Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Prepared for the First Coffee Quality Congress of the Global Coffee Quality
Research Initiative
Brian Howard
October, 2010
The quality of coffee is extensive in its de@i‐
FACTORS IN- nition. Leroy et al, 2006 de@ines coffee
quality on a number of levels. At the ex‐
F L U ENCING CUP porter or importer level coffee quality is
linked to bean size, number of defects,
Q UALITY IN regularity of provisioning, tonnage avail‐
able, and physical characteristics. At the
COF F EE roaster level coffee quality depends on
moisture content, characteristic stability,
October, 2010 origin, organoleptic (taste and smell) quali‐
ties and biochemical compounds. At the
consumer level coffee quality is about taste
Introduction and @lavor, effects on health and alertness,
geographical origin, and environmental
and sociological considerations. At every
link in the supply chain there is the consid‐
eration of price. In 2004 the International
Organization for Standardization (IOS) de‐
@ined a standard for green coffee quality
which entails defects, moisture content,
size, and some chemical compounds of
beans as well as standardization of prepa‐
ration of a sample from which to perform
cup tasting.
Photo Courtesy SPREAD Rwanda
Agronomy:
Cup quality in coffee is affected by a great
number of factors; agronomic, genetic and
Soil Nutrition
production related. In this review the
author seeks to summarize the major @ind‐
Coffee can be cultivated on a wide variety
ings of the research that has been con‐
of soil types, provided these are at least 2
ducted that is speci@ically related to cup
meters deep, free‐draining loams with a
quality and how it is affected by the envi‐
good water retention capacity and a pH of
ronment in which the coffee tree is grown,
5‐6, fertile and contain no less than 2% or‐
the genetic makeup of the coffee plant itself
ganic matter. High quality, acidic Arabica
and the manner in which coffee is prepared
coffees tend to be produced on soils of vol‐
for consumption. More than 800 aromatic
canic origin.
compounds combine to give acidity, body
and aroma to a cup of coffee. These three
Van Der Vossen, 2005 expresses concern
descriptors will serve as the parameters
that, “to sustain economically viable yield
around which cup quality is described in
levels, 1 ton green coffee per hectare (4.5
this document.
acres) per year, large additional amounts of
composted organic matter will have to
come from external sources to meet nutri‐
ent requirements, especially nitrogen & po‐
tassium. The majority of small land hold‐
Fertilizer
ers will not be able to acquire the neces‐
sary quantities and will be confronted with Organic vs Inorganic Fertilizer
declining yields. Organic farming does not
necessarily prevent disease or pests below Organic production of coffee is often
economically harmful thresholds and the thought preferable due to the strong poten‐
humid conditions of heavily shaded coffee tial of negative environmental impacts
may actually stimulate the outbreak of oth‐ from fertilizer leaching into surface waters
ers. and groundwater. However, any produc‐
tion crop signi@icantly depletes its soils
Vaast et al, 1998 found that total uptake of ability to replenish key nutrients and hu‐
nitrate (N03) and ammonium (NH4), key mic matter taken from it in the form of
nutrients for plant growth and develop‐ produce. Inorganic fertilizer is often ap‐
ment and the limiting nutrient in Arabica plied at rates approaching 100 to 300 kilo‐
Coffee, at any ratio was higher than that of grams per hectare at signi@icant expense to
plants fed solely with nitrate or ammonium producers. (Carvajal, 1959) Because of the
alone. Anaerobic, lack of oxygen, soil con‐ preference for organically produced pro‐
ditions reduced nitrate and ammonium up‐ duce, especially in the specialty coffee
take by 50% and 30% respectively and the market, solutions for such a de@icit must be
presence of dinitrophenol almost com‐ found and implemented in regionally ap‐
pletely inhibited N uptake in any form. propriate ways.
