FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF LIFE SCIENCES

PRE-SCIENCE PROGRAMME

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

General rules governing the Laboratory Sessions........................................................... 3

A. Lab coats and Clothing........................................................................................... 3

B. General Rules........................................................................................................... 3

C. Cell Phones.............................................................................................................. 3

D. Heating Substances and Spills................................................................................ 3

E. Handling Glassware Chemicals and Equipment.................................................. 4

F. Lab Etiquette............................................................................................................ 4

Requirements for Laboratory Sessions.............................................................................. 5

Practical Session 1 – Introduction to the Animal Kingdom I…………………………. 6

Practical Session 2 – Introduction to the Animal Kingdom II……………………….... 8

Practical Session 3 – Circulatory System………………………………………………. 9

Practical Session 4 – Circulatory System and Exercise………………….……………. 11

Practical Session 5 – Urinogenital and Digestive Systems…………………….………. 13

Practical Session 6 – Excretory System……………………………………………….... 14

Practical Session 7 – Mitosis and Meiosis lab I………………………………………. 15

Practical Session 8 – Mitosis and Meiosis lab II………………………………….…... 19

Practical Session 9 – Ecology……………………………………………………….… 22

Practical Session 10– Genetics Problem Sheets I and II………………………………. 25

APPENDIX 1 Care of the Microscope ………………………………………………. 32

APPENDIX 2 Guidelines for writing Laboratory Reports …………………………… 33

APPENDIX 3 Biological Drawing ……………………………………………………… 35
APPENDIX 4 Graphs and Tables ……………………………………………………… 36

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 General Rules Governing the Laboratory Sessions

A. Lab Coats and Clothing

 Lab Coats MUST be worn at ALL times in the lab. Any student without a lab coat will
NOT be allowed into the laboratory. No lab coats will be lent by the Lab
Assistant/Technician.
 Closed Shoes must be worn at all times. Proper clothing MUST be worn in the lab. This
means LONG jeans, skirts etc. No short pants or slippers.
 Contact lenses SHOULD NOT be worn in the laboratory.

B. General Guidelines

 You are responsible for your own safety and that of your neighbours. Work carefully and
don‘t take chances.
 Don‘t fool around – that‘s when accidents happen. ―horse-play‖ can be dangerous and
endanger your neighbours.
 No eating, drinking, smoking, chewing gum or tobacco, or applying cosmetics in the
laboratory.
 You are not allowed to work ALONE in the laboratory. You must always be supervised
by a demonstrator or a teaching assistant.
 Report all accidents, no matter how small, to your demonstrator or the teaching assistant
IMMEDIATELY.
 Never pipette any solution by mouth.
 Perform only authorized experiments.

C. Cell phones and the Laboratory.

 ALL Cell Phones are to be turned OFF BEFORE ENTERING THE LAB.
 30% OF YOUR LAB MARK WILL BE DEDUCTED IF YOUR PHONE GOES
OFF IN THE LAB.

D. Heating Substances and Spills.

 Clean up spills immediately. Report serious spills (i.e. acids, based, organic solvents) to
your demonstrator.
 Never look into a container that is being heated.

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  Do not place hot apparatus directly on the laboratory desk.
 Always wash your hands before leaving the lab. It is a good idea to wash your hands at
intervals during the experiments.
 Learn the location of appropriate safety equipment including first aid kits, fire
extinguisher, safety shower, eyewash station, and acid/alkali spill cleanup materials.

E. Handling Glassware Chemicals and Equipment

 You are responsible for the care and proper use of all assigned equipment.
 Do not use broken or chipped glassware. Return it to your demonstrator.
 If you do not understand how to use a piece of equipment, ASK YOUR
DEMONSTRATOR FOR HELP.
 Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water. The glassware may shatter.
 NEVER PIPETTE REAGENTS DIRECTLY FROM STOCK BOTTLES. Please
note any student caught practicing this offence will be penalised 20% of lab mark.
 ALWAYS TRANSFER REQUIRED AMOUNT TO A BEAKER AND PIPETTE
FROM IT. Or, use the pipette provided with reagent. Students will be monitored during
labs, if improper lab procedures observed, students will be penalised 20% of lab mark.
 DO NOT RETURN UNUSED REAGENTS TO THE STOCK BOTTLE.
 If required for proceeding lab, label all materials with your name, date and section. Do
not write directly on glassware, use tape. Use a pencil or special lab marking pen.
 Never heat flammable solvents (e.g. ethanol) over an open flame. Use a water bath.
 Be certain to read the labels on reagent bottles before using them. Use the proper reagents
in your experiment.
 DO NOT BRING MATERIALS TO BE USED BY THE ENTIRE CLASS TO
YOUR TABLE.

F. Lab Etiquette

 The laboratory MUST REMAIN CLOSED for efficient ventilation.

 Only materials required for your experiments (i.e. notebook, pen, equipment) should be
on your lab table. LEAVE BOOKS, COATS, ETC. ALONG THE SIDE BENCH OF
THE LAB.
 CLEAN UP YOUR WORK SPACE AND MATERIALS AT THE END OF YOUR
EXPERIMENT. Wash your dishes and remove all labels. Replace ALL dishes in your
assigned cupboard.

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  Dispose all materials properly. Consult your demonstrator for proper techniques. Do not
throw solids in the sink.
 Before using any equipment, be sure you know how to use it.
 YOU WILL BE CHARGED FOR BREAKAGE DUE TO IMPROPER OR
CARELESS HANDLING. This also applies to any equipment rendered useless because
of failure to clean it properly.

REQUIREMENTS FOR LABORATORY SESSIONS

1. Laboratory Manual (Faculty of Science and Technology main office)

2. Laboratory Folder containing lined and blank sheets for laboratory exercises.

3. Pencils, Ruler, Eraser, Graph paper, Calculator etc.

4. Laboratory dissection kit or scalpel, scissors and forceps.

5. Laboratory Coats (available at Dudley Huggins lab)

NOTE: For ALL lab exercises, students are required to do preliminary research on the
topic and specimens using text or internet prior to coming to the lab. Some parts of the lab
must be completed at home.

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 PRACTICAL 1
TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO THE ANIMAL KINGDOM I

AIM

The overall aim of this laboratory session is to observe the levels of organization in the animal
kingdom, make observations of the external and internal features (where indicated), classify
(based on certain characteristics) selected examples of invertebrate animals belonging to the
Phyla: Porifera, Cnidaria, Nematoda, Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Annelida and Arthropoda.

READINGS

 Biological Sciences 1 & 2: Chapter 2; pgs. 52-75.

 Animal Diversity: Hickman and Roberts.
 Handout 1.

