RFEngr Guide 3 G1 X V24

DRAFT
V0.24 4/2/2003
CDMA 3G1x
RF Engineering Guidelines
April 2003
Members of Technical Staff-

AMPS/PCS RF Systems Engineering
Draft 3G1RX Engineering Guidelines V0.24 4/2/02
Table of Contents
Change History ........................................................................................................................................ 6
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7
2 Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Capacity and Coverage for Voice Applications .......................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Spectrum Requirements ..................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Link Budgets ..................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.3 Voice Capacity .................................................................................................................. 9
2.4 RF Engineering for Data.......................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Overview of Traffic Theory ............................................................................................. 10
2.4.3 Data Link Budget ............................................................................................................ 11
2.4.4 Resource Management..................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Deployment ............................................................................................................................ 12
3 Voice Coverage/Capacity/Link Budget............................................................................................ 13
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 13
3.2 Analysis.................................................................................................................................. 13
3.2.1 Reverse Link ................................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2 Forward Link................................................................................................................... 23
4 RF Engineering for Data ................................................................................................................. 31
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 31
4.2 Traffic Theory......................................................................................................................... 31
4.2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 31
4.2.2 General Erlang Model...................................................................................................... 32
4.2.3 Special Cases: Erlang B and Erlang C ............................................................................. 34
4.2.4 Applications of Erlang C to 3G1x Data ............................................................................ 35
4.3 Data Capacity.......................................................................................................................... 37
4.3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 37
4.3.2 Estimation of Data Capacity............................................................................................. 38
4.4 Data Link Budgets .................................................................................................................. 41
4.4.1 Reverse Link ................................................................................................................... 41
4.4.2 Forward Link................................................................................................................... 43
4.5 Resource Management: RF Scheduling.................................................................................... 54
4.5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 54
4.5.2 Scheduling Algorithms .................................................................................................... 54
4.5.3 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 58
5 System Deployment........................................................................................................................ 59
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 59
5.2 Spectrum Use: Carrier Assignments and Guard Band.............................................................. 59
5.2.1 Cellular Band .................................................................................................................. 59
5.2.2 PCS Band........................................................................................................................ 63
5.2.3 Preferred Channels .......................................................................................................... 64
5.3 2G/3G1x Spatial and Frequency Design................................................................................... 65
5.3.1 Coverage (Spatial) Design: Overlay and Greenfield......................................................... 65
5.3.2 Frequency Design............................................................................................................ 66
5.4 Mixed 3G1x Voice/Data Capacity and Coverage ..................................................................... 69
6 Handoff .......................................................................................................................................... 72
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 72
6.1.1 Soft Handoff Definition ................................................................................................... 72
6.1.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 72
6.1.3 IS-95B Soft Handoff Algorithm ....................................................................................... 74
6.1.4 Signal Combining............................................................................................................ 75
6.1.5 Coverage Contour............................................................................................................ 76
pg 2 of 140
Lucent Technologies Proprietary
Use Pursuant to Company Instructions
6.2 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 77

6.2.1 Soft Handoff Costs on Channel Elements and Packet Pipe................................................ 77
6.2.2 Soft Handoff Cost on Forward Link ................................................................................. 78
6.2.3 Soft Handoff Advantages................................................................................................. 78
6.2.4 Qualitative Description of Forward Link Soft Handoff Benefit ......................................... 84
6.2.5 IS-95B parameters ........................................................................................................... 86
6.2.6 SOFT_SLOPE, DROP_INTERCEPT, ADD_INTERCEPT .............................................. 90
6.2.7 SCH Anchor Transfer vs. SHO ........................................................................................ 90
6.3 Hard Handoffs ........................................................................................................................ 94
7 Power Control................................................................................................................................. 95
7.1 Reverse Power Control............................................................................................................ 96
7.1.1 Reverse Power Control for Voice Traffic ......................................................................... 97
7.1.2 RPC for Packet Data Traffic ............................................................................................ 99
7.1.3 Reverse SARA for 3G1x Packet Data Calls...................................................................... 99
7.2 Forward Power Control ..........................................................................................................100
7.2.1 Forward Power Control for Voice Traffic........................................................................101
7.2.2 Forward Power Control for Packet Data Traffic...............................................................103
8 Extended Carrier............................................................................................................................106
8.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................106
8.2 Single Extended Carrier .........................................................................................................107
8.2.1 Reverse Link ..................................................................................................................107
8.2.2 Forward Link..................................................................................................................109
8.2.3 Forward Data Capacity ...................................................................................................113
8.2.4 Growth Strategies ...........................................................................................................114
8.2.5 Applications ...................................................................................................................115
8.3 Concentric Carriers ................................................................................................................116
8.3.1 Core Carrier Reverse Link ..............................................................................................116
8.3.2 Core Carrier Forward Link..............................................................................................119
8.3.3 Traffic Density ...............................................................................................................120
8.3.4 Determining Mobile Location .........................................................................................120
8.3.6 Applications ...................................................................................................................121
8.4 Amplifier Sharing - Quasi Omni............................................................................................121
8.4.1 Growth strategies............................................................................................................122
8.5 Amplifier Sharing - Asymmetric Cell ....................................................................................123
8.6 Summary ...............................................................................................................................124
9 Fixed Wireless Voice Networks .....................................................................................................126
9.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................126
9.2 Parameters for Fixed Wireless Analysis ..................................................................................126
9.2.1 Reverse Link Interference Ratio (βr) ...............................................................................126
9.2.2 Required Reverse Link Eb/Nt for 3G ..............................................................................127
9.2.3 Walsh code overhead......................................................................................................129
9.2.4 Recommended Loading Factor........................................................................................130
9.2.5 Channel Activity Factor ..................................................................................................130
9.3 Reverse Link Coverage ..........................................................................................................130
9.4 System Capacity Calculation ..................................................................................................131
9.4.1 Capacity Calculation Methodology .................................................................................131
9.4.2 Reverse Link Based Capacity Calculations......................................................................131
9.5 Power Requirements of Forward Link ....................................................................................136
9.5.1 3G1x RC3 ......................................................................................................................136
9.5.2 3G1x RC4 ......................................................................................................................139
9.5.3 3G1x with SMV .............................................................................................................139
9.6 Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................140
pg 3 of 140
TABLE OF NOTATIONS
AG = cell site antenna gain in dBi

BL/VL = building or vehicle penetration loss in dB, whichever is applicable
CL = cell site cable loss in dB
d = the Eb/Nt required for acceptable quality
Eb/Nt = the ratio of channel bit energy to spectral density of total channel impairment
F = the receiver noise figure
Fmobile = the mobile receiver noise figure
Fcell = the base station receiver noise figure
Fade = fade (in dB) at mobile location
g = the spread spectrum processing gain
gnet = the net gain consisting of the product of mobile antenna gains, body (head) loss, building/vehicle
penetration loss, cell site antenna gain, and cell site cable loss
HL = head (body) loss in dB
int = the dB path loss at a 1 km reference point
k = the multiplier used in a Gaussian distribution to achieve a certain percentile; for example, k=1.3
corresponds to a 1.3×σ choice which yields a 90th percentile
M = the length of queue for the general Erlang model
N = the number of active channels
Nmax = “pole” capacity
No = thermal noise density
Nsect = the total number of sectors
Nk = the total number of mobiles in sector k
Ntotal = the total number of mobiles within the network
Nlinks = the number of links per sector
Nsuppl = the number of supplemental links
Nfund = the number of fundamental links
Phost = the mobile received power from its host or serving sector
Pother = the mobile received power from surrounding non-serving sectors
PL = point to point (average) path loss in dB between mobile antenna and cell site antenna
Qtotal = the current (steady-state) average power radiated at the J4 port
Qmax = the maximum average power allowed at the J4 port before overload (blocking) occurs
Qover = the constant overhead power
ri = the random position of the ith mobile within the cell
R = the cell radius
Ri = the channel bit rate of the ith mobile
Si = the base station received power from the ith mobile
Smin = the minimum receiver sensitivity
sij = the distance from the jth surrounding cell to the ith mobile
u = loading factor
W = the carrier bandwidth
wmax = the maximum mobile power into the mobile antenna
xij = link (traffic channel) power as measured at the J4 port for the jth mobile in the ith sector
Xmax = maximum mobile transmit power (in dBm) out of mobile antenna
xi = a sample drawn from a Gaussian (0,8) distribution, thus corresponding to a dB fade drawn from
lognormal fading statistics with a 0 dB mean and 8 dB standard deviation
Y = a random variable defined in Equation 3.2-19
αi = the channel activity factor for the ith mobile
αij = the channel activity of the jth mobile in the ith sector
ak;ij = the attenuation from the kth sector to the jth mobile in the ith sector
β, βreverse = the ratio of other cell interference to serving cell interference for the reverse link
βi = the ratio of other cell interference to serving cell interference plus receiver noise floor for the forward
link
pg 4 of 140
βomni = the ratio of other cell interference to serving cell interference for the forward link and omni antenna
configuration
δi = the fraction of the mobile received host power dedicated to the ith traffic channel
ε = r/R
ε d = d i / ηd
i
ε g = gi / η g
i
ξ = the orthogonality factor

λ = the average arrival rate for the general Erlang model
ηα = the mean of α
ηβ = the mean of β
σα = the standard deviation of α
σβ = the standard deviation of β
γ = the fixed fraction of the maximum average power dedicated to the overhead channels
χ = s/R
µ = the average server completion (of service) rate for the general Erlang model
pg 5 of 140
Change History
Version Date Comments
V0.23 11/1/02 Second Version posted. Includes new sections 6 through 9 and updates in
other sections
V0.24 4/2/03 Updated reverse link budget for data with new Eb/Nt’s, remove sentence
in Section 3.2.1.2 regarding power control instability as basis for choice
of loading.
pg 6 of 140
1 Introduction
This document addresses selected radio frequency engineering topics for the Lucent implementation of
CDMA2000/1x, also known as CDMA 3G/1x or simply 3G/1x
3G/1x is a first phase implementation of an IS-95 based third generation CDMA network that complies
with the recommendations for third generation wireless systems advanced by the ITU1. In particular,
3G/1x offers both voice and data capabilities that are significantly improved with respect to IS-95 (second-
generation or 2G) offerings. Voice capacity is increased, offering up to twice the Erlang capacity per Hz
achieved by IS-95. Features allowing burst speeds of up to 153.6 kbps for packet-switched data are also
provided, in contrast to the maximum 14.4 kbps circuit-switched capability provided in IS-95.
Furthermore, voice and data users can coexist within the same wideband carrier.
In spite of the differences, many RF engineering principles of 3G/1x remain comparable to those of IS-95,
particularly for voice applications. For example, the frequency reuse remains at 1. Voice link budget and
voice capacity analyses are similar. Management of cochannel interference remains key for both voice and
data users, and is accomplished through application of familiar IS-95 principles such as fast power control,
variable-rate voice coding, and careful network optimization.
Accordingly, this document does not offer extensive discussions of topics with strong IS-95 counterparts;
rather, in such cases, the differences relative to 3G/1x implementation are emphasized. More detailed
information on IS-95 can be found if desired in existing references2. In contrast, much attention is devoted
to topics without clear IS-95 analogues, such as the RF engineering issues associated with the advent of
wireless packet data. These include packet data coverage, coexistence of voice and data users within the
same carrier, and allocation of communication resources such as power amongst competing data users.
This document is organized as follows. In Part I, (sections 1 through 5), a system-level picture of 3G/1x
RF engineering is provided. A brief overview of part I is presented in Section 2. Essential coverage and
capacity issues for voice applications are discussed in Section 3. Section 4 offers a discussion of RF data
issues for 3G/1x, including a contrast between the Erlang B (voice) and Erlang C(data) models, analysis of
capacity and coverage, and an examination of resource management. Deployment issues, with focus on
transition from 2G to 3G/1x, are presented in Section 5. In Part II, (sections 6 on) more specialized
discussions on individual topics such as power control and soft handoff are provided.
1
See for example “The cdma2000 ITU-R RTT Candidate Submission”, 2 June 1998
2
See for example “PCS CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines”, 401-703-201; as well as “Autoplex Cellular
CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines”, 401-614-012.
pg 7 of 140
2 Overview
2.1 Introduction
The ITU-2000 recommendation calls for third generation wireless communication systems with a number
of features. These include enhanced voice capacity as well as wireless packet data features, with the latter
offering rates of up to 144 kbps for outdoor mobile subscribers.
The CDMA2000 (also known as CDMA3G) is an IS-95 based standard that satisfies the ITU
recommendations. This standard allows for a phased implementation of 3G capabilities. These RF
Engineering Guidelines summarize the radio frequency engineering aspects of the Lucent implementation
of the first phase, known as CDMA2000/1x or CDMA3G/1x. This implementation offers enhanced voice
capacity as well as wireless packet data at burst speeds of up to 153.6 kbps. Voice and data users can
coexist within the same 3G/1x carrier.
2.2 Overview
The Lucent implementation of 3G1X will support existing IS-95 (2G) services of voice and circuit
switched data as well as 3G1X voice and packet switched data. The 3G1X voice will provide improved
capacity, expected to be greater by up to a factor of two in terms of supported Erlangs. The 3G1X packet
data service supports access to the Internet via the IP protocol.
The 3G-1X and IOS (Inter-Operability Specification) Packet Data services feature(s) provide a subscriber
the ability to transmit and receive data with raw rates of up to 153.6 kbps over a packet data network via
the 3G-1X IS-2000 air interface.
The 3G-1X Packet Data feature(s) enable mobile users with laptop computers or other data devices
conforming to the IS-2000 and IS-707A1 standards to access various data applications, such as Internet
access, Intranet access, Database access, e-mail and file transfer at higher speed.
The 3G-1X physical layer incorporates a number of major enhancements that provide for higher data rates
and better spectral efficiencies compared to the second generation CDMA systems. A burst-mode
capability is defined to allow better interference management and capacity utilization. An active high-speed
packet data mobile always has a traffic channel using a Fundamental Code. This channel is called the
Fundamental Channel (FCH). An active Packet Data call with need for higher bandwidth either in forward
or in reverse direction could be allocated an additional channel for the duration of a data burst which
duration can be up to a few seconds. The additional channel during this state is called the Supplemental
Channel (SCH). A wide range of data rates (raw data rates of 9.6 kbps to 153.6 kbps) is supported over
each SCH. One SCH is assigned per data service. An SCH with data rate of 19.2 kbps or higher is
equivalent to multiple voice calls from the consideration of air interface capacity.
The assignment of the SCH along with its data rate is controlled by the infrastructure based on system load
and interference conditions. Static allocation of multiple codes to a small number of users can result in
inefficient use of CDMA air interface capacity. Dynamic infrastructure-controlled burst allocation makes it
possible to efficiently share the bandwidth among several high-speed packet data mobiles. Efficient
algorithms to support dynamic burst allocation have been developed by Lucent. The burst allocation
scheme is designed to maximize utilization of CDMA channel bandwidth and system resources. As has
been determined during the extensive design process for Lucent Technologies’ HSPD (High Speed Packet
Data) Service, the potential risks and issues that arise in designing the packet data service (especially risks
of voice quality impact) are minimal, and are easily manageable with minimal impact on voice or data
capacity.
The data rate and duration of the burst (i.e., the Supplemental channel) will be dynamically determined by
the infrastructure, depending on load, interference and resource availability conditions. Therefore, the
Supplemental channel does not offer any guaranteed bit rate. However, the data rate offered by the
pg 8 of 140
Fundamental channel with raw data rate of 9.6 kbps is always guaranteed to the 3G-1X Data user. For the
Forward direction, the burst allocation is triggered when data gets backlogged in the network side of the
system. For the reverse direction, data builds up at the mobile, which in turn, sends a supplemental channel
request message to the system, triggering the burst allocation procedure.
The new service can be asymmetric, i.e., the High Speed Packet data mobile, at any given instant, may be
assigned different bandwidths on the Forward and Reverse links. This helps to maximize the efficient use
of bandwidth in both directions, still meeting the bandwidth demand of the end-user in each direction. The
3G-1X CDMA HSPD product is built on the 2G/3G CDMA Low Speed Packet Data (LSPD) software
since the operation of the Fundamental Channel and packet data call setup and tear-down procedures are
almost identical to the LSPD service when there is no data burst in progress. To end users, the most visible
advantage of HSPD over LSPD releases is speed.
2.3 Capacity and Coverage for Voice Applications

2.3.1 Spectrum Requirements
Spectrum requirements for 3G/1x are modest and identical to those for an IS-95 carrier. 3G/1x requires a
1.23 MHz carrier in the cellular band or a 1.25 MHz carrier in the PCS band, with a recommended guard
band of 270 kHz between the CDMA and AMPS carriers in the cellular band, and a guard band of 625 kHz
(~ ½ carrier) on either side of the PCS block. The guard band recommended is typical, and may be relaxed
or expanded depending upon the specific wireless applications in contiguous spectrum. In most cases, it is
anticipated that the 270 kHz for the cellular band or 625 kHz for the PCS band should be sufficient.
As in IS-95 engineering, no guard band is required between contiguous 3G/1x carriers. Additionally, no
guard band is required between an IS-95 carrier and an adjacent 3G/1x carrier. 3G/1x and IS-95
subscribers may in fact share the same carrier frequency, with concomitant effects on each technology’s
capacity. This strategy is discussed further in the deployment section.
2.3.2 Link Budgets

3G/1x voice coverage is essentially determined via link budget analysis, which follows a strategy
comparable to that pursued in IS-95 applications. The cell footprint is first sized using the reverse link,
which properly takes into account the impact of limited mobile transmit power. Forward link budget
analysis focuses on ensuring that sufficient forward power is available to support operations within the
footprint dictated by the reverse link.
The link budgets used for voice coverage follow a format similar to that for IS-95; however, key
parameters differ in value and meaning. For example, the receiver Eb/Nt requirement used to determine
cell site receiver sensitivity is based on the total mobile transmit power rather than the fraction of mobile
power dedicated to the traffic channel (unlike IS-95, the uplink consists of both a traffic channel and a
pilot channel). In addition, a more aggressive loading with respect to the pole point is allowed due to the
inherently greater number of users within a single carrier. These topics are discussed in greater detail in
section 3, which derives both forward and reverse link budgets. A comparison is also drawn between
3G/1x and IS-95 coverage. The slight improvement offered by 3G coverage is key to a 2G to 3G (i.e., IS-
95 to 3G/1x) migration strategy, as discussed in section 5.
2.3.3 Voice Capacity

The analysis of 3G/1x voice capacity is also similar to that of IS-95, albeit with different values of key
parameters. In particular, relaxed Eb/Nt requirements on both links drive Erlang capacity/Hz up to twice
the value available for IS-95, i.e. up to 26.4 Erlangs per 1.23 MHz carrier for an 8 kbps vocoder. The
improved Eb/Nt requirements derive from a number of air interface features, such as enhanced
convolutional coding, faster power control, and a reverse link pilot channel that provides a reference signal
to aid in signal demodulation. The analysis of 3G/1x capacity is coupled to that of 3G/1x coverage, since
pg 9 of 140
both are ultimately driven by Eb/Nt requirements on each link. This analysis is presented in some detail in
section 3.
2.4 RF Engineering for Data