Vaast suggests that these results indicate
that Arabica coffee is well adapted to acidic In the shaded Indian coffee terrior of Kar‐
soil conditions and can effectively utilize nataka, India Nagaraj et al., 2006 found
the seasonally available forms of inorganic that the addition of inorganic potassium in
nitrogen (N). These observations can help the form of muriat of potash and sulphate
to optimize coffee nitrogen nutrition by of potash had the effect of increased coffee
suggesting agricultural practices that main‐ yields over the period of four years at a
tain root systems in the temperature range rate of approximately 15%. The difference
that is optimum for both ammonium and between the two treatment methods out‐
nitrate uptake. Vaast found that both ni‐ lined by Nagaraj not being statistically sig‐
trate and ammonium uptake peaked when ni@icant. It should be noted that the soils in
root systems were maintained at 34 de‐ which this coffee were planted were receiv‐
grees Celsius. Below this temperature ing approximately 40 to 60 kg of potassium
plant color indicated a loss of vigor. There‐ per hectare per year in leaf fall. The study
fore both nitrate and nitrite availability in indicated that no consistent trend could be
soi, as well as the coffee trees capacity for observed in the cup evaluation report for
uptake through ideal temperature regimes, three years. Cup quality of Arabica coffee
can be maximized. Van Der Vossen, 2009 was found to be similar in both MOP and
notes that excessive calcium and potassium SOP treated plots but that there was a
in soils produce a hard and bitter tasting modest improvement in the cup quality of
liquor. robusta coffee in the sulphate potash
treated plots compared to muriate of pot‐
ash applications in the second and third
years. It should be noted that there has not
been any evidence of changes occurring in proximately 20% of their nitrogen from the
the @lavour compounds due to agronomic biological nitrogen @ixation occurring via
use of sulphur or otherwise. (Krishnamur‐ symbiosis with I. oerstediana. No estimate
thy Rao, 1989) Studies conducted in Kenya could be derived for plots between 5 and 7
by (Njoroge and Mwakha, 1985) did not years. It is a reasonable assumption to
note any difference in liquor quality of cof‐ make that greater availability and uptake of
fee between NPK fertilized plots and con‐ soil nitrogen has a strong positive correla‐
trol treatment over eleven years of re‐ tion to cup quality via plant health and
search. bean size.
Cup quality differences have been found in
studies contrasting organic and inorganic
fertilization. In a 2008 study undertaken
by Malta, et al. no signi@icant differences Environmental Factors
were observed on the cup quality among
beans from conventional and organic Shade vs Sun
plants in the @irst year. However in the sec‐
ond year, cup quality of some organic Bosselmann et al., 2009 in Huila, Colombia
treated plants was superior when com‐ found that sensory attributes were in@lu‐
pared to conventionally treated plants. A enced negatively by shade, and that physi‐
positive effect on sensorial attributes was cal attributes were in@luenced positively by
observed using cattle manure, either alone altitude. In higher altitudes (approxi‐
or associated with coffee straw and green mately 1700 meters above sea level) shade
manure. had a negative effect on fragrance, acidity,
body, sweetness and preference of the bev‐
In Hawaii, Youkhana & Idol, 2009 found erage, while no effect was found on the
that the addition of mulch from shade tree physical quality of the bean. At lower alti‐
pruning signi@icantly offset net nitrogen tudes, shade did not have a signi@icant ef‐
and carbon losses from coffee cultivation. fect on sensorial attributes, but signi@i‐
Improved carbon and nitrogen sequestra‐ cantly reduced the number of small beans.
tion in soil was measured over two years At high altitudes with low temperatures
and it was found that soil bulk density did and no nutrient or water de@icits, shade
not decline in mulched plots as opposed to trees may have a partly adverse effect on C.
signi@icant changes in bulk density for un‐ Arabica cv Caturra resulting in reduced
mulched plots. sensory quality. The occurrence of berry
borer (Hypothenemus hampei) was lower
Grossman et al., 2006 found that organic at high altitudes and higher under shade.
production standards are being met while Bosselman goes on to suggest that future
available Nitrogen in soil is supplemented studies on shade and coffee quality should
by nitrogen @ixing shade trees. Biological focus on the interaction between physical
Nitrogen Fixation is facilitated through the and chemical characteristics of beans.
use of leguminous shade trees in the genus
Inga with the most signi@icant results found A study was done in Costa Rica by Vaast et
in 1 to 3 year old plots of C. Arabica and I. al., 2005 contrasting light regimes and op‐
oerstediana. In these young plots it was timal coffee growing conditions on dwarf
found that coffee trees were deriving ap‐ coffee, Coffea Arabica. Shade was found to
decrease coffee tree productivity by 18% Vossen concurs that shade has a positive
but reduced alternate bearing. Shade also effect on coffee quality, particularly at me‐
positively affected bean size and composi‐ dium altitudes but also reduces yields. He
tion as well as cup quality due to a delay in also found that at altitudes above 1800 me‐
berry @lesh ripening by up to a month. ters shade did not improve cup quality.