Review appendices on microscopic techniques, guidelines for preparing lab reports and
biological drawings.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Observe characteristics features of the phyla with emphasis on symmetry, number of

tissue layers (diploblastic, triploblastic), body cavity (acoelomate, coelomate) and key
features typical of the class and the phylum.
 Compare key features between phyla studied.
 Record observations using biological drawings.
 Examine using the microscope, the organization of tissue within the groups.

Exercise 1

A. Observe a live specimen of the earthworm (Lumbricus). Make a drawing to show external
features of a whole specimen.
B. Observe a cross section of the earthworm and draw a tissue map to show the internal
organization, labeling key structures.

 Classify the specimen giving Phylum, Class, Genus and Species where appropriate.
 Note characteristic features typical of the class and the phylum.
 List diagnostic features if present.

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Exercise 2

A. Observe slides showing cross section and whole mount of Hydra.

B. Make a tissue map to show the internal organization of this organism, labeling key
structures.

 Classify the organism giving Phylum, Class, Genus and Species where appropriate.
 Note characteristic features typical of the class and the phylum.
 List diagnostic features if present.

Exercise 3

A. Observe the live/preserved specimens provided of the cockroach and shrimp.

B. Make fully labeled detailed drawings of the external features of the cockroach (dorsal and
ventral) and the shrimp.

 Classify each organism giving Phylum, Class, Genus and Species where appropriate.
 Note characteristic features typical of the class and the phylum.
 List diagnostic features if present.

REVIEW THE BODY PLAN AND CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE PHYLUM

CHORDATA.

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 PRACTICAL 2
TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO THE ANIMAL KINGDOM II

AIM

The overall aim of this laboratory session is to observe the levels of organization in the animal
kingdom, make observations of the external and internal features (where indicated), classify
(based on certain characteristics) selected examples of invertebrate animals belonging to the
Phyla: Porifera, Cnidaria, Nematoda, Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Annelida and Arthropoda.

READINGS

 Biological Sciences 1 & 2: Chapter 2; pgs. 52-75.

 Animal Diversity: Hickman and Roberts.
 Handout 1.

Review appendices on microscopic techniques, guidelines for preparing lab reports and
biological drawings.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Observe characteristics features of the phyla with emphasis on symmetry, number of

tissue layers (diploblastic, triploblastic), body cavity (acoelomate, coelomate) and key
features typical of the class and the phylum.
 Compare key features between phyla studied.
 Record observations using biological drawings.
 Examine using the microscope, the organization of tissue within the groups.

For each live/ preserved specimen provided, complete the following:

 Observe and record external structures/ features. You may include labelled sketches.
 Classify each organism giving Phylum, Class, Genus, and Species where appropriate.
 Note characteristic features typical of the Class and the Phylum.
 List diagnostic features if present.

Specimens: (subject to change)

Sponge, Jelly Fish, Round Worm (Ascaris), Ragworm (Nereis), Tape Worm, Liver Fluke
(Fasciola), Leech, Snail, Millipede and Chip Chip.

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 PRACTICAL 3
TITLE: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

READINGS:
Lecture notes
Biological Sciences I and II, Chapter 14 Transport in Animals
Access diagrams, photographs, etc. from Internet/other texts

Learning Objectives:
 Explain the term closed circulatory system
 Explain the need for a circulatory system
 Describe the function of the circulatory system
 Describe and record the structure and function of veins and arteries
 Describe the structure and function of cardiac muscle
 Describe the structure and function of the mammalian heart
 Trace the pathway of blood through the mammalian heart
 Recognise and describe erythrocytes and leucocytes (granulocytes and agranulocytes)

Exercise A

1. Observe transverse sections of prepared slides of a vein and an artery. Record your
observation by means of labelled annotated biological drawings (tissue maps).
2. Use high power to observe a prepared slide of a blood smear. Identify the cell types
present using photographs to assist you. Record your observations and make annotated
drawings for all various cell types: erythrocytes and leucocytes (all types of
agranulocytes- monocyte, macrophage, lymphocyte and granulocytes- neutrophil
basophil, eosinophil), platelets.
3 Observe at low and high power the prepared slide of cardiac muscle. Record your
observations via means of a biological drawing
4 Use of flow diagrams for structural and functional relationships for blood and blood
cells.
(This can be completed prior to lab session)

Exercise B

1. Work in groups. Wear gloves and safety glasses.

2. Dissect the sheep‘s heart following the procedure outlined (Demonstrator assisted).
3. Examine and make a labelled drawing of the whole mammalian heart provided.
Distinguish between dorsal and ventral sides of the heart. The ventral side is more
rounded (convex) than the dorsal side and the thick walled arteries arise from this side.
Locate the four chambers in the heart, the main arteries and veins leaving and entering
the heart, and the valves.

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 4. Examine and make a labelled drawing of the dissected heart. Note at the top of the
ventricular cavity to your left an opening into the aorta guarded by semi-lunar valves.
What is the function of these valves? To your right, the atrio-ventricular opening is
guarded by the bicuspid (mitral) valve. Note that the valve has two flaps attached to the
ventricular wall by tendinous cords (chordae tendinae) and papillary muscles. What are
the functions of these?
5. To your left, observe the atrio-ventricular opening guarded by the tricuspid valve and
semi-lunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery. What are the functions of these valves?
6. Do you observe any differences in the thickness of the walls of the atria and ventricles
and between the ventricles? How do you account for these differences?

Exercise C

Make a labelled drawing of the main nerves in the human body as shown in the diagram
provided.

Results

Biological drawings and descriptions as outlined in the procedure.

Discussion

 Compare the structure and function of arteries and veins.

 Discuss the relationship between blood cells and the function of blood.
 Relate the structure of the heart to its function and answer the following questions.
i. What is the function of tricuspid and semi-lunar valves guarding the pulmonary
artery?
ii. What is the role of the tendinous cords (chordae tendinae)?
iii. How can differences between the thicknesses of the atria and ventricular walls be
explained?
iv. How can differences between the thicknesses of the ventricular walls be
explained?

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 PRACTICAL 4
TITLE: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND EXERCISE

READINGS:
 Lecture notes
 Biological Sciences I and II
 Additional literature from other sources

Learning Objectives:
 Determine the relationship between blood pressure, pulse rate and heart rate
 Determine the effect of moderate and strenuous exercise on blood pressure and pulse rate
 Determine systolic and diastolic blood pressure; proper use of pressure kits.

Procedure

Immediate effects of exercise on the body

(selected members of groups should be determined in previous lab session)

 Take the basal blood pressure and pulse readings of members of the selected group carrying
out the exercise using the blood pressure kits provided. (Your test subject should be reclined
for 4 minutes before the blood pressure and pulse is taken; can be used as control)
 The test subjects should then stand for 4 minutes after which the blood pressure and pulse
rates should be recorded.
 The test subjects should then carry out an exercise (moderate/strenuous) for 4 minutes after
which the blood pressure and pulse rate taken immediately after and time taken to return to
steady pulse rate.
Replication for best results (not possible here due to time constraint).
 Record similar values for other selected groups which should include both males and females
respectively.
 All students should know the proper procedure and precautions for taking the blood pressure
and pulse. Please refer to the manual for the blood pressure kits to ensure proper usage of
equipment.