2.4.1 Introduction
Unlike voice applications, the analysis of RF engineering issues for wireless packet data has no ready
analogue in IS-95. This discussion therefore occupies a major portion of these guidelines. Key differences
include the use of packet-switched rather than circuit-switched data principles, subscriber time-sharing of
the same data channel, and new measures of capacity that vary widely with subscriber usage statistics.
From a simple overall perspective, a collection of 3G1x data users within the cell footprint are subscribers
engaging in data sessions (e.g., web-browsing) that are inherently bursty in nature. Each user maintains a
constant low-rate data connection (“fundamental channel”) to the cell in order to maintain the call, provide
infrequent signaling frames, and occasionally aid in data transmission. For example, in an 8 kbps system
the fundamental channel operates at 1/8 rate on a 9.6 kbps channel, powering to full-rate when signaling
information is present.
In addition, each subscriber intermittently transmits bursts of data at a much higher rate. This rate is
negotiated for each burst between the mobile and base station in a process that takes into account a number
of factors including the current interference background, the mobile’s RF conditions, the amount of data
that needs to be sent, and the history of the data session (i.e., when the user was last served). These bursts
take place over supplemental channels that are set up and torn down as necessary, with raw data rates
ranging up to 153.6 kbps.
Since the system can simultaneously support only a limited number of supplemental channels due to the
higher data rate, this dynamic process of allocating and removing supplemental channels to each user can
be viewed as time-sharing a small number of high-speed data pipes amongst the users. In this model, the
user transmissions “queue up” for service until one of the high-speed pipes is available. Since the traffic
is bursty in nature (i.e., user need for the supplemental channels is brief and not simultaneous across
users), the time-sharing of resources is not readily apparent to the end user. For example, wait time in the
queue is modest.
In this sense, the air interface is packet-switched rather than circuit-switched, since channels are time-
shared throughout the user session (packet-switched) rather than completely dedicated to a user (circuit-
switched) for this time. Accordingly, performance criteria distinct from those employed in voice networks
(circuit-switched) must be used. These include data throughput, average wait time, probability of being
delayed, and average length of the queue. The performance may also vary considerably with user statistics,
which are necessarily a function of the data applications employed (e.g., Email, web-browsing, etc.) and of
user behavior (e.g., ‘think’ or idle time between the download of each web page). Accordingly,
performance predictions obtained by employing user statistics that are significantly different from those
observed in commercial systems may not match the commercial performance.
2.4.2 Overview of Traffic Theory

IS-95 has typically employed a circuit-switched analysis of traffic, since this body of theory is based on a
dedicated resource (channel) per user. The resource is held exclusively by the user for the duration of
service (i.e., for the duration of the call) and released upon call completion.
The performance of this system approximates that of an Erlang B model, which dictates the probability of
blocking for a traffic load incident upon a fixed number of servers. The probability of blocking represents
the probability that a user will be turned away because all channels are occupied. Although IS-95 principles
deviate in some important ways from Erlang B assumptions, the use of circuit-switched principles is correct
in that each user occupies a channel resource that is dedicated to its application for the duration of the user
session.
pg 10 of 140
In contrast, the packet-switched data feature of 3G/1x is not as readily captured by Erlang B principles,
since subscriber transmissions (data messages waiting to be burst) can wait or queue up for service rather
than be blocked when all resources are busy. In packet-switched data, high-speed data users are serviced
by a small number of supplemental channels capable of supporting a high data rate. These channels are
time-shared by a fairly large number of data users that transmit bursts of data in turn when cued to do so by
the network.
This situation is better (although still not precisely) described by an Erlang C model, which relates the
probability of delay and average wait time for an incident traffic load funneled through an infinite queue to
a fixed number of servers. Since the queue is infinite, no blocking can occur; however, arrivals wait in the
queue for service when all channels are busy. In this model, the supplemental channels are viewed as the
fixed number of servers. The arrivals are message bursts that are either immediately transmitted (if a
channel is idle), or wait in memory at the mobile (reverse link) or cell site (forward link) for their chance at
transmission.
The Erlang C model can be readily applied to estimate such performance parameters such as wait time and
throughput provided that the number and data transmission rate of the servers are known. For the 3G1x
air interface, these values must be determined from RF analysis. This determination is complicated by the
fact that the Erlang C model requires a fixed number of servers each with a fixed data rate; however, the
number and rate of supplemental channels within the air interface vary dynamically with factors such as
user number, speed, multipath, fade, and transmission history. Accordingly, numerical analysis must be
employed to obtain probability distributions of the number and type of supplemental channels available
within the cell footprint. This information is then employed to drive an Erlang C model in a manner that
reflects the varying, statistical nature of the servers.
The process described is computationally intensive, and must be repeated for every design scenario where
key input aspects such as performance requirements (e.g., average delay, minimal data rate supported at
cell edge) are changed. Some baseline results (see section 4) have been established for a Lucent traffic
model, and may be used in planning in the absence of more specific information regarding subscriber
behavior and performance requirements. If baseline results are employed, design scenarios can be
addressed by using link budget analysis to verify that the air interface can support the total number of
fundamental and average number of supplemental channels required within the cell footprint.
2.4.3 Data Link Budget

The data link budget serves two primary purposes. First, the analysis dictates coverage by establishing a
minimum data rate available at the cell edge. Second, the analysis verifies that the system has sufficient
power to support the mix of fundamental and supplemental channels that are required within this design
footprint in order to achieve performance (e.g., data throughput).
The reverse link budget for data applications is relatively straightforward in that only the coverage of the
supplemental channel need be considered to establish a footprint. This strategy follows from the fact that
the high data rate of the supplemental channel renders its coverage the limiting factor. The necessary
coverage requirements are typically expressed by requiring a minimum data rate at the cell edge with a
specified level of probability (e.g., 90%). For a high data rate, the coverage is naturally limited, and is
usually less than that of the lower rate 3G/1x voice or fundamental channel. In these instances, service
providers may choose to locally or globally augment cell count in order to achieve a ubiquitous coverage
for high-rate users, or may allow the network to naturally restrict the higher data rates to users within the
interior of the cell.
The forward link budget analysis is more complex, in the sense that forward power must be appropriately
shared between fundamental (voice and low-speed data) and supplemental (high-speed data) channels in
order to provide coverage within the footprint. In addition, the forward link supplemental channel does not
enter soft handoff at the boundary. This design strategy limits forward link interference by ensuring that
pg 11 of 140
only one high-rate burst is simultaneously active to the mobile. Supplemental channel performance at the
cell edge is enhanced by anchor transfer (essentially a fast hard handoff to the best serving cell), which
exploits the fact that the supplemental channel is bursty rather than continuous in nature. The anchor
transfer allows the mobile to be served by the best cell for the burst duration.
2.4.4 Resource Management

The complexity of capacity analysis is a natural consequence of resource allocation or resource
management across data subscribers. This strategy dictates the optimal use of available RF resources such
as power and data rate in light of the demands being made upon the network. For example, each
subscriber’s data rate can be adjusted during the course of a call, and is a function of the subscriber’s
reported RF condition (e.g., interference, fading, multipath) as well as the amount of data waiting (queued)
for transmission. Although resource management might not be properly regarded as an RF engineering
issue per se, the subject is so fundamental to overall performance that it is discussed in detail. The
throttling down of the rate of a high-speed data call as it moves from the interior to the exterior of the cell
(or as it moves from benign RF conditions to poor RF conditions) is a straightforward consequence of
resource management.
2.5 Deployment
Deployment of a 3G/1x system entails considerations such as carrier spectrum assignment, overlay ratios,
and 3G/1x channel element provisioning. These issues are discussed in detail in section 5.
3G/1x may be deployed in a separate wideband carrier or within an existing IS-95 carrier. The latter may
be preferable in areas where spectrum resources are constrained or a gentle migration from IS-95 to 3G/1x
is desired; however, the former will result in somewhat greater capacity per Hz within the 3G/1x carrier. A
dedicated 3G1x carrier is engineered simply by restricting carrier access to 3G mobiles only. Restricted
access is achieved via messages that can be read by 3G mobiles only; i.e., the 3G carrier is ‘invisible’ to 2G
mobiles.
The overlay ratio for upgrade of an existing IS-95 system to 3G/1x is recommended to be at least 1:1 (i.e., 1
3G/1x cell for every existing IS-95 cell) since the 3G/1x voice coverage is slightly better than the IS-95
voice coverage. (The improvement is not enough to recommend an overlay consisting of fewer 3G/1x cells
than IS-95 cells, such as 1:1.5). Overlays that exceed 1:1 (e.g., such as two 3G/1x cells for every IS-95
cell, or 2:1) are not generally recommended unless the service provider desires to obtain a high-speed data
coverage that entirely matches the underlying (low-speed) voice coverage. A 1:1 overlay will supply a
low-rate data channel across the entire voice coverage area, while confining higher-rate users to the interior
of the cell.
Channel element provisioning (i.e., the determination of the number of channel elements required at the
cell site to support a traffic load that can consist of 3G/1x voice users, 3G/1x data users, and IS-95 voice
users) is not straightforward, but facilitated by the fact that the dual-mode 3G/1x channel element can
support both 3G and IS-95 (2G) calls. This feature reduces the problem difficulty somewhat, as the exact
proportion of 2G and 3G users need not be known in order to produce a channel element number that is
operationally sufficient.
pg 12 of 140
3 Voice Coverage/Capacity/Link Budget
3.1 Introduction
The 3G/1x principles of voice coverage and capacity are similar to those of IS-95. This similarity is to be
expected, as 3G/1x is a spread spectrum system based upon IS-95. In the following, we briefly review
these principles. A more detailed discussion can be found in the reference.
In 3G/1x all users share the same wideband carrier; i.e., the frequency reuse is 1. Transmissions within this
channel are distinguished by coding. This approach stands in contrast to other approaches such as
frequency division multiple access (each user occupies a distinct narrowband channel) or time division
multiple access (each user occupies a distinct time slot).
The simultaneous use of the same wideband carrier means that all users interfere with one another. On
both forward and reverse links, this interference is tolerated but mitigated through means such as
processing gain, fast power control, variable-rate coding, and soft handoff. Interference from other users is
suppressed by the processing gain (typically about 20 dB), which derives from the manner in which each
traffic channel is uniquely coded to allow ready identification. Power control dynamically adjusts each
traffic channel power to the minimum required to maintain performance. Variable-rate coding further
suppresses the background interference level by powering down the link (i.e., reducing the voice coding
rate) whenever the user is not speaking. Finally, soft handoff reduces overall interference levels by
allowing the call to be simultaneously supported by multiple base stations, thereby introducing a diversity
gain that lowers the net traffic power required per mobile.
Soft handoff is also important in mitigating interference to the forward link receiver (mobile) from a nearby
base station that is not supporting the call. Once the mobile enters into a soft handoff state with this base
station, this cell becomes a source of signal rather than of interference. This effect of soft handoff is
important in real-time applications such as voice, but is less significant in data applications where real-time
decoding is not as critical since messages received in error are retransmitted.
The improvements to the air interface in 3G1x have improved capacity performance to the point where the
limiting resource in some cases will be the number of available Walsh codes, as opposed to air interface
resources.
3.2 Analysis
In the following, we outline the coverage and capacity analysis for both reverse and forward link. In each
case, the governing performance equations are presented and discussed.
Although exact solution of the equations via numerical simulation is outlined, the focus of the discussion is
directed towards simplifications or approximations that can be used in planning processes such as design.
The exact solution is discussed only in order to illustrate the complexity underlying accurate performance
predictions, and to aid in understanding some of the simulation results presented throughout the document.
The latter include offline simulation values employed as line items in planning approximations such as the
link budget, as well as key performance results that are based upon numerical analysis outside the scope of
this document.
Note that in all cases warrantable performance predictions must be obtained via a mixture of numerical
simulation as well as trial (field) results.
3.2.1 Reverse Link

The key to reverse link analysis lies in assessing the receiver sensitivity; i.e., the minimum power (usually
expressed in dBm) required per receive diversity branch at the cell site receiver input. This input (the J4
pg 13 of 140
port) lies at the end of the cable connecting receiver to antenna; i.e., at the point where the incoming signal
has already suffered cable loss.
Consider a collection of mobiles within a sector. For the moment, we presume a steady-state condition;
i.e., one where all mobile positions are fixed and the mobile conditions of voice activity factor, multipath,
and fade are unchanging. At the J4 port, each mobile must satisfy its particular Eb/Nt (ratio of channel bit
energy to spectral density of total channel impairment) requirement, which is a function of mobile speed,
multipath, and required channel Frame Erasure Rate (FER).
For all mobiles within the sector:

 Eb 

N

 ≥ di
 t i
Equation 3.2-1 Eb/Nt Requirement

In this equation the letter i is the index of the mobile in question. The left-hand side is the achieved Eb/Nt
at the cell site receiver (J4 port); the right-hand side is the required median Eb/Nt corresponding to the
particular mobile’s condition (speed, multipath) at the design FER (e.g., 1%).
For the sake of simplicity, we presume an isolated sector with N mobiles. Expanding the above, we obtain:
 Eb  α i S i / Ri (W / R )α i S i gα i S i
α i   = = = = αidi
∑α S ∑α S ∑α S
Nt  1 N N N
 i FN o + FN oW + FN oW +
j j j j j j
W j =1 j =1 j =1
J ≠i J ≠i J ≠i
Equation 3.2-2 Expanded Eb/Nt Definition

This expression is the heart of system analysis for reverse link coverage and capacity; accordingly, we
consider it in some detail.
In the above, the energy per bit (numerator) is determined by the ratio of received power Si to channel bit
rate Ri. The spectral density of receiver interference plus receiver noise (denominator) is determined by the
sum of receiver noise density (the thermal noise density No scaled by the receiver noise figure F) and the
sum of power received from the other N-1 mobiles.
In voice applications, the channel bit rate is constant for all users provided that a single vocoder (either 8
kbps speech or 13 kbps speech) is employed within the mobile population; hence Ri=R. (This is not the
case in data applications, where the channel bit rate can vary per user. Additionally, a voice network may
contain a mixed population of 8 and 13 kbps vocoders. These points are explored later on in this
document).
W is the channel (carrier) bandwidth. The quantity W/R=g is the spread spectrum processing gain.
Equation 3.2-2 shows that the ratio of signal power to impairment (noise plus interference) power, when
multiplied by the processing gain, must equal or exceed the Eb/Nt requirement.
The variable α is the mobile voice or channel activity factor with possible values ranging from 0 to 1 in
discrete steps of 1/8, ¼, ½, and 1.0.3 The last applies when the user is speaking; the first applies when the
user is listening. Intermediate values are transitional rates inserted to avoid a clipped sound to speech when
the channel is changing between the speak/listen states. The probability (relative dwell time) of each value
has been determined from analysis of vocoder speech and is known. The statistics of alpha are therefore
completely characterized.
3
The ½ and ¼ are transitional rates (from speak to listen), and are not always employed.
pg 14 of 140
The di is the median full-rate (i.e., α =1) Eb/Nt requirement. In the above, we have explicitly made the
assumption that the Eb/Nt requirement is scaled by the voice activity; e.g., the Eb/Nt requirement for a user
in the 1/8 state (listen) is 1/8 of the full-rate Eb/Nt requirement. The Eb/Nt requirement as a function of
multipath, speed, and Frame Erasure Rate (FER) is determined via a combination of link level simulations
and receiver tests.
Equation 3.2-2 represents a set of linear equations in the variables S1, S2,…SN. These equations express the
coupling between mobiles; i.e., the fact that each user’s signal is interference to all other users.
3.2.1.1 Solution--Exact
We presume an ideal power control, which would without error ensure that all mobiles just achieve (rather
than exceed) their Eb/Nt requirement. Accordingly, we change the inequality in Equation 3.2-2 to an
equality. This expression can then be expanded to the matrix equation:
 g / d1 − α2 . . − αN   S1   1
    
− α1 g / d2 . . − α N  S 2   1
 
 . . . . .  . = FN oW  . 
    

. . . . .  .  .
 − α1 − α2 . . g / d N  S N 

 
 1
Equation 3.2-3 Reverse Link Eb/Nt Matrix

Each value of Si can be replaced by ai xi, where ai is the total attenuation (loss) from the transmit antenna of
the ith mobile to the J4 port and xi is the transmit power out of the ith mobile. Note that the former includes
total loss, and therefore could be computed by the dB sum of body (head) loss, building/vehicle loss,
(random) fade, point-to-point (distance-dependent) path loss, receiver antenna gain, and receiver cable loss.
The latter constitutes the total mobile transmit power, including the 3G/1x pilot signal that accompanies
traffic power in order to aid demodulation at the cell site receiver. The expression 3.2—3 becomes:
 g / d1 − α2 . . −αN   a1   x1  1 
    
− α1 g / d2 . . −αN  
a2 
 x2  1 
   
 . . . . .   .   .  = FN oW  . 
       

. . . . .  
.   .  .
 − α1    
− α2 . . g / d N  
 a N   xN  1 
Equation 3.2-4 Reverse Link Expanded Matrix Form

Note that the matrix containing the attenuations (a) is diagonal, with 0’s in all nondiagonal entries.
The importance of Equation 3.2-4 cannot be overemphasized, since it represents the key to analysis of
system performance via numerical simulation. In this Monte Carlo process, the performance limits of
capacity and coverage are established by computing performance for a range of possible values of sector
coverage and capacity.
In this process, a sector perimeter (footprint) and number of mobiles N are first selected. A trial is
conducted by randomly placing N mobiles within the footprint, and assigning them random values of voice
activity, fade, and multipath. The multipath value and 0 velocity (fixed position) dictate the full-rate
requirement d for each mobile. The expression Equation 3.2-4 is then solved for the transmit powers x.
This process is repeated over many trials until the statistics of the mobile transmit powers can be
determined for the selected perimeter and capacity.
pg 15 of 140
One or both of these values (perimeter, capacity) is then altered. The process of determining mobile
transmit power distributions by conducting multiple trials is then repeated, thereby characterizing
performance for this new selection.
This process is repeated for a number of selections (perimeter, capacity). Given a target probability of
outage for the mobiles (e.g., no more than 5% of the transmit powers observed can exceed the mobile
maximum transmit power), this analysis can determine the best values of coverage and capacity that can be
supported.
For example, the maximum N that can be supported within a given fixed footprint at a 5% outage can be
determined by computing the probability distribution of mobile transmit powers for each value of N. At
small N, the probability distribution is unlikely to exceed the mobile maximum transmit power xmax at all; at
larger N, a significant portion of observed values may be above xmax. The desired value of N is that which
yields a probability distribution that displays the value xmax for its 95th percentile (i.e., the 95th percentile of
the mobile transmit power distribution can be no greater than the maximum mobile transmit power).
Although the analysis outlined by Equation 3.2-4 has been pursued, the results are generally not applicable
to network performance unless the model is expanded in two ways; viz., the incorporation of the impact of
moving (non-fixed) mobiles, and the incorporation of the effects of other sectors. For completeness, these
are described below.
In the above, we have presumed that the mobiles are fixed. This concept lends itself readily to the steady-
state assumption, where position, fade, multipath, and voice activity do not change with time. In each trial,
the required Eb/Nt, di, for each mobile was obtained solely as a function of the random choice made for
multipath since the speed was fixed at 0. The situation for moving mobiles is assessed by using a randomly
assigned value of speed as well as multipath to determine the required Eb/Nt, (di ) in Equation 3.2-4. The
performance of a system with moving mobiles is thus determined by applying mobile Eb/Nt requirements
to an otherwise static situation. This approach, which approximates the more complex situation where the
mobile positions are changing from instant to instant, is sometimes referred to as analysis via a series of
static snapshots.
The analysis embodied in Equation 3.2-2 and Equation 3.2-4 considered only an isolated sector; in contrast,
an embedded sector (i.e., a sector surrounded by a sea of cells) is clearly a better model of real-world
conditions. The effects of other sectors can be included by expanding the denominator of Equation 3.2-2 to
include the interference at the sector receiver from mobiles transmitting in other surrounding sectors.
These expressions expand and alter the matrix in Equation 3.2-4; in particular, the size of the matrix
increases from N×N to Ntotal × Ntotal, where Ntotal is the number of mobiles in all sectors. The analysis
proceeds similarly but with considerably more computational complexity, since for each trial the Ntotal × 1
vector of transmit strengths (representing the transmit strengths of all mobiles within the network) must be
solved for.
The techniques described have been used to simulate the performance of IS-95 (2G) systems, achieving
results that are supported by field data. For example, the capacity of a fully mobile system within a
nominal cell footprint (i.e., a footprint dictated by the reverse link budget analysis outlined in 3.2.1.2 and
3.2.1.3, below) is the equivalent of 13 channels (7.4 Erlangs at 2% block) and the equivalent of 20 channels
(13.2 Erlangs at 2% block) for 13 kbps and 8 kbps coding, respectively. These values apply to the early
version of the ASIC receiver chip (1.0), and rise to 9.0 Erlangs and 16.6 Erlangs, respectively, with use of
the ASIC 1.1 chip in the cell site receiver.
The same techniques have been employed in predicting 3G/1x capacity for nominal (link budget) footprint,
indicating 26.4 Erlangs at 2% block (35 channels) for 8 kbps coding. This value is as yet unsupported by
extensive field data, since no 3G/1x commercial systems have been deployed.
pg 16 of 140
Table 3.2-1 Air Interface Capacity

Air interface IS-95 at 13 kbps IS-95 at 8 kbps 3G/1x at 8 kbps
Capacity @ 2% block 7.4 Erlangs 13.2 Erlangs 26.4 Erlangs
3.2.1.2 Solution--Approximate
We now consider means of obtaining solutions to Equation 3.2-2 that are approximate. Although any final
performance prediction should rely upon a mixture of exact solution (see 3.2.1.1 above) as well as trial
results, the approximate solutions are useful for planning as well as lending insight into performance trends.
We seek an approximate solution to 3.2—2, repeated here for convenience.