Higher levels of sucrose, chlorogenic acid
and trigonelline in sun grown beans indi‐
cated incomplete bean maturation and re‐ Rainfall & Irrigation
sulted in higher bitterness and astringency
in cup quality. Higher fruit loads, which Van Der Vossen states that rainfall re‐
can be mitigated through branch thinning, quirements for Arabica coffee production
reduced bean size owing to carbohydrate are at least 1200mm per year with a
competition among berries during bean maximum of 2500mm. He contends that
@illing. Higher taste preferences were coffee plants grow and yield better if ex‐
linked to lower fruit load. Shade was also posed to alternate cycles of wet and dry
found to mitigate negative attributes in cof‐ seasons and that a period of water de@icit is
fee quality like bitterness and astringency helpful in synchronizing @lower bud differ‐
while positive attributes like acidity were entiation. Areas with precipitation in ex‐
found to be signi@icantly higher in shade cess of 2500mm have the tendency to pro‐
grown beans. A noteworthy aspect of this duce lower quality coffee due to irregular
study was that the overall beverage quality, cherry ripening and poor bean drying con‐
higher acidity, lower astringency and ditions after harvesting. On the other end
higher preference, was found to be higher of the spectrum in drought years shoot
in the year 2000 when production was dieback and premature ripening of the ber‐
around 30% lower than in 1999. ries can result in light beans producing a
liquor with immature and astringent notes.
Geromel et al, 2008 builds his study on the
effects of shade on the development and Da Silva et al, 2005 investigated the in@lu‐
sugar metabolism of Coffea Arabica L. on ence of environmental conditions and irri‐
the premise that coffee fruits grown in gation on the chemical composition of
shade are characterized by larger bean size green coffee beans and the relationships of
than those grown under full sun condi‐ those parameters to the quality of the bev‐
tions. Bean size, as noted, is a strong con‐ erage according to both sensorial and elec‐
tributor to cup quality. He found that tronic analysis. He found that irrigation
shade led to a signi@icant reduction in su‐ was not a major factor affecting chemical
crose content and to an increase in reduc‐ composition since there were few differ‐
ing sugars. In pericarp and perisperm tis‐ ences in relation to non irrigated coffee
sues, higher activities of sucrose synthase plants. He found the production site tem‐
and sucrose phosphate synthase were de‐ perature differentials to be the main in@lu‐
tected at maturation in the shade com‐ encing factor on biochemical composition.
pared with full sun and that both enzymes The study was undertaken near Sao Paulo,
also had higher peaks of activities in devel‐ Brazil and the major @inding was that cup
oping endosperm under shade than in full quality decreased as air temperature rose
sun. Geromel went on to suggest that to about 3.5 degrees above the optimum
metabolic pathways for sucrose needed limit for coffee cultivation at 18 to 21 de‐
further study for identi@ication. Van Der
grees Celsius. Similar @indings are reported induce slower growth and more uniform
by Decazi et al., 2003 in Argentina. ripening of the berries, and produce larger
and denser beans. Bean size and density is
In a study done in Australia between 2000‐ often correlated to aroma, @lavor and supe‐
2002 by David Peasley of Rural Industries rior beverage quality. Altitude also tends
Research, irrigation was found to signi@i‐ to have a positive effect on acidity while
cantly increase bean yield as well as pro‐ reducing bitterness.
duce the following results under interna‐
tionally recognized SCAA cupping forms.
The non irrigated control crop scored a 69 Slope
with the description of “low acidity and
mild smoky @lavour and thin body.” The East facing slopes were found by Avelino et
low water stressed irrigated treatment al., 2005 to yield beverages with generally
scored 73 with the description of “dull superior attributes, probably because of
bakey aroma, nice acidity, sour, green apple superior exposure to morning sunlight.
@lavor.” The medium water stressed irri‐ The beverages from east facing slopes were
gated treatment scored 75.5 with the de‐ mainly more acid, with a score of 2.73 out
scription of “faint but sweet aroma, juicy, of 5, in the higher quality terriors, as op‐
citrus @lavour, OK body.” Each of the three posed to 2.36 out of 5 for other exposures.
areas received 1634mm of rainfall with the In addition a positive relation was found
low water stressed irrigated area having between altitude and taster preferences.
2100mm of irrigation applied to it and the
highly water stressed irrigated area having Laderach & Vaast et al. in their “Geographi‐
647mm of irrigation applied to it. cal Analyses to Explore Interactions be‐
tween Inherent Coffee Quality and Produc‐
tion Environment” state that increasing
Temperature & Altitude slope negatively in@luenced the @inal score
of cup quality from terriores on two test
Decazy et al, 2003 found that Honduran sites in Columbia and Nicaragua.