Calculation of the Body Mass Index (BMI)

 Measure the height (m) and weight (kg) of persons engaged in the exercise activity.
 Using such data calculate their respective BMI using the following equation:

BMI = Mass (kg) / [Height (m)]2

 You are required to relate such BMI values to the fitness of selected subjects.
 Please note that this should be calculated before conducting the exercise.

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Results
Data collected from blood pressure and exercise experiments.

Blood Pressure (BP) and Pulse Rate (PR) Values

Reclining Standing After Recovery
Subject Age Exercise Time (mins)
BP PR BP PR BP PR 1 2 3 4 5

Table 1: Blood pressure and pulse rate readings of students for three varying positions
and immediately following exercise

You may be required to construct a graph, ensure that you have graph paper.

Discussion
A complete lab report in the specified format (refer to appendix 2) is required for the blood
pressure experiments and the following questions can be considered for the discussion.

 Consult the values provided for normal blood pressure readings for men and women (age
20).
 Does your blood pressure and that of the other members of the group lie within that range?
Comment on any differences observed.
 What is the relationship between heartbeat and pulse rate? Why does this relationship exist?
 How efficient is the circulatory system of your classmates?
 Relate the BMI and its significance to fitness of individuals.

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 PRACTICAL 5
TITLE: URINOGENITAL AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

READINGS:
Lecture notes
Biological Sciences I and II

Learning Objectives:
 Locate the kidneys and their ducts in the rat (vertebrate, mammal) and relate their
structure to their function.
 Locate the gonads and their ducts in a representative vertebrate (rat) and relate their
structure to their function.
 Locate the oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, small intestine, large
intestine, appendix, caecum, spleen, pancreas, liver and other important organs in a
representative vertebrate (rat) and relate their structure to their function.

Procedure
 Work in groups.
 Wear gloves and safety glasses.
 Dissect the rat to observe the urinogenital and digestive systems (demonstrator
assisted).

Results
 Prepare fully labelled drawings of the urinogenital system of male and female rats.
 Prepare fully labelled drawings of the digestive system of the rat.
 Observe and make a labelled, high power drawing of the seminiferous tubules of the
testis (slide provided). Review structure of sperm.
 Observe and make a labelled, low power drawing of the ovary (slide provided). Review
structure of egg/secondary oocyte.

Discussion
Compare male and female urinogenital systems; describe how the ducts of the kidneys and the
gonads are related.
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 PRACTICAL 6
TITLE: EXCRETORY SYSTEM

READINGS:
Lecture notes
Biological Sciences I and II

Learning Objectives:
 Recognise, describe and make drawings of the gross structure of the mammalian kidney.
 Recognise, describe and make drawings of the histology of the nephron.

Procedure
 Observe the gross structure of the kidney after which a vertical cut through the kidney
will be performed to reveal its internal structure.
 Observe slides of the pancreas locating the islets of Langerhans as well as the alpha and
beta cells.

Results
 Make a fully labelled drawing of the gross structure of the kidney.
 Make a fully labelled drawing of the internal structure of a vertical section through the
kidney.
 From the slides provided make labelled high power drawings of the following regions of
the nephron:
i. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
ii. Distal Tubule
iii. Bowman‘s Capsule
iv. Collecting duct
v. Loop of Henle (ascending and descending arms)
 Record via means of a sketch the islet of Langerhans as well as alpha and beta cells.

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 PRACTICAL 7
TITLE: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS LAB I

READINGS
 Lecture Notes
 Biological Science 1 & 2, Chapter 23
 Access diagrams, photographs, etc. from Internet/other texts

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Describe the behaviour of chromosomes, centrioles, and microtubules in all phases/stages
of mitosis and meiosis
 Describe differences in mitosis and cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
 Describe differences in mitosis and mitosis.

STUDENT PREPARATION
Familiarizing yourself in advance with the information and procedures covered in this lab will
give you a better understanding of the material and improve your efficiency. The information
needed is contained in the readings given and the procedures refer to observation skills,
microscope technique, biological drawings and preparation of lab reports.

INTRODUCTION
The following should be considered:
 What is mitosis and the stages of mitosis (brief)
 Differences between mitosis and cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
 What is meiosis and the stages of meiosis (brief)
 Where does mitosis and meiosis occur in plants and animals

PROCEDURE
Clean lens with lens paper and alcohol before beginning your microscope work.

A. Observing Mitosis and Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

 Examine a prepared slide of a L.S. through an onion root tip using low power on the
compound microscope
 Locate the region behind the root cap. At the tip of the root is a root cap that protects the
tender toot tip. Just behind the root cap is the zone of cell division.
 Focus on the zone of cell division. Then switch to intermediate lens, focus, and then
switch to high power.

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  Survey the zone of cell division and locate interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis.
 As you find the dividing cells, speculate about its stage of division; read the descriptions
given in your text for each stage to verify that your guess is correct, and if necessary
confirm with your Demonstrator.

Differences between mitosis in animals and mitosis in plants

 Use your text and/or photographs to observe mitosis as it occurs in animals
 Observe major differences with respect to cytokinesis, centrioles and asters.

B. Observing Meiosis in Plant Cells

 Examine a prepared slide of a c.s. through an anther using low power on the compound
microscope.
 Locate one of the four spherical anther lobes, where division occurs.
 Focus on the cell division. Then switch to intermediate lens, focus, and switch to high
power.
 Survey the zone of cell division and locate interphase, prophase I & II, metaphase I & II,
anaphase I & II, telophase I & II and cytokinesis.
 As you find dividing cells, speculate about its stage of division; read the descriptions
given in your text from each stage to verify that your guess is correct, and if necessary
confirm with your Demonstrator.

RESULTS

 Draw and label the cells exhibiting various stages of mitosis; write brief notes about the
behaviour of the chromosome at each stage.
 Draw and label the cells exhibiting various stages of meiosis; write brief notes about the
behaviour of the chromosome at each stage.
 Prepare a table of the major differences you have observed between mitosis in plant and
animal cells. (begin at home)

DISCUSSION
Construct a comparative table to illustrate the significant differences between mitosis and
meiosis. (begin at home)

C. Calculating the Mitotic Index

Objectives
 Determine the relative duration of the phases of the cell cycle in onion root tip tissue
 Calculate the mitotic index for onion root tip.

