b. with an im pedance bridge and an d. hydrom eter test.
oscilloscope.
c. w ith a m aster current transform er and a 11.9 The m agnetic particle bath concentration should
calibrated alternating current am meter. be checked:
d. only if it is dam aged. a. daily.
b. weekly.
11.4 W hich o f the follow ing is not a m eans of c. m onthly
verifying the correct operation o f the m agnetic d. in accordance w ith the applicable procedures
particle testing process? and specifications.
a. C hecking the ultraviolet light intensity.
b. C hecking the w ater w ashability o f the
em ulsifier.
c. Calibrating the am m eter with a m aster
am m eter and shunt.
d. C hecking the m agnetic properties o f the
particles with a K etos ring.

11.5 T he Ketos ring test will provide a com plete

functional check o f the m agnetic particle testing
process. It is a quick, sim ple test that should be
used:
a. daily.
b. hourly.
c. each shift.
d. w henever the boss requires it.
 Chapter 12
Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and
Standards
Introduction
The inspector m usl be thoroughly fam iliar w ith the
governing specifications, procedures and techniques
before perform ing any testing o r inspection. G enerally,
specifications establish the param eters controlling the
process. Procedures arc the detailed how -to docum ents
that delineate how the specification is to be applied
w ithin the param eters specified in the control docum ent
and techniques are instructions for inspecting a specific
part or group o f sim ilar parts.
Specifications
S pecifications are contractual docum ents that
establish the param eters for the process and are used by
engineering, m anagem ent and purchasing personnel. The
revision o f a specification that is current at the tim e a
contract is signed and dated is the applicable revision
unless otherw ise specified in the contract, an am endm ent
to the contract or a deviation. T he main purpose o f a
specification is to convey the lim itations o f perfection or
im perfection o f the object being described. In m ost
cases, specifications are restricted to only the
quantitative features o f the object or process. Betw een
buyers and sellers, the specification quantitatively
describes the object or the process that the buyer is
w illing to accept from the seller. Any deviation from the
lim its o f the specification requires the w ritten consent o f
the purchaser.
S pecifications m ay be general for the process or
describe a specific product and its quality or
perform ance requirem ents. They may also contain
acceptance criteria or the acceptance criteria may be in a
separate specification, on the draw ing o r in another
purchase order docum ent.
Specifications should provide sufficient detail so an
engineer can develop fabrication, processing, inspecting
and testing procedures to ensure the part will m eet its
structural and functional requirem ents. It should also
contain enough inform ation so a fabricator or inspection
facility can prepare quality control procedures to ensure
integrity o f the product. H ow ever, the custom er m ust
also be satisfied that the fabrication or inspection facility
has an adequate quality control system and qualified
personnel to produce or test the product.
73
S pecifications establish the param eters for controlling
specific processes— in this case, they are details o f the
m agnetic particle testing process.
1. T he scope should establish the lim its o f
applicability o f the docum ent or special conditions
that m ake the preparation o f the standard
necessary.
2. T he applicable docum ents are com pany or industry
docum ents that are referenced.
3. M aterials and other expendable supplies are listed
with their trade nam e and source.
4. E quipm ent to be used is listed.
5. Requirem ents are presented. T hese state the
acceptable ranges o f the factors being m easured
and controlled as well as the frequency that they
should be m easured.
6. P rocedures detail the m anner and m eans of
obtaining the desired m easurem ents.
7. Safety requirem ents are presented w here
applicable.
8. N otes may be included regarding item s o f advice
or o f caution.
9. R eference docum ents arc som etim es listed to
provide background inform ation for the user.
Acceptance Criteria
A cceptance criteria is specified by the cognizant
engineering organization and may o r may not be the
com pany requesting the inspection, how ever, the
co gnizant engineering organization’s specifications are
applicable. The acceptance criteria may be on the
draw ing, in the process specification or a separate
specification, or may be in a third party docum ent
(A STM . SA E. etc.).
A cceptance criteria are included in some
specifications to provide ranges, classes and grades o f
quality that are acceptable. An exam ple o f this is found
in SAE A M S 2 175 Castings. Classification and
Inspection. T his docum ent was developed for aerospace
castings, but its scope is broad enough to be used for
alm ost any type o f casting that will be tested. This
particular docum ent rales castings according to class and
grade. Functionally, a casting could be in Class A. B or
C with subgrades w ithin each class.
C lass A is a high reliability casting that requires
com plete inspection by both radiographic testing and
74 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic P article Testing
either m agnetic particle testing or liquid penetrant
testing. C lasses B and C have low er reliability
requirem ents and require full m agnetic particle testing
and a sam pling plan for radiographic testing. The grade
o f the m aterial determ ines its acceptability. T he grade is
based on the design and structural requirem ents o f the
casting. T here is a tabulation in the docum ent o f the
quantitative ranges and lim its o f acceptable
discontinuities. A com ponent specification referencing
this particular docum ent must specify both the class and
grade o f casting required.
T he A S M E B oiler anil Pressure Vessel Code also
provides sim ilar data. Welds in pressure vessels are
loaded differently, depending on their location. As a
consequence, the acceptance criteria can be different. For
exam ple, the configuration o f the head provides different
types o f loads on the w elds. A hem ispheric head may
have prim arily tensile loads if the plates m atch perfectly
with no offset. A vessel with a flatter head could
experience tensile loads but also a bending stress. These
different load factors can result in the need to apply
different acceptance criteria from one location to
another.
D ocum ents containing acceptance criteria present a
technique o f grading certain types o f m aterials or
products. Certain variables are categorized, such as the
alloy, type o f fabrication, finish, coaling, strength, safety
and function. T hese factors should be considered in the
design analysis before assigning a class o r grade to the
product. T he acceptance criteria state the size and type
o f discontinuities acceptable in a specified area. The
product can be zoned to allow different grade levels in
different locations on the product, if so desired.
However, in som e cases, acceptance criteria may have
only one discontinuity size above w hich it m ust be
rem oved, rem oved and repaired, or scrapped.
Procedures
T he scope o f a procedure is intended to cover a single
process, com plex o r critical com ponent, or a group o f
sim ilar item s. Procedures contain the requirem ents,
lim itations and criteria set forth by the engineering,
m anagem ent and quality departm ents o f the p urchaser
and supplier. The procedure should present everything an
inspector needs to know to apply the process and test the
parts to the intended specification. Though procedures
are frequently developed in laboratory conditions on
special test objects, they should be tried under
production conditions by production personnel before
actual im plem entation.
P rocedures establish the details for controlling
specific processes.
I. The scope should establish the lim its o f
applicability o f the docum ent or special conditions
that m ake the preparation o f the standard
necessary.
2. T he applicable docum ents are com pany docum ents
that are referenced.
3. M aterials and other expendable supplies are
occasionally listed w ith their trade nam e and
source.
4. Equipm ent to be used is listed.
5. R equirem ents are presented. T hese stale the
acceptable ranges o f the factors being m easured
and controlled as well as the frequency that they
should be m easured.
6. P rocedures detail the m anner and m eans o f
obtaining the desired m easurem ents.
7. Safety requirem ents are presented w here
applicable.
8. N otes m ay be included regarding item s o f advice
or o f caution.
9. R eference docum ents are som etim es listed to
provide background inform ation for the user.
A procedure should detail at least the follow ing items:
1. M aterials, shapes o r sizes to w hich the procedure
is specifically applicable.
2. The type o f m agnetization to be used.
3. T he equipm ent to be used for m agnetization.
4. Surface preparation (finishing and cleaning).
5. T he ferrom agnetic particles to be used
(m anufacturer, color, type).
6. M agnetization current and tim e involved.
7. Sketches o r charts indicating the location, type and
am perage o f each test area and. if necessary, the
sequence o f tests.
For more specific inform ation on the content o f
procedures reference ASTM E 1444.
O ccasionally, procedures contain the acceptance
criteria from the specification that relates to the specific
part. This w ould present the exact procedure and
acceptance criteria for each specific part as stated in the
specification o r the engineering draw ing. The procedure
should be retained and filed by num ber in the m agnetic
particle testing area and it should be referred to each
tim e a batch o f parts is to be tested.
Sample Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure
A sam ple m agnetic particle testing procedure can be
found in A ppendix 1.
Techniques
Techniques are m uch more specific than procedures
and often require no m ore than one page. These
docum ents outline the very basic requirem ents, such as
specific equipm ent, solutions, m agnetization am perages.
 C hapter 12 - S pecifications, Procedures, T echniques and Standards / 75