coffees of superior quality came from high
altitudes, above 1000m, where rainfall re‐
mains relatively low, that is to say below
1500mm per year. It was found that a
strong inverse relation between rainfall Genetics:
and fat content exists and that this relation
needs to be considered in relation to alti‐ With total economic damage to coffee
tude because in the sampled regions in crops mounting to an estimated US $2‐2.5
Honduras, rainfall and altitude were found billion annually, coffee leaf rust and coffee
to be inversely correlated. High altitude berry disease affect a signi@icant portion of
green coffee beans had a higher fat content the supply chain. In addition to increased
than lower altitude beans and gave a better scarcity due to disease and fungus signi@i‐
cup quality. Van Der Vassen stresses that cant environmental hazards exist due to
high altitudes are critical for the successful the copper based fungicides used to @ight
production of high quality Arabica coffees Coffee Berry Disease and Coffee Leaf Rust
in equatorial regions. Lower temperatures, chemically. (Van Der Vossen, 2009) Ac‐
and their longer daily amplitudes, tend to cording to Walyaro, 1997 the aim of most
genetic improvement programs is disease tion’ s annual report for 1987‐1988 in Af‐
resistance and quality. Determination of rica as a whole losses can range between
berry and bean characteristics using plant 30% and 50% during very high precipita‐
breeding is relatively simple, aroma and tion years even with chemical treatment.
@lavor attributes present signi@icantly
greater dif@iculties due to their chemical Fusarium (Giberella) stilboides (Fusar‐
complexity and susceptibility to agronomic ium bark disease) is a pathogen that causes
variability. Walyaro goes on to postulate bark lesions which are a result of damage
that the development of reliable lab proce‐ to the vascular system. Vascular wilt often
dures which relate individual chemical results in the death of the entire tree. Fu‐
compounds to cup quality could have im‐ sarium is reported to have almost killed the
portant bearing on genetic improvement of entire coffee industry in Malawi in the late
cup quality in coffee. It has been shown 1970’s according to Siddiqi, 1980.
that resistance to disease and nematodes
can be increased through genetic exchange Genetic modi@ications have in some cases
between C. Arabic and C. canephora. (Ber‐ affected cup quality adversely but in many
trand et al., 2005, Dessalegn et al., 2008, cases have not adversely affected cup qual‐
Leroy et al., 2006) The greater debate and ity and increased genetic resistance to cof‐
perhaps of more importance to the topic of fee leaf rust and M. exigua by introducing
cup quality is whether this genetic resis‐ genetic material into the Arabica plant
tance will lower overall cup quality by ne‐ from C canephora via the Timor hybrid.
cessity and in the end decrease consumer (Leroy et al., 2006) There are regional
experience. variations in resistance to disease that can
be exploited while maintaining or improv‐
ing beverage quality as is noted by Anzueto
Major Diseases: et al., 2001. Anzueto remarks that Ethio‐
pian origins provide resistance to nema‐
Coffee leaf rust (CLR) is caused by a todes and partial resistance to leaf rust and
pathogen of the leaf called Hemileia vas‐ likely improve beverage quality.
tarix and is characterized by orange rust
postules on the under side of the leaf. This In higher quality C. Arabica stocks the main
pathogen causes signi@icant losses as a re‐ goal seems to be in the area of improve‐
sult of loss of leaf area and the correspond‐ ment of resistances to pathogens and an
ing loss of photosynthesis and leaf drop. increasing of yield. Overall the global level
Coffee leaf rust has now spread through all of introgression of alien genetic material,
Arabica coffee producing countries in the material from C. canephora, does not seem
world making it a signi@icant issue for the to be linked to variation in cup quality.
coffee industry as a whole in terms of sup‐ (Leroy et al., 2006) Bertrand et al., 2003
ply susceptibility. came to similar conclusions when he stated
that selection can avoid accompanying the
Coffee berry disease (CBD) is caused by introgression of resistance genes with a
Colletotrichum kahawae and is a fungus drop in beverage quality due to positive
that causes dark lesions on the green and results in approximately half of the trials
ripening berries. CBD is unique in that that he carried out dealing with taste char‐
crop losses due to the fungus can be severe. acteristics such as sucrose content and
According to the Coffee Research Founda‐ beverage acidity.
ences between Arabica hybrids and tradi‐
In order to avoid damage to roots from tional cultivars. Bertrand goes on to note
nematodes, C. Arabica is commonly inter‐ that “new hybrid varieties with high bever‐
grafted onto C canephora. The perform‐ age quality and productivity potential
ance of such grafts was evaluated over 5 should act as a catalyst in increasing the
years in Costa Rica by Bertrand et al., 2001. economic viability of coffee agroforestry
The grafting did not have an appreciable systems being developed in Central Amer‐
effect on caffeine, fat and sucrose contents. ica.