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INTRODUCTION
Now that you are familiar with the events of mitosis, you can estimate the relative duration of
each phase of the cell cycle by recording the frequency with which you find each phase in
regions where cell division is actively taking place. You will also be introduced to the Mitotic
Index and its utility.

Duration of the cell cycle

The duration of mitosis varies for different tissues in onion. However, prophase is always the
longest phase (1 – 2 hours), and anaphase is always the shortest (2 -10 min). Metaphase (5 – 15
min) and telophase (10 – 30 min) are also of relatively short duration. Interphase may range
from 12 – 30 hours.

If it takes on average 16 hours (960 min) for onion root tip cells to complete the cell cycle, then
you can calculate the amount of time spent in each phase of the cycle from the percentage of
cells in that stage.

Percentage of cells in stage x 960 minutes = minutes of the cell cycle spent in stage

Definition of Mitotic Index

Mitotic index: In a population of cells, the ratio of the number of cells undergoing mitosis (cell
division) to the number of cells not undergoing mitosis.

Mitotic index is a measure for the proliferation status of a cell population. It is defined as the
ratio between the number of cells in mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and the
total number of cells.

Mitotic index = # of cells in prophase + metaphase + anaphase + telophase / x 100

total # of cells in field of view

The mitotic index can be calculated from a slide, even with light microscopy. It is the number of
cells containing visible chromosomes in prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase divided by
the total number of cells in the field of view.
Cell population growth occurs as cells pass through interphase and mitosis to complete the cell
cycle. Many cells lose the capacity to divide as they mature or divide only rarely. Other cells
are capable of rapid cell division. For example, as plant roots grow, cells near the tip of the root,
in the apical meristem, divide rapidly to push the root through the soil. The root cap detects the
pull of gravity and directs the rapid growth of cells near the tip.

Mitotic index: The percentage of cells in the mitotic phase of the cell cycle.
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v5/n1/glossary/nrg1248_glossary.html viewed 17
March 2010

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Utility of the Mitotic Index
Please view the following web pages for an idea of how the Mitotic Index is used.

http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/49/327/1749.pdf viewed 17 March 2010

http://www.pnas.org/content/106/48/20429.abstract viewed 17 March 2010
http://digital.library.okstate.edu/oas/oas_pdf/v02/p45_48.pdf viewed 17 March 2010

Procedure
Using the 40X objective, examine a single field of view in the apical meristem region and count
the number of cells in the various phases of the cell cycle. Make sure you are reviewing the
actively dividing area of the root tip. Repeat in three more non-overlapping fields of view. Use
the table below to collect and calculate your results.

Results
Table 1
Percentage of cells in each phase of the cell cycle
% of Grand
# of cells # of cells # of cells # of cells Total
Total
Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 (Total/Grand
Total x 100)
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Grand
Total

1. Calculate the time spent in prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, mitosis, interphase
(convert time to hours and minutes).
2. What percentage of the cell cycle is spent in mitosis? In interphase?
3. Calculate the mitotic index for four fields of view. It is the number of cells containing visible
chromosomes in prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase divided by the total number of
cells in the field of view (multiply by 100 to calculate as percentage).

Discussion
1. How do your results compare with what is generally known about the onion cell cycle as
described above?
2. If your data did not agree with the information given on the onion cell cycle, would the cell
cycle for the root tip cells you observed have to be longer or shorter than the average of 16
hours in order to explain your results?
3. Why is the mitotic index useful in the diagnosis of cancer?

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 PRACTICAL 8
TITLE: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS LAB I1

READINGS
 Lecture Notes
 Biological Science 1 & 2, Chapter 23
 Indicated web pages

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Describe the behaviour of chromosomes, centrioles, and microtubules in all phases/stages
of mitosis and meiosis
 Prepare slides from fresh material to show the stages of mitosis
 Prepare slides from fresh material to show the stages of meiosis
 To identify the stages of mitosis and meiosis in living tissue (onion root tip, anthers).

STUDENT PREPARATION
Familiarizing yourself in advance with the information and procedures covered in this lab will
give you a better understanding of the material and improve your efficiency. The information
needed is contained in the readings given and the procedures refer to observation skills,
microscope technique, biological drawings and preparation of lab reports.

Exercise A

CHROMOSOME SIMULATION EXERCISES

Carry out the exercises using the chromosome Bio Kit assisted by your demonstrator and answer
all the questions in the inserted pages.

SOME OF THESE QUESTIONS MUST BE COMPLETED AT HOME BEFORE THE

PRACTICAL SESSION

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Exercises B and C
Regions of Onion Root tips
There are three cellular regions near the tip of an onion root.
1. The root cap contains cells that cover and protect the underlying
growth region as the root pushed through the soil.
2. The region of cell division (or meristem) is where cells are
actively dividing but not increasing significantly in size.
Region of
3. In the region of cell elongation, cells are increasing in size, but not
dividing. elongation

Region cell
division

Protective
root cap

Procedure
Your Demonstrator will take you through the process for staining the living material.

SLIDE PREPARATIONS
B. Mitosis in squash preparations of growing onion root tips
 The root tips of onion have been harvested and fixed in ethanol-acetic acid (3:1) at 36 - 40°C
for 12 – 24 hours. The acetic acid penetrates and swells the protoplasm, while the ethanol
hardens and preserves the protoplast around the chromosomes. Fixing for 12 – 24 hours
reduces the staining of the cytoplasm.
 Wash away the fixative from the root tips with water in a watch glass.
 Place the root tips in acetocarmine/acetic acid orcein stain and 1.0 mol dm3 hydrochloric acid
in the proportions of ten parts of stain to one part of acid.
 Warm (do not boil) for five minutes on a hot plate. The acid helps to macerate the tissue.
 Wash away the excess stain, and place root tips on a clean slide with a drop of acetic acid.
 Using a razor blade, cut off most of the unstained part of the root and discard it. Be careful
not to discard the root tip, as this is what you will use to view the stages of mitosis.
 Place a cover slip and gently tap with the back of a pencil. Place a piece of blotting paper on
cover slip and gently press the cover slip with your thumb. Do not twist or push the slide
sideways. The root tip should spread out to a diameter of about 0.5 - 1 cm.

Observations of onion root tip squash.

Scan the microscope under the 10x objective. Look for the region that has large nuclei relative
to the size of the cell; among these cells will be found cells displaying stages of mitosis.

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Examples are shown in the figure to the right. Switch to the 40X objective to make closer
observations. Examples are shown in the figure below.
.

C. Meiosis in squash preparations of flower buds of Setcreasea

You are provided with flower buds of Setcreasea. Remove the bracts and dissect out the small
flower buds. Open the flower buds using a dissecting needle and remove anthers that are white
to pale yellowish green. Anthers that are yellow are too old and will not have dividing pollen
mother cells.