Eb 
 =
α i Si / Ri
=
(W / R )α i Si =
gα i Si
= α i di
∑ ∑ ∑

N o i 1 N N N
 FN o + α jS j FN oW + α jS j FN oW + α jS j
W j =1 j =1 j =1
J ≠i J ≠i J ≠i
Equation 3.2-2 Expanded Eb/Nt Definition
As discussed above, real-world conditions are better modeled by incorporating the effects of other sectors.
This can be done by altering the summation term in the denominator appropriately. The interference from
other (outside) sectors can be viewed as the outer interference. The interference from mobiles within the
sector is the inner interference, represented by the summation term over N-1 users in the denominator of
Equation 3.2-2. Simulations employing the techniques described in 3.2.1.1 have shown that the ratio of
outer to inner interference can be approximated by a constant β, for an embedded sector in a sea of cells
with uniform sector loading. The impact of outer cell interference is therefore captured by altering
Equation 3.2-2 to:
 Eb  gSi
  = = di
∑α S
 Nt  N
 i FN oW + (1 + β ) j j
j =1
J ≠i
Equation 3.2-5 Reverse Link Eb/Nt with Interference Ratio

The di represents the per-path median Eb/Nt requirement of the ith mobile, which is dictated by conditions
of multipath, speed, and FER. At 1% FER, the range of possible values is not large; moreover, the
existence of at least two paths is guaranteed in the presence of two-branch spatial diversity4. The analysis
can therefore be considerably simplified by making the conservative assumption that all mobiles achieve
the Eb/Nt for the worst-case (maximum) of the 2-path multipath cases (di =dmax). The condition that all
mobiles achieve the same d= dmax introduces a symmetry into the above expression that requires all
received powers be equal as well; i.e., Si =S:
gS
= d max
∑α
N
FN oW + (1 + β ) S j
j =1
J ≠i
Equation 3.2-6 Reverse Link Eb/Nt assuming Worst Case Required Eb/Nt
4
The two-path existence is also guaranteed in some other diversity schemes such as slant polarized
diversity branches; however, these schemes are not applicable at all frequencies.
pg 17 of 140
This expression is readily solved for the single value of the key parameter S, the required signal strength
per diversity branch at the J4 port of the cell site receiver:
FN oW
S=
∑α
N
g
− (1 + β ) j
d max j =1
J ≠i
Equation 3.2-7 Required Received Reverse Link Power

The value S is a random variable, since the summation in the denominator is a sum of the independent but
identically distributed values of channel (voice) activity. For planning purposes, we seek the expected
value of S for use as the minimum receiver sensitivity Smin. This value is conveniently expressed as:
 
   g − (1 + β )( N − 1)η 
   d max α

= E{S } = 
FN oW
S min  E 
∑
N
 g − (1 + β )( N − 1)η   g − (1 + β ) α j 
α
 d max   d max j =1 
 J ≠i 
Equation 3.2-8 Reverse Link Receiver Sensitivity
Here, E denotes the expectation operator; also, the ηα represents the expected value of the channel activity.
The expectation on the far right of Equation 3.2-8 can be computed analytically since the distribution of the
random value of voice activity is known. This value is close to 1. For large g/dmax, this result can be
obtained by inspection; moreover, regardless of the value of g/dmax, the expected value is always 1 for very
large N since the sum over (N-1) voice activity values is equal to (N-1) times the mean voice activity. We
therefore approximate the mean receiver sensitivity as:
 
 
E{S } =
FN oW
 
 g − (1 + β )( N − 1)ηα 

 d max 

Equation 3.2-9 Reverse Link Receiver Sensitivity - Approximation

This expression shows that the receiver sensitivity is a monotonically increasing function of N, the sector
loading. Since increased sensitivity clearly requires decreased cell radius, this expression illustrates the
fundamental tradeoff between coverage and capacity that can be pursued in CDMA systems. In addition,
there is clearly a hard limit to the loading N, since the denominator must be greater than zero. The limit
Nmax can be obtained by setting the denominator equal to zero, obtaining the reference or “pole” point at
which the required receiver sensitivity grows without bound:
g 1
N max = +1
ηα d max (1 + β )
Equation 3.2-10 Pole Capacity Definition
The receiver sensitivity can be recast using Nmax as:
pg 18 of 140
 FN oW  1  FN oW   1  
E {S } =
1 1 1
 =   = dFN o R  

1− 

ηα (1 + β )  N max − N  ηα (1 + β ) N max  1 − u   1 − u  N max 
Equation 3.2-11 Reverse Link Receiver Sensitivity in terms of Loading
where u=N/ Nmax is the loading with respect to the pole point. Equation 3.2-11 can be used to determine the
receiver sensitivity for use in a link budget, as discussed below. For :
g
>> ηα (1 + β )
d max
Equation 3.2-12 Receiver Sensitivity Simplifying Assumption
the Equation 3.2-11 can be simplified to:
d max  1 
E{S } = FN oW
g 1 − u 
Equation 3.2-13 Simplified Reverse Link Receiver Sensitivity
This approximation allows the receiver sensitivity to be determined by the dB sum of Eb/Nt requirement,
data rate, interference margin 1/(1-u) and receiver noise floor. The reverse link budget format (see 3.2.1.3)
is based upon this approximation; however, the underlying calculations rely upon Equation 3.2-11 since
the approximation Equation 3.2-12 may not always be satisfied.
Equation 3.2-11 suggests that any integer value of N less than Nmax (i.e., any value of u less than 1) is
permissible provided that one is willing to pay the penalty of reduced cell coverage associated with very
high pole loadings (e.g., u=0.95). In practice, loadings approaching u=1 are avoided due to the possibility
of associated instabilities. Such instabilities exist regardless of the nature or form of power control, as can
be demonstrated by a sensitivity analysis that relates relative changes in loading u to relative changes in
required receiver sensitivity.
Differentiating Equation 3.2-11 with respect to u, we obtain:
 dS min   u   du 

 S

 =   
 min  1 − u   u 
Equation 3.2-14 Sensitivity of Receiver Sensitivity to Loading

This expression indicates that relative changes in required receiver sensitivity are related to relative
changes in loading u by the sensitivity factor u/(1-u). This factor indicates to what degree relative changes
in u are suppressed or amplified into relative changes in Smin. The sensitivity in Equation 3.2-14 increases
with loading, rising from values <<1 (where relative changes are suppressed) to 1 when u reaches u=0.5
(50% loading). Loadings greater than 50% yield sensitivity factors greater than 1, indicating that required
relative changes in S are amplified relative to changes in u; in particular, the sensitivity factor is greater
than 3 for loadings exceeding u=0.75 and rises rapidly thereafter.
Large sensitivities indicate that minor changes in loading can require large changes in Smin.
These concepts are illustrated in the curve in Figure 3.2-1, below.
pg 19 of 140
Sensitivity Factor
20
18
16
14
mu/(1-mu)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
mu
Figure 3.2-1 The sensitivity factor maps relative changes in loading into relative changes in receiver
sensitivity. The factor is a function of the design loading µ. For large values of µ, small relative
changes in loading are “amplified” into large relative changes in receiver sensitivity. The choice of
design loading factor µ must avoid this region of the curve.
Simulation and field results suggest that the maximum tolerable loading falls within the range of u=0.5 to
u=0.75. The allowed loading improves with better power control and with lower dmin (i.e., higher pole
point). The latter effect arises since a larger number of users associated with any value of u tends to
stabilize that value; i.e., the relative change of u per the addition or deletion of a single user is less.
3.2.1.3 Link Budget

The required receiver sensitivity Smin in Equation 3.2-11 can be used to obtain a reverse link budget. This
budget dictates the maximum allowable path loss between mobile transmit antenna and cell site receive
antenna. Provided further analysis indicates that the forward link can support performance at the same
loss (see 3.2.2), the loss can be used on a market-by-market basis to perform RF design. This process
employs algorithms that map loss into cell radii via consideration of local variables such as tower height,
terrain, and clutter.
The allowed point-to-point path loss is determined by considering the terms that dictate net loss from
mobile to cell. Components of the net loss are indicated in Figure 3.2-2, below (head loss and fading are
not shown in the figure, but are included in the link budget equations).
CDMA CDMA Base

Mobile Max. Path Station
Cable
Mobile Loss
Building Antenna
EIRP Receiver
Penetration Gain Sensitivity
Loss
Figure 3.2-2 Components of Net Path Loss from Mobile to Base Station
pg 20 of 140
The terms characterizing the net loss are captured in the following relation, which requires that at
maximum mobile transmit power the signal power achieved at the J4 port must equal or exceed 10log(Smin):
X max - HL - fade - BL/VL - PL + AG - CL ≥ 10 log( S min )

Equation 3.2-15 Reverse Link Budget Equation
where:
Xmax= maximum mobile EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) (in dBm)
HL=dB head (body) loss
Fade=dB fade at mobile location
BL/VL=dB building or dB vehicle penetration loss, whichever is applicable
PL=dB point to point (average) path loss between mobile antenna and cell site antenna
AG=dBi cell site antenna gain
CL=dB cell site cable loss
This expression is readily rewritten for the allowed maximum dB path loss. This value dictates the edge
(boundary) of the cell coverage.
PL ≤ X max - HL - fade - BL/VL + AG - CL - 10log(S min ) = PLmax

Equation 3.2-16 Reverse Link Budget Equation
Equation 3.2-16 can be viewed as constructing the allowed maximum path loss as a dB sum of credits (e.g.,
mobile transmit power) and deficits (e.g., cable loss). This dB process is captured in the reverse link voice
budget. Several examples are shown in Table 3.2-2, below. The link budgets serve as examples only and
will vary from market to market per the service provider’s requirements. For instance, the cell site antenna
gain, cable loss, fade margin, and building penetration margin could be modified, substantially altering the
(bottom line) allowed path loss to be used in design.
Table 3.2-2 shows PCS link budgets for second generation (2G) voice coded at 13 kbps (total rate with
overhead bits is 14,400) and at 8 kbps (total rate with overhead bits is 9600). These are included for
reference. The (8 kbps) 3G/1x budget is shown in the right-hand column. The 2G budgets are created from
parameters (e.g. noise figure) applicable to the IS-95 minicell and the ASIC 1.0 chip. The 3G/1x budget
uses parameters appropriate to the Flexent modular cell.
In all cases, the format of the link budget is essentially obtained from Equation 3.2-16, with Equation
3.2-13 used to create the value of Smin. As discussed above, the approximation Equation 3.2-13 is not
always valid; hence in spite of the format the spreadsheet uses an embedded form of Equation 3.2-11 to
obtain the Smin.
Table 3.2-2Reverse PCS Link Budget for IS-95 9.6 kbps, IS-95 14.4 kbps and 3G-1x 9.6 kbps Voice,
Mobility Applications
Item Units 2G Voice 2G Voice 3G1x Voice Comments
14.4kbps 9.6kbps 9.6kbps
(a) Maximum Transmitted power dBm 21 21 21
per channel
(b) Transmit Cable, connector, dB 2 2 2 body loss
combiner, and body losses
(c) Transmitter Antenna Gain dBi 2 2 2
(d) Transmitter EIRP per channel dBm 21 21 21
(a-b+c)
(e) Receiver Antenna Gain dBi 18 18 18
pg 21 of 140
(f) Receiver Cable and Connector dB 3 3 3

Losses
(g) Receiver Noise Figure dB 5 5 4 PCS Minicell for 2G and
Modcell for 3G1x
(h) Receiver Noise Density dBm/Hz -174 -174 -174
(i) Receiver Interference Margin dB 3.4 3.6 5.5 72% loading for 3G1x
(j) Total Effective Noise plus dBm/Hz -165.6 -165.4 -164.5
Interference Density=(g+h+i)
(k1) Information Rate (10log(Rb)) dB 41.6 39.8 39.8
(l1) Required Eb/Nt dB 7 7 4 considering 2 spatial
receive diversity branches
(m) Receiver sensitivity (j+k+l) dBm -117.2 -118.7 -120.7
(n) Hand-off Gain dB 4 4 4 for 90% cell edge
coverage and 8 dB log-
normal standard deviation
(o) Explicit Diversity Gain dB 0 0 0 diversity gain has been
included in required Eb/Nt
(p) Log-normal Fade Margin dB 10.3 10.3 10.3 for 90% edge coverage
with 8dB log-normal
standard deviation
(p') Building/Vehicle Penetration dB 0.0 0.0 0.0 for outdoor coverage
Loss
(q) Maximum Path loss {d-m+e- dB 146.9 148.4 150.4
f+o+n-p-p'}
Note that the link budget creates the fade margin in Equation 3.2-16 as a sum of two terms; viz., the single-
link (simplex) fade margin and the soft handoff gain.
The simplex fade margin is obtained conventionally by selecting a dB value from a normal distribution of
possible values. For a simplex connection, the path loss at cell edge therefore accommodates all values of
fade up to and including this value. For example, a selection of 10.3 dB means that at cell edge all fades up
to and including 10.3 dB can be tolerated without requiring that the mobile exceed its maximum transmit
power. Since the 10.3 dB is the 90th percentile within the distribution of fades5, this choice corresponds to
a 90% probability of cell edge coverage. (The probability of area coverage is greater, since inside the cell
boundary the path loss is less and the mobile has more transmit margin to overcome deeper fades).
The fade margin required for 90% edge coverage is actually less than the simplex value, since a CDMA
mobile at cell edge is in a soft handoff state with at least two legs. The full simplex margin would only be
required if both legs faded simultaneously and equally. Since the leg-to-leg fading is at least partly
uncorrelated, the net fade margin required to achieve a given probability of coverage is less. The soft
handoff gain is the difference between the simplex and actual fade margin. The exact value is a weak
function of probability of edge coverage and is determined by offline calculations that are supported by
field data. Recommended values are tabulated, below. These values correspond to a 60% correlation
between soft handoff legs in a lognormal fading environment (8 dB standard deviation).
Table 3.2-3 Reverse Link Soft Handoff Gains
Probability of Edge Coverage Soft Handoff Gain (dB)
75% 3
90% 4
The differences between the 3G1x and the IS-95 voice reverse link budgets must be emphasized. They are:
5
This is true for lognormally distributed fades with 8 dB standard deviation. This distribution is common
and often observed in path loss measurements.
pg 22 of 140
• For 2G, the mobile transmitted power consists solely of traffic channel power; however, for 3G1x, the
mobile transmitted power includes the traffic channel and reverse pilot channel power. The analysis
described in 3.2.1.1. and 3.2.1.2 applies in either case since the Eb/Nt requirements di are adjusted
appropriately…it is simply a matter of interpretation of the transmit power x.
• The required Eb/Nt d (i.e., the traffic channel Eb/Nt requirements for the 2G, and the total traffic plus
pilot Eb/Nt requirement for the 3G1x) to achieve 1% target Frame Erasure Rate (FER) differ. For the
9.6 kbps voice, mobility application and 1% FER target, the requirement for the 3G1x is 4 dB, less
than the 7 dB required for the IS-95 system (ASIC 1.0 chip).
• The pole loading factor for 3G/1x is higher than the pole loading factor for IS-95, due to a larger user
base and slightly improved power control (see 3.2.1.2). This difference is reflected within the
interference margin. The example budgets employ the maximum loading recommended for the
scenarios chosen. Lower loadings are allowed, increasing coverage at the expense of reducing
capacity.
• The air interface capacity of the 3G1x 8kbps voice application is 26.4 Erlangs per sector per carrier
(corresponding to 35 channels at 2% blocking) while that of the IS-95 8kbps voice is 13.2 Erlangs per
sector per carrier (corresponding to 20 channels at 2% blocking). This difference arises due to the
3G1x reduced Eb/Nt requirement, as well as the increased 3G1x maximum pole loading.
• The base receiver noise floor of the PCS CDMA Minicell is 5 dB while that of the PCS CDMA
Flexent Modular Cell is 4 dB. The former has been extensively deployed within the field, and was
therefore used as a 2G reference in Table 3.2-2.
The examples above indicate that 3G1x can tolerate more path loss than IS-95 under identical
(“normalized”) conditions; i.e., equal values of antenna gain, fade margin, building penetration loss, etc.
This difference allows an IS-95 system to be upgraded to 3G1x on a 1:1 basis without loss of coverage
performance. Overlay strategies are discussed in more detail in section 5.
3.2.2 Forward Link

