Buddha Statues 3

Scientists Say Buddha Statue Made of Meteorite 4

The statue is some 24 centimeters tall, weighs 10.6 kilograms. 4
Buddha statues have meaning from head to toe 6
The Origin of the Buddha Statues & Images 7
The Issues that Evolve From Amidst These Conflicting Views 11
Two Phases of Buddhist Art 11
Merits of Conflicting Opinions 14
The Buddhist Tradition from Non-Image to Image 19
The Unity of The Buddha and The Dharma in Buddhist Iconography 20
Sculptures of Buddha 23
About Buddha Statues 25
Buddha Heads 26
Meaning behind the Buddha heads 26
Structure of the Buddha heads 26
The Ushnisha 26
The Origins of Ushnisha 27
Use of the Ushnisha 27
The Halo - Religious Iconography 27
Halo in Ancient Greece and Rome 27
Halo in Ancient art of Asia 27
Halo in Christianity 28
Eyes of the Buddha 28
Meaning of the eyes 29
Eyes of the Stupas 29
Buddha's Third eye 29
Belief of the Third Eye 29
Meaning of the Third eye 29
Thai Buddha Heads 30
Buddha Head entwined in a tree 30
Modern Thai Buddha heads 31
Hair of the Buddha 31
Historical evidence of the hair of the Buddha 31
Ears of the Buddha 31
Historical Interpretation 32
Other Interpretations 32
Laughing Buddha Statue 32
Rubbing the Stomach of the Laughing Buddha 32
The Laughing Buddha Symbols Meaning 33
For Wealth and Prosperity 33
For General Good Luck and Abundance of all Kinds 33
For Spiritual Insight and Understanding 33
For a Long Happy Life 33
Who was the Laughing Buddha? 34
Where to Place the Laughing Buddha in Your Home? 34
A 1,000-Year-Old Secret Hidden in a Buddha Statue 36
Statue of Buddha at Nalanda 37
Stolen Buddha statue to return to India after being found in UK 38
A Short History of Buddhism 40
CHINA 44
KOREA 44
JAPAN 45
TIBET 45
MONGOLIA 46
VIETNAM 46
BURMA (MYANMAR) 46
CAMBODIA (KAMPUCHEA) 47
SRI LANKA (CEYLON) 47
THAILAND 48
THE WESTERN WORLD 48
Buddha Statues
I​n Sanskrit Buddha statues are
accounted as ‘Buddharupa’ which
signifies ‘Image of the Enlightened
One’. To communicate the peace of
mind and discipline wherein one
person is in a state of conflicting
emotions and negative mind-set forms
the main function of the Buddha
statues. The simplicity of the
messages is the main reason for the
attraction of the illiterate masses as it
becomes easy for them to comprehend
their significance.
The statues of Buddha are universally
available either in the seated
meditative posture or in a gesture of
blessing. The Buddha statues can be
categorized into several types, namely
the figurines worshipped by the
Buddhist sect and the laughing
Buddha statues. Other well known
popular positions of Buddha are
‘Lotus-posture Buddha Statues’,
‘Abhayamudra Buddha Statues’,
‘Vajrasattava Buddha Statues’,
‘Avalokiteshwara Buddha Statues’.
The ‘Lotus-positioned Buddha
Statues’ symbolizes complete balance
of mind and body while the
‘Abhayamudra Buddha Statues’
epitomizes the gesticulation of
ejecting fear. The ‘Laughing Buddha
Statues’ are the most popular and is
actually a Chinese monk Ho Tai who
is believed universally to be the
re-incarnation of Lord Buddha.
Buddha statues are also available in a
wide range of metals including gold,
silver, bronze, copper and many more.
The Buddha statues are delicately
carved to perfection in order to spread
the message of enlightenment,
contentment, fulfillment all over the
globe.
The Buddhists are of the opinion that
if flowers and incense sticks are
offered to these Buddha statues by
bowing in front of them would make
one individual adapt the same
sacrosanct thoughts as the Lord
himself possessed. To enhance your
knowledge about Buddha Statues visit
our site India Crafts.
Scientists Say Buddha Statue Made of Meteorite
The statue is some 24 centimeters tall, weighs 10.6 kilograms.
By Nina Weber, SPIEGEL​ Sept. 29, 2012; — Sep 28, 2012 10:43 PM
T​he statue was first discovered by the
Nazis in Tibet as they were searching
for the origins of the Aryan race.
Now, scientists have established that
an ancient Buddha statue known as
the "Iron Man" was carved from the
remains of a meteorite.
The statue is some 24 centimeters tall,
weighs 10.6 kilograms and depicts a
male figure presumed to be the
Buddhist god Vaisravana. It is
believed to be 1,000 years old and it is
made out of a material almost as hard
as steel.
Dubbed the Iron Man, researchers
have now figured out exactly what
that material is: meteorite. They
published their findings in the journal
Meteorics and Planetary Science on
Thursday. Furthermore, the chemical
make-up of the material reveals that it
comes from the Chinga meteorite
which slammed into the border region
between Siberia and Mongolia some
15,000 years ago. Fragments of the
meteorite have previously been found
in the region.
According to an interdisciplinary
research team, it is the only human
figure ever to have been found that is
carved out of meteorite stone.
The material's hardness comes from
its high iron content in addition to
containing some 16 percent nickel.
Geologist Elmar Buchner from the
University of Stuttgart, the primary
author of the study, says the result is a
material similar to steel.
By now, the statue is well-travelled. It
was brought to Europe in the late
1930s by Ernst Schäfer, a zoologist
and ethnologist who visited Tibet on
an expedition funded by the Nazis:
Schäfer and his team were exploring
the roots of the Aryan race.
Most probably, the team took the iron
man with them because of the ancient
Hindu swastika, a symbol of good
luck and success, on his stomach. The
Nazis, of course, used a right-facing
swastika as a symbol of the Aryan
race.
According to Buchner, Schäfer had
returned to Germany with a catalogue
of objects found on the expedition,
many of which were decorated with
swastikas. But since this catalogue is
no longer complete, it is unclear
where Schäfer found the statue and
how he came to bring it back to
Europe.
The statue then disappeared into a
private collection for decades and was
only brought to the attention of
experts several years ago.
Meteorites are considered in many
cultures to be heavenly signs. In some
places, the rocks are worshipped as
holy objects, for example, by Native
Americans in North America and the
Aborigines in Australia. Knives and
other objects made from meteorites,
including bird figures, have been
found in a wide range of locations.
But the depiction of a human figure is
thus far unique.
The scientists have not been able to
answer when exactly the statue was
made. They presume it dates to the
11th century in the region of
modern-day Tibet, and was made with
a great deal of effort, because the
artist had to work with the extremely
hard material. He covered a large
portion of the front part with a golden
gild.
Now that the scientists have
determined the exceptional origin of
the statue, they want to make it
available to the public. "We plan to
have it become part of a permanent
collection in a museum, where it can
be exhibited," Buchner says.
Buddha statues have meaning from head to toe
|| Janet Eastman​ ||JUN 12, 2008 |​ ​12:00 AM
S​IDDHARTHA GAUTAMA was a
prince in India around 500 BC
who set out to discover meaning in
the suffering he witnessed. Once
he found enlightenment​,​ he began
to spread his philosophy. He
became known as Buddha, a title,
since given to others, that means
"awakened one."
Buddha statues have long
conveyed the religion's teachings,
according to Surya Das, a
Buddhist lama trained in Tibet.
"Encoded symbols in the statues
were used in a preliterate, oral
culture to pass on the messages,"
he says.
The head is usually depicted with
curly, short hair, Das says, to show
Siddhartha after he had cut off his
topknot to renounce his privileged
past. A 12th century Japanese
statue that recently sold for about
$14.4 million, left, is an exception.
More often, the hair is neither
totally shaved nor long,
representing life between the
extremes of indulgence and
mortification.
Half-closed eyes show a state of
meditation: looking outward and
inward. Elongated earlobes hear
what's needed in the world. Hand
gestures (called mudras) have
different meanings, such as
teaching or protection.
Some other symbols: A dot on the
forehead brings wisdom and a
third eye to see unity. A full mouth
indicates eloquent speech. Long
arms signify generosity. White,
slender fingers symbolize
mindfulness, precision and purity
in every act. Round heels
represent an even temperament,
and fine webs between toes and
fingers signal interconnectedness.
The Origin of the Buddha Statues & Images
…………GINNA

T​he Buddha image, without which the sculptural art of South Asia would have been
deprived not only of its major bulk but also much of its stylistic versatility and spiritual
fervor, has constantly been under debate as to its origin and evolution. Some believe
that the first Buddha image had come into being during the lifetime of the Buddha
himself. These scholars contend that the tradition so begun continued ever since, but
the medium, wood or clay, generally used for making these images, being of perishable
nature, could not have such images survive against time.

The Image of Shakyamuni One of the earliest surviving Buddha image.

Buddha from Seiryoji, Kushana Dynasty Gold Coin with Standing
Kyoto, Japan, AD 987, Buddha on the reverse: circa 100 B.C.
The legend of king Udayana,
which appears in the Chinese
version of the Anguttara Nikaya,
supports this view. This text of the
Anguttara Nikaya, translated into
Chinese sometime between the
first and the third century A.D.
from a Korean translation of the
scripture, obviously a work of an
earlier date, contends that the
Buddha, after he was Enlightened,
wished to sermonize his mother
Maya who, having passed away,
was in the Trayatrimsa heaven
(Realm of the thirty-three gods).
Buddha hence left this world for
three months and went there. To
king Udayana his absence was
unbearable. He thus
commissioned his image. After
three months, Buddha descended
back from Trayatrimsa. According
to the legend, king Udayana, on
his return, showed the image to
the Buddha who thereupon
preached the great virtue of
making the Buddha image.
This story of king Udayana
commissioning the Buddha image
is said to have been recorded also
by Fa-hsien and later by Hsuan
Tsang in their travel accounts.
One of the most sacred Buddha
images in Japan is revered as
being the replica of the
above-mentioned king Udayana’s
Buddha image. This image was
acclaimedly brought from China to
Japan in 986 A.D. by a Japanese
Buddhist monk Chonen.
The first Buddha image was made
of sandalwood. Adhering to
tradition, the Japanese replica is
worshipped by offering pouches of
sandalwood powder. This legend
of the origin of the Buddha image
is yet prevalent and largely
believed in Tibet, China and
Japan.
For most scholars however,
logically basing their opinions on
the antiquity of available art
objects, the earliest Buddha
images come from around the first
century B.C., some five hundred
year after Buddha’s
Mahaparinirvana. These occur on
Kushana dynasty coins datable to
150 to 50 B.C. having human
figures on them, which some
identify as the Buddha.
The image proper makes its
appearance only later, around the
first century of the Christian era.
These first Buddha images show
an abundance of Hellenistic
elements and thus it is in the
images of the Greek god Apollo
that their proto form is
conjectured.
The absence of the Buddha image
in early Buddhist art has been as
diversely interpreted. It is largely
believed that the Buddha had
himself prohibited his images,
Kushana style: A bronze
2nd century A.D. statuette of a
household god,
adapted from a
though this view is little supported
by Buddhist literature. J. C.
Huntington, who claims that the
Buddha image had come into
being in Buddha’s own lifetime,
quotes a passage from the Vinaya
of the Sarvastivadins in his
Studies in Buddhist Art of South
Asia under “The Origin of the
Buddha Image”.
Hellenstic
prototype, circa
31 BC to 14 AD.
The passage is an indirect
injunction against his image
making, but the words used in it
comprise as much a sanction for
it. In the passage, Anathapindika
asks the Great Lord,” World
honored one, if images of yours
are not allowed to be made, pray,
may we not at least make images
of Bodhisattvas in attendance
upon you?” The Buddha gives his
assent to it.
In the Buddhist vision, the primary virtue has necessarily been compassion.
Surely, the highest embodiment of compassion was one who had struggled
through numerous rebirths towards the liberation that was nirvana, and on
reaching the desired threshold, turned back to regard living beings with an
all-embracing compassion, and then willingly reentered samsara in order to
help the whole world achieve enlightenment. Such a being was termed a
bodhisattva. Siddhartha Gautama himself had therefore been a bodhisattva
for the thirty-five years prior to his enlightenment, when he became the
Buddha. Indeed, early images of Siddhartha shortly before his
enlightenment are accordingly often termed ‘bodhisattva.’