magnetization direction, specific m ethod o f application

o f the solution, how the part is to be m ounted in head or
coil. etc. Techniques m eet the requirem ents o f the
applicable specifications and procedures. The contract
may require techniques be approved by the custom er.
T echniques do not norm ally contain any how -to
inform ation. M ost contracts require that specifications,
procedures and techniques be prepared and/or signed by
an A SN T N D T Level III in the applicable method.

Other Types of C ontrolling

Docum ents
T here are m any types o f controlling docum ents used
in industry. T hey include:
1. H andbooks— books o f basic data on a specific
subject with references to literature to support the
handbook data.
2. R ecom m ended practices— uniform practices that,
with reasonable com pliance, produce desired
results.
3. R eference photographs— a presentation o f different
types o f discontinuities o f certain sizes that can be
used as acceptance criteria if referenced by a
specification or contract.
4. M aintenance m anuals— explain how to set up and
m aintain m agnetic particle testing equipm ent.
5. O peration m anuals— contain instructions about the
operation o f m agnetic particle testing equipm ent.
6. O verhaul m anuals— explain how to disassem ble,
repair and reassem ble m agnetic particle testing
equipm ent.
7. Draw ings— the designs o f a m achine or part that
show the m aterial, dim ensions, processing and
other pertinent data.
8. Process records— records that accom pany parts
during their m anufacture to show the proper
sequence o f each operation and the responsibility
o f w orkm anship.

Reference A
Reference B
Reference C
76 / A SN T Level 111 Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing

Review Q uestions 12.5 T he controlling docum ent(s) that w ould be m ost

likely to contain acceptance criteria for
12.1 On a daily basis, N D T Level I personnel d iscontinuities indicated by a m agnetic particle
norm ally use: test on a particular casting is a:
a. the model specification. a. standard.
b. com ponent quality specification. b. com ponent specification.
c. the AWS Structural Welding Code. c. code.
d. the m agnetic particle process specification. d. process specification.
e. m agnetic particle testing procedures. e. none o f the above.

12.2 A docum ent in w idespread use by large segm ents 12.6 A cu sto m er's specification for a particular part
o f industry is titled R ecom m ended P ractice fo r includes a detailed procedure for m agnetic
M easurem ent a nd C ontrol o f M agnetic P article p an icle testing. T he inspection facility does not
M aterials used in M agnetic P article Inspection. have equipm ent o f the specific type that the
This docum ent is m ost probably a: custom er has required. H ow ever, the A SN T N D T
a. code. Level III is fam iliar w ith the cu sto m er's
b. standard. equipm ent and can verify that the inspection
c. process specification. facility's equipm ent is at least as effective. The
d. m aintenance m anual. A SN T N D T Level 111 is asked to com m ent on
e. com ponent quality specification. the cu sto m er’s procedure because the com pany
w ishes to bid com petitively. The
12.3 T he organization that most probably developed recom m endation should be that:
and issued the docum ent referenced in 12.2 is: a. m anagem ent should be inform ed that the
a. a large corporation. facility 's equipm ent, w hile different, has
b. an industry association representing a equal capabilities on the equipm ent specified
num ber o f corporations that all produce the and that the A SN T N D T Level III will
sam e type o f product. prepare a procedure based on the equipm ent
c. a technical o r professional society that can be sent to the custom er for approval
representing design engineers. along with the bid.
d. an association o f m agnetic particle b. because this situation represents an
equipm ent m anufacturers. opportunity for the facility to get additional
e. a national or international consensus equipm ent, the A SN T N D T Level 111 should
standards w riting organization. inform m anagem ent that the only safe way
to bid on this jo b is to prom ise to purchase
12.4 Sm all parts are som etim es fabricated from the custom er specified equipm ent.
engineering draw ings that contain acceptance c. the A SN T N D T Level III should recom m end
criteria in the notes on the face o f the draw ing. that the com pany not bid on the jo b because
In such cases, the draw ing m ost nearly the inspection facility does not have the
represents a: proper equipm ent.
a. code. d. the A SN T N D T Level III should inform
b. standard. m anagem ent that after the inspection facility
c. specification. gets the jo b , the details can be w orked out
d. procedure. w ith the custom er.
e. m anagem ent should be inform ed that it is
inappropriate for the A SN T N D T Level III
to be asked to supply such com m ents,
because such touchy situations should be
dealt w ith by a higher level o f responsibility.
 C hapter 12 - S pecification s, Procedures, Techniques and Standards / 77
12.7 O ne step in a procedure m akes reference to a
sequence o f steps contained in another docum ent
w ithout reproducing them in the procedure being
used. W hich o f the follow ing statem ents is true?
a. The referenced docum ent is for advisory use
only: it is not necessary to perform the steps
included in the referenced docum ent.
b. It is im proper to reference one procedure in
another. T he referenced docum ent steps need
not be perform ed unless they are reproduced
in the docum ent being used.
c. The referenced docum ent steps should be
perform ed, but only if the inspector is
fam iliar with the referenced docum ent and
can perform the steps w ithout having the
docum ent in hand.
d. The referenced docum ent steps should be
perform ed, based on oral instructions in the
steps contained in the referenced docum ent
by the inspector's supervision.
e. None o f the above statem ents represent the
proper approach.
The follow ing questions refer to the procedure P-3650.
Steel Cleanliness by the M agnetic P article M ethod,
found in A ppendix I .
12.8 The inspection personnel w ho should perform
the m agnetic particle testing to P-3650 is:
a. a certified Level I w orking under the
supervision o f a certified Level II.
b. a certified Level II w orking under the
supervision o f a certified A SN T N D T
Level III.
c. a certified Level I should perform the
m agnetizing procedure and a certified
Level II should count the indications and
record the results.
d. a Level II or A SN T N D T Level III should
perform the test because this procedure is
com plex.
e. laboratory personnel— they need not be
qualified o r certified as m agnetic particle
testing personnel.
12.9 Procedure P-2468 provides for step-dow n
specim ens that have various step lengths. If
specim ens w ere received for testing under
P-3650 that had step diam eters o f 1. 2 and 3 in.
and step lengths o f 3 in.. the areas o f the survey
surfaces for each step w ould be. for the 1 .2 and
3 in. diam eter steps, respectively:
a. 9.42, 6.28 and 3.14 in.-.
b. 3.14, 6.28 and 9.42 in.2.
c. 9.42. 18.84 and 28.26 in.2.
d. 28.26. 18.84 and 9.42 in.2.
e. none o f the above.
12.10 Fluorescent particles are not readily available for
these tests. It is perm issible to use visible
m agnetic particles:
a. under no condition.
b. if the concentration as m easured in the
centrifuge tube ranges betw een 1.0 and 1.2.
c. if the slurry sensitivity test produces
indications o f at least four holes in the Ketos
ring.
d. with any technique because the procedure
does not specify the use o f either fluorescent
o r visible particles.
12.11 To reveal all o f the inclusions o f interest, the
specim ens should be m agnetized by:
a. alternating current longitudinal
m agnetization.
b. direct current circular m agnetization.
c. direct current circular m agnetization
follow ed by three fast alternating current
circular shots.
d. alternating current circular m agnetization.
e. both circular and longitudinal m agnetization.
12.12 A specim en was received for testing in
accordance w ith P-3650. T he specim en was
3 1 x 6 0 mm (1.25x2.38 in.) cross section and
103 mm (4.06 in.) long. The m inim um
m agnetizing current that should be used is:
a. 1156 A.
b. 2311 A.
c. 4691 A.
d. 7260 A.
e. none o f the above.
78 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic Particle Testing