Reverse link analysis is used to establish the cell footprint. This analysis can be viewed as driven by the
limit on mobile transmit power. This limit is a key constraining factor in cell size, driven by market
demands for more compact subscriber units and longer battery life.
The objective of forward link analysis is to ensure that the forward link has sufficient power to support
performance within the footprint dictated by the reverse link. Accordingly, the dB design path loss
determined by reverse link analysis is an input to the forward link analysis process, which assesses whether
the forward link has sufficient resources to deliver adequate power to each mobile receiver within the
design path loss.
This analysis differs in three important ways from that of the reverse link:
• First, the link transmitter power (forward link amplifier power) considered in analysis is shared
amongst multiple users. In contrast, the transmit power employed in reverse link analysis (viz, the
mobile transmit power) was dedicated to a single subscriber.
• Second, the effect of other sectors at the receiver is more important, as a mobile receiver near the
cell boundary can be subjected to a significant amount of interference broadcast by nearby
neighbor sectors. In contrast, the other-cell interference considered in reverse link analysis
consisted of power from modest transmitters at a greater distance from the cell site receiver.
• Third, the available link level information does not consist (directly) of receiver Eb/Nt
requirements; rather, the fractional forward link power (“Ec/Ior”) as a function of mobile
geometry is used in analysis. The ‘geometry’ is defined as the ratio of the total power within the
active set to the sum of receiver noise and total power received from all sectors not within the
active set. A sector is in the mobile’s active set when it is supporting the mobile call; i.e.,
providing a signal or leg that the mobile is demodulating.
pg 23 of 140
In order to ensure clarity, we provide a few examples of the last point. The fractional forward link power
requirement Ec/Ior (or x=Ec/Ior, used here for convenience) is a pure (dimensionless) number and a
function of the mobile geometry G:
x = Ec / Ior ; x < 1
x = f (G )
Equation 3.2-17
For example, x may be 0.05, indicating that 5% of the total forward link power broadcast by a sector is
required to maintain forward link FER. Note that this relationship says nothing about the total power
broadcast by the sector, but simply indicates what fraction of the power being broadcast is required by the
mobile in question.
The geometry must be defined with care. For a mobile not in soft handoff, the numerator of the geometry
consists only of the power received from its host sector. For a mobile in soft handoff, the numerator
consists of the power received from the host as well as all other sectors supporting the call. In each case,
the denominator consists of the sum of receiver noise and the received power from all other sectors not
supporting the call.
As a specific example, we consider the following. Without loss of generality, we may denote the received
host sector power P1 for a mobile not in handoff. For a mobile in soft handoff with sectors 1 and 2, we
denote the received host sectors’ power P1 and P2. Then:
Let I i = Pi / W ; or received sec tor power density

I1
G= ; mobile not in soft handoff ; host sec tor is 1
∑I
all sec tors
FN t + i
i=2
I1 + I 2
G= ; mobile in soft handoff with sec tors 1 and 2
∑I
all sec tors
FN t + i
i =3
Equation 3.2-18 Geometry Calculation Examples

Note the contrast between the first (no soft handoff) and last (soft handoff) definition of geometry. In the
former case, only sector 1 supports the call; accordingly, only the received power from sector 1 is in the
numerator. In the latter case, both sectors 1 and 2 support the call. In this case, the received power from
sector 2 is removed from the sum in the denominator and placed within the numerator..
In all cases, the I represents the received spectral density from all multipath reaching the mobile receiver
from the sector in question. For clarity, some sample mappings of x=Ec/Ior vs. geometry G are shown
below. The mapping is from an early study examining the impact of power control, which (as expected)
improves the link performance by lowering the x required. The study per se will not be discussed further
here; the chart is used only to demonstrate the general shape of the curve x=f(G).
pg 24 of 140
Figure 3.2-3 Required Fractional Power versus Geometry Examples

Note that in general the required x shrinks as the number of multipaths from the sector to the mobile
increase.
We now consider the system-level analysis of forward link employing this information. Consider a
collection of mobiles within a sector. We again presume a steady-state condition; i.e., one where all mobile
positions are fixed and the mobile conditions of voice activity factor, multipath, and fade are unchanging.
The sector is embedded, surrounded by a sea of other sectors containing mobiles.
At the sector J4 port, the fractional transmit power allocated to each mobile must be sufficient to reach or
exceed the mobile receiver’s Ec/Ior requirement, which is dependent upon its speed and geometry. The
geometry is dependent upon the host and other sector powers received at the mobile; these in turn are
dependent upon the mobile position and fading state. In order to support N links (including primary, soft,
and softer handoff links), the total fractional transmit power required must not exceed the fraction of
amplifier power that is available for traffic:
∑α x Qmax − Oover
N
Y= j j ≤
j =1 Qmax
Equation 3.2-19 Sum of Powers Less Than Available Traffic Power
In the above, αj represents the channel activity of the jth forward link, and xj represents the fractional power
required to support this link. The values Qmax and Qover are the maximum average available power and the
average power assigned to overhead channels (e.g., pilot), respectively. This inequality must be satisfied for
each sector within the system.
For clarity, we write the value xj more completely to show its functional dependence; viz.,
x j = x j ( speed , multipath, geometry[all sec tor powers , fading , location, handoff state ])
Equation 3.2-20 Required Fractional Power Dependencies
pg 25 of 140
The fractional transmit power requirement is a function of speed, multipath, and mobile geometry.
Geometry in turn is a function of mobile location, powers broadcast by all surrounding sectors, fades
between the mobile and all sectors, and mobile handoff state.
Given the randomness of location, speed, multipath, and fading, it is clear that for fixed N the sum Y is a
random variable with an associated probability distribution. As N varies, the distribution retains
(approximately) its shape but shifts to the right or left (see Figure 3.2-4, below). For a given coverage
footprint and given number of links (i.e., given number of users), the computation of the associated
probability distribution provides the probability that the sum Y satisfies the inequality (Equation 3.2-19).
In particular, for a given footprint the forward link capacity limit can be obtained by finding the highest
value of N such that the sum Y still satisfies the inequality ( Equation 3.2-19) with acceptable probability.
This probability should be high (e.g., 90%, 95%) in order to be consistent with the high probability of
coverage generally provided by the reverse link.
Increasing links
N links N+1 links N+2 links Nmax links
probability
.....
....
Max allowed
Figure 3.2-4 Various Probability Distributions as a function of N (Number of Users)
Total fractional power used
For fixed footprint, as N increases, the probability distribution associated with the sum Y (total
fractional transmit power) retains its shape (approximately) but shifts to the right. A maximum
amount of fractional transmit power (“max allowed”) is available for traffic. The maximum
capacity Nmax can be found by locating the highest value of N for which the probability
distribution still has an acceptably small probability of violating the maximum allowed fractional
transmit power.
In order to conduct the above analysis, the Equation 3.2-19 must be solved for all sectors. This analysis is
not straightforward; in particular, the method of solution is not analogous to that employed in the reverse
link (linear algebra). The additional complexity arises from several factors, including:
• the nonlinear mapping x=f(G) in Equation 3.2-17, which can be tabulated but not readily
expressed in analytical form
• the dependence of fractional transmit powers x on a number of factors (Equation 3.2-20),
including geometry
• the fact that the computation of geometry for a given location depends upon knowledge of the
radiated power from all sectors…but the radiated power from all sectors cannot be computed
unless the fractional transmit powers x are known. These in turn depend upon geometry. This
circularity prevents a straightforward solution; rather, an iterative approach that eventually results
in an answer with self-consistent sector powers, fractional transmit powers, and geometries must
be employed.
This complexity has resulted in a number of forward link analysis techniques, which vary depending upon
the speed, accuracy, and extent of information desired. We describe two examples, below.
pg 26 of 140
3.2.2.1 Solution—Exact
The exact solution of Equation 3.2-19 is complex, but nevertheless employed in system performance
simulations. We outline the method of solution here.
The analysis can be done by collecting data from a number of simulated snapshots, where within each
snapshot a predetermined number Ntotal of mobiles are randomly distributed throughout the sectors
comprising the network. The snapshot is static in the sense that the mobiles do not move; however, motion
can be modeled in a limited sense by randomly selecting a velocity for each mobile, and using the geometry
curves for that velocity to assign fractional transmit powers to the (stationary) mobile. Given a sufficiently
large number of snapshots, the probability distribution for the sum Y (Equation 3.2-19) can be obtained.
This curve then allows specification of the probability that the total fractional transmit power remains
below an allowable level.
As discussed above, the geometry associated with a given location depends upon the total powers broadcast
by the sectors. These total powers cannot be determined unless the fractional transmit powers x are known;
however, these cannot be specified without knowledge of the geometry. This interrelationship dictates an
iterative approach to the problem, which can be generally pursued as follows.
• Construct a nominal (i.e., hexagonal) arrangement of cells, with per-sector footprint dictated by an
allowable path loss and a path loss law (e.g., Hata model). The former is usually dictated by the
reverse link budget.
• Choose a value of Ntotal users within the network, which corresponds to a desired average value of
users per sector.
• Choose an initial value (e.g., Qmax) of power broadcast by all sectors
• Create and solve a single static snapshot via the following steps:
i) Randomly place the Ntotal users within the network
ii) For each user, randomly select a multipath and velocity value
iii) Specify a value of Qmax power broadcast by all sectors
iv) Using these values, compute each user’s soft handoff state
v) Compute each user’s geometry
vi) Using the appropriate curve for each user’s multipath and velocity, map user
geometry into required fractional transmit power from its host sector
vii) Compute actual user (link) power from host sector
viii) Compute total power broadcast by all sectors, and compare with values assumed in
step (iii), above. If they do not match, reassign sector broadcast powers in (iii) to the
new values computed in this step (viii)
ix) Repeat steps (iii) through (viii) until convergence; i.e., until the assigned sector
powers in step (iii) match the computed sector powers in step (viii)
x) Store the sector power for this value of Ntotal as a single point within the probability
distribution of required power (see Figure 3.2-4). This point corresponds to a single
static snapshot for Ntotal users.
xi) Repeat steps (i) through (x) (i.e., run additional static snapshots) until a sufficient
number of points is obtained to characterize the probability distribution of required
power for Ntotal users (see Figure 3.2-4)
• Assess this distribution to ascertain whether the available power is sufficient to support the
capacity within the coverage footprint
The list above summarizes the general steps to be taken in forward link analysis. This process can be
implemented in several ways; in particular, it is possible to obtain a set of solutions for a normalized
network (e.g., unity power, unity coverage, etc) and then scale these solutions in a simple way to address a
wide variety of design scenarios. This strategy obviates the difficulty of running a computationally
intensive model for every design scenario; rather, solutions for a normalized scenario can be scaled to a
pg 27 of 140
variety of other scenarios through straightforward adjustments of antenna gain, cell radius, fade margin,
etc.
For this approach, the normalized results are captured in a set of coefficients (Figure 3.2-5) that are used to
reconstruct values relevant to the design scenario at hand by using scenario-specific parameters such as
uplink coverage footprint, antenna gain, and available forward sector power. The coefficients capturing
baseline performance are sometimes termed “Hong Yang” coefficients, after their author.
Distribution
of mobile
Distribution
of shadow µ(xN)
CDMA
Forward Link µ(xI)
Distribution
σ(xN)
of soft σ(xI)
Ec/Ior vs.
Geometry
Figure 3.2-5
A set of coefficients that captures forward link performance for a normalized case (e.g., unity
coverage, unity power, etc) can be obtained via a computationally complex model. These
coefficients can then be used to scale results to a variety of design scenarios, using design-
specific parameters such as antenna gain and forward power.
Design scenarios that cannot be scaled from a normalized result include those in which such underlying
assumptions as fading and voice statistics, velocity distribution, and path loss laws differ from those
employed in the normalized result. In these cases, a different set of normalized results employing the new
assumptions is required.
An example of a spreadsheet that functions as a link budget in that it extrapolates normalized results is
shown in Figure 3.2--5, below.
pg 28 of 140
Table 3.2-4 Forward Link Budget
Forward Link Budget for 3G PCS 3 Sector 8 kbps CDMA with ASIC 1.1 and Mobility Applications (on Street)
B C D E F G
Line # Description Power W Power Comments
Transmit Power calculations
5 Nominal available power at J4 point 10.5 W 40.2 dBm Max power available
6 Pilot Channel Power 1.575 W 32.0 dBm 15% of max. power
7 Sync Channel Power 0.2 W 22.0 dBm 10% pilot power
8 Paging Channel Power 0.6 W 27.4 dBm 35.1% pilot power
9 Power available for the traffic Channel 8.2 W 39.1 dBm 78.2% total power
10 Total Overhead 21.8 % C10 = 100*(1 - (c9/c5))
Overhead factor to convert from mobiles to the
11 number of active power channels 1.75 2.4 dB IS-95B new handoff
12 Cell site Cable Loss and combiner loss 2.0 3.00 dB
13 Cell site Transmit Antenna Gain 63.1 18.0 dBi
14 Propagation loss
15 Max. mean Propagation Path Loss 1.06E+15 150.2 dB
16 Mobile RX Signal power Calculations
17 Mobile Receive Antenna Gain 1.6 2.0 dBi
18 Mobile Body/Cable/Building Losses 1.6 2.0 dB
19 Thermal Noise Calculations
20 Mobile Noise Figure (F) 7.9 9.0 dB
21 Thermal Noise Density (No=KT) 3.98E-21 -174.0 dBm/Hz
22 Total thermal Noise power per Hz (NoF) 3.16228E-20 -165.0 dBm/Hz
23 Spreading bandwidth (W) 1.23E+06 Hz 60.9 dB
24 Total thermal noise power (NoWF) 3.88581E-14 W -104.1 dBm
External (intermod/spectrum clearance)
25 interference 1.58489E-15 W -118.0 dBm
26 Number of Mobiles per Sector 36
27 Power Outage Probability 0.040
28 Pilot Ec/(No+Io) at cell edge 0.04 -13.7 dB
29 Voice Activity Factor
30 Mean of VAF 0.48
31 Variance of VAF 0.122725
32 Hong Yang's Coefficients
µ(xN) 0.0107
µ(xΙ) 0.0200
E(xNxI) 0.0003
σ(xN) 0.0368
σ(xΙ) 0.0064
µ(Ξ) 0.01025894
σ2(Ξ) 0.00008474
µ(Ψ) 0.64631291
σ2(Ψ) 0.00533881
pg 29 of 140
A “Forward Link Budget” that extrapolates normalized results. Since the assessment of forward
link performance can be computationally intensive, a few normalized scenarios (normalized (e.g.,
unity coverage, unity power, etc.) are assessed and can be later extrapolated in a straightforward
way to design scenarios of specific interest. The normalized results are captured in the Hong
Yang coefficients. The extrapolation uses design-specific values such as antenna gain, sector
power, and uplink coverage footprint. New coefficients must be generated if the design scenario
of interest has different fundamental assumptions (e.g., fading statistics, path loss laws) from
those employed in generating the normalized results.
3.2.2.2 Solutions—Approximate
Additional means may be used for forward link analysis. These are simpler but approximate. Since the
time required to obtain a solution by extrapolating from a normalized baseline (see 3.2.2.1) is usually
comparable to the time required to obtain an approximate solution, the former is preferred. Nevertheless,
approximate methods can provide useful insight. For completeness, we briefly outline several methods,
below.
The method outlined in 3.2.2.1 can be simplified by placing all users at cell edge in an identical multipath
and handoff state. Given the specification of user number, cell radius (i.e., allowed path loss, usually from
the reverse link budget), forward sector power, and fading statistics, a geometry value for each user can be
computed. The distribution of these values is then examined to determine whether it is appropriate to
deliver performance; for example, the range of user velocity that can be supported could be assessed.
This approach has the value of reasonable simplicity, particularly since the fades of the links from the host
cell are assumed independent. Its disadvantages are the inaccuracies stemming from several sources,
including:
• No fading can be assigned to the interference background experienced by each mobile at cell
edge…for simplicity, this background is presumed constant
• The presumption of all users at the cell edge is very conservative
• The presumption of identical multipath for each user is not correct
Although these limitations introduce error, the result is usually conservative; particularly if a high value of
surrounding interference background is used in computing user geometry. Accordingly, this approximate
method remains useful.
A simpler approximation may be obtained by analyzing a single mobile at cell edge, and assessing its
performance when assigned the maximum allowed value of single link traffic channel power. This
approach renders the forward link very similar to the reverse link, since the fundamental issue of power-
sharing amongst multiple mobiles is removed. Although this approach also provides insight, it is less often
used since it completely decouples coverage from capacity; i.e., it is difficult to extrapolate from the single-
link result how many additional mobiles may be served within the footprint.
pg 30 of 140
4 RF Engineering for Data
4.1 Introduction
The availability of packet data features introduces additional complexity into the air interface. In voice-
only applications, channel rates are fixed and known; moreover, network influence on the channel is
limited to handoff decisions and power control. In contrast, packet data features allow variable channel
rates dictated by the network. In addition, the network exerts further influence on the use of air interface
resources through instructing channels when to transmit (burst) and when to wait. The role of the network
in managing resources is discussed in some detail in Section 4.5.
The performance impact of these differences must be added to the already-present random effects of
mobile speed, position, and fade. The additional parameters of channel rate and network control increase
the complexity of performance prediction to the point where the situation is best analyzed via detailed end-
to-end simulations of the 3G network. Simulators providing this level of detail have been developed to
assess the 3G performance. Approximate analyses via other methods (e.g., link budget) have also been
developed, but are of less utility for packet data than for voice. The use and limitations of approximate
methods are discussed, below.
In the following, insight into 3G1x performance is offered via several discussions. In section 4.2, we
overview the differences between circuit-switched (voice) and packet-switched (data) transmissions. This
information provides a brief but necessary framework for the performance discussions that follow; viz., the
identification and computation of performance metrics applicable to a data network. These are shown to
depend upon the number and data rates of channels available, which are obtained from RF analyses that
employ numerical modeling within an RF footprint. The design of this footprint is addressed in section 4.4,
which presents the 3G1x data link budget for various data rates.
4.2 Traffic Theory

4.2.1 Introduction
The 3G1x air interface is packet-switched in the sense that a limited number of high-speed RF data
channels are shared across many users.
A packet-switched network may share channels across users for the duration of the calls, or user sessions.
In contrast, a circuit-switched network dedicates a channel exclusively to the user for the duration of the
session. The latter model is frequently used in voice applications, where a dedicated channel is allocated
and held for the duration of the voice call. The former model is used in packet data applications, where
multiple data sources transmit data intermittently over a group of shared channels.
The “sharing” on the 3G1x air interface does not entail the sharing of a physically tangible resource; rather,
the sharing concept derives from the fact that users transmit high-speed data bursts only when cued to do so
by the network. Since channels at higher data rates produce more interference, the network manages these
bursts in a way that ensures only a limited number of high-speed data bursts are simultaneously active.
This process prevents the interference background from rising above acceptable levels while still allowing
users to experience high data rates. This resource management (see 4.5) can be viewed as time-sharing a
limited number of high-speed data channels amongst the users, and is thereby characterized as a packet-
switching process. The restricted availability of the data channel for the duration of the user session would
be unacceptable for a real-time application such as voice, but is an efficient means for data support since
the user need for transmission is at most intermittent for many data applications (e.g., web-browsing).
For our purposes, the packet-switched nature of the air interface can be captured through use of the Erlang
model. This model can also be used to illustrate the differences between the more familiar circuit-switched
(voice) and packet-switched approaches, as well as to develop the performance metrics that are relevant to
pg 31 of 140
a data network. Although this model is well documented in a number of references,6 it is overviewed
below in order to establish a framework for the performance discussions that follow. A variation of this
model shall be used to estimate network performance, below (see 4.3).
4.2.2 General Erlang Model