Worship of the Empty Throne and Bodhi tree:

Sanchi, 2nd – 1st century B.C

Nevertheless, the theory that the Buddha had disallowed his images is
more prevalent. A large group of scholars supporting it contend that early
Buddhist art, after the image making had been prohibited, resorted to
symbolism for representing the Buddha. Instead of reproducing the Great
Master in iconic forms, it sought to represent him by a number of symbols,
or

Women Adoring Buddha’s Footprints:

Amaravati, 1st century B.C. to 1st century A.D.

material motifs, which had remained associated with him. These included
the empty throne, Buddha-pada, umbrella or the chatra, stupa, Bodhi-tree,
wheel of Law or the Dharma-chakra Triratna, and animal motifs like the
elephant and horse.

A comparatively more recent theory perceives the entire phenomenon from

an absolutely different angle. The early Buddhist art, according to this
thesis, depicted the Buddha neither in icons nor through symbols. The
sculptures from Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati and other ancient sites, which
comprise this phase, depict episodes from Buddha’s life but evade his
iconic representations. The motifs, or the so-called symbols, which these
panels use in Buddha’s place, do not depict his presence, as none of them,
except the Buddha-pada (Buddha’s feet), is part of his person.
These motifs, the empty throne and stupa in particular, depicted rather, and
with utmost thrust, only Buddha’s absence, as it was in his absence that his
devotees realized the presence of their Master. They further claim that the
non-depiction of the Buddha in icons was inspired by monotheism and
iconoclasm, which dominated the then world mind, and Buddhism, too, was
influenced by it. They, hence, dismiss the idea of realizing him even in
symbols as this too amounted to idolatry, which Buddhism did not allow. In
this matter, they equate Buddhism with Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
Christianity, Islam and Sikhism.

The Issues that Evolve From Amidst These Conflicting Views

Amidst these conflicting views a few things are obvious. Firstly, the tradition
of faith and its legends take the date of the Buddha image back to
Buddha’s lifetime, but the actual Buddha images, which have been
recovered so far, date around the beginning of the Christian era. Secondly,
the absence of the Buddha image in early Buddhist art was due to some
kind of injunction against image making, but the Buddhist texts little support
this assumption. Thirdly, admittedly, for some centuries after Buddha’s
Mahaparinirvana, his images were not made, but there did prevail a cult of
worship in the Buddhist tradition, or at least Buddhism may not be termed
as iconoclastic. Fourthly, it may hardly be acceptable that the Buddha
image is born only of a particular sculptural tradition or is an extension of
the other, but, despite, it is obvious that there has been in India and beyond
a long and early tradition of image making and idol worship and also that
the Buddhist iconography assimilated many of their elements.
Two Phases of Buddhist Art
Buddha visiting the city of Kapilavastu:
Sanchi, 2nd – 1st century B.C.

Whatever of the Buddhist art survives today is divisible broadly into two
phases, the early (4th century BC – 1st century AD) and the late (1st
century onwards). The early phase may be identified as pre-iconic and the
late as post iconic. The sculptural panels at Sanchi stupas, carvings in a
couple of caves at Ajanta and the remains from Amaravati and other
ancient sites define the pre-iconic phase of the Buddhist art. The art of this
early phase comprises of the renditions, which depict events and episodes
from the life of Buddha, various stages of his attainment of Enlightenment
and preaching of Dharma, but such narratives do not have any of his iconic
representations.
It is only during the second phase of Buddhist art that the anthropomorphic
images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas appear.
As for the claim that Buddha’s images were made even during the early
phase, or during Buddha’s lifetime, there are some strong factors that
support this assumption. Buddhist literature, though literalism has little
relevance, does not have a single story or detail wherein the Buddha is not
physically present. Legends and literary sources speak of Buddha’s images
being made in his own lifetime. A direct injunction against image making is
not on record. Several sculptural panels, mentioned before, depict
devotees engaged in worshipping a stupa, the Bodhi-tree, an empty throne
etceteras, which suggests that Buddhism did not disallow the worship of
‘form’.

Buddha Image: Kushana style: 2nd century

A.D.

And, finally, the Buddhist sculptor had acquired by then great skill in casting
anatomical dimensions with utmost accuracy, rendering minute narrative
details, infusing ‘bhava’, or emotionality into his figures and in the depiction
of a highly sophisticated symbolism. In any art tradition, these features
define the highest stage of skill and aesthetic perception. The art of this
phase reveals not only the skill of hands but also the absolute devotion of a
mind. As such, it seems improbable that the sculptor, who wove around the
Master each detail of his life so devotedly, could check his hands from
depicting the Master himself.
The factual position, as the surviving sculptures reveal, is, however,
different from this hypothesis. This early art depicts details of the Buddha’s
life but evades using his iconic image in them. This omission of his
personal icon is not casual but well considered. In each narration, one of
the motifs, which once formed the part of the rendered episode, occupies
the space, which, according to the theme, Buddha’s icon should have
occupied. For example, the sculptural panel depicting
Mahabhinishkramana, or the Great Departure, at Sanchi, has every detail
related to the event except the figure of Gautam, the would-be Sakyamuni
Buddha. In his place the sculptor has carved a horse without rider,
obviously Buddha’s horse Kanthaka.

Mahabhinishkramana, or the Great Departure. The attendant besides the empty

horse holds an umbrella (now broken):
Satavahana, 2nd century B.C.

The horse has by its side an attendant holding an umbrella, or chhatra,

which is suggestive of its links with the Great Lord, but the same horse,
when depicted returning after Gautam has renounced the world and
consequently the horse also, is without the umbrella. Obviously, the
replacement of Buddha’s icon with the motif of the horse was well
considered and not a casualty.

Merits of Conflicting Opinions

Thus, whatever the legends or arguments, Buddhist art, in its first phase, is
marked by the absence of Buddha’s anthropomorphic representations.

Worship of the Prayer Wheel (Dharmachakra):

Sanchi, 2nd – 1st century B.C.

But the theory of Buddha’s symbolic, instead of

the anthropomorphic, representation is as little
convincing. If the Buddha could be represented
through symbols, he could as well be
represented in icons. When his symbolic
manifestation could be installed and worshipped,
there could be nothing objectionable in
worshipping his personified manifestation.
Besides, the motifs used in his place – horse,
umbrella, empty throne, Triratna, stupa
etceteras, may not be treated as representing him symbolically, because
each one has been used to communicate itself and not for symbolizing any
other thing. For example, the horse Kanthaka, depicted in the
Mahabhinishkramana panel, does not symbolize Buddha. It is only
Buddha’s horse Kanthaka. It, at the most, reminds of one of the cardinal
events of his life, namely his renunciation of material life. Similarly, the
stupa celebrates the specific event of Buddha’s Parinirvana, and the
tri-ratna signify the three jewels of Buddhism, the Buddha, Sangha, and the
Dharma.
A theory discovering Buddha’s presence in the depiction of his absence is
a psychology based assumption. It has been argued that absence, when
depicted powerfully, as powerfully reminds of the absent one and thus the
absence itself becomes his presence. This dimension of the absence is
quite valid in context to the personally known persons. The Buddha, after
he was Enlightened, moved from one place to the other and taught the
Dharma for long forty years. Thousands of his devotees had the divine
experience of seeing the Great Master. Truly, such ones could realise him
even in his absence. But, this is a psychological perception, not the vision
of a sculptor working with stone as his medium. The sculptor does not
convert a materially present phenomenon into a non-presence. He, on the
contrary, discovers the non-present into the visual medium and material
forms. Besides, such stylistic excellence or innovation could not be a
unanimous or universal feature to prevail for over five hundred years.
 Yaksha Figure from Patna: 2nd century
B.C.

The theory that the Buddha, in tune with the monotheistic and iconoclastic
trends, which dominated the concurrent world, forbade making of his
image, has hardly any substance. Buddha’s concurrent world, as becomes
evident from various 5th-4th century B.C. Yaksha images, recovered from
Bihar, and of a little later period from Mathura, tended more towards idol
worship.
The cult of worshipping Nagas and Yaksha seems to have prevailed in
China, Ceylon and other countries also. Jain, and Buddhist literature and
the Great Epics repeatedly refer to various Nagas and Yakshas and the
Yaksha-chaityas. The Ramayana talks of Yakshattva, a virtue which even
gods aspired to attain. Upala was one of the Yaksha related epithets of
high honor. Buddha’s devotees, out of reverence, called him Upala. Four
Lokapalas, the guardian deities of four directions, were Yakshas, Kuber
being one of them. Sakyas, Buddha’s own clan, had its Yaksha deity,
Yaksha Sakya-Vardhana.

The new-born Siddhartha being offered to Kuber, one of the four Yaksha
Yaksha Sakya-Vardhana. guardians of four directions.

Baby Buddha, soon after his birth, was first offered to this same Yaksha
deity.Yakshas and Nagas seem to have so much dominated the scene that
all sects, including Buddhism, Jainism and Upanishadas, which initially
practised idol-less worship, thought it better to conciliate with them. Each in
its own way accommodated Yakshas and Nagas in its system, though
invariably by subordinating them to it. Significantly, Parshvanatha, Jains’
twenty-third Tirthankara, born some two hundred years before the Buddha,
had a Naga, represented as serpent in iconography, to guard him during
his penance.
 Naga Erapata Worshipping Buddha: Buddha flanked by Vajrapani holding
Bharhut, Early 1st century BC. a vajra to his right: Kushana style:
Mathura, dated 110 A.D
In Buddhist sculptures Naga Erapata is seen worshipping and Yakha
Vajrapani attending upon the Buddha. Shiva, Vishnu, Vasudeo Krishna, all
had Nagas and Yakshas associated with them.The Bhagavata depicts
Krishna subduing Naga Kaliya , The Jatakas describe the Buddha
converting many Yakshas to Buddhism.
Now these events stand reduced into mere myths, but are, nonetheless,
suggestive of the massive dominance of the Naga and Yaksha cults.
Significantly Buddhism, Jainism or the Upanishadas, did not attempt at
dismissing this earlier worship cult, as did other religions around the globe.
It is, thus, obvious that the early Buddhism, even when it did not believe in
idolatry, was not iconoclastic. It is, hence, difficult to accept the proposition
that the prevalent worship cult in Buddha’s concurrent world tended
towards iconoclasm. It is also too far to go that Buddhist artists, when they
subsequently went for Buddha’s iconic representations, had to seek their
proto-type in Greek images, because concurrent India did not have any of
her own tradition of image making.