However the C. Liberica rootstocks did sig‐
ni@icantly reduce aroma and the size of the Van Der Vossen, 2009 points out that tradi‐
bean produced. These de@iciencies were tional cultivars of Arabica coffee are sus‐
partially explained however by tissue in‐ ceptible to coffee leaf rust and coffee berry
compatibility at the graft level. F1 hybrids disease. CLR being of worldwide impor‐
of C. Arabica with 7 to 22% genetic mate‐ tance while CBD remains restricted to Af‐
rial from C. canephora have been shown by rica. Van Der Vossen contends that there is
Bertrand et al., 2006 to produce good cup a mounting volume of scienti@ic evidence
quality under ideal conditions and in about accumulated over many years showing
half of the tested strains. that, given optimum environmental factors,
disease resistant cultivars can in fact pro‐
With approximately a 10% market share of duce coffee of equal quality to those from
the total coffee consumed world wide, de‐ the best traditional varieties.
caffeinated coffee is being considered as a
genetic trait. Consideration of genetic di‐
versity and the correlation of caffeine con‐
tent in relation to cup quality was looked at
speci@ically by Dessalegn et al., 2008. Des‐ Quality Evaluation
salegn found that Ethiopian genotypes of Methods
low caffeine content typically showed a
lower cup quality but that there were no‐
The successful integration of genetic traits,
table exceptions. Consequently he con‐
which add positive taste characteristics as
cludes that simultaneous selection for low
caffeine content and good cup quality is
possible given that there are sources of de‐
sirable genes in terms of cup quality with
relatively low caffeine content that can be
utilized for resistance breeding.
Bertrand et al., 2006 in Central America
found homeostasis, stable equilibrium, in
taste characteristics of Arabica hybrids for
which bean biochemical composition was
less affected by elevation than that of the
traditional varieties. The organoleptic
evaluation of hybrids, which was per‐
formed on samples originating from high
elevation, showed no signi@icant differ‐ Photo of Cupping Courtesy SPREAD, Rwanda
well as contribute to the robustness of cof‐ bica tree that has been introgressed with C
fee trees in relation to their susceptibility canephora genes. Spectra taken from near‐
to disease and pests, can yield signi@icant infrared re@lectance of green coffee were
desirable results in terms of supply chain capable, by principal component and fac‐
security and cup quality. DNA introgres‐ toral discrimination, of correctly classifying
sion of alien genetic material is being car‐ beans into categories of introgressed or
ried out world wide with varying and non‐introgressed with degrees of accuracy
highly disputed results. Discussion of vari‐ from 92.3% to 94.87%. This type of analy‐
ous quality evaluation methods to deter‐ sis may serve coffee buyers or roasters as
mine the extent of gene introgression is a they seek to distinguish between non in‐
key component of genetic research. Coffee trogressed Arabicas and genotypes carry‐
identi@ication and classi@ication serves as a ing chromosome fragments of C canephora
means to avoid coffee adulteration due to genetic material which could produce po‐
the variability of @inal sale prices depend‐ tentially negative affects on cup quality.
ing on coffee origin and variety with prices Posada et al., 2009 concurs that a near in‐
of pure Arabica achieving prices upwards frared spectroscopy signature that has
of 25% over robusta coffees. been acquired over a set of harvests can in
fact effectively characterize a coffee variety.
Posada hypothesizes that the spectral sig‐
Near Infrared Re@lectance nature is affected by annual environmental
factors but that through multiple harvest
Near Infrared Re@lectance (NIRS) is based calibration data can be made useful for
on the absorption of electromagnetic radia‐ practical application to breeding.
tion by matter. This method of analysis al‐
lows for the extraction of a large amount of
information concerning biochemical com‐
position and is used extensively in a num‐
ber of crops. This ability to quickly extract The Science of Taste
a great deal of information makes NIR a
highly cost effective source of information Chemical composition in relation to pre‐
for researchers and coffee buyers and established cup quality:
roasters.
Attributes of green coffee beans, both bean
In today’s marketplace coffee identi@ication density and volume, were higher for softer
and classi@ication is as crucial to cup qual‐ tasting samples as opposed to the rio off
ity as it is to consumer requirement for @lavored samples according to a study done
origin and species speci@ication. In order by Franca et al., 2004. The rio sample pre‐
to obtain top market prices, methods of ef‐ sented lower lipid contents, most likely as‐
@icient, inexpensive, and highly accurate sociated with the presence of defective
identi@ication of coffee origins and charac‐ beans. Acidity increased and pH levels de‐
teristics are paramount. creased as cup quality decreased likely due
to the effect of defective beans which had
NIRS appears to be a method that Bertrand undergone fermentation. After roasting,
et al., 2005 & Posada et al., 2009 have the rio sample presented higher density
shown to be ef@icient for determining and trigonelline levels, indicating that it
whether a green coffee comes from an Ara‐
had not roasted to the same degree as the Molecular Markers
other samples tested.