 Place the anthers in a drop of acetocarmine and crush them firmly with the glass rod.
Discard all visible debris with a needle. The Pollen Mother Cells (PMCs) will remain in the
staining fluid.
 Cover the object with a cover slip and warm gently over a flame. Repeat this procedure
intermittently without allowing the stain to boil or to completely evaporate. Heating allows
the staining to intensify. Add more stain if necessary.
 Check under a microscope to see if the PMCs are in any stage of active division (pollen = too
old; cells in interphase = too young).
 The preparation may be squashed by gentle pressure and sealed. If the staining is not
adequate you may need to heat again with stain. Overheating will destroy the cell and
nuclear membranes. Observe slide using the instructions given above for the onion root tip
slide.

Results
Record stages identified for mitosis and meiosis; giving reasons for your decision, e.g.
Metaphase – chromosomes line up in single file at the equator in the centre of the cell. Drawings
are not required.
A lab report in the prescribed format is required for B and C.

21
 PRACTICAL 9
TITLE: ECOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
An essential skill required in ecological studies is the ability to identify the organisms
involved. In a full study they must be identified to species, but in preliminary work it is often
sufficient to know how many different kinds of organism are present, based on their
morphological characteristics (―morphospecies‖). In this practical you will collect as many
morphospecies of plants as you can find in regions of mown grassland near the tennis court on
campus.
Grasses (Gramineae) are adapted to withstand disturbance from grazing animals and/or
fire, their most important feature being growing points at ground level rather than at the top as in
most other plants. Short-mown lawns as found on campus represent a stressful environment for
plants, and grasses naturally dominate these habitats. A range of other plants may persist as
weeds in grassland, if they can tolerate the physical stress from mowing and from the often large
fluctuations in temperature and soil moisture. Grasses are difficult to identify, and are often
represented by only a few species, in contrast to other plants of which there may be many species
present in small numbers. In this practical you will therefore collect the major grasses present in
each region, and as many morphospecies as possible of the other plants present.

OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this practical exercise are to:
 Familiarise students with mown short-turf grassland habitat and the use of the quadrat
 Acquaint students with simple observational techniques for describing the ecosystem
associated with a Samaan Tree.
 To familiarize students with the use of the Pooter and the Berlese Tullgren Funnel during
ecological sampling.

22
EXERCISE 1: USE OF THE QUADRAT FOR GRASSLAND SAMPLING

Students will work in bench groups with their demonstrator. Each group should work together in
the field to collect a few specimens (if possible) of each plant morphospecies encountered in
grassland areas surrounding the tennis court on campus. Using a measuring tape, a 100m line
transect would be placed within the area. The quadrat will then randomly be thrown along the
transect line and students will be required to record and collect specimen of the various grasses
and other vegetation present. Repeat this procedure four other times along the transect to get an
estimate as to the vegetation composition within the area being sampled.

EXERCISE 2: INVESTIGATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

An ecosystem represents a complex environment representing the interactions between biota as

well as their abiotic environment. The Samaan Tree just opposite the greenhouse will be used for
this investigation. Students are required to critically observe this environment and record as
many food chains in order to construct a food web which will illustrate the complexity of this
ecosystem. Students will also be required to collect samples of existing insects via use of the
Pooter. You will be guided as to its use by your demonstrator. The Pooter is a device used in the
collection of insects, crustaceans or other small, fragile organisms, usually for scientific
purposes. The common design will be used which consists of a length of flexible tubing, of
which one end is held in the mouth, and the other end which holds the tip. The tip is usually a
glass or plastic pipette inserted into the plastic tubing, with a piece of gauze as a filter at the inner
end to prevent accidental ingestion. Small insects (e.g., ants) may be gently collected and held
against the filter by steady inhalation, and transferred into a container by then blowing the
insect(s) out.

EXERCISE 3: DEMONSTRATION OF USE OF THE BERLESE TULLGREN FUNNEL

A Berlese Tullgren funnel is a good tool to collect small insects from leaf litter (e.g. mites,
centipedes, millipedes,), plant debris or old logs. This apparatus consists of a funnel with a
coarse screen on the inside and a dish of alcohol below to catch the insects as they move out of
the plant material. The plant material can be allowed to dry or force dried using a light bulb or
other heat source to drive the insects out. The figure below illustrates a typical Berlese Tullgren
Funnel in operation. Draw a labeled diagram and explain how it works.

23
24
 PRACTICAL 10
TITLE: GENETIC PROBLEM SHEETS
. GENETICS PROBLEM SHEET #1
All questions to be completed at home

1. What is the probability that if three identical coins were flipped all three would end up
heads?
What is the probability that a family with five children?
(a) Has all five boys.
(b) Has all five girls.
(c) Has all five children of the same sex.

2. In the F2 progeny from two pure bred lines of rat, fifty were double dominant, A-B-. If
these were tested by test crossing to aabb rats, how many would you expect to be double
heterozygotes?

3. A man with polydactyl (presence of extra fingers) marries a normal woman; they have
five children all of whom have polydactyl. One of the children marries a normal person.
How many of their children would be expected to have extra fingers?

4. In the summer plant squash W determines white and w coloured fruit, and S determines
disc and s, sphere shaped fruits, respectively. If squash of genotypes WwSs are crossed,
what are the probabilities of:
(a) Gametes with Ws
(b) Gametes with WS
(c) Progeny with WWSS
(d) Progeny with WwSs
(e) Progeny with white, disc shaped fruits?

5. Mendel discovered that grey seed colour in peas are dominant to white. In the following
experiments, parents with known phenotypes but unknown genotypes produced the listed
progeny.
6.
Parents Grey Offspring White Offspring
(a) Grey x White 82 78
(b) Grey x Grey 118 39
(c) White x White 0 50
(d) Grey x White 74 0
(e) Grey x Grey 90 0

(a)Using G for the grey allele and g for the white allele, give the most probable genotype

25
 of each parent.

(b) In the experiments a, b, c, and e, indicate how many of the grey progeny produced are
heterozygous.

7. In dogs, dark coat colour (D) is dominant over albino (d) and short hair (H) is dominant
over long hair (h). Assume that these effects are caused by two independently segregating
gene pairs. Give the most probable genotypes for the parents of the following crosses:

Parental Phenotypes Phenotype of Offspring

Dark Dark Albino Albino
Short Long Short Long
(a) Dark, short x Dark, short 89 31 29 11
(b) Dark, long x Dark, long 0 32 0 10
(c) Dark, short x Dark, short 46 16 0 0
(d) Dark, short x Dark, long 29 31 9 11
(e) Albino, short x Albino, short 0 0 28 9

8. In mice yellow coat colour is dominant to grey coat. Two yellow mice were mated on a
number of occasions, their progeny being 21 yellow and 10 grey mice. When two of the
grey-coated offspring were mated they always produced grey litters. When two of the
yellow offspring were mated, none of them bred true, yellow and grey appeared in the
ratio 2:1. Explain these results giving full details.