Scenes related to Buddha’s birth: a dream

precedes Buddha’s birth. His mother
Maya seen sleeping (top right corner); at
Lumbini under the Sal tree she bears
Buddha. Four Lokapalas, or the
Guardians of four directions appear with a
silk sheet to take Buddha on it (lower
right corner); seven kings assemble and
pay homage to Buddha’s mother (top left
corner); and after Buddha’s birth, his
mother Maya offers the child to Yaksha
Sakya Vardhana, the deity of Sakya clan
(lower left corner) : Amaravati, 1st century
B.C. to 1st century A.D.

The Buddhist Tradition from Non-Image to Image

There is no denying the fact that early Buddhist art did not have Buddha’s
anthropomorphic images. There seems to operate behind it some kind of
injunction, but such injunction could not be a one-time taboo-like thing
made expressly. In all likelihood, the artists, working as per the Buddhist
tradition itself, saw Buddha more in the Dharma rather than in a human
form. This tradition begins with Buddha’s attainment of Enlightenment. It is
a moment of transcendence. The Sakyamuni leaves and the Buddha
emerges. With the Light emerges the Buddha and with the Light emerges
the Law, the Dharma. Thus, the Buddha is the Dharma and the Dharma is
the Buddha, and there is nothing that divides them. The Buddha, before he
merged into Dharma, was a living organism, the jeeva-kaya, whatever its
name, Gautam, Bodhisattva or Sakyamuni. After he was the Enlightened
One, the Buddha, an entity beyond death and birth, beyond time and
space, he was the pure existence, the imperishable Dharma-kaya. The
anthropometry could span and the art could depict the jeeva-kaya but not
the Dharma-kaya, which was beyond both.
This also explains why the Buddha allows Anathapindika (in the Vinaya of
Sarvastivadins) for making the images of Bodhisattvas, as the Bodhisattvas
represented but the jeeva-kaya. The Dharma-kaya, the fragrance of the
Law, could not be translated into a form. In Samyutta Nikaya (iii, 120), the
Buddha says,” who sees Dharma, sees me, who sees me sees Dharma”.
The Buddha thus equated the Dharma with the Buddha. The Buddha
probably wished to be seen in the Dharma, and not individually. Thus, after
the Buddha and the Dharma were one, an image, a thing perishable and
with little expanse, could not represent him, for the image could capture his
anatomy but not him who as Dharma was a reality beyond time and space.
The ocean could not be contained in a bowl.

The Unity of The Buddha and The Dharma in Buddhist Iconography

Even during the subsequent late phase, when Buddha’s anthropomorphic
images were made in abundance, this perception of seeing Buddha in the
Dharma and the Dharma in the Buddha, pervades the Buddhist art
scenario. Not a single Buddha image, not even one of his votive statues,
has so far come to light, which does not depict one aspect or the other of
the Dharma. Each one is seen imbued with the spiritual fervor of the
Dharma.
It does not so much portray the Buddha as it does the Dharma, The later
treatises formulate definite rules in this regard. For example, images for the
sanctum sanctorum were required to depict primarily one of the Four
Cardinal Stages in the attainment of Buddhahood. These are:

1). Buddha in the Bhumisparsha 2). Buddha in the Dhyana Mudra: Buddha’s
Mudra: Signifying the Buddha on the realization of Dharma in which meditation played
verge of enlightenment. a significant part.
 3). Dharmachakra Mudra: Buddha’s 4). Walking Buddha: Buddha’s energetic and
first sermon at Sarnath and the dynamic propagation of the Dharma, by
initiation of Dharma. traversing the length and breadth of the land.

The Lankavatara Sutra commands the artist to paint beyond the aesthetic
surfaces ‘the picture that is not in color’s, that is, Buddha’s right
iconography shall evolve only when the sculptor portrayed the spiritual
dimensions of his being which was the Dharma.
This Buddhist art vision repeatedly appears in texts. The Divyavadana puts
it in the form of a legend. Rudrayana, one of Buddha’s royal disciples,
desires to have Buddha’s portrait, or image. He summons his court artists
to make Buddha’s portrait. They attempt at making it but are not able to
‘grasp’ his likeness. Afterwards, the Buddha projects on the canvas his
outline or shadow, and instructs to fill it in with colors. It appears, in a yet
different manner, in the Uttaratantra of Maitreya (Obermiller’s version of it
in Acta Orientalia, volume 9, pages 208-209). The text proclaims that none
else but only such ones as have imbibed into their beings the charity,
morals, patience and the rest, and the highest point of excellence can
grasp Buddha’s likeness, that is, for grasping his likeness the quality of soul
was more important than the skill of hands.
Sculptures of Buddha
The earliest representations of the Buddha are symbols or scenes
associated with the Buddha’s life without actually depicting his physical
form. Two of the most common symbols of the Buddha in these socalled
“aniconic” images are the Wheel of the Dharma (representing the first
sermon) and the Bodhi Tree, where he achieved his Awakening. Aniconic
representations of the “Great Departure,” when Siddhartha le his palace to
become a wandering ascetic, show an empty horse shielded by a parasol,
with a group of deities muling the sound of the horse’s hooves, according to
one legend. A common example of this early type of representation is
simply the mark of the footprints le behind by the Buddha. Early in the
Common Era, Buddhists began to represent the Buddha’s physical form. In
the region of Gandhara, on the present-day border between Pakistan and
Afghanistan, sculptures of the Buddha were very strongly influenced by the
Hellenistic art of the Greek kingdoms of Afghanistan and western Central
Asia. In the region of Mathura, in the middle reaches of the Ganges river,
the Buddha was sculpted in a robust, down-to-earth style derived from the
traditional Indian decorative arts. These two styles coalesced during the
period of the Gupta dynasty of Indian rulers (320— 540CE) to produce the
classic Buddha statues and sculptures that have had such wide impact
throughout the Buddhist world. The Gupta style is also evident in the
paintings on the wall of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta in western India and in
the serene, elegant, sensuous, but otherworldly depiction of Sculptures of
Buddha The earliest representations of the Buddha are symbols or scenes
associated with the Buddha’s life without actually depicting his physical
form. Two of the most common symbols of the Buddha in these socalled
“aniconic” images are the Wheel of the Dharma (representing the first
sermon) and the Bodhi Tree, where he achieved his Awakening. Aniconic
representations of the “Great Departure,” when Siddhartha le his palace to
become a wandering ascetic, show an empty horse shielded by a parasol,
with a group of deities muling the sound of the horse’s hooves, according to
one legend. A common example of this early type of representation is
simply the mark of the footprints le behind by the Buddha. Early in the
Common Era, Buddhists began to represent the Buddha’s physical form. In
the region of Gandhara, on the present-day border between Pakistan and
Afghanistan, sculptures of the Buddha were very strongly influenced by the
Hellenistic art of the Greek kingdoms of Afghanistan and western Central
Asia. In the region of Mathura, in the middle reaches of the Ganges river,
the Buddha was sculpted in a robust, down-to-earth style derived from the
traditional Indian decorative arts. These two styles coalesced during the
period of the Gupta dynasty of Indian rulers (320— 540CE) to produce the
classic Buddha statues and sculptures that have had such wide impact
throughout the Buddhist world. The Gupta style is also evident in the
paintings on the wall of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta in western India and in
the serene, elegant, sensuous, but other worldly depiction of Buddha
teaching at Sarnath.
About Buddha Statues

The Buddha and his teachings​ have blessed the world with his messages conveying the need for peace, not just external needs but also for the inner
peace within us. His teachings and the symbolic gestures have never been better portrayed but by ​Buddha statues​. They reflect the perfection
of ​Buddhist arts​ while representing inner peace, fortune and as inspiration to millions of followers of ​Buddhism in the world​. The ​Buddha statues​ are
revered across the globe for their sheer simplicity and beauty in portraying the ​enlightened one​. These pieces of artifacts hold a deeper meaning for
the ones following Buddhism and Buddhist meditation, as the Buddha statues are known to have inspired thousands of meditation enthusiasts in the
world to attain their ultimate goal, enlightenment. These statues signify knowledge and compassion while also representing more general concepts like
balance, peace, generosity, wisdom and self-discovery.

The Buddha statues, especially ​antique Buddha statues​, are embedded with various mantras and chants, which are derived from various Buddhist
principles like ​the Eightfold path​ and the Four Noble truths. These Buddha statues are created using various kinds of raw materials like wood, marble,
lacquer, bronze and stone. Many are also constructed by combining these raw materials giving them a unique and rare look. Similarly, these antique
Buddha statues carry their own stories, as they have been a part of ancient Buddhist cultures. The antique Buddha statues are known to have been a
symbol of inspiration for the Buddhists all over Asia while also encouraging meditation enthusiasts to follow the Middle path of Buddha. The Buddha
statues come in different shapes and sizes and depending upon the type of the statue, they depict different meanings. The Mudras of Buddha statues
can identify these meanings. The different Mudras, or poses, of the Buddha, carry different meanings and make them special with the symbolic
meanings they hold in Buddhism. They also serve as a great way to represent the Buddha in many religious ceremonies in Buddhist monasteries and
temples.

There is no denial that the Buddha statues, with their intricate details and beauty, serve as an excellent object for decorative purposes. This is true for
various art collectors and antique collectors, who are always looking for the Buddha statues, especially the antique Buddha statues, to add to their
collection. These statues also symbolize prosperity and good luck to the owner of the statue. Coupled with Buddhist shrines, these statues can also
serve as a miniature temple for the Buddhists to pay respect to the former prince turned spiritual leader. Having originated from various Asian countries
like Nepal, Burma, Tibet, China, Japan, etc., the antique Buddha statues are famous for their unique features depending upon the era and region of
origins.

Most of the Buddha statues are known to have portrayed the historical Buddha – ​Shakyamuni Buddha​. But there have also been many statues of the
Buddha that portrayed other Buddhas like Amitabha Buddha, who is one of ​the five dhyani Buddhas​, according to the Buddhist mythology. These
statues have their own unique characteristics based on the Mudras they depict and have a profound importance in the practice of Buddhism in
countries like Nepal, Japan, China and other Buddhist nations.