The Erlang model applies to the following general scenario, applicable to either voice or data:
Completions µ
N
servers
Arrivals λ
Queue (length M)
Figure 4.2-1 General Erlang Model Completions µ
The assumptions and results associated with this model are absolutely essential in characterizing data
performance. We review these briefly, below.
The model shows service requests (arrivals) entering a waiting area (queue). From the queue, the arrivals
are vectored out into one of N possible servers. Each server can serve only one arrival at a time. An arrival
has immediate access to any non-busy server.
If all servers are busy, the arrivals wait in the queue. The number of arrivals waiting in the queue is
therefore variable. The maximum size accommodated by the queue, or queue length, is M arrivals. If the
queue reaches a size of M, further arrivals are turned away or blocked until at least one arrival can exit the
queue and enter a non-busy server.
The definition of arrivals is very general. For wireless purposes, we view the arrivals as either voice calls
requiring service (voice network) or message bursts requiring transmission (data network). In either case,
the server is a transmission channel. In the former case, the server is a dedicated channel that holds the
voice call for its entire duration; in the latter case, the server is a transmission channel that transmits the
burst. In either case, once service for the arrival is complete, the resource is then freed up for the next
arrival.
6
See for example Mischa Schwartz; “Telecommunication Networks”
pg 32 of 140
The rate of arrivals is characterized by a process in which the time of arrivals is random and independent;
i.e., the probability of an arrival in any one instant is identical to and independent of the probability of an
arrival in any other instant. The average rate of arrivals is usually characterized by λ (e.g., calls/minute,
messages/hour).
The service process is similarly characterized. For a busy server, the time of service completions is also
random and independent. The average rate of completions for each server is usually characterized by µ
(e.g., completed calls/minute, messages transmitted/hour). The per-server completion rate is of course
distinct from the system completion rate, since the system rate is dependent upon the number of busy
servers. For example, the system average completion rate when N servers are busy is N×µ.
Knowledge of the parameter µ can be used to compute the probability distribution of the inter-completion
time. For voice calls, the inter-completion time is clearly the hold time. Its random distribution reflects
the random duration of voice calls. For messages, the inter-completion time is simply the time required for
the channel to transmit the message. Given a fixed channel data rate (e.g., 64 kbps), this random
distribution reflects the random length of arriving messages. In both cases, the average inter-completion
time is computed to be 1/µ.
Within these very general assumptions, the model in Figure 4.2-1 can be solved analytically for the
probability of all possible states, where the state is determined by the total number of arrivals within the
system; i.e., the sum of all arrivals being served as well as any arrivals waiting in the queue. The possible
states therefore range from 0 to (M+N). The last state is the blocking state, since in this state no more
arrivals can enter the system. The probability of the state (M+N) is therefore the probability of blocking.
The probability states are found to depend upon the ratio of λ /µ, rather than the value of either alone. This
ratio is a system load parameter measured in Erlangs. Since 1/µ is the average inter-completion time, this
load measure may be viewed as the arrival rate weighted by the average “stress” (average hold or average
transmit time) each arrival places on the system.
The computations described above produce an analytical relation between the Erlang load, number of
channels, queue length, and state probabilities. This relation has been extensively tabulated for the special
case where the queue length is zero. This Erlang B table demonstrates the relation between the Erlang
load, the number of channels, and the probability of state N. The latter is the probability of blocking in this
case: since there is no queue, the probability of new arrivals being turned away or blocked is simply the
probability that all N servers are occupied. The Erlang B model is discussed in more detail below, and
contrasted to an alternate special case of infinite-length queue (Erlang C).
The above concepts are summarized in the table below.

Table 4.2-1 Summary of Erlang Model
Average arrival rate λ
Average server completion (of service) rate µ
Average server inter-completion time 1/µ
System load (Erlangs) λ /µ
Number of servers N
Length of queue M
Maximum system occupancy N+M
Probability of block =probability of state (M+N)
Average system completion (of service) rate nµ, where n=current system state
Special case Erlang B (M=0 or no queue)
Special case
Erlang C (M infinity or infinite queue)
pg 33 of 140
4.2.3 Special Cases: Erlang B and Erlang C

In any situation, the collection of state probabilities depends upon the Erlang load as well as the values of
M (queue length) and N (servers). Two limiting cases are of especial interest.
In the first case, the queue length is set to 0. Arrivals are therefore blocked as soon as all servers are busy;
i.e., the probability of blocking is probability of the state N. The blocking probability is entirely
determined by the Erlang load and the number of servers N. The relation between the three is captured in
an Erlang B table, which allows computation of any one (e.g., Erlangs) from specification of any other two
(e.g., probability of block, number of servers).
The Erlang B table is widely used for voice calls, since its underlying model captures the scenario where
voice users make a single call attempt (a single arrival) and are either immediately served or blocked. In
the latter case, the user may try again at a later time, but the elapsed time is sufficient to ensure that the next
attempt resembles a new, independent arrival to the system.
In the second case, the queue length is presumed infinite. Arrivals are therefore never blocked; however,
there is a probability of delay. The probability of being delayed (i.e., of waiting some nonzero time in the
queue for service) is the probability of the state N, where all servers are busy. The delay probability is
entirely determined by the Erlang load and the number of servers N. The relation between the three is
captured in an Erlang C table, which allows computation of any one value (e.g., Erlangs) from
specification of any other two (e.g., probability of delay, number of servers). Since the average wait time
in the queue can be determined from the probability of delay (and vice-versa), an alternate 3-way relation
of Erlangs, average wait, and number of servers may be tabulated.
The Erlang C table may also be used for voice calls, since its underlying model captures the scenario where
voice users make repeated, multiple attempts as necessary to be served. In this interpretation, each arrival
is a single voice user attempting to access the system. The user is either served on the first attempt, or not;
in the latter case, the user continues to attempt to access the system until served. These continuous
reattempts place the user in the system queue, “waiting” for service. Note that the queue in this application
is conceptual, representing the collection of users attempting but not yet achieving access.
The use of this model for voice calls is less prevalent than that of Erlang B, since it requires that each user
continuously attempt access until finally served; in contrast, Erlang B requires a single access attempt per
user. Neither model can therefore accommodate scenarios where each user may execute 1 or 2 immediate
re-access attempts before being served or blocked, but Erlang B is frequently considered to be a better
approximation of this situation than Erlang C.
The Erlang C model is more typically used for packet data, since the presence of a queue lends itself to
modeling the management of data resources over shared channels. In this application, a large number of
data sources time-share a modest number of transmission channels N. The data sources send brief data
transmissions (bursts) as permitted by the network, which attempts to share the transmission channel
resources in some efficient manner. Bursts (messages) undergoing transmission are being served by one of
the N servers in the Erlang C model (see Figure 4.2-1). Messages waiting their turn for transmission are in
the queue, regardless of whether these messages are stored at each data source (a conceptual queue) or
stored in a single intermediate physical buffer between the data sources and the servers (physical queue).
The random nature of the arrival process into the queue is driven by the fact that the data source does not
require the sending of continuous messages; rather, the arrival of messages is randomized by the bursty,
interactive nature of the data application (e.g., web-browsing). Indeed, this randomness is exploited in
order to efficiently serve the data users with a number of servers that is less than the total number of active
data sessions. The random nature of the service process at each server derives from the random variations
in message length. For a server of fixed transmission rate, these random variations in length randomize the
service or hold time for each arrival.
pg 34 of 140
In Erlang C, the net rate at which arrivals exit the system after being served depends upon the number of
busy servers. For n busy servers, the net rate is n×µ, where n can vary from 0 to N. Since the probability
of all states is known, the average net rate at which arrivals exit the system (the throughput) can be
computed as:
∑ n ⋅ µ ⋅ p(n) + N ⋅ µ ⋅ p
N −1
throughput = delay
n =0
Equation 4.2-1 Throughput Equation

The units of throughput are messages/sec or more conventionally bits/sec. In the above, the average rate is
computed by weighing the service rate at each state by its state probability. For n less than N, the service
rate associated with each state is n×µ since for these states the queue is empty and n servers are busy. For n
greater than or equal to N, all servers are busy and the service rate becomes fixed at N×µ. This rate is
therefore weighted by the probability of delay, since the probability of all servers busy is simply the
probability that an arrival will be delayed (i.e., will need to wait in the queue). The concept of throughput
is directly applicable to 3G1x traffic planning, as described below.
4.2.4 Applications of Erlang C to 3G1x Data

We now consider specific use of the Erlang C model for 3G1x data. Identity of the model components, as
well as specific measures of performance for planning and analysis, are discussed below.
In 3G1x data, high-speed or supplemental channels are dynamically set up for the users when a burst is
cued, and torn down when the burst is complete (see 4.5). In order to control interference, only a limited
number of supplemental channels may be simultaneously active; accordingly, we may view the process as
simply time-sharing a fixed number N of high-speed servers. These high-speed channels are the servers
within the Erlang C model. (The number of servers is determined via RF analysis in section 4.4).
Message bursts requiring transmission are either immediately transmitted, or stored awaiting transmission.
At the reverse link, storage occurs within the mobile data device. At the forward link, storage occurs at a
buffer in the cell site. In both cases, this storage corresponds to the queue in the Erlang C model where
arrivals are waiting for access to the servers. The forward link queue is physical in that a single buffer
can be identified where messages arrive and await service. The reverse link queue is more conceptual in
that it consists of the collection of stored messages across the mobile data devices. In both cases a large
number of arrivals can be stored; hence the queue length is approximated as infinite.
For this queue and these servers, a three-way relation between Erlang load, number of servers, and average
wait time in the queue is readily determined from the Erlang C model. Once these values are determined,
the throughput can also be calculated (see Equation 4.2-1). Accordingly, the load that can be
accommodated by a sector can be obtained by specifying the number of servers and the average wait time.
In 3G1x, the determination of the number of servers per sector is a constraint dictated by the RF interface.
The average wait time (e.g., 5 seconds) is specified as a requirement and corresponds to the average time
between actual message transmission and the time at which data enters the buffer (mobile or cell) to await
service. Given these values, the Erlang load that the sector can accommodate follows directly from the
Erlang C model. This load can then be compared to the load offered from the subscriber population to
assess how many sectors are required.
This process is followed in 3G1x traffic planning with a slight modification: the offered load is assessed in
throughput rather than in Erlangs. This approach differs from that employed in Erlang B, since in the
Erlang B model the subscriber load in Erlangs can be determined in a manner independent of the network;
i.e., the load depends only upon the characteristics of the subscriber population. In Erlang C, the subscriber
load in Erlangs depends upon transmission properties of the network as well as upon characteristics of the
pg 35 of 140
subscriber population. This difference, which drives the use of throughput as an alternate load measure in
planning data networks, is described below.
In a voice network modeled by Erlang B, the load in Erlangs is the product of arrival rate and of average
hold time (see 4.2.2 and 4.2.3). Arrival rates (e.g., calls/min) are clearly a function of the subscriber
characteristics alone. Hold times (e.g., min/call) are also a function of the subscriber characteristics alone
provided that any additional network processing time is negligible by comparison (a very good assumption
for hold times that are typically measured in minutes). The Erlang load offered to a sector can therefore be
determined from subscriber characteristics alone; indeed, since Erlangs from different sources add together
to yield net Erlang loads7, the total load offered to an unspecified voice system can be determined by
multiplying the estimated average subscriber contribution (typically expressed as milliErlangs per
subscriber) by the estimated subscriber population. In planning, this offered load is readily compared to the
accommodated load per sector in order to determine the number of sectors needed within any geographic
area.
Accordingly, we seek an alternative measure of load that is a function of subscriber characteristics alone.
Since Erlang loads from multiple data sources add, we view the subscriber population as a large collection
of data sources, each contributing a modest Erlang load to the data network. The arrival rate (e.g.,
messages/sec) for the ith data user is lambda(i). The average hold time per message is identical at 1/mu,
which can be expressed as the average message length in bits divided by the server capacity of C bits/sec:
Total Erlangs =
λtotal
µ
= ∑ λi
data subscriber s i µ
= ∑
data subscriber s i
λi
L
C
=
1
∑ λi L
C data subscriber s i
Equation 4.2-2 Total Erlang Calculation
In the above, the expression within the final sum has the units of messages/sec * bits/message or bits/sec.
This measure represents the total data transmission load (usually expressed in kbits/sec) or throughput
offered by the subscriber population. This measure of load is proportional to the Erlang load via the
transmission capacity C as shown above, and is a property of the subscriber population alone. Since the
throughput accommodated by the network can be readily computed from the Erlang C model (see Equation
4.2-1), this value can be compared to the throughput offered by the subscriber population in much the same
way that the Erlang load possible on a voice network can be compared to the Erlangs offered by the
subscribers.
Traffic planning for 3G1x data networks can therefore be done as follows:
1) Establish the number and rate of servers available on the air interface per sector via RF analysis
2) Specify average wait time required
3) Compute the throughput that can be accommodated by the sector by using the Erlang C model
4) Estimate the throughput offered by the subscriber population through estimating the messages/sec and
the average message length (see Equation 4.2-2)
5) Compare the accommodated throughput to the offered throughput to determine how many sectors are
required
For example, if a sector can accommodate 100 kbps satisfying the wait time constraint specified, 10 sectors
are needed to address an area offering a total 1000 kbps. (More sectors might be needed to address other
requirements, such as RF coverage throughout the area).
Steps 1-3 are addressed in the Lucent modeling described below. This information establishes a throughput
per sector for an average wait time of 5 seconds and various other assumptions on the data traffic
encountered. The value obtained varies as wait time and data statistics are altered.
7
This addition property for multiple sources holds provided that each source has identical hold time
statistics. This assumption holds well for voice users.
pg 36 of 140
4.3 Data Capacity

4.3.1 Introduction
In this section we determine the capacity offered by a 3G1x sector. Although this capacity is best
determined by detailed time-dependent simulations, considerable insight can be gained by less
computationally intensive modeling that exploits the Erlang C model. The essential details of this
modeling are overviewed, below.
In summary, information obtained from standards is used to develop link level simulations. This data is
input to a system simulation. This simulation determines the number and rate of channels available from
RF considerations. This information, coupled with end-user traffic models and system performance
constraints, is used to determine capacity via an Erlang C model (see Figure 4.2-1).
We focus our attention on the capacity calculation.
An average wait time for a message is specified as a requirement. The throughput for the sector can then
be calculated from the Erlang C model provided that the other components within the model are specified.
These include hold time per server, rate of server, and number of servers.
To determine this information, we presume a forward-link limited situation within a cell coverage area.
This presumption divorces the analysis from specific output powers and specific cell radii. The power
required to balance the links is discussed separately in section 4.4.
Within the coverage area, one of the possible 3G1x supplemental data rates (e.g., 19.2 kbps) is selected and
fixed. Given a presumed average message size, the average supplemental channel hold time required per
message is computed. The number of channels accommodated by the air interface at this rate is a random
function depending upon a number of variables including mobile position, speed, multipath, and fade.
Monte Carlo analysis is therefore employed to produce a probability distribution function of the number of
channels at this rate.
For each possible number of channels within the distribution, a throughput is calculated from the Erlang C
model. The probability of this throughput is the probability of the associated number of channels. An
overall average throughput for this data rate is computed by weighing each value of throughput by its
probability.
The process is repeated for each 3G1x data rate of interest, yielding an average throughput for each rate.
Using estimated average throughput per subscriber (where the averaging interval includes delays between
transmissions required to read or think about a downloaded message), the number of subscribers
accommodated at each rate is calculated.
The results for each data rate are tabulated and then combined in a weighted fashion that reflects the
anticipated mix of users at different data rates. The thoughputs calculated are then compared to offered
subscriber loads to determine how many sectors are required.
This process is summarized in Figure 4.3-1 and described in greater detail, below.
pg 37 of 140
IS-2000 STANDARD
Physical
Channel Data
User Mobility Layer
Structure Protocols
Specs.
LINK LEVEL
SIMULATION
Power Requirements
per Channel
SYSTEM LEVEL
SIMULATION
Number of Channels
End User
Traffic Model
QUEUING MODEL
QoS
Requirements
CAPACITY
Figure 4.3-1 Overview of Computation Process for Capacity
4.3.2 Estimation of Data Capacity

From an air interface perspective, we anticipate that the 3G1x packet data capacity and throughput will be
governed by several interlocking factors including:
• The number of users (fundamental and supplemental channels) that can be supported
• The number of users that share the supplemental channels
• The relative position of the users within the cell site coverage area. This information is key since the
maximum data rate supported by the link can clearly increase when the user is closer to cell center.
• The average throughput per data user
• The associated FER target
• The Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
• The link channel activity and packet call size
Several studies have been done that examine aspects of these elements. For example, analysis on the air
interface limit of supplemental channels has been done for each supplemental channel data rate by
conducting link level and system level simulations. The air-interface limit of supplement channels derived
in this analysis is the distribution of the simultaneous active channel number that depends on the target
Frame Error Rate (FER), mobile locations, mobile speeds, propagation environments, other user
pg 38 of 140
interference and the base station power allocated to each traffic channel. Once the distribution of the
number of supplemental channels is determined, the M/M/m queuing model (Poisson arrival, exponential
distribution of service time and m servers) is used to compute the average total throughput and data user
capacity that can be supported for a given data traffic model including average packet call size, target
queuing delay and supplemental channel rate.
More specifically, the link level simulations are performed to obtain the required base station power
fraction for a traffic channel versus the geometry that is a function of the mobile location and propagation
environments. The geometry is defined as the ratio of the mobile received serving sector power to the
mobile received other interfering sector power plus noise power. In the link level simulation, we consider
the following parameters:
• Radio Configuration 3 (RC3)

• 9.6kbps@1% FER, 19.2kbps@2% FER, 38.4kbps@2% FER, 76.8kbps@3% FER, and
153.6kbps@5% FER
• No handoff on the forward link for supplemental channels
In order to obtain the Probability Density Function (PDF) of supportable supplemental channels from the
system level simulator, the following assumptions are made:
• Snapshot simulation technique

• 3-sector configuration, 19 cells and 57 sectors
• Randomly generate data user location within center cell
• ITU vehicular propagation model
• 8 dB log-normal standard deviation and 0.5 site-to-site correlation
• mobile speed distribution: 50% for Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) and 50% for 1 path
Rayleigh fading at 3kmph (pedestrian speed)
• 5% outage probability
• Turbo code gain is considered for data rates greater than or equal to 19.2 kbps
Having determined the distribution of the supplemental channel number, we employ the M/M/m queuing
theory to derive the average throughput and data user capacity based on the data traffic model for web
browsing (illustrated in Figure 4.3-2). In the data traffic model, a session is defined as the interval between
the time instant when a data user logs in the web site and the time instant when the user logs off the web. A
session consists of a number of packet calls (web pages for the web browsing application) each of which is
comprised of several packets. For the web browsing application, the total delay per page is defined as the
time interval between a mouse click and the completion of a web page download. In other words, the total
delay per page is the sum of the access time, network delay, queuing delay and download time. The average
packet call inter-arrival time between two adjacent mouse clicks equals the total delay per page plus the
think time (think time = the duration between the time instant when starting reading a web page and the
time instant when clicking a mouse for the next page). Therefore the average throughput is obtained by
dividing the average packet call size by the average packet call inter-arrival time.
In the following, we will provide the average throughput and data user capacity (in terms of simultaneous
data sessions) for the case where 5 sec is selected as the queuing delay per packet. To characterize the data
session fully, some additional assumptions are made:
• exponentially distributed packet call (web page) size with a mean = 41.1 kBytes
• exponentially distributed “think” time between packet calls (page downloads) with a mean of 40 sec
• Packet Call Inter-Arrival Time = Access & Network Delay (3 sec) + Target Queuing Delay (5 sec) +
Download Time (dependent on the channel rate) + Think Time
• average number of packet calls per session = 20
• "equal user throughput" scheduling policy
pg 39 of 140
Web Browsing Session
Dormant Active Dormant Active
Supplemental
Channel
Bursts
First
Data
153.6 153.6 153.6
Arrived SCH SCH SCH
at IWF
76.8 76.8 76.8
SCH SCH SCH
38.4
9.6 kbps FCH 9.6 FCH
Mouse Start Fundamental