9. (a) A diploid plant has a chromosome number of 2n =10.

i. How many pairs of homologous chromosomes does it have?

ii. How many chromosomes does this plant have per cell?
iii. How many chromosomes would its pollen grains contain?

(b) How many chromatids would a cell have during metaphase-1?

(c) If a tetraploid plant is produced from this plant, how many chromosomes would it
have?

10. A man of blood group AB marries a woman of blood group A, whose father was of blood
group O. what are the different blood groups this man and this woman expect their
children to belong to?

11. In a maternity ward, four babies become accidentally mixed up. The A, B, O types of the
four babies are known to be O, A, B, and AB. The A, B, O, types of the four sets of the
parents are determined. Indicate which baby belongs to each set of parents.

(a) AB x O
(b) A x O

26
 (c) A x AB
(d) O x O

11a A woman accuses a certain man of being the father of her child. Her blood type is found
to be A, the man‘s is AB and the child‘ is O. Could he be the father of the child? Why?

11b Mrs. X and Mrs. Y had babies at the same hospital; also they shared the same room. Mrs.
X has a blonde daughter whom she named Jean; Mrs Y had a dark haired daughter she named
Mary. Since Mrs. X was dark haired and Mrs. Y was blonde, they soon began to wonder if the
babies had been mixed up. Blood tests were carried out and gave the following results:

The X Family The Y Family

Mr. A B
Mrs. O O
Jean B -
Mary - O

Were their suspicions correct? Explain using genetic diagrams.

12 In humans a series of alleles have been associated with the ABO blood type as follows:
IA A-type, IB B-type, and IO O-type. IA and IB are co-dominant. IA IB heterozygotes have
AB type blood. IO is recessive to both IA and IB. What phenotypes and ratios might be
expected from the following matings?
(a) IA x IB IB
(b) IA IB x IO IO
(c) IA IO x IB IO
(d) IA IO x IO IO

13 Why is it not possible to use a homozygous dominant organism (such as AA) in a test
cross experiment to determine the genotype of an organism showing the dominant
phenotype?
Use appropriate genetic symbols to illustrate your answer fully.

14 In cattle hornless is dominant to horned but red is co-dominant to white, the heterozygote
showing ―roan‖ where the hairs are mixed white hairs and red hairs; there are no white and
red hairs. Starting with a cross between a homozygous red horned cow and a white hornless
bull give F1 genotypes and phenotypes, and show what the results of brother sister mating of
the F1 might be?

15 A brown mink crossed with a silver mink produced all brown offspring. When the latter
were interbred they produced 48 brown animals and 5 silver blue animals.

27
 (a) What trait is dependent on a dominant gene.
(b) Of the 48 brown animals in the F2 generation, how many do you expect to be
heterozygous?
(c) How would you determine which of the 48 brown animals were heterozygous?

16 In poultry, two genes P and R interact to produce comb shape. The alleles for pea comb
P and rose comb R, produce the phenotypes stated below
Phenotypes Possible Genotypes
Pea PPrr, Pprr
Rose RRpp, Rrpp
Walnut PPRR, PpRR, PPrr, PpRr
Single pprr

(a) Determine the phenotypes and ratios from the following crosses. Diagram
each cross

i--RrPp x RrPp ii—rrPP x RrPp iii— RRPp x Rrpp iv- rrPp x RrPp

For iii and iv if the number of progeny produced is 120 calculate the amount for
each phenotype produced.

(b) Rose comb chickens mated with walnut comb chickens produced 15 walnut,
14 rose, 5 pea and 6 single comb. Determine the probable genotypes of the
parents.

GENETICS PROBLEM SHEET # 2

All questions to be completed at home

1. Flower colour in the sweet pea plant is determined by two allelomorphic pairs of genes
(R r and S s). If at least one dominant gene from each allelomorphic pair is present, the
flower is purple. All other genotype is white. If two purple plants each having the
genotypes RrSs are crossed, what will be the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

2. A sex linked recessive gene ―c‖ produces the colour blindness in human beings. A
normal woman whose father was colour blind marries a colour-blind man.
(a) What genotypes are possible for the mother of the colour-blind man?
(b) What are the chances that the first child from this marriage will be a colour-blind
boy?
(c) Of all the girls produced by these parents what is expected to be the colour blind?
(d) Of all the children (sex unspecified) form these parents what percentage is
expected to be normal?

28
 3. The gene for yellow body colour y in the Drosophila is recessive and sex-linked. Its
dominant allele y+ produces the wild type body colour. What phenotypic ratios are
expected from the crosses?
(a) Yellow male x yellow female
(b) Yellow female x wild type male
(c) Wild type female (homozygous) x yellow male
(d) Wild type (carrier) female x wild type male
(e) Wild type (carrier) female x yellow male

4. A narrow reduced eye called a ‗bar‘ is a dominant sex linked condition (B) in the
Drosophila and the full wild type is produced by its recessive allele B+. A homozygous
wild type female is mated to a bar-eyed male. Determine the F1 and the F2 generations‘
genotypic and phenotypic expectations.

5. A cross between a pure bred blue and a pure bred yellow parakeet gave birds with green
plumage. Crosses between these green birds yielded green, yellow, blue and white bird.
The yellows and blues were equal in numbers and each three times as common as whites
and the green birds were three times as frequent as either yellow or blue birds. Diagram
the above cross. Use this as an example of incomplete dominance.

6. A white-eyed male fruit fly was crossed with a red-eyed female. F1 generation offspring
were red eyed. When the F1 generation were bred together, the next generation consisted
of a 3:1 ratio red eyed to white-eyed flies. All white-eyed flies were male. Among red-
eyed flies the ratio of female to male was 2:1.
(a) State which eye colour is dominant and give reasons.
(b) How would you describe this type of inheritance?
(c) Diagram the cross.

7. Haemophilia is a sex linked recessive condition in humans, which prevents the formation
of a protein, which increases the rate of blood clotting. Female heterozygotes are
described as the carrier. Explain (a) sex linked/sex linkage and (b) carrier.

What are the expected progeny of?

(a) normal male and a normal female
(b) Haemophiliac male and a normal female.
(c) Haemophiliac male and a carrier female
(d) Normal male and a haemophiliac female
(e) For all of the above crosses, state the probability of having a haemophiliac child
(male and female).

8 In the fruit fly Drosophila vestigial wing is recessive to normal and white eye is recessive to
normal red. These genes are on the X chromosome (sex linked). What phenotypes and ratios
would be expected in the following crosses? Diagram each cross.