12.13 For the specim en in Q uestion 12.12. the area o f

the survey section is:
a. 97 m m 2 (3.84 in.2).
b. 184 m m 2 (7.26 in.2).
c. 238 m m 2 (9.38 in.2).
d. 3 0 7 m m 2 (1 2 .0 8 in .2).
e. 749 m m 2 (29.48 in.2).
 Chapter 13
Safety
Introduction
Safety is a critical issue that involves everything
related to the process— personnel, handling o f parts,
equipm ent, inspection m aterials and the facility in w hich
the inspection is being conducted. M any injuries are the
direct result o f carelessness and a cluttered w ork area.
The inspector should alw ays be alert to surroundings,
w ork conditions, equipm ent condition and should keep
the area clean and free o f extraneous objects such as
parts, cables and equipm ent not being used.
Personnel
The main risks faced by personnel are from lifting,
burns, electrical shock and equipm ent. Injuries are often
a direct result o f im proper lifting or m ovem ent o f heavy
objects or equipm ent. Proper lilting techniques should be
practiced at all tim es. W hen using hoists, fork lifts and
other m echanical devices, the operator should verify that
the equipm ent is in proper w orking order. For instance,
check that cables are not frayed, connecting devices and
cables are o f the proper w eight range for the load to be
m oved, etc. T he operator should understand the proper
operation o f all equipm ent and devices used.
Burns can result from arcs and fires. A rcs are caused
w hen heads, clam ps or prods do not m ake proper contact
with the part. U nder som e circum stances, arcs m ay bum
the hands, face o r eyes. T he im proper handling o f
equipm ent may cause fires in adjacent m aterials or the
petroleum carrier.
Eye protection is necessary w hen w orking out o f
position (on vertical and overhead tests), and gloves may
be necessary to protect hands from reactions to chem ical
solvents used as carriers in w et applications.
Electrical shock may be caused by im properly
m aintained equipm ent, frayed pow er cables and
carelessness.
Parts
P ails should be handled carefully to prevent dam age
and im proper contact with current-producing equipm ent
when m agnetizing or dem agnetizing.
Im properly handled parts and equipm ent can cause
dam age that renders the parts unsatisfactory for their
intended use. D eep nicks, scratches and oth er dam age
may not be repairable or m ay require excessive tim e and
79
costs for repair or rew ork. Care should be exercised at
all tim es.
Im proper positioning o f parts in heads o r im proper
use o f clam ps and prods m ay cause arc bum s that render
the parts unacceptable for their intended use or require
extra tim e and costs to repair or rew ork. Proper pads and
good contact are essential at all tim es.
Equipm ent
D am age to equipm ent is norm ally the result o f
im proper handling, use or connection. D ropping the
equipm ent, dropping objects on the equipm ent and
excessive force or pressure when making adjustm ents or
connections may cause dam age.
All equipm ent should be used w ithin the limits
established by the m anufacturer. A ttem pting to use
equipm ent outside o f its designed lim its may cause
dam age to circuits, m eters, gages and other com ponents.
C onnection to electrical outlets or other
cu rren t-carry in g devices should alw ays m eet the
N ational Electric C ode and be o f the proper value for
equipm ent or equipm ent setting. Failure to adhere to the
code m ay cause equipm ent dam age or personal injury.
The petroleum distillate used as the carrier in wet
horizontal units is flam m able. M aterials m eeting the
requirem ents o f AM S 2 6 4 1. Type I. are less flam m able
than Type II. how'ever. they w ill both burn under certain
circum stances. C aution should be exercised to prevent
arcing from any source in the area.
The facility and the w ork area should be cleared of
loose item s such as cables, parts, trash and any materials
that are not contributing directly to the testing process. A
cluttered w ork area could cause personal injuries,
dam age to equipm ent and parts, and possibly dam age to
the facility.
R eference C
 Appendix 1
Test Procedure Example

The follow ing is a sam ple procedure for perform ing a m agnetic particle test. This procedure is typical o f many
found in industry.
T he A SN T N D T Level 111 m ust sign this docum ent, technique sheets and other docum ents related to the m agnetic
particle test prepared w ithin the com pany in accordance with com pany procedures.