Mouse
Click Reading Channels
Click
Web Page
Access
Time
Download Dormancy Timer
Network Time Duration
Delay
Queuing Delay "Think" Time
( incl. SCH Setup Delay)
Figure 4.3-2 Data Traffic Model for Web Browsing Application with the 3G1x Packet Data Users
Feeding the system level simulation results into the queuing model with the data traffic scenario, we obtain
that average throughput per user for 3G 1x packet data. The packet data capacity is shown in Table 4.1 as a
function of supplemental channel data rate. In the table, the average total delay per page is defined as the
sum of the access time, network delay, queuing delay, and download time. The average number of
simultaneous data sessions can be calculated by dividing the average sector throughput by the average user
throughput. It is observed that as the supplemental channel data rate decreases, the average total delay
increases but the average sector throughput and the average number of simultaneous data sessions are
comparable.
The average data user capacity is determined by several dominant factors: average packet call size,
supplemental channel rate, think time and Quality of Service (QoS) including the target FER and queuing
delay.
pg 40 of 140
Table 4.3-1 Average Data User Capacity and Throughput with an Average Packet Call Size of 41.1
kBytes and a Target Queuing Delay of 5 sec
Channel Total Delay Average User Number of Throughput per

Rate per Page Throughput Simultaneous Data sector per
(kbps) (sec) (kbps) Sessions carrier(kbps)
19.2 25.1 4.9 23 111
38.4 16.6 5.7 20 112
76.8 12.4 6.1 18 111
153.6 10.3 6.4 17 109
Average 16.1 5.8 20 110.8
Note that the above values indicate that the throughput per sector is robust with respect to the data rate.
This result indicates that an anticipated throughput of 109 to 112 kbps is robust with respect to whatever
weighting is employed to combine the results at individual data rates into an overall estimate. This
observation is useful in planning, but could change as components of the underlying traffic model or
requirements (e.g., think time, average wait in queue) are altered.
4.4 Data Link Budgets

4.4.1 Reverse Link
The reverse link data budget for 3G1x data is readily obtained by recognizing that coverage is dictated by
the data rate desired at the edge of the data coverage; i.e., the edge of the coverage of the reverse link
supplemental channel used to transmit high-speed data bursts. This edge may or may not correspond to the
physical edge of the cell, which could for example be designed to support voice rate at its perimeter and
higher data rates only within its interior. With the data rate desired at the edge of data coverage specified,
the data coverage footprint is determined by presuming that all users within this footprint operate at this
data rate when transmitting on a supplemental channel. The analysis outlined in section 3.2.1 for voice
therefore applies directly with only a few simple modifications. These are:
• The voice activity for the supplemental channel is presumed to be 1. This high usage reflects the
assumption that the few supplemental channels supported by the air interface will be almost
continuously busy as they are shared from user to user.
• The information rate is higher, corresponding to the data rate (e.g., 19.2 kbps) selected for cell edge
• A voice user certainly requires a body (head) loss; e.g., 2 dB. A data user employing a data device
may encounter little or no loss. In the below, a 0 dB loss for data users is assumed.
• The Eb/Nt requirement is lower for the data application due to the relaxed target FER. The relaxed
FER is permissible since the data application is not real time; i.e., frames received in error can be
retransmitted.
The PCS Modcell reverse link budget examples for 3G1x 19.2 kbps - 153.6 kbps packet data, mobility
applications and 9.6 kbps voice application are shown in Table 4.4-1. Note that the target FER relaxation
for the data application is used to increase the maximum path loss (or the cell coverage). Simulation results
indicate that the increased FER does not cause significant TCP/IP throughput degradation.
pg 41 of 140
Table 4.4-1 Reverse Link Budget for PCS 3G-1x 9.6 kbps Voice, 19.2 kbps -153.6 kbps Packet Data,
Mobility Applications
Item Units 3G1x 3G1x 3G1x 3G1x 3G1x Comments
Voice Data Data Data Data
9.6kbps 19.2kbps 38.4kbps 76.8kbps 153.6kbps
(a) Maximum Transmitted dBm 21 21 21 21 21
power per traffic channel
(b) Transmit Cable, dB 2 0 0 0 0 no body loss for data user

connector, combiner, and
body losses
(c) Transmitter Antenna dBi 2 2 2 2 2
Gain
(d) Transmitter EIRP per dBm 21 23 23 23 23
traffic channel (a-b+c)
(e) Receiver Antenna dBi 18 18 18 18 18

Gain
(f) Receiver Cable and dB 3 3 3 3 3
Connector Losses
(g) Receiver Noise Figure dB 4 4 4 4 4 for Modcell
(h) Receiver Noise dBm/Hz -174 -174 -174 -174 -174

Density
(i) Receiver Interference dB 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 72% loading for 3G1x
Margin
(j) Total Effective Noise dBm/Hz -164.5 -164.5 -164.5 -164.5 -164.5
plus Interference
Density=(g+h+i)
(k1) Information Rate dB 39.8 42.8 45.8 48.9 51.9
(10log(Rb))
(l1) Required Eb/Nt dB 4 3.4 2.9 2.2 1.5 with Turbo code gain for
data; 1% target FER for
9.6kbps, 2% for 19.2kbps,
2% for 38.4 kbps, 3% for
76.8kbps and 5% for
153.6kbps; considering 2
spatial receive diversity
branches
(m) Receiver sensitivity dBm -120.7 -118.5 -116.5 -114.5 -112.7
(j+k+l)
(n) Hand-off Gain dB 4 4 4 4 4 90% cell edge coverage
(o) Explicit Diversity Gain dB 0 0 0 0 0 diversity gain has been
included in required Eb/Nt
(p) Log-normal Fade dB 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3 for 90% edge coverage
Margin with 8dB log-normal
standard deviation
(p') Building/Vehicle dB 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 for outdoor coverage
Penetration Loss
(q) Maximum Path loss dB 150.4 150.2 147.8 145.8 143.9
{d-m+e+o+n-p-p'}
pg 42 of 140
If the design goal of a newly deployed 3G1x system is to provide a ubiquitous coverage for a high-rate data
service, then the link budget based on the supplemental channel rate should be used for RF design. In this
case, the physical edge of the cell is determined by the edge of data coverage. In contrast, if the voice link
budget is used, then the high-rate data service will be available with the same probability of coverage as
voice coverage in an inner circle of the cell coverage. In this case, the supportable packet data rate (or
alternatively the probability of achieving a higher data rate) will reduce when the mobile moves close to the
cell edge. The maximum allowable path loss for the packet data can be extended by employing the data
terminals with higher antenna gain and transmitted power and increasing the base station transmit power.
In the above examples, the interference margin is retained at a constant 5.5 dB in spite of the fact that the
number of supplemental channels available at each data rate decreases as the data rate increases. A reduced
number of supplemental channels could force a reduction in loading in order to ensure system stability;
however, the interference background is stabilized by the constant (1) value of voice activity for the few
channels present (see 3.2.1.2).
The link budgets shown above can be applied to the situation of ubiquitous coverage at a given data rate.
For example, if 76.8 kbps is desired throughout the coverage area, the cell footprint would be designed by
employing the 76.8 kbps budget: since this cell spacing extends the 76.8 kbps to the cell edge, this rate is
by extension available throughout the interior of the cell. Since each data rate has equal interference
margin, the budgets shown can also be used to map out the relative coverage areas for a mix of
supplemental channels within a larger footprint. For example, the outer physical perimeter of the cell could
be established using the 9.6 kbps link budget. Within this perimeter, the restricted dB losses shown for the
link budgets at higher rates establish the inner coverage areas where the higher rates are available as in the
following figure:
- 9.6 kbps Fundamental Voice or Data Coverage

- 19.2 kbps Supplemental Coverage
alpha
beta
gamma Cell Cite
Figure 4.4-1 Inner Coverage Areas for Higher Supplemental Channel Data Rates
4.4.2 Forward Link

Analysis of the forward link is best conducted by numerical simulation; however, the computational load
associated with such calculations drives the need for simpler planning tools. In the following, we briefly
consider several alternatives for simplified forward link analysis. The relative merits of each are discussed.
All techniques can be employed in two basic planning configurations. The first or embedded configuration
is determined by a single data rate; e.g., 76.8 kbps. This data rate corresponds to the physical edge of the
cell and thus determines the physical cell footprint. The second or concentric configuration is determined
by two data rates; e.g., 76.8 kbps and 9.6 kbps. The lower data rate determines the physical edge of the
cell; i.e., the outer boundary. The higher data rate corresponds to the boundary of an inner footprint within
pg 43 of 140
the cell where the higher data rate can be supported. The inner footprint is thus a subset of the overall cell
coverage.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 4.4-2. The concentric configuration is more common, since upgrades
to 3G1x frequently involve overlay on existing networks where the outer physical boundary is determined
by the IS-95 voice data rate.
Outer boundary; e.g., 9.6 kbps
Inner boundary; e.g., 76.8 kbps
Figure 4.4-2 Concentric Configuration: Inner and Outer Boundaries Dictated by Two Data Rates.
In the following, we consider the application of symmetric link budget analysis and Monte Carlo link
analysis to the forward link. Note that the former is essentially identical in form to a spreadsheet analysis
in which all terms (including symmetric terms common to each link) are employed; however, the
discussion below focuses on the symmetric approach in order to more compactly indicate the concepts
involved. In each case, application to embedded and concentric configuration is discussed.
4.4.2.1 Symmetric Forward Data Link Analysis

The purpose of symmetric forward link analysis is to establish the path loss within which a given data rate
can be supported. This analysis might be done to assess whether a footprint established by reverse link can
be supported, or to establish limits on path loss imposed by forward link considerations alone. The latter is
useful in situations where by design the forward link is expected to carry higher data-rate traffic than the
reverse link. In this case, support of the footprint established by the lower-rate reverse link would not be
relevant; rather, the design footprint would be established solely by forward link limitations.
). The data rate to be supported at the cell edge is chosen. This rate is the rate desired for the supplemental
channel. A path loss to the cell boundary is computed (e.g., from reverse link considerations), or simply
presumed as a starting point for analysis. All forward links are presumed to burst at this data rate, and the
mobile receivers are symmetrically arranged in a worst-case situation at the cell edge. The analysis then
determines whether the available forward link power is sufficient to achieve the required forward link
Eb/Nt at the mobile receiver in light of fading phenomena across the links. The symmetric arrangement of
the mobiles ensures that the Eb/Nt requirement for each link is identical, and renders the problem soluble
without extensive numerical computation.
Although the approach is conceptually similar to voice analysis, important differences exist. Unlike voice,
the rates of all links are not identical. The analysis must consider mobiles employing both the low-rate
fundamental and the high-rate supplemental channels. The former are mobiles transmitting at low levels
pg 44 of 140
while waiting to burst; i.e., waiting for a supplemental channel. The latter are mobiles bursting; i.e.,
transmitting on a supplemental channel. In addition, soft handoff is only available for the fundamental
channel. No soft handoff exists on the forward link supplemental channel.
Furthermore, the definition of ‘cell edge’ in this analysis depends upon the configuration employed. In the
embedded configuration, there is no ambiguity: the cell edge corresponds to the physical outer perimeter of
the cell. In the concentric configuration, the cell edge in analysis corresponds to the physical edge of an
inner coverage circle where the data rate of interest can be supported. The outer coverage boundary of the
cell is dictated by a lower data rate and corresponds to the physical edge of the actual cell footprint (see
Figure 4.4-2). To avoid confusion, we shall refer to the edge corresponding to the high data rate of interest
as the data cell edge. The data cell edge is the boundary of cell footprint in an embedded configuration, but
is the edge of the inner boundary in the concentric configuration.
With these definitions, we proceed as follows for both configurations.

We first establish the path loss corresponding to the data cell edge by noting the sensitivity required for the
uplink at the data rate of interest (e.g., 76.8 kbps):
 
 
FN t W
S min = E{S } =  
 g
− (1 + β )( N − 1)ηα 
d 
 max 
S min
a=
wmax g net ( fade)
Equation 4.4-1
The above expression essentially corresponds to reverse link analysis for the supplemental channel data
rate of interest (see 4.4.1). Note that the processing gain g must equal the ratio of bandwidth to data rate, R,
as in voice. However, the processing gain may well be modest (in comparison to voice) since the
supplemental channel data rate can be as high as 153.6 kbps. The receiver sensitivity is used to solve for
the attenuation (path loss) a, which will serve as a starting point for forward link analysis.
Alternatively, a value of a could be assumed. We compute the value in this way for this example under the
presumption that it is desired that both links achieve the same supplemental channel data rate at the data
cell edge, regardless of whether concentric or embedded configurations are employed.
We now proceed by placing all mobiles at the data cell edge. Mobile receiver Eb/Nt` requirements and
total forward power constraints are then used to produce the governing relationship that must be satisfied
with high probability.
∑ α dg β [1 + η(1 / β i − d i / g i )] ≤ (1 − γ )Qmax
N links
i i i
i =1 i Qtotal
Equation 4.4-2
The summation is over both supplemental and fundamental links. Accordingly, the values of channel
activity α, forward link Eb/Nt requirement d, interference ratio β, and processing gain g extend across both
supplemental and fundamental channels. This extension is the reason behind the subscript i on the
processing gain: unlike voice, this value is not constant per link but varies in accordance with whether the
link is fundamental or supplemental.
pg 45 of 140
Accordingly, we alter the form as follows:
εd 
∑ β [1 + ξ (1 / β − η / η ) ] = η
∑( )
β i [1 + ξ (1 / β i − η d / η g )] ≤ η g (1 − γ )
N links  N links
ηd α i
α new
 i
i =1  ε gi  i i d g d
i =1
i
where:
di = ε d i E d = ε d i ηd
gi = ε g i E g = ε g iηg
and
(α ) = α εε
i
new
i
di



 gi 
Equation 4.4-3
Presuming that the total number of links Nlinks is composed of Nsuppl and Nfund links, the means of d and g are
readily computed by using constant values of d and g for supplemental links and constant values of d and g
for fundamental links:
N sup pl N fund
ηd = d sup pl + d fund
N total N total
N sup pl N fund
ηg = gsup pl + g fund
N total N total
where
N total = N fund + N sup pl
Equation 4.4-4 Composite means over fundamental and supplemental channels for processing gain
and required Eb/Nt
The newly defined channel activity has statistics defined by the fundamental and supplemental channel
activities, weighted by the deviations of Eb/Nt, d, and processing gain, g, from their means. This random
variable is independent of others in the sum. The solution for satisfying this relation with high probability,
provided that it is understood that the channel activity variable in this solution is the newly defined channel
activity, above is:
( −1)
(1 − γ )  σ α2σ β2 σ β2 σ α2 
ηg
N linksηα η β
1 +
k
+ +  [1 + ξ (1 / η β − ηd / η g ) ]
−1
≥ ηd
 N links ηα2η β2 η β2 ηα2 
 
Equation 4.4-5 Forward link budget statement

Satisfaction of this inequality indicates that the supplemental and fundamental channels can indeed be
supported at the data cell edge. The forward link budget essentially evaluates the left-hand side
expression, and ensures that it is greater than or equal to the right hand side. This analysis, encapsulated
in the spreadsheet, can be used to solve for alternate values, given others.
pg 46 of 140
For example, the current format uses an assumed path loss and total J4 power to assess the Eb/Nt that can
be achieved with high probability in order to compare this value to the right hand side requirement in
Equation 4.4-5. Alternatively, the required Eb/Nt and J4 power can be used as inputs to solve for the path
loss that can be tolerated while still satisfying Equation 3.2-1with high probability.
Equation 4.4-5 can also be evaluated using a more detailed calculation that simply includes symmetric
terms like antenna gain. As expected, the results are identical since the precise value of the symmetric
terms has no effect in establishing forward link viability. Nevertheless, the more detailed spreadsheet (see
Table 4.4-2) is sometimes preferred since it lists such terms explicitly.
With the exception of terms related to the interference ratio β and newly defined channel activity α, all
other factors required to evaluate Equation 4.4-5can be found in Equation 4.4-4. We now consider the
evaluation of these channel activity and interference ratio terms.
The computation of the mean and variance of the newly defined channel activity can be done in a
conventional way provided that the statistics of this random variable are known. These are readily
developed as follows. We presume that the shared supplemental channel(s) are continuously employed;
accordingly, their activity is 1. In contrast, the fundamental channels operate at 1/8 of the fundamental
channel rate of 9.6 kbps; i.e., a low rate sufficient to maintain the call between bursts. Considering the
definition in Equation 4.4-3, the statistics underlying the newly defined channel activity are:
With probability Nsuppl/Ntotal:
d sup pl / ηd
α new = (1)
g sup pl / η g
With probability Nfund/Ntotal:
d fund / ηd
α new = (1 / 8)
g fund / η g
Equation 4.4-6 Voice activity for data link budget
Note that the former is simply the value of new channel activity for a supplemental channel. The latter is
the value of new channel activity for a fundamental channel. Equation 4.4-6completely characterizes the
statistics of the newly defined channel activity; accordingly, mean and variance can be computed in the
standard fashion.
We assume that the values and statistics of interference ratio are identical for both fundamental and
supplemental channels. This assumption generally follows from the symmetric placement of all mobiles at
data cell edge, and is either accurate or simply conservative depending upon the configuration employed
(see below).
In the embedded configuration, the value of Pother/Phost for the supplemental channel is larger than in voice
applications, since the forward link supplemental channel does not enter into soft handoff at the data cell
edge. Accordingly, the value of Pother is raised since the broadcasts from the neighbor cell(s) can no longer
be treated as a source of signal rather than of interference. (In voice, the power from neighbor cell[s] does
not contribute to Pother since these cells contribute a soft handoff link). The value for supplemental channel
thus increases from –4 dB (typical value in voice analyses) to nearly +2 dB. The latter value can also be
used as a very conservative estimate for the fundamental channels, which do enter into soft handoff in a
manner similar to a voice channel.
pg 47 of 140
In the concentric configuration, the value of Pother/Phost for both fundamental and supplemental channels
varies depending upon the data rates that establish the inner boundary (data cell edge) and outer boundary
(physical perimeter) of the cell. Generally, the outer boundary is well removed from the inner; accordingly,
neither fundamental nor supplemental channels are in soft handoff and the properties of Pother/Phost are
identical for both. In the forward link budget, the constant value of Pother/Phost is determined in an offline
fashion by simply computing the sum of received interference from neighbor cells. The relevant path loss
in this computation is not the loss from neighbor cell to host cell boundary, but the path loss from neighbor
cell to the data cell edge (i.e., inner boundary). This value is determined by presuming a simple path loss
law; e.g., 38 dB/decade. The distance between inner boundary (data cell edge) and outer boundary
(physical perimeter) is essentially determined by examining difference in high and low data rates (e.g., 76.8
kbps, 9.6 kbps) characterizing the two.
These considerations are illustrated in Figure 4.4, below.In an embedded configuration, the physical
boundary of the cell corresponds to the data cell edge. A mobile at cell edge receives power from its host
and power (interference) from other surrounding cells. The interference from all surrounding cells must be
considered, as the forward link supplemental channel is not in soft handoff with any cell. In contrast, for a
voice channel, surrounding cells supporting the mobile in soft handoff would be sources of signal, and not
contribute interference. The value of beta for the supplemental channel is therefore greater than the values
employed for voice.
pg 48 of 140
Other Cell
X mob X
Host Cell Other Cell
Figure 4.4-3 Embedded Configuration Example
In a concentric configuration, as in Figure 4.4-4, the data cell edge corresponds to an inner boundary where
the higher data rate is available. The outer (physical) boundary of the cell corresponds to a lower data rate.
This configuration is common for upgrades/overlays of 3G1x data on a 2G-voice footprint, since the 2G
voice data dictates the outer (physical) boundary of the cell. A mobile at the data cell edge receives power
from its host and power from surrounding cells; however, the interference from surrounding cells is
proportionately less than the host power since the mobile is no longer equidistant to all cell sites. The value
of beta for the supplemental channel varies according to the inner and outer data rates.
pg 49 of 140
Other Cell
mobile
Host Cell Other Cell
Figure 4.4-4 Embedded Configuration