Buddha Heads
Buddha heads​ or ​Buddha head statues​, as they are known, are not
just the depictions of the head of the ​Buddha​, but the symbolic as well
as spiritual representation of the ​enlightened ​one's wisdom and
knowledge. Though there are many depictions and styles of the ​Buddha
heads​ depending on the region of the origin, the basic meaning that the
iconography represents is somewhat the same over the ​history of
Buddhism​. These statues of a prince turned religious/spiritual leader are
rather known to have encoded symbols in them, which were used in a
preliterate, oral culture to pass on the messages of the ​Buddha's
teachings​ and knowledge.

Meaning behind the Buddha heads

The ​Buddha head statues​ are normally depicted with curly, short hair, in
order to show that the ​prince Siddhartha​ had cut off his topknot to
renounce is prince-hood and his privileged past. Though the historical
accounts and evidences suggest the ​Buddha​ had a shaved head, the hair of these ​Buddha head statues​ is neither totally shaved nor long,
representing ​Buddha's​ path of the middle i.e. life between the extremes of indulgence and mortification.

Structure of the Buddha heads

Generally, the ​Buddha head statues​ are depicted with a protruding head, which symbolizes the disconnection between the mind and body. Such state
is also known as ​Bodhisattva​. Similarly, Buddha heads are also known to have another protuberance, on the top of the ​Buddha's head​, known as ​the
Ushnisha​, which is a three-dimensional oval at the top. The ​ushnisha​ represents the attainment of the ​Buddha's​ ​enlightenment​ and his reliance in the
spiritual guide, though the original function of the ushnisha may have been to represent a crown on the ​Buddha's head​.

The facial structure of the ​Buddha heads​ usually have half-closed eyes which show a state of meditation: looking inward into the self as well as
outward. The faint smile on the statue also depicts the serene nature and nobility of ​the Buddha​ after attaining ​enlightenment​. A dot between the
eyes, or the urna, is also another peculiar feature of the ​Buddha heads​. This round tuft of hair between the eyebrows symbolize the supernatural vision
of the ​Buddha​ Though elongated earlobes in the ​Buddha​ heads represent the ​Buddha's​ hearing power which is believed that he hears what is needed
in the world, the exact reason behind is elongated earlobes may be due the vestiges of his life as a prince, when he wore extravagant and heavy
jewellery and earrings on his ears.

The Ushnisha
The ​Ushnisha​, or the ​crown of hair​, is the three dimensional oval at the
top of the head of ​the Buddha​. ​Ushnisha​ is one of the most unique
features of ​Buddhist art​and ​Buddhist iconography​.
The ​ushnishap​ rotuberance is not to be mistaken for the topknot ​Prince
Siddhartha​ cut off upon leaving the city of ​Lumbini​ and crossing the
river. The topknot is usually only worn by the royal family of the Hindu
kingdoms. Once the prince cut it off, it is believed that he renounced his
royal heritage.

The original function of the ushnisha was probably intended to symbolize

a crown on the top of the ​head of the Buddha​.
The Origins of Ushnisha
While ​the ushnisha​ has been ever present and an important feature of many statues and ​images of the Buddha​, it is not clear whether
the ​Buddha​ actually had an ushnisha on the top of his head or not. There are various textual evidences which clearly state the ​Buddha​ having a
completely shaved head. In one textual account, for example, a brief account of a hunter who happened to stumble upon the ​Buddha​ in the forest.
When he saw the former prince sitting in the middle of the forest, the hunter saw a fully bald ​head of the Buddha​ and took it as a bad omen and gave
up his hunting for the day. Similarly, when he first saw the ​Buddha​, in his ​monk's robes​, the hunter was convinced that the ascetic was a ​brahmana​.
However, after a close inspection, he saw this "brahmana" missing the usual ​shikha​, or a tuft of hair on the back of the head, that the brahmanas
usually have. These textual evidences, therefore makes it debatable whether the ​Buddha​ had an ushnisha or not.

Use of the Ushnisha

The earliest depictions of the ushnisha in the iconography of the ​Gandhara​ period were as a crown. The ushnisha on the top of the ​Buddha's head​ is
the gathering of his wavy and voluminous hair into a chignon. Later, the style and meaning of the ushnisha has undergone various changes. Later, the
South Asian depictions of the ​Buddha​ have the ushnisha with more schematic appearance. The ​ushnisha​ is depicted as an infinitely complex
combination of small curls. Though some ​Buddha Head​s have the ushnisha resembling as more of a protuberance coming directly from the skull than
a gathering of hair, the evolution of ​the ushnisha​ in South East Asian depictions have the chignon replaced completely by either a flame or a lotus
flower. Also, the ushnisha is decorated by various metal ornaments in the ​Buddha heads​ from this region. One of the main reasons for this change may
be, rather than symbolizing the crown of the royal family, the ushnisha is far better interpreted as symbolizing the spiritual power of
the ​Buddha's​ ​enlightenment​.

Therefore, we can clearly understand that the ushnisha has been a long and evolving presence in various Buddhist artifacts, such as ​Buddha
statues​, ​Buddha heads​ and other images of Buddha. And the ultimate purpose is necessarily not to depict the physical feature of the ​historical
Buddha​, the Shakyamuni, but to depict or represent the special status related to the spiritual power, the knowledge and the religious ideals preached
by the ​Buddha​.

The Halo - Religious Iconography

In most of the religion, the ​saint people​ are shown with a ​white circle of light​ around their head. ​A halo​ is also known as ​nimbus​, ​glory​, or ​gloriole​.
In most of the religion such as ​Ancient Greek​, ​Buddhism​, ​Ancient Rome​, ​Christianity​, and ​Hinduism​, and other religions, ​a halo​ was used to
represent the holy figures as well as great rulers and heroes. Sometimes ​a halo​ is also depicted as flames in ​Asian art​ either around the head or
around the whole body. In various culture and religion, ​a halo​ is shown in almost all colors but ​a halo​ is mostly shown in golden, yellow, white, and red
when flames are depicted. ​Halo​ has been in use in the ​Western​ and ​Asian​ art for more than thousand years. The use of a halo was at its peak during
the era of ​Egyptian​ and ​Christian​. ​A Halo​ was also popular in the ancient A
​ sian art​ of ​India,​ ​Tibet​, and ​China​.

Halo in Ancient Greece and Rome

According to ancient ​Greek history​, ​a halo​ was used to describe a circle of lights around the head of heroes of ancient ​Greece.​ In ancient ​Greece​,
many spiritual characters were depicted with ​a halo​ such as ​Perseus​, ​Lyssa​ (figure of madness), ​Sphinx​ (Sea demon), ​Thetis​ (the sea-nymph)
and ​the Sun God Helios​. Most of the ​Greek Gods​ were not depicted with ​a halo.​ The only ​Greek gods​ who were depicted with ​a
halo​ were ​Helios,​ ​Goddess of Dawn (Eos)​ and ​Eos’s​ son ​Eosphorous​.
Halo​ was quite popular in ancient art of ​Rome​. In Late 2nd Century AD, ​Apollo Helios​ was depicted with a halo in the ancient city of ​Rome​, ​Thysdrus​.
According to ​Roman history​, ​Halo​ first appeared in the culture of ​Hellenistic ​Rome​ and ​Greece.​ Halo was particularly popular in mosaic, an art of
creating images. Another great mosaic piece was the depiction of ​Alexander the Great ​with a light of ​Haloa ​ round his head.

Halo in Ancient art of Asia

The halo​ as well as aureola is quite popular in ​Indian art​ as well as ​Chinese art​. ​A halo​ is often used to depict ​Buddhist iconography​. The ancient
depictions of ​Lord Buddha​ often show ​Gautama Buddha​with ​a halo​. But some ​Buddhist texts​ mentioned that ​Lord Buddha​ never had ​a halo​ around
his head. These texts say that ​Lord Buddha​ emitted rays of light (of different color like blue, yellow, red and white) during the time
of ​nirvana​ and ​Parinirvana​. ​Halo​ was also in practice in ancient ​Japanese​, ​Chinese​and ​Tibetan Buddhism​. The ​Haloes​ were mostly used to
depict ​Amitabha Buddha​ and others in ​Buddhist art​ of ​Japanese​ and ​Chinese Buddhism.​ Various Buddhist deities in ​Tibetan Buddhism​ such
as ​Padmasambhava​ and ​Milarepa​ are also shown with ​Haloes​ around their head. The color of ​Haloes​has their own meaning like the
orange ​halo​ represented ​Buddhist monks​, green colored ​halo​represented circle of light around ​Lord Buddha head​ and other colors represented the
elevated beings in ​Buddhism​. ​Theravada Buddhism​ and Jainism neglected the use of ​Halo​ in their art for many centuries but later adopted the use
of ​Halo​.
The earliest appearance of the halo in ​Asian art​ occurred in early 1st century AD. The kings and rulers of ancient ​Kushan Empire​ were the earliest to
use ​Halo​ in their coins and in their art. It is said that the use of ​nimbus​ may have originated from ​Kushan Empire​ in ​Central Asia​ and later the use
of ​Halo​became quite popular in many religions of ​Asia.​ ​Halos​ are also found in ​Islamic art​ but in the form of flames. The flames were used to
represent ​Prophet Muhammad​ and other sacred figure lead by ​Muhammad​ for prayer.
Halo in Christianity
The use of ​a halo​ was widely used with the rise in ​Christianity​. According to ​Christian tradition,​ ​Jesus Christ​ was first shown with a nimbus around
his head in 4th Century AD. Later the use of ​Halo​ became popular and was used to depict other saints and spiritual characters such ​Virgin Mary​ and
other royal people. ​Jesus Christ ​was depicted with circular Halo around his head whereas ​Virgin Mary​ was shown with a full body ​Halo​ also known
as ​Aureole​.

Eyes of the Buddha

The ​Buddha​, famous all over the world as the ​light of Asia​, has been
the symbol of peace, harmony, wisdom and conscience. A prince in his
early days, he left the happiness of the palace to look out for the truth
and meaning of life. After years of meditation and travelling as an ascetic
from places to places, he attained ​enlightenment​ or became awakened.
He then taught and passed on his knowledge to many followers and
helped them know the true meaning of life and the happiness they could
get after knowing the right purpose. These teachings later became the
basic principles of a religion, ​Buddhism​, which has become one of the largest religions in the world.

Buddhism s​ pread across the continent of Asia gradually but it adapted the local culture instead of making the locals accept the culture of the home
of ​Buddhism​. This is probably one of the main reasons for people to embrace Buddhism with ease. This also helped the ​Buddhist art​ to flourish well in
these regions. Countries like ​Burma​, ​China​, ​Japan​, ​Thailand​, ​Nepal​, ​Japan​, etc have their own styles and variations of ​Buddhist arts​. Even though
they varied in styles, the symbols and meanings of these ​Buddhist art​ remained somewhat similar for all of the ​Buddha statues​ and ​Buddha
images​ from these regions. One of such symbols of which the meanings have been the same is the ​eyes of the Buddha​.