29
 (a) Vestigial male and homozygous normal winged female.
(b) Heterozygous normal winged white eyed female and normal winged white eyed male
(c) Vestigial red eyed male and heterozygous white eyed normal wing female
(d) Red eyed female and white eyed male to give the 1st generation and such flies from
the 1st generation inter-crossed to produce the second generation showing a 2: 1: 1
ratio (determine the parents and phenotypes)
(e) White eyed female and red eyed male to give the 1st generation and such flies from
the 1st generation inter-crossed to produce the second generation showing a
1:1:1:1 ratio (determine parents and phenotypes)

9 Fur colour in mice is controlled by a pair of genes at different loci, the epistatic gene
determines presence of colour C –coloured c-white, the hypostatic gene determines
nature of colour A –agouti/grey a- black. This is an example of recessive epistasis
(a) Cross the double heterozygous and determine the phenotypes and ratio.
(b) Determine the parental genotypes from the following phenotypic ratios and
diagram each cross.
i- 3 agouti: 3 black: 2 albino
ii- 1 agouti: 1 black: 2 albino
iii- 3 agouti: 1 black: 4 albino

10 The following are four alleles, listed in order of dominance for fur colour in rabbits:
CF – agouti, cch – chinchilla, ch – himalayan and c – albino.
Draw genetic diagrams to determine phenotypes and ratios expected from the
following crosses.
CFc x cc CFc x CFc
CFch x ccch cch x cc
CFch x Cc ch ch x cc
How can you be sure it is homozygous at the C locus?

11 Coat colour in cats is determined by a sex linked gene with two alleles, black and ginger.
When black cats are mated with ginger cats, the female progeny are always tortoiseshell,
their coats showing a mottling of small black and ginger patches, while the male progeny
have the same colour as their mothers.
a. Using the symbols B and G construct proper genetic diagrams to explain these
results.
b. Suggest an explanation for the tortoise shell coat in terms of the activity of the X
chromosome.

12 The banding pattern of the shells of the land snail, Cepaea nemoralis, is controlled by two
unlinked genes. Shells may be unbanded, midbanded or five banded. This an example
of dominant epistasis, the presence of the dominant allele B suppresses the expression of
banding patterns.

30
 The allele, B, of one gene produces no banding pattern the recessive allele, b, gives
banded shells. The dominant allele, M, of the second gene results in midbanded shells
the recessive allele, m, gives five-banded shells.

(a) A snail with the genotype BBMM was mated with a snail with the double recessive genotype
to produce the F1 generation. The F 1 offsprings were interbred to produce the F2 generation
Draw genetic diagrams showing both crosses. Give the ratio and the phenotypes of the F2
offsprings.
(b) Draw a genetic diagram to determine the phenotypes and phenotypic ratio of a cross
between BbMm and Bbmm.

13 In mice, the intensity of pigmentation of the fur is controlled by multiple alleles of a single
gene. The alleles are listed below in order of dominance, with C as the most dominant.

C = full colour
Cch =chinchilla
Ch = himalayan
Ca = albino

Eye colour in mice is controlled by two alleles of a single gene, B/b. Allele B codes for black
eyes. Allele b codes for red eyes.
A mouse with full colour fur and black eyes was crossed with a mouse with himalayan fur and
black eyes. One of the offspring was albino with red eyes.
Using a proper genetic diagram show the result of this cross.
Determine the phenotypes and phenotypic ratio

Carry out the following crosses and determine phenotypes and phenotypic ratios
(i) CChBB X CaCaBb
(ii) CCchbb X CCaBb
(ii) ChCabb X CCchBb

14 In the fruit fly Drosophila the genes for body colour and wing length are linked and have
the phenotypes grey and black body and long and vestigial (short) wings. Grey body and
long wings are dominant.
Homozygous dominant grey-bodied and long-winged flies were crossed with homozygous
recessive black-bodied vestigial winged flies. All of the offspring in the F1 generation
were grey-bodied and long-winged.

A test cross of the F1 produced the following results

grey body, long wing 965

black body, vestigial wing 944
black body, long wing 206
grey body, vestigial wing 185

(i) Draw complete genetic diagrams showing both crosses. (use the symbols G. L)
(ii) Give a concise explanation for the phenotypic ratio obtained from the test cross
31
 APPENDIX 1
CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE

1. When carrying the microscope hold the arm with your right hand if right handed
or your left hand if left handed, and support the base of the scope with the other
hand.
2. Do not remove eyepiece except when placing and removing eyepiece micrometers
3. Use lens paper to clean lenses. Do not use paper towels tissues or other paper. Do this at
the start of each lab.
4. Never use the objective to bring it into position use the revolving nosepiece only.
5. Place and remove slides from the stage only when the 4X objective is in place.
Removing a slide when the higher objectives are in position may scratch the lenses.
6. Do not turn the fine adjustment knob more than two revolutions in either direction. If the
image does not come into focus return to the lower objective and refocus using the
coarse adjustment. Always turn the focusing knobs slowly and uniformly.
7. Most microscopes have parfocal lenses, which means that little refocusing is required
when moving from one lens to another. If your microscope is not parfocal ask for
assistance.
8. Never focus with the coarse adjustment knob when you are using the 40X objective.

9. Preparing to store your microscope:

 Rotate the 4X into position

 Remove slide from the stage
 Set the light intensity to its lowest setting before turning the power off
 Unplug the cord and wrap it around the microscope base
 Replace the dust cover
 Return the microscope to the cabinet using two hands; one hand holding the arm
and the other supporting the base.

32
 APPENDIX 2
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING LABORATORY REPORTS

Demonstrators are required to discuss the following laboratory format with students which they
will subsequently adhere for practical sessions. The sections are as follows:

1. TITLE

 Each report must have a title and the date on which the work was performed (both
underlined). The title should be a brief statement of the subject under
investigation, it should be specific and informative (refer to lab handouts).

 E.g. Date: 12th September, 2010

Title: Stereo and Compound Microscopes

2. AIM

 This is a statement(s) that outlines what will be investigated or performed during

the laboratory exercise.

 E.g. Aim: To determine the effect of temperature on the rate of enzymatic

activity.

3. INTRODUCTION

 This should be a synopsis of the published theoretical information relevant to the

topic to be investigated.

 If the experiment tests a hypothesis include the observation from which the
hypothesis was derived as well as the hypothesis and a brief statement on how the
hypothesis is to be tested.

4. APPARATUS/MATERIALS

 Represents a list of all relevant materials and equipment to be used during the
laboratory exercise (refer to your lab handout).

33
5. PROCEDURE

 This section should contain full details of the experimental/dissection/observation

procedure and protocol followed (refer to the lab handout).

 Should be written in narrative style (paragraph) in the past tense and not in point
form.

6. RESULTS

 All descriptive observations, drawings and quantitative data collected for

experiments/activities carried out during the course of the practical should be
presented in this section.