The computation of Pother/Phost for the embedded configuration ignores the effect of supplemental channel
anchor transfer. This transfer is essentially a very fast hard handoff in which the forward data link is
dynamically switched to the best serving cell. This switching is facilitated by information provided by the
mobile’s forward link fundamental channel, which can enter soft handoff with surrounding cells as
appropriate. The presence of anchor transfer should reduce the effects of other cell interference by
ensuring that the strongest cell is always a source of signal rather than of interference; nevertheless, in link
budget analysis, we make the conservative assumption of ignoring any anchor transfer gain.
An example forward link spreadsheet for the 3G1x fixed 153.6 kbps data application is shown below. The
spreadsheet uses the approaches described above, but with symmetric terms (e.g., antenna gain) added for
example completeness. The example is conservative in that:
• The embedded configuration is employed. As described above, the embedded configuration

establishes the data cell edge as the physical cell boundary. The symmetric arrangement of mobiles at
this cell edge maximizes the interference from surrounding cells while minimizing host signal power.
• The chosen rate of 153.6 kbps minimizes the spread spectrum channel processing gain (W/R). The
ability of the supplemental channel to reject interference from surrounding cells is therefore reduced.
• No gains are allowed for anchor transfer.
In spite of these restrictions, the spreadsheet indicates 11 fundamental channels (i.e., 11 mobiles) can be
supported at data cell edge. In addition, a single supplemental channel can be simultaneously supported.
pg 50 of 140
This channel essentially operates at a channel activity of 1, downloading high-speed (153.6 kbps) bursts of
data to each mobile in turn. Note that the specific mobile served by the supplemental channel at any time is
not relevant to the link budget calculation due to the symmetric arrangement of the mobiles.
4.4.2.2 Example Forward Link Budget
Table 4.4-2 Example Forward Link Budget for PCS 3G1x 3-SECTOR Modcells with Fixed 153.6
kbps Packet Data Application
Line # Description Power W Power Comments
Transmit Power calculations
5Nominal available power at J4 point 16W 42.0dBm Maximum power available
6Pilot Channel Power 2.4W 33.8dBm Set at 15% of max. power
7Sync Channel Power 0.2W 23.8dBm Set at 10% of pilot power
8Paging Channel Power 0.8W 29.3dBm Set at 35.1% of pilot power
9Power available for the traffic Channel 12.5W 41.0dBm 78.2% of total power
10Total Overhead 21.8% C10 = 100*(1 - (c9/c5))
11SCH rate 153.6kbps 51.9dB
12FCH rate 9.6kbps 39.8dB
13Required SCH Eb/Nt 1.8 2.5dB No SHO on SCH
14Required FCH Eb/Nt 2.5 4.0dB
Total number of
simultaneously active data
15Number of FCHs per sector 11 users
Total number of
simultaneously active
supplemental channels
16Number of SCHs per sector 1 users
Due to users being in 2
way and 3 way hand-off;
from IS-95B new handoff
17Overhead factor for FCH 1.75 2.4dB algorithm
# of Fundamental channels
supported by the
18Total number of active FCH power channels 19.3 transmitter
19Overhead factor for SCH 1
# of Supplemental
channels supported by the
20Total number of active SCH power channels 1.0 0.0dB transmitter
21Mean Voice Activity Factor (VAF) for Fundamental Channel 0.125
22Mean Voice Activity Factor (VAF) for Supplemental Channel 1
23Average Traffic Channel Power for Fundamental Channel 0.14W 21.4dBm
24Average Traffic Channel Power for Supplemental Channel 9.9W 39.9dBm
25Peak Traffic Channel Power per Fundamental Channel 1.1W 30.4dBm
26Peak Traffic Channel Power per Supplemental Channel 9.9W 39.9dBm

27Cell site Cable Loss 2.0 3.0dB
28Cell site Transmit Antenna Gain 44.7 16.5dBi
29Fundamental Traffic Channel EIRP per user at full rate 24.6W 43.9dBm
30Supplemental Traffic Channel EIRP per user at full rate 221.1W 53.4dBm
pg 51 of 140
31Total EIRP 358.2W 55.5dBm

32Propagation loss
33Maximum Path Loss 6.46E+12 128.1dB
90% edge coverage;
34Lognormal Fade Standard Deviation 6.3 8.0dB Assume no SHO for SCH
Multiplier for fading standard deviation (e.g., 1.3 for 90th
35 percentile) 1.3
36Mobile RX Signal power Calculations
37Mobile Receive Antenna Gain 1.6 2.0dBi
38Mobile Body Loss & Building Penetration Loss and Cable Loss 31.6 15.0dB
39Mobile Rx Fundamental Channel Signal power at full rate 1.91E-13W -97.2dBm
40Mobile Rx Supplemental Channel Signal power at full rate 1.72E-12W -87.7dBm

41Mobile Rx Total pwr from the Serving cell 2.78E-12W -85.6dBm
42Interference Power Calculations
From same sector's other
43Orthogonality Factor for Other users in Serving Cell 0.16 -8.0dB Walsh channels
44Standard Deviation of SCH Activity Factor 0.0
45Standard Deviation of FCH Activity Factor 0.20
Ratio of mean other sector interference to same sector power
46 at cell edge 1.8 2.6dB for SCH
47Other Cells Interference Power 5.06E-12W -83.0dBm
48Thermal Noise Calculations
49Mobile Noise Figure (F) 8 9dB
50Thermal Noise Density (No=KT) 3.98E-21 -174.0dBm/Hz
51Total thermal Noise power per Hz (NoF) 4.07E-20 -163.9dBm/Hz
52Spreading bandwidth (W) 1.23E+06Hz 60.9dB
53Total thermal noise power (NoWF) 5.01E-14W -103.0dBm
54External (intermod/spectrum clearance) interference 1.58E-15W -118.0dBm

Noise Floor and Other Cell Interference to the
55 Fundamental traffic channel 5.33E-12W -82.7dBm
Noise Floor and Other Cell Interference to the Fundamental
56 traffic channel per Hz 4.34E-18W/HZ -143.6dBm/Hz
Noise Floor and Other Cell Interference to the Supplemental
57 traffic channel 5.33E-12W -82.7dBm
Noise Floor and Other Cell Interference to the Supplemental
58 traffic channel per Hz 4.34E-18W/Hz -143.6dBm/Hz
59Mean of Other Cell to Serving Cell Interference Ratio for SCH 1.92 2.8dB
60Mean of Other Cell to Serving Cell Interference Ratio for FCH 0.49 -3.1dB
Standard Deviation of Other Cell to Serving Cell Interference
61 Ratio for SCH 0.53 -2.8dB
Standard Deviation of Other Cell to Serving Cell Interference
62 Ratio for FCH 0.53 -2.8dB
Aggregate Margin for SCH Interference Ratio and Activity
63 Factor 1.32 1.2dB
Aggregate Margin for FCH Interference Ratio and Activity
64 Factor 1.32 1.2dB
pg 52 of 140
Adjustment for SCH due to Serving Cell Interference and

65 Orthogonality Factor 1.05 0.2dB
Adjustment for FCH due to Serving Cell Interference and
66 Orthogonality Factor 1.32 1.2dB
67Bit Energy to Interference calculations
68Fundamental Traffic Channel Bit Rate 9600bps 39.8dB
69Fundamental Channel Energy per bit at full rate 1.99E-17W/Hz -137.0dBm/Hz
70Fundamental Traffic Channel Eb/(No+Io) 2.6 4.19dB
71Supplemental Traffic Channel Bit Rate 153600.0bps 51.9
72Supplemental Channel Energy per bit at full rate 1.12E-17W/Hz -139.5dBm/Hz
73Supplemental Traffic Channel Eb/(No+Io) 1.859258 2.69dB
In this example, a 128 dB path loss (line 33) has been analyzed. This path loss corresponds to the reverse
link budget for a 153.6 kbps reverse supplemental link under the conditions of:
• 0 dB head loss
• 16.5 dBi antenna gain
• 3.0 dB cable loss
• 4.0 dB noise figure
• 0.8 dB Eb/Nt requirement
• 10.3 dB fade margin
• 15 dB building penetration margin
• 5.5 dB interference margin
Accordingly, the spreadsheet indicates that the fundamental and supplemental channel numbers listed
above can be supported within this footprint since the average forward link Eb/Nt requirement is met.
(This requirement is the right-hand side of the condition Equation 4.4-5). Since the analysis employs very
conservative assumptions (see above), the actual number could be larger.
The average forward link Eb/Nt requirements for all data rates are tabulated below for reference. These
values can be used in symmetric forward link analysis (embedded or concentric) for any rate chosen. Note
that the values employed can be used for mobile or fixed applications; in the latter case; improvements in
power control relative to 3G suggest that any Eb/Nt advantage for a fixed user may be negligible.
Table 4.4-3 Average Eb/Nt Requirements for Forward Link Budget Data Channel Analysis (8 kbps
RC3)
Channel Data 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6
Rate (kbps)
Average Eb/Nt TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD
Requirement
(dB)
The symmetric link budget analysis has the advantages of computational simplicity; however, the approach
may be overly conservative. This conservatism is especially evident in the embedded configuration, since
all high-rate supplemental channels must be supported at the physical cell boundary without allowance for
anchor transfer gain. In contrast, the Monte Carlo analysis allows for random distribution of the data
subscribers but adds complexity to the planning analysis. This approach is analogous to that employed in
voice (see 3.2.3) and is further discussed, below.
4.4.2.3 Monte Carlo Forward Link Analysis

This work is in progress.
pg 53 of 140
4.5 Resource Management: RF Scheduling

4.5.1 Introduction
In the above, the essential strategy of the network in managing RF resources has been used in order to
assess performance. Such strategies include the sharing of high-rate supplemental channels and the
exploitation of “bursty” subscriber behavior (e.g., idle think time between web page downloads) to
maximize the number of data sessions served. In the following, we consider the aspects of resource
management in greater detail.
Efficient radio resource management is critical for the success of 3G wireless data in the multi-user
environment. The Cdma2000 1X standard defines physical channels with transmission rates of up to 153.6
kbps (more than a 10-fold increase compared with IS-95A). However, the ultimate end-user data
experience depends to a large degree not only on data rate capability but also on transmission latency,
resource availability, and service coverage. Complex interactions are expected within the radio resource
management function due to competition between multiple user demands and due to the self-regulating
delay-sensitive nature of upper layer data protocols such as TCP. Additionally, resource management has to
support both voice and data services on the same frequency carrier without compromising voice quality
achieved in 2G systems.
4.5.2 Scheduling Algorithms

4.5.2.1 Fundamental Channel (FCH) Assignment and Release
A fundamental channel (FCH) is mandatory for the data call and is needed for carrying signaling and
control information. This channel must be established for each user before a high-rate connection can start.
The FCH is set up in both directions (forward and reverse) and it uses the same modulation and coding for
data and voice. Lucent 3G-1X implementation supports data FCH using Radio Configurations 3 and 4
(RC3 and RC4) on the Forward link and RC3 on the Reverse link. As for the voice service, the data FCH
reduces its rate according to the data source activity in order to reduce co-channel interference to other
users. In other words, the FCH reverts to the 1/8 rate when there is no data or signaling to transmit. Figure
4.3-2 (reproduced here for convenience) depicts an example of how data (e.g. web pages) can be
transmitted over the 1X air interface in the Lucent implementation. In the following sections the details of
channel management are discussed in greater detail.
pg 54 of 140
Web Browsing Session
Dormant Active Dormant Active
Supplemental
Channel
Bursts
First
Data
153.6 153.6
Arrived SCH SCH
at IWF 76.8 76.8
76.8
SCH SCH SCH
38.4
9.6 kbps FCH 9.6 FCH
Mouse Start Mouse Fundamental

Click Reading Click Channels
Web Page
Access
Time
Download Dormancy Timer
Network Time Duration
Delay Queuing Delay
"Think" Time
( incl. SCH Setup Delay)
Figure 4.3-2 Data Traffic Model for Web Browsing Application with the 3G1x Packet Data
4.5.2.1.1 FCH Assignment

The Fundamental channel is set up every time a data call enters an Active state. This occurs in the
beginning of the call or when the user returns from a Dormant state. The Dormant-to-Active transition may
happen due to both mobile origination and termination. The data FCH is established in the same way as the
voice traffic channel after exchanging signaling messages on Paging and Access channels.
FCHs are assigned to users on the first-come-first-serve basis. User admission algorithms are designed to
maximize the number of simultaneous active users while protecting the system from overload. To achieve
this goal, the system continuously monitors performance and resource availability and takes appropriate
corrective measures when resource utilization becomes sub-optimal. A set of admission thresholds is
designed to provide acceptable level of service to all existing and incoming users. A decision whether to
establish the FCH is based, among other things, on current power (forward) and interference (reverse)
loading, frame error rate performance, availability of base-station and back-haul hardware resources, etc. In
the first implementation of Lucent 3G-1X, the system treats FCH assignment for voice and data calls in the
same way.
FCH assignment and resource allocation (for both voice and data calls) takes precedence over the
Supplemental Channel allocation to ensure coverage for signaling and minimum rate data traffic over the
same cell area as voice. If resources needed for setting up an FCH are unavailable due to their utilization by
an existing SCH, the system releases the SCH to make room for the incoming FCH (early SCH release is
discussed in section 4.5.2.2.4). The probability of this scenario can be made low by providing sufficient
margins when allocating SCH resources, such that in the majority of cases there are enough resources to
admit a new FCH during SCH operation without triggering the early SCH termination.
The FCH is used for transmitting signaling information and may be used as well for transmitting data
traffic. For example, if the Supplemental channel is not active, the data traffic is transmitted on the
Fundamental channel. On the forward link, the system prefers transmission of new traffic data on the high-
rate Supplemental channel. However, the retransmit data may be sent over the Fundamental channel even if
pg 55 of 140
the Supplemental channel is active. On the reverse link, it is left up to the mobile station to decide whether
to send data over FCH and SCH simultaneously.
4.5.2.1.2 Active-to-Dormant Transition and FCH Release

Data users go into a Dormant state after a period of inactivity. When Active-to-Dormant transition occurs,
the user loses any air-interface connection with the base station. However, the PPP connection is
maintained throughout the transition. The transition is triggered by the expiration of the Dormancy timer.
The value of the timer setting is the same for all users and can be adjusted by the operator via translation.
4.5.2.2 Forward Link Supplemental (F-SCH) Channel Assignment and Release

Forward link SCH (F-SCH) can be established using the following physical transmission rates: 19.2 kbps,
38.4 kbps, 76.8 kbps and 153.6 kbps of Radio Configurations 3 and 4. The duration of F-SCH allocation
can span multiple 20-ms frames depending on the amount of the data buffered for transmission. F-SCH
transmission may be continued beyond this initial duration if more data is buffered and if the resource
availability conditions permit.
4.5.2.2.1 F-SCH Rate and Duration Allocation

There are a number of factors used by the scheduling algorithm when choosing transmission rate and
duration of the F-SCH assignment. Some of the most important factors considered by the algorithm are
listed below:
• Fraction of amplifier power required by the Supplemental channel. This metric is determined as a
result of RF measurements, service negotiations and translation settings in the following areas:
o Mobile RF environment including fast and shadow fading effects
o Propagation path loss between the mobile and the base station
o Interference level experienced by the mobile
o Radio Configuration used for the Supplemental channel
o Turbo coding support
o Target Frame Error Rate for each data rate
• Fraction of amplifier power consumed by other voice and data users and a corresponding power
fraction available for establishing the Supplemental channel (power computation provides sufficient
margins for ensuring a low probability of overload during SCH operation and therefore a low
probability of early SCH termination).
• Channel element, back-haul, Walsh function and other hardware and system resource availability at the
serving base station that can be assigned to the Supplemental channel.
• Amount of data buffered for transmission to the mobile
• Scheduling policy that prevents monopolizing system resources by one or a small group of users for an
extended period of time
The system makes the best effort to satisfy above constraints/requirements when assigning a Forward SCH
rate. The duration of SCH assignment is determined by the amount of data in the transmit buffer, the
handoff state of the user and the transmission rate resulting from the algorithm described above.
4.5.2.2.2 F-SCH Continuation

If at the end of current F-SCH transmission, the user still has data in the transmit buffer, the F-SCH burst
may be continued using the same rate. This happens only if the system determines that the available
resources are sufficient to proceed with such continuation. The duration of continuation burst is determined
using the same calculation as for initial burst transmission.
The number of consecutive continuations is limited to prevent one or a small number of users from
monopolizing system resources for a long period of time. The number of allowed continuations is a
translation parameter. This limit takes effect if there is a contention for SCH resources from other users.
Otherwise, continuation beyond the limit is allowed.
pg 56 of 140
Transmission rate of the Supplemental channel may be increased if, after certain number of continuations,
the system determines that a significantly larger amount of resources have become available for the data
user.
4.5.2.2.3 Normal F-SCH Termination

Supplemental channel is terminated normally if transmission on this channel spans exactly the duration
assigned to the mobile in the Extended Supplemental Channel Assignment Message (E-SCAM) before the
start of the F-SCH burst.
4.5.2.2.4 Early F-SCH Termination

F-SCH may be terminated earlier than specified in the E-SCAM. Early termination may be caused by
power overload reached during F-SCH operation due to power control operation or due to the increased
loading and/or interference. Early termination may also occur due to a need to free up base station
resources to admit new of handoff F-FCH channel (data and voice). SCH resource management provides
sufficient margins to make the probability of early termination low. In the event when early termination
does occur, the user may be assigned a new SCH at a lower rate based on the re-evaluation of resources
available at the time of termination.
Note that F-SCH operation will not be terminated early if soft handoff adds or soft handoff drops occur (or
some combination of them). This is because the F-SCH resides on only one leg and is not effected by
changes in the mobile’s active set unless the serving cell itself drops.
4.5.2.3 Reverse Link Supplemental Channel (R-SCH) Assignment and Release

Reverse link SCH (R-SCH) may be established using the following physical transmission rates: 19.2 kbps,
38.4 kbps, 76.8 kbps and 153.6 kbps of Radio Configurations 3. The duration of R-SCH allocation can span
one or more 20-ms frames depending on the amount of data in the mobile’s transmit.
4.5.2.3.1 R-SCH Rate Allocation

Unlike the single-leg F-SCH operation, the operation of the R-SCH will be on all legs of the call.
Therefore, the rate of the burst is determined by the minimum rate that can be supported among all legs.
Some of the most important factors considered by the reverse Supplemental channel rate allocation
algorithm are listed below:
• Maximum mobile transmit power available for R-SCH.