Meaning of the eyes

On virtually every ​Buddha statues​, ​Buddha heads​ and ​Buddha stupa​ (Buddhist shrines) from countries
like ​India,​ ​Nepal,​ ​Thailand,​ ​Burma,​ ​China a
​ nd others, there are pairs of eyes casting down as if in a meditation state, and enriched with a spiritual aura.
This style has been a model for various generations of artists while depicting them in various ​Buddha heads​ and ​Buddha images​. In Buddhism, there
are two kinds of eyes, first the inner eyes or eyes of wisdom, which sees the world of ​Dhamma​, which is also known as the ​Third eye of the Buddha​,
while the other is called the outer eyes which is also called as material eyes which sees the outer world. Therefore, it may be seen and understood
easily that the eyes in the ​Buddha statues​ and Buddha heads are also of two kinds. The material eyes are the two eyes which see the outer world while
the inner eyes, or the one which sees the Dhamma is the one in the middle of the two material eyes. This inner eye is also known as ​the urna​.

Eyes of the Stupas

While in ​stupas​, there are giant pairs of eyes looking out from the four sides of the main tower of the stupa. These are also known as ​Buddha
eyes​ and wisdom eyes. The eyes of the Buddha in the stupa symbolize the all-seeing ability of ​the Buddha​.

Hence, according to ​Buddhism​, we can say that if we are wise, we can see beyond material things. What we then see can is the truth. The world is in
a muddle now because people don’t use their eye of Wisdom to see things. People are distracted and deluded by greed, hatred and ignorance. These
desires mix them up, or bring them down and then lead us to suffering. People become distressed, depressed, anxious and suffer. These things can be
called the darkness of life. Only wisdom will lead the world out of the darkness.

Buddha's Third eye

You may have come across many ​Buddha statues​ and ​Buddha
heads​ in which a small hairy dot appears between the eyes of the figure.
This particular dot is known to have existed in
many ​statues​ and ​stupas​in the iconography from different nations such
as ​Nepal​, ​India​, ​Burma​, T
​ hailand​, etc.

If we go through the teachings of the ​Buddha​, or the ​Buddhist

teachings​, hatred, delusion, clinging and greed cause suffering in the
world. ​The Eightfold path of the Buddha​ has been a great way of
ridding oneself of these traits and obtain a higher peace in one's life and
reality. ​Buddhist symbols​ for greed include mirrors, eyes and the
power of the vision. The eyes of the Buddha reminds the followers
of ​Buddhism ​to have ethical behavior, practice meditation, make ritual
offerings and have the feeling of generosity in life so as to let go of the
greed from their lives.

Belief of the Third Eye

In the same way, the dot, which represents ​the Third eye of the Buddha​ for the Buddhists, was adopted by the followers of ​Buddhism a ​ s well
as ​Hinduism ​and ​Taoism ​in various Asian countries. The Buddhists take ​the Third eye​ as the symbol of spiritual awakening of knowledge and
wisdom. While the Hindus have a belief of the third eye being a channel to the inner and hidden power, the western symbolize the third eye as the
symbol of second sight or clairvoyance.

Meaning of the Third eye

The third eye​ in the statues of ​Buddha​ and ​Buddha head statues​ represents an abstract concept referring to a speculative invisible eye which
provides perception of the reality beyond ordinary vision of the people. It signifies the entrance which leads us to the true and inner reality of higher
consciousness. Generally, in modern spiritual philosophy, the third eye usually represents a ​state of ​enlightenment​ or awakening which evocates the
mental images and brings our deeply personal, spiritual and psychological significance. Often related and associated with religious visions, ​the third
eye​ is believed to indulge us to improve our extrasensory perception and brings out our ability to observe the vibes, precognition and even supernatural
experience.
Activating the ​third eye​ in oneself is a tough accomplishment but not an unachievable one. It is possible through ​meditation​. Mastering the art and
practice of meditation will gradually help us to activate the pineal gland and the pituitary body. This not only teaches us to relax but also helps us to
open our mind to limitless possibilities. Once this is achieved, clairvoyance can be reached. People who are known have the capacity to use their eyes
due to tough practice of meditation are sometimes known as seers.

Thai Buddha Heads

Buddha heads​ or ​Buddha head statues​ in Thailand are the three dimensional wood, clay, stone or metal cast images of the ​head of the Buddha​.
There are such figures in all the regions where Buddhism is practiced, the basic composition, position and appearance of the images different vastly
from country to country. The ​Buddha heads statues​ in ​Thailand ​recall specific meanings of ​Buddha's teachings​and travels that are familiar to the
Buddhist according to ​the Buddha heads​ with specific rules.

As the Buddha heads are not the natural representations or depictions of what the ​historical Buddha​, ​Gautam Buddha​ looked like, the ​Buddha
heads​ are taken as the representation of an ideal reality of the Buddha
and that every Buddha heads stands at the end of a succession of the
images reaching back to the ​Buddha h ​ imself. The ​Thai Buddha
heads​ are popular all over the world not only for their uniqueness but
also the craftsmanship involved during the creation of ​the Buddha
heads​.

Buddha Head entwined in a

tree
One of the most popular ​Thai Buddha heads​ in the world is ​Buddha
Head​ in Tree Roots, ​Wat Mahathat​, ​Ayutthaya​.

This iconic image is very popular as people may see time and again the
photograph of the ​Buddha h ​ ead on post cards and in guide-books. This
particular Buddha head is entwined within the roots of a tree and is one of the most recognizable images from ​Thailand​. T ​ he Buddha​ head is located
at Wat Mahathat in ​Ayutthaya​. The ancient temple in the location is believed to have been built around 14th century but was destroyed and reduced to
ruins in 1767 during the invasion of Ayutthaya by the Burmese army. The invaders also vandalized many of the ​Buddha images​ and ​Buddha
heads​ in ​Ayutthaya​. The site remained abandoned until the early 1950s when the Department of Fine Art of Thailand began the restoration work
in ​Ayutthaya​. There is still no exact history of how the ​Buddha head​ became entwined in the roots of the tree. Among many theories, one theory
suggests that the tree grew around the head of the ​Buddha w ​ hen the temple was left abandoned. Similarly, another theory also states that a thief
moved the ​Buddha heada ​ way from the main temple in Ayutthaya to hide it. But after moving the stone ​Buddha head​ away from the ruined main temple,
it is believed that the thief could not move the head beyond the walls surrounding the temple. Instead of that, the ​stone Buddha head​ was left by the
wall where it got nestled in the tree roots which have grown and entwined around it.

Modern Thai Buddha heads

The modern ​Buddha​ ​head statues in Thailand​ are often the replicas of the Buddha head images from the ​Sukothai​ and other early periods of the
history of Thailand. Faces of the Buddha heads in the modern depictions are moreover of a realistic and human like approach. The modern Buddha
heads is also influenced by the Indian ​Gandhara​ style as well as the western style of art.

Hair of the Buddha

There are many interesting facts and hidden meaning behind ​Buddha
statues​and ​Buddha heads​. This is because the iconography
of ​Buddha i​ s not typically meant for representing the Buddha in his
physical form but to depict the Buddha's knowledge and awareness he
acquired after attaining the ​enlightenment​. These depictions vary from
style to style and on the basis of the region of origin. One of the few
characteristic that is not changed regardless of the style of the region of
origin is the ​Buddha hair​ in various ​Buddha statues​ and ​Buddha head
statues​ along with ​the ushinsha​ or ​the third eye of the Buddha​.

There have been many theories and discussions about the Buddha's
hair. But historically speaking, before the ​Shakyamuni Buddha​ left the
riches and palace as a crown prince, he had a long, curly hair. Upon
giving up the happiness of the palace, he cut his hair with knife. There
are also different versions of the history on whether he actually shaved
the hair completely or lost the longer portions of his hair. The statues
and paintings portray the ​Buddha h​ aving short and tight ringlet curls. As hair is often used a metaphor for human being’s illusion or ignorance, so called
the ‘weeds of ignorance’, thus, cutting the hairs implies symbolically getting rid of ignorance. The body and the mind should be kept clean in order to
reach the final aim of true understanding. Thus cutting and shaving the hair represent a sort of determination to keep the body and the mind clean and
then to attain ​enlightenment ​and save all beings. But there have been cases where the hair in the ​Buddha heads​ are neither shaved nor long,
representing the life between the extremes of indulgence and mortification.

Historical evidence of the hair of the Buddha

In one of the little historical written evidence, a brief written account of a hunter who stumbled upon ​the Buddha​ meditating in the forest, he saw the
former ​Shakya​ prince sitting beneath a tree in the middle of the forest as a bald ascetic. Seeing the bald head, he took it as a bad omen and stopped
hunting for that particular day. At the same time, when he saw the ​Buddha​, in his ​monk's robes​, he thought the ascetic was a ​Brahmana​. Though
after a close inspection, he saw this "​brahmana​" missing the usual tuft of hair on the back of the head, which is generally termed as ​Shikha​ in
Sanskrit. ​Shikhas​ were moreover, taken as the identity of ​Brahmanas.​ This textual evidence makes it debatable whether the ​Buddha w ​ as bald or he
had hair.

Of course, we do not really know what ​the historical Buddha l​ ooked like as the first ​Buddha statues​and ​Buddha heads​ were created only roughly
around 200 years after his ​Mahaparinirvana​. As the B
​ uddha ​is portrayed with r​ inglets of hair​ to illustrated his life-story, we can say that the ​Buddha
heads​and statues we see now are not the accurate physical representation of the prince turned spiritual leader, the Buddha.

Ears of the Buddha

Historically speaking, the iconographic representations of ​Buddha w ​ ere
not made for until about four or five centuries. Though there are claims of
the forbidding of representing ​the Buddha​, but this is highly unlikely as
there is no evidence regarding such prohibition. Until then, ​the
Buddha​ was symbolized by stupas, footprints, empty throne, etc and
written descriptions of him were not sufficient. There has been no
standard of representing ​the Buddha​ which may differ according to the
tradition, tastes and inspiration. One peculiar characteristic of
these ​Buddha statues​ and ​Buddha heads​ are long ears and elongated
ear lobes, which can be seen in many forms raging from porcelain
statues, stone sculptures to paintings. The long ​ears of the
Buddha​ have also been the topic of intrigue like that of ​the
Ushnisha​and ​the Third eye​ for many Buddhist enthusiasts.
Historical Interpretation
The Buddha​, a former prince, was born in ​Lumbini​ and raised in ​Kapilvastu ​(both located in ​Nepal​), where the culture and tradition was for men to
display their wealth and prosperity on their ears, must have adorned large and heavy ear jewelry made of precious metals and stones, and this may
have resulted in having stretched ears, alongside the rich men of that period. It was likely he would have worn similar kind of ear ornaments from his
childhood till adulthood as a sign of his wealth. Though the prince stopped wearing them when he left the palace to become an ascetic while on the
search for the ultimate answer, his earlobes remained stretched. This may also be taken as the ​Buddha’s renunciation​ of the physical world.