Molecular markers are widely used,
through traditional chemical analysis, to
“Each of the main reserve compounds of investigate canephora and liberica gene
the bean (parietal polysaccharids, lipids, introgression into Arabica lines as a resis‐
proteins, sucrose) as well as secondary me‐ tance to pests and diseases. Coffee ampli‐
tabolites (Chlorogenic acids, caffein, @ied fragment length, polymorphism and
trigonelin...) play a central role in chemical simple sequence repeats have been used to
reactions during roasting. We believe that analyze the introgressions mentioned
deciphering the correspondent metabolic above. Villareal et al., 2009 found fatty ac‐
pathways are the key to better understand‐ ids in particular have proven effective for
ing quality and the use of biomarkers for the discrimination of Arabica varieties and
breeding. On the other hand, volatile com‐ speci@ic growing terriors. Crop to crop en‐
ponents, mainly from phenylpropanoids vironmental factors where found to have a
and isopropenoids, are synthesized during signi@icant impact on fatty acid content and
bean maturation. Even very low quantities thus limit discrimination to moderate ef@i‐
(nano‐mole) might strongly in@luence cup ciency across a number of years. Posada et
quality. We have two ongoing preliminary al., 2009 also found that correct classi@ica‐
works (to be published) in which we have tion and discrimination among different
been studying the in@luence of environ‐ varieties of introgressed genetic material
ment and genetics on cup quality pro@iles was possible through traditional chemical
(metabolic @ingerprints) using the SPME analysis to the tune of 79% accuracy. He
GC‐MS technology.” also found in the same study that using
spectral signatures in green beans pro‐
‐‐Dr. Christophe Montagnon of CIRAD, per‐ vided 100% correct differentiation among
sonal correspondence varieties.
Joet et al, 2010 examined the in@luences of Farah et al., 2005 investigated Brazilian
environmental factors and wet processing green and roasted coffee beans for correla‐
on the lipid, chlorogenic acid, sugar and tions between cup quality and levels of su‐
caffeine content of green Arabica beans. crose, carreine, trigonelline and chloro‐
Each of these biochemical markers repre‐ genic acids as determinded by HPLC analy‐
senting key components of cup quality. He sis. They found that trigonelline and
found that chlorogenic acids and fatty acids 3.4‐dicaffeoylquinic acid levels in green
in the bean were controlled by the average and roasted coffee correlated strongly with
air temperature during bean development. high quality. To some extent caffeine levels
However, total lipid, total soluble sugar, to‐ were found to be associated with good
tal polysaccharide and total chlorogenic quality. The amount of defective beans, the
acid contents were not all in@luenced by the levels of caffeoylquinic acids, feruloylquinic
climate in which beans were produced. acids and their oxidation products were
Glucose content was positively affected by associated with poor cup quality and the
altitude and sorbitol content after wet Rio‐off‐@lavor. Similar correlations be‐
processing was directly dependent on glu‐ tween cup quality and chemical attributes
cose content in fresh beans. were observed in green and light roasted
samples which indicates that chemical
analysis of green beans may be used as an tation may improve @lavor marginally as
additional tool for coffee quality evalua‐ may soaking under water for 24 hours af‐
tion. ter mucilage removal and washing.
Harvesting
plest and least expensive method of coffee defects are caused by wrong fermentation.
processing. It tends to produce “natural” In fermentation there are primarily two
tasting coffees and is used mostly in West‐ microorganisms at work to shape the even‐
ern Africa and Brazil. Harvested berries tual cup quality, bacteria and yeasts. Dur‐
are sorted and cleaned to remove dirt, ing proper fermentation the bacteria feed
twigs and leaves by hand . Berries are then on sugars of the mucilage. As soon as the
spread out in the sun and raked regularly sugars have been digested and the muci‐
to keep fermentation at bay. In the dry lage has been lique@ied, the pH in the fer‐
method, coffee beans were dried as a mentation tank begins to decrease. It is at
whole with pulp and mucilage in the cherry this point of loweing pH that the yeasts be‐
state. Dry processing is slow and can lead gin to become active. The yeasts go on to
to the translocation of chemical constitu‐ convert sugar to alcohol but are also me‐
ents from the pulp to the inner bean as well tabolizing the solid parts of the mucilage
as chemical transformation that depends resulting in aroma qualities that can have a
on ambient conditions. negative impact on cup quality. This taste /
smell characteristic is sometimes referred
It is noted by Clark, 1985 that naturally, to as “fruity coffee.” When coffee continues
dry, processed coffee has a better body due in this state even longer under reducing
to the fact that the bean was in contact and acidic conditions, the yeast will con‐
with its mucilage through a greater part of vert sugars into acids as opposed to alcohol
the processing phase. resulting in sour tasting coffee. (Tea & Cof‐
fee, November – December, 2005) Rec‐
ommendations for avoidance of fruity and
Wet Processing sour @lavors include washing of beans as
soon as fermentation has @inished, when all
In the wet method coffee beans are pulped, mucilage has been lique@ied. There is no
fruit and skin are removed, or pulped and across the board time frame for develop‐
demucilated, mucilaginous mesocarp is ment of fruity and sour @lavors as tempera‐
removed under fermentation. In the wet ture and altitude play signi@icant roles in
method fermentation occurs in water at those processes. It is noted that in general
controlled temperatures which produce the best way to avoid these cup defects is to
lower levels of undesirable @lavors. For this wash the parchment coffee as soon as fer‐
reason the wet method is often associated mentation has @inished and parchment
with better cup quality. Gonzales‐Rios et feels rough to the touch.