(Rev. C),
Nov. I, 20(15
Supersedes
Rev. B
Jan. 14. 2002.
P rocedure No.: P-3650

Procedure Title: Steel C leanliness by the M agnetic P article M ethod

1.0 Scope
This docum ent provides a procedure for m agnetic particle inspection o f the steel cleanliness specim ens prepared
in accordance with P rocedure P-2468.
2.0 R eferences
PBA -1004. A ircraft Q uality Steel Cleanliness— M agnetic P article M ethod
PBA -906, M agnetic P article Inspection
A STM E 1444. Standard P ractice f o r M agnetic P article E xam ination
A SN T-CP-189. P ersonnel Q ualification and Certification in N ondestructive Testing (2001 edition)
P-2468. Steel C leanliness Specim en Preparation
3.0 Personnel
Personnel shall be certified in accordance w ith A SN T-C P-189. 2001 edition. T hese tests shall be conducted by
certified Level I personnel w orking to this procedure under the supervision o f certified Level II personnel.
4.0 Equipm ent
1. Wet horizontal m agnetic particle m achine w ith fluorescent suspension
2. K etos ring
3. 2.5 cm diam eter copper bar, 45.7 cm long
4. 100 W m inim um pressure m ercury-vapor ultraviolet light
5. 100 tnL pear-shaped centrifuge lube
5.0 D efinition o f Term s
Stringers— nonm elallic inclusions in the steel
Steel cleanliness specim en— a steel specim en that has been m achined in accordance with Procedure P-2468
Perim eter— perim eter o f a square o r rectangle is the sum o f the four sides
M agnetizing current for a square or rectangular specim en cross section —
am perage = perim eter/3.1416 x 1000
For exam ple, for a bar 1.3 cm thick and 10.0 cm wide:
perim eter = 10.0 cm + 10.0 cm + 1.3 cm + 1.3 cm = 22.6 cm
am perage = 22.6 c n t/3 .1416 x 1000 = 7194 A.
Note: T he next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.

81
82 / A SN T Level i l l Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing

6.0 S ta n d a rd iz a tio n
Prior to any lest in accordance w ith this procedure, the pum p on the m achine shall be operated continuously for
30 m inutes A 100 m L centrifuge tube shall be filled with suspension taken from the exit noble to the 100 m L level
and allow ed to stand for 30 m inutes A range o f 0.2 to 0.7 m L o f particles shall be indicated in the tube. If
necessary, the suspension shall be adjusted or changed to com ply w ith the requirem ents o f PBA -906.
C onduct a slurry sensitivity test in accordance w ith M IL -I-6868 using the K etos ring. Atleast four holes in the
ring must be indicated at 2500 A on a 2.5 cm (1 in.) copper bar. T his test m ust be m ade im m ediately prior to the
cleanliness test in accordance w ith this procedure.
7.(1 Test P rocedure
7.1 C leaning
D egrease the specim ens to rem ove oil or antirust coatings in accordance w ith PBA -906
7.2 Inspection
Using a w et continuous direct current fluorescent particle procedure, start at the sm allest size on the
specim en and m agnetize at 1000 A p er 2.5 cm (1 in.) diam eter. To com pute the am perage for a rectangular
specim en, m easure the perim eter o f each step o f the specim en and divide by 3.1416. The form ula for the
am perage o f a 2.5 cm (1 in.) square bar w ould be:
am perage = 10.0 c m /3 .1416 x 1000 = 3183 A.
Note: T he next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.
The specim en shall be clam ped betw een the contact plates and direct circu lar m agnetism used. M agnetize
one tim e, cover the part with suspension, stop the flow o f suspension and m agnetize three tim es in a fast
sequence. The m agnetization shall not be less than 0.2 s.
7.3 On each successive step o f the specim en, count the num ber o f stringers and record on the record sheet as
required by paragraph 8.0 o f this procedure.
7.4 Repeat steps 7.2 and 7.3 for each step o f the specim en.
7.5 Postcleaning
W ipe the specim en w ith a clean cloth to rem ove m agnetic particles and oil. then w rap in paper.
8.0 R ecording Procedure
A separate recording form shall be used for each specim en. The form used shall be as attached to this procedure.
(See Figure A L L )
a. On the form s accom panying the specim ens, record the M aterial Spec.. P.O. N um ber and H eat N um ber
in the upper corner. Fill in the largest diam eter in Size in the upper com er.
b. Fill in the date.
c. Fill in the diam eter o f the first step in the first colum n.
d. Com pute the area o f the step and record in the second colum n.
T he area o f the circular cross section = diam eter x 3.14 x length o f step.
T he area o f the rectangular cross section step = perim eter x length o f step.
e. C ount and m easure the length o f each indication on each step. Record the num ber o f indications in (he
proper colum n according to their length.
f. A dd all o f the indications for each step and record in the Sum colum n.
g. D ivide the sum by the area and enter the num ber in Sum /A rea colum n.
h. Add all o f the Sum /A rea entries and record in F requency p e r Specim en colum n.
i. M ultiply the num ber o f indications o f each length range by the P rogression F actor at the top o f the
colum n.
j. Add all o f the products for each sheet and record in the Total P roduct colum n,
k. D ivide the Total Product by the A rea for each step and enter in P roduct/Area colum n.
1. Total the Product/Area colum n and enter in the Severity p e r Specim en space.
m. If m ore than one specim en is tested for a single H eat Number. P.O. N u m b er and M aterial Spec., add
the F requency p e r Specim en from each record sheet to obtain the Total F requency o f Heat. D ivide the
Total Frequency o f H eat by the N um ber o f Specim ens and enter the result in the A verage Frequency o f
H eat space on each record sheet,
n. Sim ilarly, add the Severity P er Specim en from each record sheet to obtain the Total Severity o f Heat.
D ivide the Total S everin ’ o f H ea t by the N um ber o f Specim ens and enter in the A verage Severity o f
H eat space on each record sheet.
 M aterial Spec. ________
CO
Record for Determ ination of Frequency-Severity P.O. No. ______________ c
-1
O' <0
'j i

by M agnetic Particle Inspection Procedure Heat No. --------------------- >

Step-down Bar Specimen Form ________________
Sjze 3 in. diam eter
Premium Aircraft Quality Steel , )ate April 6 . 2001
C/3
03
3
-o
S tep -d ow n S ectio n L ength and N u m b e r o f In d ic a tio n s/In c lu sio n s F requ en cy S everity m
o
D iam eter X o
Length A rea 0.06-0.25 0.13-0.25 0.25-0.5 0.5-0.75 0.75-1 1-1.5 a
(in.) (in 2) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) 3
<£>
Sum / Total P ro d u ct/ o
0.5 1 2 4 8 16 S um A rea P ro d u ct A rea 3

1. 1 in. x 1 in. L 3.14 14 15 10 6 3 2 50 15.9 122 38.9

2. 2 in. X 1 in. L 6.28 10 6 4 3 1 0 24 3.8 39 6.2
3. 3 in. x 1 in. L 9.42 8 6 2 1 1 1 19 2.0 42 45
4.