 As far as possible data should be presented in charts, tables and graphs.

 Any patterns or trends observed in the data should be outlined below tables or
graphs. Do not discuss results in this section, simply present them in a clear and
consistent manner.

 Drawings should be in keeping with specified guidelines and tables and graphs
should follow guidelines as stated in Practical 3- The Scientific Method.

 Please note that good visual presentation of results (whether in the form of graphs
or drawings of a whole mount, section, dissection or slide) is essential to a good
report.

 All variables determined: independent, dependent, controlled and control.

7. DISCUSSION

 This section demonstrates understanding of the subject under investigation.

 Try to relate observations/results to literature that is published. Where applicable

you may include brief comments on the limitations of the procedure in addition to
sources of error.

8. CONCLUSION

 Brief statements in relation to deductions made during the practical which should
be in relation to aims and/or hypotheses.

9. REFERENCES

 List of data sources used during lab exercise.

 Referenced properly using the Chicago Manual style of referencing.

34
 APPENDIX 3
BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS

A. Recording by Biological Drawings:

i. Provides a record for future reference.
ii. Requires that you make keener and more accurate observations of the object being
studied.
iii. Aids memory of what you see by actively recording.

B. Types of Biological Drawings:

i. A tissue map or diagram or low power plan shows:
 The tissues present.
 The position of the tissues relative to each other.
 The proportions of the tissues relative to each other.
ii. A cell drawing or high power plan shows:
 Size of cells of one tissue relative to cells of other tissues.
 Thickness of walls of cells of one tissue relative to cells of other tissues.
 Any special features of the cell.
For example, you may be asked to draw a tissue diagram of a stem section, and make a high
power drawing of the structure of a few cells of the various tissues.

C. Biological Drawings should adhere to the following guidelines:

i. Large (occupying at least 2/3 or 3/4 of the page)

ii. Clarity (Clean continuous lines of even thickness with no shading or unnecessary
details. Use a sharp pencil and avoid erasing)
iii. Accuracy (faithfulness of reproduction, structures typical of specimen and of
reasonable proportions)
iv. Labeling /Labeling Lines (each label should be connected to the appropriate part
of the drawing by a line neatly drawn with ruler, straight, not crossing, parallel,
ending at same point with no arrow heads touching labeled structure; label to one
side of your drawing preferably the right side and make short notes/annotations to
the labels which is particularly valuable as they combine a record of structure
with functional observations; labels and annotations must be written in script /
lower case letters not touching each other, no scribbles).
v. Title and Magnification (should state the type of section whether longitudinal
[L.S] or transverse [T.S] or whole mount, the organ where applicable namely root,
stem or leaf, the scientific name and consistently placed at bottom of drawing in
upper case/capital letters with the magnification always at the end of the title.

35
 APPENDIX 4
GRAPHS AND TABLES

Your data must be organized and summarized into tables and groups or figures. Tables and
figures are used to help you to analyse and interpret your results and to improve the clarity of the
presentation.

Tables

Initially data often appears to have little meaning. How can you organize the data set to make it
easier to interpret? You could average the data set for each treatment, but even averages can be
uninformative. Could you use a summary table to convey the data (in this case, averages)?

The table below is an example of a table using data averages of the number of seeds per pod and
the number of pods per plant as the dependent variables and exposure to methanol as the
independent variable.

Table 3 Effects of one-week exposure to 200 ppm methanol on average seed and pod
production in pigeon pea.

Treatment Number of plants Seeds per pod Pods per Plant

Control 25 5.2 28
Methanol 25 8.8 13
Tables are used to present results that have a few to many data points. They are also useful for
displaying several dependent variables. So for example the average number of pods, the average
number of seeds per pod and the average weight of the seeds per pod can be presented in one
table.

The following guideline will help you construct a table (see also the results section of your
guidelines for writing the lab report).

 All values of the same kind should read down the column not across. Include only the
data that are important for presenting the results and for further discussion. Non-essential
information includes for example test tube number, simple calculations unless asked by
the demonstrator to do so, and data with no differences.
 Headings should include appropriate units if necessary.
 Tables are numbered consecutively in your report. For example, table 4 would be the 4th
table in your report.
 The title should be at the top of the table and should be clear and concise, with enough
information to allow the table to be understood if it is lost from your lab book without the
text of the results section. The title does not need a full stop at the end.

36
  Refer to each table in the written text of the results. Summarise the data and refer to the
table: for example, ―The plants treated with methanol produced on average 13 pods per
plant (Table 3). Do not write see Table 3‖.

Graphs

The results of the experiment can be presented graphically, showing the relationships among the
independent and dependent variable(s). A graph or figure provides a visual summary of the
results. Characteristics of the data not apparent in a table may become clear in a graph. The
graph helps to detect trends in the data.

Guidelines for constructing a graph:

 Use graph paper and a ruler

 Independent variable is placed on the x axis, the dependent variables on the y axis.
 The number range for each axis should be appropriate for the data being plotted.
Generally, begin the both axes at 0.
 Label axes precisely including the units of measurement. Include a key if colours or
shading is used to indicate different aspects of the experiment.
 Choose the type of graph that represents your data, line and bar graphs are most
frequently used. The choice depends on the nature of the variable being graphed.
 Write a title or caption for your graph, graphs, diagrams and drawings are all called
figures and should be numbered consecutively throughout your lab report.
 The title or caption should be above the graph and should be clear and concise, with
enough information to allow the graph to be understood if it is lost from your lab
book without the text of the results section.
 Graph should contain appropriate scale.

The line graph

Line graphs show changes in the quality of the chosen variable and emphasize the rise and fall of
the values over their range. Use a line graph to represent continuous data, for example changes in
the dependent variable pulse rate, measured over time, could be represented as line graph.

 Plot data as separate points.

 Whether to connect the dots or draw a line depends on the type of data and how they
were collected. To show trends draw smooth curves or straight line to fit the values
plotted for any one data set. Connect the dots when emphasising meaningful changes
in the value on the x-axis.
 If more than one set of data is presented on a graph, use different colours or symbols
and provide a key.

37
  Refer to each figure in the written text of the results. Identify the trend which the data
shows and refer to the Figure: for example, ―Increasing the concentration of the
invertase enzyme resulted in an increase in enzyme activity (Figure x)‘. Do not write
see Figure x.

The bar graph

Bar graphs are constructed following the same principle as the graphs except that vertical bars in
a series are drawn down to the horizontal axis. Bar graphs are used for data that represent
separate or discontinuous groups or non-numerical categories, thus emphasizing the discrete
differences between groups. For example, a bar graph might be used to depict differences in the
number of seeds per pod for treated and untreated pigeon pea. Bar graphs also called histograms
are used when values on the x axis are numerical but grouped together.

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