Other Interpretations
The ears of Buddha​ in Buddha statues and Buddha heads are often portrayed long and bulgy. We can say that long ears are part of ​Buddhist
iconography​. Not just ​the Buddha​, but ​the Boddhisatvas​, who have also attained some form of ​the ​enlightenment​, is also portrayed having long
ears. In oriental Buddhism and eastern Asia, large ears are taken as auspicious because they signify wisdom and compassion. This may also be one
of the reasons; the ​Buddha ​is depicted having long ears, because he is the ​enlightened one​, the compassionate one. He is said to have the ability to
hear the sound of the world. He hears the cries of suffering and responds accordingly to ease the suffering. Since ​Buddha ​is the wise and
compassionate one, it is only natural for artists and craftsmen from the east to depict him as having long ears. With his ears, ​Buddha i​ s able to always
hear all the sounds of the world and the cries of suffering mortal beings. He in turn responds with compassion.

Therefore, we can say that the depiction of the stretched ears serves as a reminder for the followers of ​the ​Buddhism​ to always be compassionate. All
in all, the physical size of one’s ear does not matters but rather how open is one to the sufferings of the other beings and how he/she responds with
his/her compassion matters the most.

Another interpretation for the ​Buddha’s long ears​ is his wealth. He was not only wealthy in terms of materialistic wealth but also in terms of his
wisdom, knowledge and compassion. This particular interpretation makes reference to both of the ​Buddha’s noble​ origin as a prince and his great
amount of wisdom and compassion It gives the followers the assurance that since the Buddha hears their sufferings and is fully aware of the sufferings
of the world, they would not be left helpless but would be saved by the knowledge possessed by the ​Buddha,​ which will respond through compassion.

Laughing Buddha Statue

Laughing Buddha Statues are perhaps one of the most loved artifacts. They are commonly seen in homes, offices,
hotels, gardens, restaurants and shops.

The Laughing Buddha is a symbol of happiness, contentment, and prosperity.

He is bald a rotund figure with a warm smiling face. He is clothed in robes,
and his protruding tummy symbolizes abundance and mirth. He is also
believed to be the future Buddha or Maitreya Buddha .

Sculptures and statues of the Laughing Buddha often depict him as carrying
a sack that is filled with ‘goodies' like sweets, food and rice plants. The latter
is a symbol of wealth. He is sometimes seen holding a wish-giving fan. The
fan in Laughing Buddha Statues is believed to be the ultimate symbol of
happiness and joy. The Happy Buddha is also depicted holding a staff on
which rests a Wulu gourd. This is believed to be filled with the elixir for
eternal youth. Often, he holds a begging bow. His amulet symbolizes his
authority in Heaven and his generous power.

Happy Buddha statues often also depict children playing at his feet. The Laughing Buddha on a cart being pulled
by children is another depiction. The other common postures are the sitting Laughing Buddha, the standing
Laughing Buddha and the Laughing Buddha with his arms in the air. The Laughing Buddha is also known as the
Laughing Buddha of Plenty. In Feng Shui, he is the symbol for wealth. It is believed that rubbing his tummy which
contains wealth, luck, good fortune and joy will be ours. Laughing Buddha statues are popular house warming
gifts. They are also used as good luck charms. It is commonly held that statues of the Laughing Buddha must not
be placed on the floor. They must be positioned on an elevated surface, as a sign of respect. Moreover, the best
direction to place them is the personal wealth direction.

The Laughing Buddha is cherished all over the world. He is found in homes, restaurants, places of business and
so on. The Laughing Buddha is the Buddha of abundance and happiness. He is also known as the “Buddha of
Wealth”. It is believed he will bring wealth and prosperity to a home or business. It is very easy to recognize the
Laughing Buddha. He is shown wearing a robe and prayer beads often hang around his neck. He is bald and has
a big fat tummy.

He is always happy; thereby the name the “Laughing Buddha”. Many claim he makes problems disappear.
Keeping the Laughing Buddha in the home ensures a happy home. Who does not want to be happy?

Rubbing the Stomach of the Laughing Buddha

 If you are considering bringing the Laughing Buddha into your home or place of business it is important that the
statue is not very small. The Laughing Buddha wants his tummy rubbed. It is told that if you rub his stomach daily
he will see to it that your wishes are granted. It will be difficult to rub his tummy if he is very tiny.

When you do run his stomach you need to do so with a positive attitude. The gesture should be uplifting to your
spirits and make you feel happy.

Remember also to always keep the statue very clean. The Laughing Buddha covered in dust will not do you any
good.

The Laughing Buddha Symbols Meaning

The Laughing Buddha can be shown with different symbols.

He often is shown with beads hanging from his neck. These beads are often referred to as the “pearls of wisdom”. Many like to
keep the Laughing Buddha with the beads close by the place they normally meditate.

Many statues show the Laughing Buddha surrounded by children. The most common number of children is five. This symbolizes
the blessing in all areas of life and enhances positive energy in the home or work place.

A common attribute is the cloth bag. There are different opinions about what the bag he carries represent. Some believe it
symbolizes all the riches the believer will receive.

Yet others believe the Laughing Buddha takes your worries from you and stuffs them in the bag making sure you stay happy
and carefree.

For Wealth and Prosperity

If this is your goal you should purchase a Laughing Buddha statue with gold nuggets. Some statues include a pot of gold,
others a bag filled with gold nuggets.

Also a laughing Buddha with a wealth ball would be a good choice. The wealth ball is meant to attract prosperity.

You might even find a statue of the Laughing Buddha sitting on a good luck frog. The frog will have a coin in its mouth. All
of these statues are good choices for money matters.

For General Good Luck and Abundance of all

Kinds
For good luck in all matters including good fortune and great abundance it would be wise to choose a Laughing Buddha statue where he is holding a
bowl.

The bowl symbolizes receiving good fortune. The owner of this statue shows that he or she is open and ready to receive all good things.

For Spiritual Insight and Understanding

Some statues show the Laughing Buddha holding a fan. The fan is called an Oogi. The fan represents that the owner
seeks inner peace and spiritual wisdom.

There are claims that the fan represents the waving away of all negative energy and any troubles or concerns a person
might have.

This is the “don’t worry, be happy” kind of fan.

This will bring contentment and a stress free life. For people wanting to learn the secrets of divine wisdom and live in harmony this is the statue to go
for.

For a Long Happy Life

You may come across a Laughing Buddha statue wearing a large hat. This symbolizes a long happy and healthy life.

People who just want to live a long carefree life with little or no worries may want to have this statue.
This may not bring you loads of material wealth, but who cares? The most important thing here is to stay content, healthy and enjoy a long life.

Happy Sitting Buddha Statue in Sandstone

Happy Buddha Statue in Marble Laughing Buddha Sitting on Dragon Chair 6 poses of Laughing Buddha Budha Sitting on Money Coins

Who was the Laughing Buddha?

The Laughing Buddha has become a common and popular name for Budai. Some people from the West who are not familiar with Buddhism, may
mistake the Laughing Buddha for Gautama Siddhartha, the Buddha. Actually his name was Quieci. But everyone called him “Budai”. He was
supposedly a Buddhist Zen monk who lived in China over a thousand years ago.He was different from all other monks. Quieci was a jolly fellow. He
often laughed whole heartily and reminded everyone to enjoy life and stay happy. He was very much loved.

Budai always had a great big smile on his face. That is why he best known by his nickname “Laughing Buddha”. One legend tells a story illustrating the
claim that Budai wanted people to stay positive and joyful. When the beloved monk died many cried. A huge crowd gathered around to take a last
farewell with tears running down their checks. The fire was lit at the cremation ceremony. Then to the surprise of most mourners present there was a
huge blast of fireworks.

Before he died Budai had secretly asked that firecrackers were hidden under his robe.That did that trick. All who were present at the cremation found
themselves smiling. Even after his death he reminded all present to celebrate life. Just before he died it is told he said the following:

MAITREYA, THE TRUE MAITREYA HAS BILLIONS OF INCARNATIONS. OFTEN HE IS SHOWN TO PEOPLE AT THE TIME;
OTHER TIMES THEY DO NOT RECOGNIZE HIM.

These words are by some interrupted to make him an incarnation of the Maitreya.The Maitreya is the future and last Buddha who will bring ultimate
love and enlightenment into the world. For the time being he resides in the Tusita heaven. In China many also call him “The Loving One” or “The
Friendly One”. In Japan the Laughing Buddha is associated with Hotei, one of the Lucky Seven Gods.

Where to Place the Laughing Buddha in Your Home?

You should place the Laughing Buddha in your living room or entrance hall. If it is possible he likes to be able to see the door. You may also consider
placing him by your workplace or office.

You should never place the statue in your bathroom. He should not be placed on any electronic devices, this includes your TV. Many Feng Shui
followers say that you should avoid placing him in your bedroom.Never place your laughing Buddha on the floor. That would not show the honor and
respect he deserves.
Millions of people around the world have a Laughing Buddha displayed in their homes.You do not have to be a Buddhist to have the statue in your
home.

The Laughing Buddha is not worshipped. He is there only to help bring good energy, prosperity and luck into the home. The main intent of the
Laughing Buddha is that it is a constant reminder to smile, stay happy and enjoy your life.

This positive attitude will bring you even more blessing of prosperity.
A 1,000-Year-Old Secret Hidden in a Buddha Statue
Written by ​Aditi Shorewal​ | Updated: February 24, 2015 17:44 IST
 
Scientists have found something unusual in a nearly 1,000-year-old Chinese Buddha statue on display in 
Holland - a mummified monk! A CT scan and an endoscopy were carried out on the statue to confirm this 
bizarre discovery. 
 
The statue was shown outside China for the very first time as part of the 'Mummies: Life Beyond Death' 
exhibition at the Drents Museum in the Netherlands last year. The ​event brochure​ called it the 'eye-catcher 
of the exhibition' and reaffirmed the findings of the first round of CT scans. "On the outside, it looks like a 
large statue of Buddha. Scan research has shown that on the inside it is a mummy of a Buddhist monk 
who lived around the year 1100," it read. 
 
The mummified body is believed to be of Buddhist master Liuquan of the Chinese Meditation School, 
according to the ​Meander Medical Center in Amersfoort​, Netherlands, where the medical tests were 
conducted. It is still unclear whether this is a case of self-mummification, a popular practice among Asian 
monks. Last month, a ​Mongolian Buddhist monk in 'deep meditation'​, about 200-years-old, was found in 
the Songino Khairkhan province of Mongolia.

 
 
Liuquan will be on display at the Hungarian Natural History Museum until May 2015. 
 
Statue of Buddha at Nalanda
Nalanda was originally famous as the sanctuary of Shariputra, one of Buddha's
followers. It was visited by Buddha and Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor, however
there are very few archaeological remains from this early period. Nalanda soon
became a major centre of Mahayana Buddhist studies and by the 7th Century
scholars from all over Asia were visiting and studying at the monasteries and
university.

Photograph of a statue of Buddha from Nalanda, in Bihar, taken by Alexander Caddy in 1895.