Appendix
F requency per Specim en 21.7

Severity per Specim en 49.6

1 - Test Procedure Example / 83

Total Frequency o f H eat
Average Frequency o f Heat =
N um ber o f Specim ens

Total Severity o f Heat

Average Severity o f Heat -
N um ber o f Specim ens

Product = Total N um ber o f Indications x the Progression F actor for each Length o f Indication
Inspector Signature
 Appendix 2
Magnetization Chart
 Material Chemical Curie Point Pm ax ® Sat Hc — Remanence P in t

Composition °C (°F) Coercive (gauss) Initial

(% ) Force4
Iro n ( 9 9 . 9 1 % ) 7 7 0 (1 4 1 8 ) 5000 21 5 0 0 0 1 .0 150

Iro n , 5 % S ilic o n 7 2 0 (1 3 2 8 )

Iro n , 1 0 % C h r o m iu m 7 4 0 (1 3 6 4 )

Iro n , 4 % M a n g a n e s e 7 1 5 (1 3 1 9 )

Iro n , 6 % V a n a d iu m 8 1 5 (1 4 9 9 )

C o b o lt ( E le m e n t) 1 1 3 0 (2 0 6 6 ) 250 18 2 0 0 1 0 .0 70

Materials Properties
N ic k le ( E le m e n t) 3 5 8 (6 7 6 ) 600 6100 0 .7 110

F e r rite '

F e r rite 2

F e r rite 3

Appendix 3
S u p e r a llo y 7 9 N i, 5 M o 400 1 000 000 8000 0 .0 0 2 100 000

S ilic o n S te e l 3 .2 5 Si 7 4 0 (1 3 6 4 ) 30 000 20 000 0 .1

(o r ie n te d )

S ilic o n S te e l, H o t 4 . 5 Si 7 2 0 (1 3 2 8 ) 9750 19 5 0 0 0 .3 9 1250

R o lle d

M ild S te e l 0 .2 C a r b o n 4 .0
( N o r m a liz e d )

C a r b o n M a g n e tic 0 .9 C , <1 M n 5 0 .0 10 000

S te e l

A ln ic o V 2 4 C o , 1 4 N i, 8 6 0 0 .0 13 0 0 0
A l. 3 C u

A ln ic o V III 3 . 5 C o , 1 4 .5 N i, 1 4 5 0 .0
7 A l, 5 T i, 4 . 5 C u

B a rriu m fe rrite B a O , 6 F e ?0 3 1 9 0 0 .0 4000

(o r ie n te d )

B iz m a n o l M nBi 3 6 5 0 .0

P la tin u m -C o b a lt P IC o ( 7 7 % C o ) 4 3 0 0 .0

P u rifie d Iro n 9 9 .9 5 7 7 0 (1 4 1 8 ) 2 100 000 21 5 0 0 0 .0 5 10 0 0 0

7 8 P e r m a llo y 7 8 Ni 580 1000 000 10 0 0 0 0 .0 5 8000

(1) Ferrite material used for core material in electronics. Base material is either spinel, garnet or magnetoplumbite. (2) Ferrite in Nodular iron castings. (3) Ferrite in
pH hardening alloys (17-4. 15-5. etc.) (4) From saturation
 Appendix 4
Glossary
acceptance standard: A specim en lest object sim ilar to
the product to be tested, containing natural or
artificial discontinuities that are well defined and
sim ilar in size to. o r extent of. the m axim um
acceptable in the product,
alternating current: An electric current that reverses the
direction o f its flow at regular intervals,
alternating current field: The active m agnetic field
produced around a conductor by an alternating
current flow ing in the conductor,
alternating current m agnetization: M agnetization by a
m agnetic field that is generated when alternating
current is flow'ing.
am pere: A unit o f electric cu n e n t. A bbreviated A or
amp.
am pere per m eter: The m agnetic field strength in air at
the center o f a single-turn circular coil having a
diam eter o f I meter, through w hich a current o f
I A is flow ing. A bbreviated A*m-1 o r A/m.
am pere turns: The product o f the num ber o f turns o f a
coil and the current in am peres flow ing through the
coil.
arc: A lum inous high tem perature discharge produced
w hen all electric current flow s across a gaseous
gap.
arc strikes: Localized bum dam age to an object from
the arc caused by breaking an energized electric
circuit. A lso called arc burns.
arcing: C urrent flow through a gap. often accom panied
by intense heat and light,
articulated pole pieces: On a m agnetizing yoke,
independently adjustable m agnetic elem ents
enabling the m agnetization o f irregular test object
profiles.
artificial discontinuity: A m anufactured material
anom aly. Sec acceptance standard and reference
standard.
artificial flaw standard: See acceptance standard.
background: In m agnetic particle testing, the
appearance o f the surface against w hich test
indications are viewed.
89
B arkhausen effect (B arkhausen steps) - The
m agnetization o f a ferrom agnetic substance by an
increasing m agnetic field; takes place in
discontinuous steps rather than continuously. The
effect results from the orientation o f m agnetic
dom ains. It w as first observed by H. Barkhausen in
1919.
hath: See suspension.
bearding: S ee fu rrin g .
B erthold penetram eter: A m agnetic flux indicator
containing an artificial discontinuity in the shape ol
a cross, m ounted below an adjustable cover plate.
cap acitor discharge m ethod: A single-shot
m agnetization m ethod using discharge from a bank
o f capacitors. A m eans by w hich electrical current
is built up and stored until a sufficient level is
achieved to provide a predeterm ined m agnetic field
in a test object, usually saturation,
carrier fluid: The liquid vehicle in w hich fluorescent or
non fluorescent m agnetic particles are suspended
for ease o f application. See vehicle.
central conductor: An electric conductor passed
through the opening in a part w ith an aperture, or
through a hole in a test object, for the purpose of
creating a circular m agnetic field in the object,
circular m agnetic field: The m agnetic field surrounding
an electrical conductor (test object) w hen a current
is passed longitudinally through the conductor,
circular m agnetization: The m agnetization in an object
resulting from current passed longitudinally
through the object itself or through an inserted
central conductor,
circum ferential m agnetization: See circular
m agnetization.
coercive force H : T he m agnetizing field strength
required to bring the m agnetic flux density o f a
m agnetized m aterial to 0.
coil m ethod: A m ethod o f m agnetization in w hich all or
a portion o f the object is encircled by a
current-carrying coil,
coil shot: A technique o f producing longitudinal
m agnetization by passing electric current through a
coil encircling the test object,
coil technique: See coil m ethod.
9 0 /A S N T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
conditioning agent: An additive to w ater suspensions
that im parts specific properties such as proper
w etting, particle dispersion or corrosion resistance,
contact head: E lectrode assem bly used to clam p and
support an object to facilitate passage o f electric
current through the object for circular
m agnetization,
contact m ethod: See currenl flow technique.
contact pad: R eplaceable m etal pad. usually m ade o f
lead or copper braid, placed on electrodes to give
good electrical contact thereby preventing dam age
such as arc strikes to the test object,
continuous technique: A sequence where m agnetic
particles are applied to the test object w hile the
m agnetizing force is present.
C urie point: T he tem perature at w hich ferrom agnetic
m aterials can no longer be m agnetized by outside
forces and at w hich they lose residual m agnetism
(betw een 650 and 870 °C for m ost m etals).
C urie tem perature, '/'c:The transition tem perature above
w hich a m aterial loses its ferrom agnetic properties.
A pproxim ately 760 °C (600 °F) for iron,
current flow technique: A m eans o f m agnetizing by
passing current through an object using prods or
contact heads. The current may be alternating
current or rectified alternating current,
current induction technique: A m eans o f m agnetization
in w hich a circulating current is induced in a ring
com ponent by the influence o f a fluctuating
m agnetic field.
dark adaptation: T he adjustm ent o f the eye o ver tim e to
reduced illum ination, including increased retinal
sensitivity, dilation o f the pupil and other reflex
physical changes,
defect: A discontinuity w hose size, shape, orientation or
location m ake it detrim ental to the useful service o f
the test object o r w hich exceeds the accept/reject
criteria o f an applicable specification,
dem agnetization: T he reduction o f residual m agnetism
to an acceptable level,
dem agnetizing coil: A coil o f conductive m aterial
carrying alternating current used for
dem agnetization,
diam agnetic m aterial: A m aterial w ith m agnetic
perm eability less than one.
direct contact m agnetization: See current flo w
technique.
direct current: An electric current flow ing continually
in one direction through a conductor,
direct current field: A residual m agnetic field or an
active m agnetic field produced by direct current
(low ing in a conductor.
discontinuity: A change in the physical structure or
configuration o f an object. M ay be intentional or
unintentional,
dom ain: A saturated m acroscopic substructure in
ferrom agnetic m aterials w here the elem entary
particles (electron spins) are aligned in one
direction by interatom ic forces. A dom ain w ould be
a saturated perm anent m agnet,
dry m ethod: A m agnetic particle testing m ethod in
w hich the ferrom agnetic particles are applied in a
dry pow der form,
dry powder: Finely divided ferrom agnetic particles
selected and prepared for m agnetic particle testing.
electrode: A conductor by m eans o f w hich a current
passes into o r out o f a test object,
electrom agnet: A soft iron core surrounded by a coil o f
w ire that tem porarily becom es a m agnet when an
electric current flow s through the wire,
encircling coil: See coil m ethod.
evaluation: The process o f determ ining the m agnitude
and significance o f a discontinuity causing a test
indication after it has been interpreted as being
relevant.
exam ination: T he process o f testing m aterials,
interpreting and evaluating indications to determ ine
if the test object m eets specified acceptance
criteria.
exam ination m edium : A pow der or suspension o f
m agnetic particles applied to a m agnetized test
surface to determ ine the presence o r absence o f
surface or slightly subsurface discontinuities.
false indication: An indication that m ay be interpreted
as being caused by a discontinuity but is located
w here no discontinuity exists.
F arad ay’s law o f m agnetic induction: (1) An e.m .f. is
induced in a conductor w hen the m agnetic field
surrounding it changes: (2) the m agnitude o f the
e.m .f. is proportional to the rate o f change in the
field: (3) the sense o f the induced e.m .f. depends
on the direction o f the rate o f change o f the field,
ferrite: A very ductile form o f practically pure iron (no
carbon) that occurs in the m atrix o f cast iron and
therefore in rolled and forged steel products. It has
a tensile strength o f - 5 0 000 lbs.
ferrom agnetic m aterial: A m aterial that exhibits the
p henom ena o f m agnetic hysteresis and m agnetic
saturation and w hose m agnetic perm eability is
dependent on the m agnetizing field strength,
field flow technique: See m agnetic flo w technique.
field strength, H The p aram eter characterizing the
am plitude o f the m agnetizing field strength.