al., 2007 claim that the quality of green and
roasted coffee, measured by aroma, was
better after conventional fermentation Storage
than after mechanical mucilage removal.
Signi@icant defects can also arise as a result
Wet coffee takes up smells and aromas of insuf@icient drying and / or storage con‐
quickly. Oil constitutes a major component ditions as it is the drying process that pre‐
of the coffee bean’s composition and is able pares beans for processing later on as well
to take up and store smells and @lavors be‐ as storage. When beans are insuf@iciently
fore releasing them during roasting greatly or unevenly dried a decrease in cup quality
affecting cup characteristics. According to can occur much more rapidly than with
the tea and coffee trade journal most cup beans that have undergone an ideal drying
process. Stirling, 1974 shows a rapid de‐ tion from beans aided by microorganisms.
crease in cup quality level with increasing The aging effect can be minimized by stor‐
storage time from 6 to 18 months given ing parchment and process beans in low
various moisture contents. The decline in temperature, low oxygen and low humidity
cup quality in wet coffee is due to mold and conditions in order to dissuade bacterial,
bacteria as molds and bacteria grow best in yeast and mold activity. Damaged beans
moisture rich environments and cup char‐ tend to be much more subject to agind as
acteristics change as a result of bacteria the oils in the bean are extruding from the
and mould utilization of sugars in the cof‐ bean and provide a good growing ground
fee bean for metabolism. Tea & Coffee rec‐ for mold and bacteria. Molds have the po‐
ommend a bean moisture content of 10 to tential to grow on dry surfaces and extract
12% before packaging and storage. needed moisture from the air in storage
rooms making humidity a key issue in stor‐
One key aspect of coffee storage is bean age facility design, maintenance and repair.
respiration. Every 24 hours an average of One potential mitigation of the aging proc‐
4.4 milligrams of CO2 are produced by 100 ess on coffee beans is to utilize hermeti‐
grams of coffee beans and the 96 calories cally sealed containers or storage silos as
of heat produced by the 4.4 mg of CO2 will opposed to bags. Such units could mini‐
raise the temperature of the beans .25o Cel‐ mize oxygen levels as well as moisture con‐
sius. A high respiration rate, in combina‐ tact metabolic rates of microorganisms and
tion with heat generation, can cause a loss prolonging the amount of time in storage
of weight and dry material in the bean as that would cause minimal affects on cup
well as bean fat decomposition which plays quality. Little information is available
a key role in the aroma of the cup. (Sivetz about the effect of CO2 in such a system on
and Dosrosier, 1979). the cup quality of the coffee stored.
“Stink coffee” can be produced as a result Green beans can produce a “grassy” or
of excessive fermentation from the normal harsh @lavor cause by picking and process‐
microbes that are at work in coffee proc‐ ing immature cherries. Late in the picking
essing. It is recommended that factory season many cherries loose their green
tanks and machinery be cleaned daily to color but do not turn completely red.
ensure that old beans caught in crevices of These unripe cherries will pulp easily but
machinery do not contaminate a later are full of chlorophyll. This is readily seen
batch of coffee. Extreme over‐fermentation in fresh wet washed parchment which
can germinate the coffee seed which dies shows up the color of the silverskin under‐
quickly and leaves a hollow pit in the end neath. One solution is to dun dry the coffee
of the bean. The dead bean then very when weather conditions permit as ultra‐
quickly develops a cheese smelling texture violet light can bleach out the greenness in
which is highly distinctive when the bean is the silverskin. A slight degree of green
broken or cut. A single bean can contami‐ color will often fade over time, making it
nate and spoil an entire batch of perfectly undetectable at the @inal destination, but a
good coffee. (Coffee & Tea, 2005) strong degree of unripeness will facilitate
chemical absorption back into the oil frac‐
Declining of cup quality is inevitable to tion of the @inal product.