As time passed it's importance waned until in the 13th century, Muslim influence in
the area became stronger and Nalanda was abandoned by Buddhists. Today, the
site consists of a row of nine ruined Buddhist monasteries and four two-storey
square temples with raised central sanctuaries. The outside of the latter were
decorated with pilasters and images set in niches. Nalanda played an influential role
in Indian art production and large quantities of Mahayana Buddhist sculptures were
produced here. Sculptures from this site appear in the Indian Museum in Calcutta
as well as at museums in Patna and New Delhi.
Stolen Buddha statue to return to India after
being found in UK
Twelfth-century sculpture missing for almost 60 years was spotted at
antiques fair

Nadeem Badshah​ || ​Wed 15 Aug 2018 09.21 BST Last modified on Wed 15 Aug 2018 17.05 BST 

A 12th-century statue of Buddha stolen from ​India​ nearly 60 years ago is to be returned
to the country after it was discovered at a trade fair in the UK. The bronze sculpture was
one of 14 statues ransacked from the Archaeological Museum in Nalanda, eastern India,
in 1961.

It is believed it changed hands several times over the years before eventually being sent
to a London antiques dealer for sale. The sculpture will be handed to the Indian high
commissioner to the UK, YK Sinha, during a
ceremony on Wednesday coinciding with India’s
Independence Day celebrations.

The statue was identified at a trade fair in March by

members of the ​Association for Research into
Crimes Against Art​ (ARCA), an organisation
working to preserve cultural heritage, and the ​India
Pride Project​, which aims to recover stolen
artefacts.

Police said the current owner and dealer were

unaware of the statue’s history and agreed for it to
be returned to India. DC Sophie Hayes, of the
Metropolitan police’s art and antiques unit, said:
“We are delighted to be able to facilitate the return
of this important piece of cultural heritage to India.
“This case has been a true example of cooperation between law enforcement, the trade
and scholars. Particular credit must go to the eagle-eyed informants who made us aware
that the missing piece had been located after so many years.”

Michael Ellis, the UK minister for arts, heritage and tourism, said Britain was one of the
first countries to recover one of the 14 elusive Buddha statues.

In 2017, Christos Tsirogiannis, a lecturer at ARCA, identified ​ancient Greek marble

vases​ on sale at the Frieze Masters art fair in London – dating from the 4th century BC –
as having once been in the possession of Gianfranco Becchina, who was convicted over
the theft four decades ago of four rare murals from an early Christian rural church in
Steni, Greece.

Numerous objects from the 80-year-old Sicilian’s former dealings are believed to still be
in the ancient art market, and identification usually results in their surrender and
repatriation.
A Short History of Buddhism
An overview of Buddhism’s movement from the time of the Buddha to the present
By ​Sherab Chodzin Kohn

T​he history of the Buddhism begins with the enlightenment of the Buddha. At the age
of thirty-five, he awakened from the sleep of delusion that grips all beings in an endless
vicious cycle of ignorance and unnecessary suffering (around 528 BCE). Having
awakened, he decided to “go against the current” and communicate his liberating
wakefulness to suffering beings—that is, to teach the Dharma.

For forty-five years, he crossed and recrossed central India on foot conveying his
profound, brilliant wakefulness directly as well as by means of explanations that grew
into a great body of spiritual, psychological, and practical doctrine. His enlightenment
as well as the doctrine leading to it have been passed down through numerous unbroken
lineages of teachers, which have spread to many countries. Many of these lineages still
flourish.

At the time of ​the Buddha’s death​ (ca. 483 BCE), his Dharma was well established in
central India. There were many lay followers, but the heart of the Dharma community
were the monastics, many of whom were ​arhats​[worthy ones, who attain ​Nirvana​ at the
end of this lifetime]. Numerous monasteries had already been built round about such
large cities as Rajagriha, Shravasti, and Vaishali.

The first to assume the Buddha’s mantle, tradition tells, was his disciple Mahakashyapa,
who had the duty of establishing an authoritative version of the Buddha’s teachings.
Thus, during the first rainy season after the Buddha’s death (​parinirvana​),
Mahakashyapa convoked an assembly of five hundred arhats. At this assembly, it is said,
Ananda, the Buddha’s personal attendant, recited all of the master’s discourses (sutras),
naming the place where each was given and describing the circumstances.

A monk named Upali recited all the rules and procedures the Buddha had established
for the conduct of monastic life. Mahakashyapa himself recited the ​matrika​, lists of
terms organized to provide analytical synopses of the teachings given in the sutras.
These three extensive recitations, reviewed and verified by the assembly, became the
basis for the Sutra Pitaka (Discourse Basket), the Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket), and
Abhidharma Pitaka (Special Teachings Basket), respectively. The Tripitaka (all three
together) is the core of the Buddhist scriptures. This assembly, held at Rajagriha with
the patronage of the Magadhan king Ajatashatru, is called the First Council.

In the early centuries after the Buddha’s death, the Buddha Dharma spread throughout
India and became a main force in the life of its peoples. Its strength lay in its realized
(arhat) teachers and large monasteries that sheltered highly developed spiritual and
intellectual communities. Monks traveled frequently between the monasteries, binding
them into a powerful network.

As the Dharma spread to different parts of India, differences emerged, particularly

regarding the Vinaya, or rules of conduct. Roughly a hundred years after the First
Council, such discrepancies led to a Second Council in Vaishali, in which seven hundred
arhats censured ten points of lax conduct on the part of the local monks, notably the
acceptance of donations of gold and silver. In spite of this council and other efforts to
maintain unity, gradually, perhaps primarily because of size alone, the Sangha divided
into divergent schools.

Among the principal schools was a conservative faction, the Sthaviravada (way of the
elders), which held firmly to the old monastic ideal with the arhat at its center and to the
original teaching of the Buddha as expressed in the Tripitaka. Another school, the
Mahasanghikas, asserted the fallibility of arhats. It sought to weaken the authority of the
monastic elite and open the Dharma gates to the lay community. In this, as well as in
certain metaphysical doctrines, the Mahasanghikas prefigured the Mahayana.

Another important school was that of the Sarvastivadins (from Sanskrit sarva asti, “all
exists”), who held the divergent view that past, present, and future realities all exist. In
all, eighteen schools with varying shades of opinion on points of doctrine or discipline
developed by the end of the third century BCE. However, all considered themselves part
of the spiritual family of the Buddha and in general were accepted as such by the others.
It was not rare for monks of different schools to live or travel together.
According to the Sthaviravadin tradition (known in Pali as the Theravada), which
continues today in Southeast Asia, a Third Council took place in the time of King Ashoka
(r. 276-232 BCE) at which the king declared the Sthaviravadin teachings the standard
from which all other schools deviated. Perhaps in reaction to this, the Sarvastivadins
gradually migrated to the west. They established a bastion in the city of Mathura, from
which their influence continued to spread. Over centuries, they dominated the
northwest, including all of Kashmir and much of Central Asia. Today a Sarvastivadin
Vinaya lineage still survives in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

King Ashoka was the third emperor of the Mauryan empire, which covered all of the
Indian subcontinent but its southern tip. His personal espousal of the Dharma and
adoption of its principles for the governance of his immense realm meant a quantum
leap in the spread of the Buddha’s teaching. The imperial government promulgated the
teachings. It supported the monasteries and sent proselytizing missions to the Hellenic
states of the northwest and to Southeast Asia. Under King Ashoka, institutions of
compassion and nonviolence were established throughout much of India. These include
peaceful relations with all neighboring states, hospitals and animal hospitals, special
officials to oversee the welfare of local populations, and shady rest stops for travelers.
Thus he remains today the paragon of a Buddhist ruler, and his reign is looked back
upon by Buddhists as a golden age.

The Mauryan empire soon fragmented, but the Buddha Dharma continued as a
dominant force throughout India in the early centuries of the common era. The kings of
the Satavahana dynasty of central India followed Ashoka in adopting the Dharma as a
civilizing and unifying force in governing disparate peoples. King Kanishka (r.
first-second centuries), whose vast Kushan empire, centered on Gandhara,
encompassed northern India and large parts of Central Asia, was a champion of the
Dharma, hailed as a second Ashoka.

Under his patronage, a Fourth Council was held, at which major new commentaries on
the Tripitaka were written, largely under Sarvastivadin influence. Under Kanishka, the
Buddha Dharma was firmly planted among the Central Asian peoples whose homelands
lay along the Silk Route, whence the way lay open to China. The Kushan empire also saw
the flowering of Gandharan art, which under Hellenistic influences produced Buddha
images of extraordinary nobility and beauty.

Traditional accounts of the Fourth Council say that the assembly was composed of
arhats under the leadership of the arhat Parshva but also under the accomplished
bodhisattva Vasumitra. Indeed it was at this time, about the beginning of the second
century, that the way of the bodhisattva, or the Mahayana (Great Vehicle), appeared. It
was this form of the Buddha Dharma that was to conquer the north, including China,
Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Mongolia.

The most visible manifestation of the Mahayana was a new wave of sutras, scriptures
claiming to be the word of the Buddha that had remained hidden until then in other
realms of existence. The Mahayana replaced the ideal of the arhat with that of the
bodhisattva. Whereas arhats sought to end confusion in themselves in order to escape
samsara, bodhisattvas vowed to end confusion in themselves yet remain in samsara to
liberate all other sentient beings. The vision of spiritual life broadened beyond the
controlled circumstances of cloister and study to include the wide-open situations of the
world.

Correspondingly, the notion of “buddha” was no longer limited to a series of historical

personages, the last of whom was Shakyamuni [Siddhartha Gautama], but referred also
to a fundamental self-existing principle of spiritual wakefulness or enlightenment.
While continuing to accept the old Tripitaka, Mahayanists regarded it as a restricted
expression of the Buddha’s teaching, and they characterized those who held to it
exclusively as Hinayanists (adherents of the Hinayana, the Small Vehicle).

Great masters shaped the Mahayana in the early centuries of the common era.
Outstanding among them all was Nagarjuna (fl. second or third century), whose name
connects him with the ​nagas​ (serpent deities) from whose hidden realm he is said to
have retrieved the ​Prajnaparamita​ sutras, foundational Mahayana scriptures [see pages
177-213]. Nagarjuna was born in South India and became the head of Nalanda, the great
Buddhist university) a few miles north of Rajagriha, which was a major stronghold of
the Dharma for a thousand years. Nagarjuna’s commentaries and treatises expounded
the teachings of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way), one of the two main Mahayana
schools. Another great master was Asanga (fl. fourth century), who founded the other
main school, the Yogachara, which focused on experience as the ultimate principle.