fill-factor: In the coil m ethod o f m agnetization, the ratio
o f the cross sectional area o f the object w ithin the
coil to the cross sectional area o f the coil,
flash m agnetization: M agnetization by a current flow o f
b rief duration. See ca pacitor discharge m ethod.
flash point: The lowest tem perature at w hich vapors
above a volatile, com bustible substance ignite in
air w hen exposed to flam e,
flaw: Sec defect.
fluorescence: T he em ission by a substance o f visible
radiation as a result of. and only during, the
absorption o f ultraviolet energy,
fluorescent m agnetic particle testing: T he process
using finely divided ferrom agnetic particles that
fluoresce w hen exposed to ultraviolet light (320 to
4 00 nm).
flux density, B. The corresponding param eter for the
induced m agnetic field in an area perpendicular to
the flux path. See m agnetic flux density.
flux density, saturation. Bs: T he m axim um intrinsic
induction possible in a m aterial.
Ilux indicator: A sm all device, generally a metal strip or
disk, containing artificial discontinuities. Used to
determ ine when correct m agnetizing conditions or
m agnetic field direction have been achieved,
flux leakage field: The m agnetic field that leaves or
enters the surface o f an object,
flux leakage m ethod: A m ethod for the detection and
analysis o f a discontinuity using the flux that
leaves a m agnetically saturated, or nearly saturated,
test object at a discontinuity.
Ilux lines: See lines o f fo rc e .
fluxm eter: An electronic device for m easuring m agnetic
flux.
lull w ave direct current: A single phase or three phase
alternating current rectified to produce direct
current characteristics o f penetration and flow,
furring: Build up or bristling o f m agnetic particles
resulting from excessive m agnetization o f the test
object.
gauss: A unit o f m agnetic flux density or m agnetic
induction. M agnetic field strength B is m easured in
gauss (G); 1 G is one line o f m agnetic flux per
square centim eter o f area. See tesla.
gaussm eter: A m agnetom eter using gauss to register
field strength.
h alf w ave current: A unidirectional rectified single
phase alternating current that produces a pulsating
unidirectional field.
Hall effect: A potential difference developed across a
conductor at right angles to the direction o f both
the m agnetic field and the electric current.
A ppendix 4 - G lossary / 91
Produced w hen a current flow s along a rectangular
co nductor subjected to a transverse m agnetic field.
The m agnitude o f the voltage is proportional to the
applied field.
heads: The clam ping contacts on stationary m agnetic
particle system s,
head shot: A short pulse o f m agnetizing current passed
through an object or a central conductor w hile
clam ped betw een the head contacts o f a
m agnetizing unit, generating circular m agnetization
o f the object. D uration o f the current is usually less
than 1 s.
h orseshoe m agnet: A b ar m agnet bent into the shape o f
a horseshoe so that the tw o poles are adjacent. The
term usually applies to a perm anent m agnet,
hysteresis: ( I ) The lagging o f the m agnetic effect when
the m agnetizing force acting on a ferrom agnetic
body is changed. (2) T he phenom enon exhibited by
a m agnetic system w herein its state is influenced
by its previous history,
hysteresis loop: A curve show ing flux density B plotted
as a function o f m agnetizing force H as the
m agnetizing force is increased to the saturation
point in both the negative and positive directions
sequentially. The curve form s a characteristic S
shaped loop. Intercepts o f the loop w ith the BH
axis and the points o f m inim um and m axim um
m agnetizing force define im portant m agnetic
characteristics o f a m aterial.
indication: A m agnetic particle accum ulation that serves
as evidence o f a leakage field and requires
interpretation to determ ine its significance,
induced m agnetization: A m agnetic field generated in
an object w hen no direct electrical contact is made,
induced current technique: See current induction
technique.
inductance: The m agnetism produced in a ferrom agnetic
body by som e outside m agnetizing force,
inherent fluorescence: Fluorescence that is an intrinsic
characteristic o f a material,
inspection: See exam ination.
in spection m edium : See exam ination m edium .
internal conductor: See central conductor.
interpretation: The determ ination o f a m agnetic particle
indication’s source and relevancy.
keeper: F errom agnetic m aterial placed across the poles
o f a perm anent m agnet to com plete the m agnetic
circuit and prevent loss o f m agnetism .
lam inated pole pieces: See a rticulated p o le pieces.
leakage field: See Ilux leakage field .
92 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
leeches: Perm anent m agnets or electrom agnets attached
to electrodes carrying m agnetizing current, to
provide strong electrode contact,
lifting power: The ability o f a m agnet to lift a piece o f
ferrite steel by m agnetic attraction alone,
lines o f force: A conceptual representation o f m agnetic
flux based on the line pattern produced w hen iron
filings are sprinkled on paper laid over a perm anent
magnet.
longitudinal m agnetic field: A m agnetic field w herein
the flux lines traverse the com ponent in a direction
that is essentially parallel w ith its longitudinal axis,
longitudinal m agnetization: M agnetization in w hich the
flux lines traverse the com ponent in a direction
essentially parallel to its longitudinal axis.
m agnetic circuit: T he closed path follow ed by any
group o f m agnetic flux lines,
m agnetic constant, |X(): T he perm eability o f free space,
m agnetic field: W ithin and surrounding a m agnetized
object, the space in w hich the m agnetic force is
exerted.
m agnetic field indicator: A device used to locate or
determ ine the relative intensity o f a flux leakage
field em anating from an object,
m agnetic field leakage: See flu x leakage field .
m agnetic field strength: The m easured intensity o f a
m agnetic field at a specific point. E xpressed in
am peres per m eter o r oersted,
m agnetic flow technique: W hen a test object or a
portion o f it closes the m agnetic circuit o f an
electrom agnet. T he resulting field is longitudinal in
direction.
m agnetic flux: The total num ber o f lines o f force
existing in a m agnetic circuit,
m agnetic flux density: T he norm al m agnetic flux per
unit area. Expressed in tesla o r gauss,
m agnetic flux leakage: See flu x leakage field.
m agnetic hysteresis: In a m agnetic m aterial, the
irreversible variation o f the flux density B or
m agnetization w hich is associated w ith the change
o f m agnetic field strength and is independent o f the
rate o f change. See hysteresis.
m agnetic leakage field: See flux leakage field,
m agnetic particle test: A nondestructive test m ethod
utilizing m agnetic leakage fields and suitable
indicating m aterials to disclose surface and near
surface discontinuities,
m agnetic particle test system : E quipm ent providing the
electric current and m agnetic flux necessary for
m agnetic particle discontinuity detection. Provides
facilities for holding com ponents o f varying
dim ensions and for adjusting and reading the
m agnetizing current.
m agnetic particles: Finely divided ferrom agnetic
m aterial capable o f being individually m agnetized
and attracted to flux leakage fields,
m agnetic perm eability: See perm eability.
m agnetic pole: O ne o f tw o sites on a m agnet that
generates m agnetic fields. Flux leakage sites on an
object.
m agnetic powder: M agnetic particles in dry o r pow der
form w ith size and shape suitable for discontinuity
detection.
m agnetic rubber: A specially form ulated testing
m edium containing m agnetic particles. U sed to
obtain replica castings o f com ponent surfaces with
d iscontinuities being reproduced w ithin the replica.
A suitable m agnetizing technique causes the
m igration o f m agnetic particles w ithin the m edium
to the position o f the discontinuity,
m agnetic saturation: In a specific m aterial, the degree
o f m agnetization w here an increase in H produces
no further increase in m agnetization,
m agnetic writing: A nonrelevant indication som etim es
caused w hen the surface o f a m agnetized object
com es in contact with another piece o f
ferrom agnetic m aterial or a current-carrying cable,
m agnetism : T he ability o f a m agnet to attract or repel
another m agnet o r to attract a ferrom agnetic
m aterial. A force field surrounding conductors
carrying electric current,
m agnetization: T he process by w hich elem entary
m agnetic dom ains o f a m aterial are aligned
predom inantly in one direction,
m agnetizing current: The electric current passed
through or adjacent to an object that gives rise to a
designated m agnetic field
m agnetizing force: T he m agnetizing field strength
applied to ferrom agnetic m aterial to produce
m agnetism .
m agnetom eter: A device for m easuring the strength o f
m agnets or m agnetic fields,
m ultidirectional m agnetization: Tw'o or more m agnetic
fields in different directions im posed on a lest
object sequentially and in rapid succession.
near surface discontinuity: A discontinuity not open to
but located near the surface o f a test object.
Produces broad, fuzzy, lightly held dry particle
indications.
nonrelevant indication: A test indication produced by
an acceptable discontinuity or by spurious effects
such as m agnetic w riting, changes in section, or the
boundary betw een m aterials o f different m agnetic
properties.