some degree during storage. The reason
for this decline, or aging, is surface oxida‐
Onion @lavor is another potential result of cive to maintaining low levels of bacterial
faulty post processing. Onion @lavor occurs life, mold, insects and even prevents the
when the ration of soluble sugars to proto‐ formation of a@latoxins as a byproduct of
pectins (contained in the mucilage) be‐ mold development. Temperature and hu‐
comes too low. The primary rapid buildup midity ranges found in the hermetically
of fermentation bacteria is fuelled by the sealed enclosures were also signi@icantly
relatively high level of sugar present within narrower than for control groups of beans
the ripened mucilage. If excessive fresh stored in silos or in bags in a warehouse.
water is used in pre‐washing of cherries Cupping tests were done monthly on a @ive
and during the pulping process, most of point scale and found that after two
these soluble sugars are leached out before months there was a signi@icant change in
normal fermentation takes place. Conse‐ quality in beans stored in sacks and in si‐
quently, the bene@icial soft rot bacteria can los, from 4.0 to 3.8 while cup quality stayed
be overwhelmed later in the fermentation the same for beans stored in the hermetic
process not only by the yeasts but also by enclosure. After a storage of @ive months
bacteria which convert acetic and lactic ac‐ cup quality for sacked coffee and coffee
ids to propionic and butyric acids which stored in a silo had decreased a full point to
cause the onion @lavor. It has been found 3.0 and were described as “Slight old @lavor
that this fault can be minimized by recy‐ perceptible in cup, slight harshness,
cling of pulping water as maintaining a tainted.” The cup quality from beans
high level of sugars and enzymes in the wa‐ stored hermetically was noted as “Very
ter will facilitate normal bacterial action. good @lavor despite being from the previ‐
ous harvest. Slight @loral @lavor.” Cupping
was done by Café Britt’s cupper Carmen
Café Britt of Costa Rica, in conjunction with Lidia Chavarria as well as the cupper for
the Mesoamerican Development Institute, the Costa Rican Consortium, COOCAFE,
is experiencing positive results in the de‐ Jimmy Bonilla.
velopment of a hermetic storage unit. This
unit facilitates long term storage of coffee
in it’s parchment state without the use of Brewed Coffee
pesticides, the degradation of cup quality,
aroma, or appearance for a period of @ive Once coffee is brewed the decline of pH and
months or more. Coffee beans, even when the quality score were correlated at a
properly dried can reabsorb fungus and number of storage temperatures by Rosa et
bacteria encouraging moisture over time al, 1989. Roas’s sensory analysis allowed
from the atmosphere. The storage of green de@inition of a lower limit of pH at which
beans can be even more problematic as coffee’s shelf life ended. Sivetz and Desro‐
they are more susceptible to quality dete‐ sier, 1979 showed that the decline in pH
rioration. Hermetic enclosures manufac‐ comes as s result of the formation of caffei
tured by Grainpro Inc. in Concord, Massa‐ and quinic acids as breakdown products of
chusetts, are being used to store coffee. chlorogenic acid. This process was found
These enclosures use ultra violet light re‐ to accelerate with increasing storage tem‐
sistance PVC to provide an environment perature. Results show that coffee quality
that maintains a very low moisture (hu‐ remains high as long as pH remains high, in
midity), low oxygen, high CO2 environment. the 5.2 range, after brewing and that the
This type of environment is highly condu‐
ideal temperature regime for storage is
near freezing at approximately 4oC.
Conclusions
While the data support few conclusive and
universal equations for coffee quality a few
key tradeoffs are evident from literature.
Firstly, that there is a tradeoff in percep‐
tion, if not in fact, between disease resis‐
tance and cup quality. Further study has
the potential to uncover thresholds in pro‐
ductivity and cup quality tradeoffs in this
@ield. Soil nutrition will also be a key area
of focus in the coming years as decreasing
soil quality due to consistent high yield
output will cause further constriction of
the supply chain through decreasing yields.
This is primarily due to the inability of
small land holder farmers to provide the
expensive inputs necessary for consistent
quality harvests. Larger scale inputs could
be facilitated through larger scale farming
techniques but signi@icant tradeoffs exist
due to decreasing quality of coffees picked
and processed mechanically at one time as
opposed to hand picked beans picked at
the height of their maturity. At this point
major tradeoffs exist for storage as well.
Increased storage times have traditionally
meant supply chain stability at the expense
of cup quality. However, technologies are
being developed that could change this
even this paradigm in the near future.
Working in concert with one another as an
industry, there is no limit to our combined
potential for problem solving.
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