Through most of the Gupta period (c. 300-c. 600), the Buddha Dharma flourished
unhindered in India. In the sixth century, however, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries
were destroyed by invading Huns under King Mihirakula. This was a serious blow, but
the Dharma revived and flourished once again, mainly in northeastern India under the
Pala kings (eighth-twelfth centuries). These Buddhist kings patronized the monasteries
and built new scholastic centers such as Odantapuri near the Ganges some miles east of
Nalanda. Though the Hinayana had largely vanished from India by the seventh century,
in this last Indian period the Mahayana continued, and yet another form—known as
Mantrayana, Vajrayana, or Tantra—became dominant.
Like the Mahayana, the Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle) was based on a class of scriptures
ultimately attributed to the Buddha, in this case known as Tantras. Vajrayanists
regarded the Hinayana and Mahayana as successive stages on the way to the tantric
level. The Vajrayana leaped yet further than the Mahayana in acceptance of the world,
holding that all experiences, including the sensual, are sacred manifestations of
awakened mind, the buddha principle. It emphasized liturgical methods of meditation,
or ​sadhanas,​ in which the practitioner identified with deities symbolizing various
aspects of awakened mind. The palace of the deity, identical with the phenomenal world
as a whole, was known as a ​mandala​. In the place of the arhat and the bodhisattva, the
Vajrayana placed the ​siddha​, the realized tantric master.

By the thirteenth century, largely as a result of violent suppression by Islamic

conquerors, the Buddha Dharma was practically extinct in the land of its birth.
However, by this time Hinayana forms were firmly ensconced in Southeast Asia, and
varieties of Mahayana and Vajrayana in most of the rest of Asia.

CHINA

The Mahayana entered China through Central Asia at the beginning of the common era.
At first it was confused with indigenous Taoism, whose terms it had to borrow. The
Kuchean monk Kumarajiva (344-413), brought to China as a prisoner of war, created a
new level of precision in Chinese Buddhism. His lucid translation and teaching resulted
in the formation of the Chinese Madhyamaka school (San-Iun, Three Treatises).
Paramartha (499-569) was another great translator and teacher. His work made
possible the development of the Fa-hsiang, or Chinese Yogachara, school.

Buddha Dharma’s golden age in China was the T’ang period (618-907). Monasteries
were numerous and powerful and had the support of the emperors. During this time the
other main Chinese Dharma schools—Hua-yen, T’ien-t’ai, Ch’an, Pure Land, and the
tantric Mi-tsung—made their appearance. In 845, however, came a major persecution of
the Dharma community, and the monasteries had to be evacuated. Thereafter the
Buddha Dharma in China never recovered its former glory.

The Sung period (960-1279) was a time of blending Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian
ideas and methods. Under the Ming dynasty (1368-1662), a fusion of Ch’an and Pure
Land opened the way for a strong lay movement. During the Ch’ing period (1663-1908),
the Tibetan Vajrayana made its mark on Chinese Buddhism, mainly through the
imperial courts. Communist rule in the twentieth century reduced the Dharma
community to a remnant, but in Taiwan the Dharma flourished, predominantly in Pure
Land and other popular forms.

KOREA

Buddha Dharma came to Korea from China in the fourth century CE. It flourished after
the Silla unification in the seventh century. By the tenth century there were Korean
versions of most Chinese schools. Paramount were Ch’ao, Hua-yen, and a Vajrayana
form related to the Chinese Mi-tsung. The heyday of Korean Dharma was the Koryo
period (932-1392), during which the comprehensive ​Tripitaka Koreana​ was published.
Under the Yi dynasty (1392-1910), Confucianism became the state religion and the
Buddha Dharma was forced into the background. A revival came after the end of
Japanese rule in 1945, when the Won movement, a popular Buddhism much influenced
by Ch’an, came to the fore. Nowadays, a kind of syncretic Buddhism is widespread in
Korea.

JAPAN

The Buddha Dharma was brought to japan from Korea in 522. It received its major
impetus from the regent prince Shotoku (r. 593-621), a Japanese Ashoka. He
established Buddhism as the state religion of Japan, founded monasteries, and himself
wrote important commentaries on the sutras. Initially, it was primarily the Sanron
(San-Iun, Madhyamaka) school that spread. In the ninth century, six Japanese schools,
originally brought from China—Kosha, Hosso, Sanron, Jojitsu, Ritsu, and Kegon—were
officially recognized, with the imperial house adopting the Kegon Dharma.

During the latter part of the Heian period (794-1184), the Tendai and tantric Shingon
schools became predominant. From the tenth to fourteenth centuries, various Pure
Land sects began to prosper. Zen (Ch’an) came to Japan from China toward the end or
the twelfth century, and remained a vital force in Japanese cultural life ever after; Soto
and Rinzai are its two main schools. After the appearance of the Nichiren school in the
thirteenth century, no further movements developed until modern times. All Japanese
schools assimilated aspects of indigenous Shinto kami [deities inhabiting nature) and
ancestor worship.

Since World War II, various modernizing lay movements such as Soka-gakkai and
Rissho Kosei-kai have developed. Japan today boasts an unparalleled variety or
Buddhist sects.
TIBET

The Buddha Dharma of Tibet (and Himalayan countries such as Sikkim, Bhutan, and
Ladakh) preserved and developed the Vajrayana tradition of late Indian Buddhism and
joined it with the Sarvastivadin monastic rule. The first spreading of Buddhism was
initiated by King Trisong Detsen (755-797), who invited to Tibet the
Indian ​pandit​ [learned man] Shantarakshita, notable for his brilliant synthesis of the
Madhayamaka and Yogachara, and the great Indian siddha Padmasambhava. The
tradition of the Nyingma school stems from this time. After a period of persecution, a
second spreading came in the eleventh century, resulting in the foundation of the Kagyu
and Shakya schools. A major part of Indian Buddhist writings were translated to form
the Tibetan canon, which included tantric scriptures and commentaries, preserving
many texts otherwise lost.

In the fourteenth century, a reform movement resulted in the formation of the Gelukpa
school, the fourth of the principal schools of Tibetan Buddhism. By the late twentieth
century, as a result of Chinese repression Buddhism in Tibet was reduced to a vestige,
but it remained in Sikkim and Bhutan. Centers of Tibetan Buddhism also developed in
northern India and Nepal as well as in Europe, Australia, and North America.

MONGOLIA

The Mongols were definitively converted to Tibetan Buddhism in the sixteenth century.
Scriptures and liturgies were translated into Mongolian, and the four principal Tibetan
schools flourished until the Communist takeover of the twentieth century.

VIETNAM

Vietnam lay under Chinese influence, and the Chinese Mahayana sects of Ch’an (Thien)
and Pure Land (Tindo) were well established in the country by the end of the first
millennium. Theravada was introduced b the Khmers but remained largely confined to
areas along the Cambodian border. A modern social-action – oriented movement fusing
the two Mahayana sects began in Saigon in 1932. In 1963 Theravadans joined this
movement, and a United Buddhist Congregation of Vietnam existed fleetingly. Today
Buddhists in Vietnam remain intensely involved in politics and social action.
BURMA (MYANMAR)

Emissaries sent by King Ashoka in the third century BCE first brought the Dharma to
Burma. By the fifth century, the Theravada was well-established, and by the seventh
century the Mahayana had appeared in regions near the Chinese border. By the eighth
century, the Vajrayana was also present, and all three forms continued to coexist until
King Anaratha established the Theravada throughout the land in the eleventh century.
Pagan, the royal capital in the north, adorned with thousands upon thousands of
Buddhist stupas and temples, and was the principal bastion of Buddha Dharma on earth
until sacked by the Mongols in 1287.

In succeeding centuries the Theravada continued strong, interacting closely at times

with the Dharma centers of Ceylon [Sri Lanka]. The Burmese form of Theravada
acquired a unique flavor through its assimilation of folk beliefs connected with spirits of
all kinds known as ​nats​. Today 85 percent of Burmese are Buddhist, and Buddhism is
the official religion of the country.

CAMBODIA (KAMPUCHEA)

The Buddhism of the Sarvastivadin school spread to Cambodia in the third century BCE
and reached a high point in the fifth and sixth centuries. By the end of the eighth
century, elements of Mahayana had also appeared. Succeeding centuries brought a
fusion of Buddha Dharma with Shaivite Hinduism. In the fourteenth century, however,
the​ ​Theravada was firmly imposed on the country by the royal house, and it has
remained dominant. In 1955 Prince Norodom Sihanouk sought to unite the country
under the banner of king, Dharma, and socialism.

SRI LANKA (CEYLON)

In the third century BCE, King Devanampiya Tissa turned to Theravada Buddhism. The
Sinhalese king built the Mahavihara monastery and there enshrined a branch of the
Bodhi Tree that had been brought from India. For more than two millennia since that
time, the Mahavihara has been a powerful force in the Buddhism of Ceylon and other
countries of Southeast Asia, notably Burma and Thailand. The Theravada in Ceylon
remains the oldest continuous Dharma tradition anywhere in the world.

Nonetheless, factions reflecting the influence of other Indian or Theravada schools

played a significant role. These centered around other great Sinhalese monasteries such
as the Abhayagirivihara and the Jetavanavihara. Mahayana and tantric influences are
also traceable, and Tamil Hinduism had an ongoing influence outside the monasteries.
Associated with the Mahavihara was the preeminent teacher and writer Buddhaghosha
(fl. fourth-fifth centuries), whose great ​Vishuddimagga​ (Path of Purity) gives a
definitive account of the Theravada. In the twelfth century King Parakkambahu forcibly
imposed the Mahaviharan brand of Theravada on the entire country.

The attempted conversion of the country to Christianity by Portuguese and Dutch

colonists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries greatly weakened the Dharma in
Ceylon but made it a rallying point for Sinhalese nationalism. In the following centuries
Sinhalese kings turned to Burma and Thailand to refresh Sinhalese monastic lineages.
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many Europeans came to the aid of Sinhalese
Buddhism. By the time of independence in 1948, the Theravada was again thriving in
Ceylon and exercising significant influence beyond its borders.

THAILAND

Some form of Hinayana Buddhism arrived in Thailand from Burma in about the sixth
century; however, the Mahayana seems to have been dominant between the eighth and
thirteenth centuries. From the eleventh century, Hinduist Khmers were a major factor
in many regions of the country. In the thirteenth century, however, the Thai royal house
established Theravada Buddhism as the national religion.

Eventually, the Khmers were converted to Theravada and became strong supporters. In
the nineteenth century, the reformist Dhammayut school, characterized by strict
adherence to Vinaya discipline, arose under royal influence. Today it remains the
dominant element in Thai Buddhism and has also influenced other countries of
Southeast Asia. Ninety-five percent of the Thai population is Buddhist.

THE WESTERN WORLD

Over the last two hundred years many Western intellectuals were drawn to and
influenced by Buddhism. The exotic profundity of Buddhist thought
inspired philosophers like Arthur Schopenhauer and Henri Bergson. In the twentieth
century there has been considerable attention to Buddha Dharma in academic circles,
and fairly accurate translations of Buddhist texts have gradually become available since
the 1930s. A new level of understanding has come about since the 1950s as authentic
Asian meditation masters have established themselves in Western countries and taken
on serious Western students.

Theravada Buddhism has had a significant impact since the 1930s, Zen since the 1950s,
and the tantric Buddhism of Tibet since the 1970s. Recently Westerners have begun
assuming leadership in age-old Asian lineages. Of course, significant numbers of Asian
Buddhists have reached the West as part of immigrant populations. But thus far there
has been little crossover of Buddha Dharma from this source into host cultures.

[​This story was first published in 2008​]