oersted: T he egs unit o f m agnetic field strength.
Replaced by the SI system ’s am pere per meter,
overall m agnetization: M agnetizing a com plete object
with a single energizing cycle.
parallel m agnetization: A m agnetic field induced in
m agnetizable m aterial placed parallel to a
conductor carrying an electric current. N ot a
recom m ended practice for m agnetic particle
testing.
param agnetic m aterial: A m aterial with m agnetic
perm eability slightly greater than one.
perm anent m agnet: An object possessing the ability to
retain an applied m agnetic field for a long period
o f tim e after the active pow er o f the field has been
rem oved.
perm eability: (1) The ease w ith w hich a m aterial can
becom e m agnetized. (2) The ratio o f flux density to
m agnetizing force B/H.
perm eability, (i: The ratio o f the m agnetic flux density
B in a substance to the external (applied) field
strength H. F or exam ple p = B/H.
perm eability relative, |lr: T he ratio o f the perm eability
o f a substance to (he perm eability o f free space.
fir = fi/fio-
perm eability initial, |ijllt: T he perm eability obtained
from the ratio o f the flux density B kept at <10
gauss, and the required field strength II. M aterial
initially in a specified neutralized state,
pole: See m agnetic pole.
powder: See d ry pow der.
pow der blower: A com pressed air device used to apply
dry m agnetic particles over the surface o f a test
object.
prod m agnetization: See current flow technique.
prods: H andheld electrodes for transm itting m agnetizing
current from a generating source to a test object,
pulse m agnetization: D irect or indirect application o f a
high field intensity, usually by the capacitor
discharge m ethod.
quick break: A sudden interruption o f m agnetizing
current. U sed in m agnetic particle tests for
m aterials with high residual longitudinal
m agnetism and lim ited to three phase full w ave
rectified alternating current.
rectified alternating current: A unidirectional electric
current obtained by rectifying alternating current
w ithout the deliberate addition o f sm oothing to
rem ove the inherent ripples,
reference standard: A specim en containing controlled
artificial or natural discontinuities. U sed for
A ppendix 4 - G lossary / 93
verifying the accuracy o f discontinuity detection
processes or equipm ent,
relevant indication: An indication caused by a condition
o r a type o f discontinuity that requires evaluation,
rem ancnce, B T he flux density rem aining in a m agnetic
m aterial when the applied m agnetic field strength
is reduced to 0.
rem anent m agnetism : See residual m agnetic field.
residual m agnetic field: T he field rem aining in a
ferrom agnetic m aterial after the m agnetizing force
is reduced to 0.
residual technique: Ferrom agnetic particles are applied
to a test object after the m agnetizing force has been
discontinued,
retentivity: The capacity o f a substance to retain
m agnetism after the m agnetizing force has been
reduced to 0.
ring standard: See test ring.
saturation: The point at w hich a m aterial is unable to be
m agnetized m ore strongly as all dom ains are
oriented in the same direction,
saturation level: See m agnetic saturation.
sensitivity: T he degree o f capability o f a m agnetic
particle test to indicate surface or near surface
discontinuities in ferrom agnetic materials,
settlin g test: A procedure used to determ ine the
concentration o f particles in a m agnetic particle
bath.
shot: A short energizing cycle in a m agnetic particle test,
skin effect: T he phenom enon that causes the
m agnetization produced by alternating current to be
contained near the surface o f a ferrom agnetic
object.
slurry: A free-flow ing pum pable suspension o f a fine
solid in a liquid,
su bsu rface discontinuity: See near surface
discontinuity.
suspension: A tw o phase system com prising finely
divided m agnetic particles dispersed in a vehicle,
often a liquid petroleum distillate. See vehicle.
sw in ging field: See m ultidirectional m agnetization.
tesla: T he SI unit o f m easure for m agnetic flux density
(T). O ne tesla is equivalent to 1()4 G.
test piece: See reference standard.
test ring: A ring specim en typically m ade o f tool steel,
containing artificial subsurface discontinuities used
to evaluate and com pare the perform ance and
sensitivity o f m agnetic particles,
through-coil m ethod: See coil m ethod.
true con tinu ous m ethod: Test technique in w hich
m agnetizing current is applied before application o f
94 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic Particle Testing

m agnetic particles and is m aintained w ithout

interruption throughout the exam ination,
toroidal field: An induced m agnetic field occurring in a
ring test object when current is induced. See
current induction technique.
ultraviolet light: Electrom agnetic radiation with
w avelengths betw een 200 and 4 00 nm (2000 and
4000 A). T he range o f w avelengths used for
fluorescent nondestructive testing is typically
betw een 320 and 400 nm. Shorter w avelengths are
very hazardous,
ultraviolet light filter: A filter that transm its near
ultraviolet radiation w hile absorbing other
w avelengths.

vehicle: A liquid m edium for the suspension o f m agnetic

particles, often a light petroleum distillate or
conditioned water. See carrier fluid.
visible light: Radiant energy generated in the 4 0 0 to
700 nm (4000 to 7000 A) w avelength range.

wet m ethod: A testing technique in w hich the m agnetic

particles are applied as a suspension in a liquid
vehicle.
wet slurry technique: A m agnetic particle test in w hich
the particles are suspended in high viscosity
vehicle.

yoke: A U shaped m agnet that induces a field in the area

o f the test object that lies betw een its poles. Yokes
may be perm anent m agnets, alternating current
electrom agnets or direct current electrom agnets.
 A nsw ers to R eview Q uestions / 95

Answers to Review Questions

C hapter 1 4.15 b 7.5 a C hapter 9 C hapter 12

No Q uestions 4.16 c 7.6 a 9.1 d 12.1 d
4.17 a 7.7 b 9.2 a 12.2 c
C hapter 2 4.18 c 7.8 a 9.3 b 12.3 e
2.1 b 4.19 a 7.9 c 9.4 d 12.4 c
2.2 a 4.20 b 7.10 d 9.5 b 12.5 b
2.3 b 4.21 b 7.11 d 9.6 c 12.6 a
2.4 c 4.22 d 7.13 d 9.7 a 12.7 e
2.5 b 4.23 b 7.14 a 9.8 c 12.8 a
2.6 b 4.24 c 7.15 d 9.9 b 12.9 b
2.7 a 4.25 b 9.10 d 12.10 a
2.8 c 4.26 b C hap ter 8 9.11 c 12.11 b
2.9 c 4.27 a 8.1 b 9.12 b 12.12 b
2.10 d 4.28 b 8.2 c 9.13 a 12.13 c
2.11 a 8.3 d 9.14 a
2.12 a C hapter 5 8.4 b 9.15 d C hapter 13
2.13 d 5.1 a 8.5 d 9.16 b No Q uestions
2.14 c 5.2 c 8.6 b 9.17 d
2.15 b 5.3 d 8.7 b 9.18 c
2.16 d 5.4 b 8.8 a 9.19 a
2.17 c 5.5 b 8.9 b 9.20 a
8.10 c 9.21 c
C hapter 3 C hap ter 6 8.11 c 9.22 b
3.1 d 6.1 d 8.12 a 9.23 a
3.2 a 6.2 a 8.13 d 9.24 d
3.3 d 6.3 a 8.14 c 9.25 d
3.4 b 6.4 c 8.15 d 9.26 d
3.5 d 6.5 c 8.16 d 9.27 d
3.6 b 6.6 c 8.17 c 9.28 b
3.7 d 6.7 d 8.18 b 9.29 b
3.8 a 6.8 b 8.19 a
6.9 b 8.20 d C hap ter 10
C hapter 4 6.10 c 8.21 c N o Q uestions
4.1 d 6.11 b 8.22 b
4.2 d 6.12 b 8.23 a C hapter 11
4.3 a 6.13 d 8.24 d 11.1 d
4.4 d 6.14 d 8.25 c 11.2 c
4.5 c 6.15 a 8.26 c 11.3 a
4.6 e 6.16 b 8.27 b 11.4 b
4.7 a 6.17 b 8.28 c 11.5 c
4.8 c 6.18 d 8.29 d 11.6 d
4.9 a 8.30 d 11.7 c
4.10 a C hapter 7 8.31 b 11.8 c
4.11 a 7.1 d 8.32 a 11.9 d
4.12 c 7.2 d
4.13 e 7.3 b
4.14 e 7.4 d
 The A m erican Society for
N ondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 A rlingate Lane
PO Box 2S518
Colum bus, OH 43228-0518

C atalog No.: 2253R

ISBN: 1-57117-070-7