• Additional loading that would be produced by the Supplemental channel after it is assigned. This
projected loading increase is determined as a result of RF measurements, service negotiations and
translation settings in the following areas:
o Mobile RF environment including fast and shadow fading effects
o Propagation path loss between the mobile and all sectors in the Active set
o Target Frame Error Rate for each data rate
o Turbo coding support
• Current loading and interference levels on all handoff sectors (Active set) of the call and corresponding
loading and interference budgets available to support a new SCH (interference budget computation
provides sufficient margins for ensuring a low probability of overload during SCH operation and
therefore a low probability of early SCH termination)
• Channel element and back-haul availability at all handoff sectors of the call
• Amount of data buffered for transmission by the mobile
System makes the best effort to satisfy the above constraints/requirements when assigning a Reverse SCH
rate.
4.5.2.3.2 R-SCH Normal Termination
pg 57 of 140
Normal termination is triggered when mobile station completes transmission of data in its buffer. Mobile
station requests the R-SCH release by sending a Supplemental Channel Request Message (SCRM)
specifying that zero amount of data needs to be transmitted.
4.5.2.3.3 R-SCH Early Termination

R-SCH could be terminated by the system prior to mobile requesting such termination. This early
termination may be caused by reverse link interference overload reached during R-SCH operation due to
power control operation or due to the increased loading. Early termination may also occur due to a need
also to free up base station resources to admit new or handoff R-FCH channels (data and voice). SCH
resource management provides sufficient margins to make the probability of early termination low. In the
event when the early termination does occur, the user may be assigned a new SCH at a lower rate based on
the re-evaluation of resources available at the time of termination.
Unlike in the single-leg only F-SCH case, early R-SCH termination may also happen as a result of handoff
activity (e.g. adding new handoff legs).
4.5.2.4 Load Balancing
4.5.2.4.1 Overview
System supports carrier load balancing on origination. With this algorithm, the system directs originating
users to a different carrier if the load of initial carrier is larger than the load of that new carrier by more
than a translation-defined delta load. Handoff calls are admitted on the carrier independently of carrier load.
4.5.2.4.2 Dual 3G/2G deployments

There is also a mechanism providing load balancing in dual 3G/2G deployments. Specifically, the system
may be configured with the translation to give preference to 3G carriers for originating 3G mobiles and to
2G carriers for originating 2G mobiles. A degree of allowed load imbalance between 2G and 3G carriers
resulting from this approach is limited through the translation parameter that can be adjusted by system
operator. This parameter specifies the maximum load imbalance between carriers beyond which 2G
mobiles are directed to a 3G carrier or 3G mobiles capable of 2G are directed to a 2G carrier to mitigate the
imbalance.
Additional load delta parameter is provided for handling load balancing for data calls. This translation
parameter specifies the additional load imbalance between carriers beyond which 3G data mobiles are
directed to a 2G carrier.
4.5.3 Conclusions
RF resource scheduling is an essential part of the Lucent cdma2000 1X data system. It consists of a set of
call admission, load balancing, channel and rate assignment algorithms designed to optimize resource
utilization, system capacity and performance. Future enhancements will provide even greater flexibility in
carrier scheduling, non-assured QoS support and throughput optimization.
pg 58 of 140
5 System Deployment
5.1 Introduction
Implementation of 3G1x is straightforward. The key points include:
• Most existing Lucent 2G systems may be upgraded to 3G via addition of the 3G channel card and the
appropriate software release.
• The 3G1x channel card (CCU-32) is dual-mode, supporting both 3G1x and 2G calls. The card
automatically makes this decision, depending upon the nature of the mobile trying to originate a call.
• Since the 3G1x and 2G voice footprints are comparable, a 1:1 upgrade provides 3G1x coverage that is
better than or equal to that of 2G voice coverage.
• 3G1x may be implemented in spectrum cleared for this purpose (dedicated 3G carrier), or within
spectrum already serving 2G subscribers (shared 2G/3G carrier). In the latter case, the net voice
Erlang capacity is intermediate between that of a 3G-only carrier and a 2G-only carrier.
• Mobile standards specify that the 3G1x mobile be dual-mode, supporting both 2G and 3G1x calls.
• 3G1x need not be deployed ubiquitously. The 3G1x infrastructure supports 3G to 2G handoffs for
mobiles exiting a 2G/3G area into a 2G-only area.
Given the above, an existing 2G system can be gradually upgraded to 3G1x simply by implementing the
appropriate software release, seeding the subscriber population with 3G1x mobiles, and deploying the
appropriate channel cards. The last may be done selectively (limited 3G/2G area) or ubiquitously (3G
throughout). The 3G1x mobiles may operate in the same spectrum as an existing 2G carrier. Since both
mobiles and cards are dual-mode, exact knowledge of the proportion of 3G1x voice users is not required in
order to properly provision the cell site. Alternatively, the 3G1x mobiles could be deployed within a carrier
dedicated to that purpose.
3G1x can also be implemented as a greenfield design; i.e., within an area that does not already possess 2G
service. In this case, the processes of spectrum clearance, system design, and cell provisioning are
analogous to that of 2G. Furthermore, if designed for full 3G voice capacity and ubiquitous 3G voice (as
opposed to high-speed data) coverage, the cell count should be virtually identical to that of a 2G design.
This comparison is useful for service providers that desire to specify the coverage design prior to deciding
whether to initially implement 2G or 3G service.
In the following, we provide further detail on deployment issues, such as carrier assignments,
underlay/overlay considerations, and the mix of 2G and 3G within available radio spectrum. The mix of
3G voice and data is also considered.
5.2 Spectrum Use: Carrier Assignments and Guard Band

Carrier assignments and guard band remain the same as in 2G.
The recommendations for carrier assignments are provided for two band classes: Band Class 0 (i.e., the
cellular band) and Band Class 1 (i.e., the PCS band) defined by the IS-2000. For detailed information,
please refer to the earlier guidelines.8
5.2.1 Cellular Band

This section will address frequency planning considerations in dual mode systems, which support AMPS
and IS-95 standards as well as 3G1x. This section assumes that the reader is familiar with the frequency
8
See for example
"Personal Communication Services, CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines" 401-703-201 - Issue 5,
August 1999 and "AUTOPLEX Cellular Telecommunication Systems, System 1000 CDMA RF
Engineering Guidelines" 401-614-012
pg 59 of 140
planning considerations and techniques used in AMPS and is not intended to be a tutorial in basic
frequency planning. It will address only those frequency-planning issues that are the result of dual mode
system operations.
General Considerations
Table 5.1 lists the five bands of 832 channels available to the A- and B-Band service providers. Valid
channels for 3G1x assignments are designated by "CDMA" in the "Valid CDMA Frequency Assignments"
column and invalid assignments by "//////////". This information is taken from the IS-2000 and provided
here for convenience. Note that Band Class 0 is also referred to as the cellular band in North America.
Table 5.2-1 AMPS and 3G1x Channel Numbers and Corresponding Frequencies for Band
Class 0
System Band Valid CDMA Number of AMPS/CDM Transmitter

Frequency Analog A Channel Frequency
Assignments Channels Number Assignment (MHz)
Mobile Base
///////////////// 22 991 824.040 869.040
A''
(1 MHz) 1012 824.670 869.670
A'' CDMA 11 1013 824.700 869.700
(1 MHz)
1023 825.000 870.000
A CDMA 311 1 825.030 870.030

(10 MHz)
311 834.330 879.330
A ///////////// 22 312 834.360 879.360

(10 MHz)
333 834.990 879.990
B ////////////// 22 334 835.020 880.020

(10 MHz)
355 835.650 880.650
B CDMA 289 356 835.680 880.680

(10 MHz)
644 844.320 889.320
B ////////////// 22 645 844.350 889.350

(10 MHz)
666 844.980 889.980
pg 60 of 140
A' ///////////// 22 667 845.010 890.010

(1.5 MHz)
688 845.640 890.640
A' CDMA 6 689 845.670 890.670

(1.5 MHz)
694 845.820 890.820
A' ///////////// 22 695 845.850 890.850

(1.5 MHz)
716 846.480 891.480
B' ///////////// 22 717 846.510 891.510

(2.5 MHz)
738 847.140 892.140
B' CDMA 39 739 847.170 892.170

(2.5 MHz)
777 848.310 893.310
B' ///////////// 22 778 848.340 893.340

(2.5 MHz)
799 848.970 893.970
The non-allowed bands of channels are 22 AMPS channels in width and are dictated primarily by the 1.23
MHz bandwidth (41 AMPS channels) of the 3G1x channel. These valid 3G1x assignments do not take into
account practical considerations such as guard-band needs and/or the channel needs for AMPS in dual
mode systems. The subsections below discuss the channel needs for AMPS and 3G1x that should also be
considered when allocating the spectrum in dual mode systems.
Because of the need for guard bands and/or channels in dual mode systems, it should be understood that
allocations of spectrum channels to a specific standard should be done as much as possible in terms of
contiguous channels/bands for each (AMPS/3G1x) technology. By using contiguous channels/bands for
one standard, there is only a single guard band penalty for the overall spectrum allocation given to the
standard in question. For example, if an A-Band, dual mode, 3G1x application required two 3G1x
channels, a good first 3G1x channel selection would be channel 283. In the case of a dual mode
(AMPS/3G1x) system, this is the highest available channel in the 10 MHz A-Band that could be selected
without concern for interference in the A-Band setup channels (313-333). This channel selection already
provides a 0.27 MHz guard band of channels between the nominal 1.23 MHz 3G1x channel band and the
AMPS setup channels (313-333) required for the A-Band service provider.
The logical choice for the second 3G1x channel would be channel 242 that is 41 channels away from 283
for a carrier frequency separation of 1.23 MHz. Any selection resulting in a carrier frequency separation of
less than 41 channels would result in the two 3G1x carriers being separated by less than the nominal 1.23
MHz 3G1x channel bandwidth and would cause excessive interference between the two carrier bands.
Using a separation of greater than 41 channels results in inefficient use of the spectrum.
Two preferred channel assignments specified in the IS-2000 are:
• Primary Setup Channel - Channels 283 and 384 for A- and B-Band respectively
• Secondary Setup Channel - Channels 691 and 777 for A- and B-Band respectively
pg 61 of 140
If the 3G1x mobile supports the preferred roaming list feature defined by the IS-683, then any valid
channel assignment can be used by the mobile station for initial acquisition. Otherwise, an operational
CDMA System must use at least one of the two channels, Primary and/or Secondary in every CDMA cell
and therefore the selection for CDMA frequencies in any start up system requiring only one CDMA
channel per cell is quickly narrowed to one of these two preferred channels.
Frequency Planning for Systems with 3G1x and AMPS
It is recommended that for the 3G1x and AMPS operating in the same cellular band (A Band or B Band),
the guard band of 270 kHz be implemented on both sides of the consecutive 3G1x carriers and no guard
band between the 3G1x carriers be required. For the derivation of the 270 kHz guard band, please refer to
the "Cellular CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines". Table 5.2-2and Table 5.2-3 below show frequency
assignments for dual mode AMPS and 3G1x operations in the A- and B-Band spectrums. These
assignments are given for various numbers of 1.23 MHz bandwidth 3G1x channels. As highlighted by the
asterisks (*) in the AMPS columns, the frequency assignments and number of available channels includes
the 21 setup channels.
Table 5.2-2 Recommended A-Band 3G1x Center Frequency Assignments for Band Class 0
Number of CDMA CDMA Number of AMPS AMPS Channel
Channels Center Frequency Channels* Assignments*
Assignments
1 283 356 1-252, 313-333,
667-716, 991-1023
2 242, 283 315 1-211, 313-333,
667-716, 991-1023
3 201, 242, 283 274 1-170, 313-333,
667-716, 991-1023
4 160, 201, 242, 283 233 1-129, 313-333,
667-716, 991-1023
5 119, 160, 210, 242, 283 192 1-88, 313-333,
667-716, 991-1023
6 78, 119, 160, 201, 242, 151 1-47, 313-333,
283 667-716, 991-1023
7 37, 78, 119, 160, 201, 110 1-6, 313-333,
242, 283 667-716, 991-1023
8 691, 37, 78, 119, 160, 60 1-6, 313-333,
201, 242, 283 991-1023
Table 5.2-3 Recommended B-Band 3G1x Center Frequency Assignments for Band Class 0
Number of CDMA CDMA Number of AMPS AMPS Channel
Channels Center Frequency Channels* Assignments*
Assignments
1 384 356 334-354, 415-666, 717-
799
2 384, 425 315 334-354, 456-666, 717-
799
3 384, 425, 466 274 334-354, 497-666, 717-
999
4 384, 425, 466, 507 233 334-354, 538-666, 717-
999
pg 62 of 140
5 384, 425, 466, 507, 548 192 334-354, 579-666, 717-

799
6 384, 425, 466, 507, 151 334-354, 620-666, 717-
548, 589 799
7 384, 425, 466, 507, 110 334-354, 661-666, 717-
548, 589, 630 799
8 384, 425, 466, 507, 57 334-354, 661-666, 717-
548, 589, 630, 777 746
In both the A- and B-Band cases, the Secondary Setup Channel was the last 3G1x channel added. The
reason for this is that this channel incurs the greatest AMPS channel loss because it requires its own guard
band penalty in addition to the 0.54 MHz guard band penalty for the other 7 CDMA channels. If added
setup channel capacity is needed, this channel may have to be implemented sooner than assumed here.
5.2.2 PCS Band

Although the 3G1x channel numbering algorithm with 50 KHz channel spacing implies the availability of
1200 of 50 kHz for 3G1x carriers, not all 1200 are actually usable. Table 5.2-4 indicates the availability of
the channels by classifying them as valid (usable) channels, conditionally valid, or not valid.
The designation of channels 0-24 and 1176-1199 as being not valid eliminates the possibility of
interference between PCS systems and the services allocated to the spectrum above, below, and between
the two 60 MHz spectrum allocations comprising the PCS spectrum.
The channels specified as conditionally valid are the 25 lowest (except for Block A) and the 25 highest
(except for Block C) channels in each block. These channels are valid only under the condition that the
service provider also owns the adjacent block of spectrum.
Looking at it another way, all channels are valid for use as 3G1x carriers except for the 25 lowest channels
and the 25 highest channels in each block. Thus there are 251 channels unconditionally available (i.e.,
“Valid”) for designation as carrier frequencies in each of Frequency Blocks A, B, and C and there are 51
unconditionally available channels for each of Blocks D, E, and F. If a service provider were to obtain
licenses in two adjacent blocks, then an additional 50 channels would become available from the
conditionally available channels. . Note that Band Class 1 is also referred to as the PCS band in North
America.
Table 5.2-4 3G1x Channel Allocation Availability for Band Class 1
CDMA TRANSMIT FREQUENCY (MHz)
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY CDMA
BLOCK ASSIGNMENT CHANNEL PERSONAL BASE
VALIDITY NUMBER STATION STATION
A Not Valid 0-24 1850.000-1851.200 1930.000-1931.200

(15 MHz) Valid 25-275 1851.250-1863.750 1931.250-1943.750
Conditionally 276-299 1863.800-1864.950 1943.800-1944.950
Valid
D Conditionally 300-324 1865.000-1866.200 1945.000-1946.200
Valid
(5 MHz) Valid 325-375 1866.250-1868.750 1945.600-1948.750
Conditionally 376-399 1868.800-1869.950 1948.800-1949.950
Valid
B Conditionally 400-424 1870.000-1871.200 1950.000-1951.200
Valid
(15 MHz) Valid 425-675 1871.250-1883.750 1951.250-1963.750
Conditionally 676-699 1883.800-1884.950 1963.800-1964.950
pg 63 of 140
Valid
E Conditionally 700-724 1885.000-1886.200 1965.000-1966.200
Valid
(5 MHz) Valid 725-775 1886.250-1888.750 1966.250-1968.750
Conditionally 776-799 1888.800-1889.950 1968.800-1969.950
Valid
F Conditionally 800-824 1890.000-1891.200 1970.000-1971.200
Valid
(5 MHz) Valid 825-875 1891.250-1893.750 1971.250-1973.750
Conditionally 876-899 1893.800-1894.950 1973.800-1974.950
Valid
C Conditionally 900-924 1895.000-1896.200 1975.000-1976.200
Valid
(15 MHz) Valid 925-1175 1896.250-1908.750 1976.250-1988.750
Not Valid 1176-1199 1908.800-1909.950 1988.800-1989.950
Not all of the valid and conditionally valid channels can be used simultaneously as carriers in a given
system. Once a channel number has been specified for use as the first carrier in a system, there are
minimum spacing rules for carriers in use, which limit how close the new carrier can be above or below the
previously existing carrier(s). While the classification of channels as valid and conditionally valid is by
FCC decree, the minimum spacing between active carriers is determined by 3G1x technology
considerations. Generally, the channels are specified as dictated by the minimum carrier spacing of 25
3G1x channels, which is consistent with the nominal 1.25 MHz bandwidth for 3G1x.
5.2.3 Preferred Channels

The preceding subsection specified the channels, which are valid, or at least conditionally valid, carrier
frequencies that the service provider can specify for use in the system's frequency plan. The selection of
these frequencies might be dictated by issues dealing with inter-system or intra-system interference. If
these issues are not significant factors in the system performance, the number of channels that the service
provider might consider for carrier frequencies can be reduced significantly to the list of "preferred
channels" in the table below. These are the channel numbers that a personal station will "scan" when
looking for service. Thus a system must use at least one (or more) of these carriers at each site in the
system if the sites are to be capable or providing (CDMA) access to the system.
Table 5.2-5 Preferred CDMA Channels for Band Class 1
FREQUENCY BLOCK PREFERRED CHANNEL NUMBERS
A 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275
D 325, 350, 375
B 425, 450, 475, 500, 525, 550, 575, 600, 625, 650, 675
E 725, 750, 775
F 825, 850, 875
C 925, 950, 975, 1000, 1025, 1050, 1075, 1100, 1125, 1150, 1175
Conditionally valid channels 300, 400, 700, 800, and 900 are excluded from the above list because they can
only be used if the service provider has licenses for both the frequency block containing the channel and
the immediately adjacent frequency block (e.g., Channel 300 is a likely carrier channel if the service
provider has licenses for both Blocks A and D). If conditionally valid channels are used, they should be
used for traffic only and not access.
For details about intra-system and inter-system frequency planning, please refer to the "Personal
Communications Services CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines".
pg 64 of 140
5.3 2G/3G1x Spatial and Frequency Design

5.3.1 Coverage (Spatial) Design: Overlay and Greenfield
A PCS Modcell reverse link budget example for 3G1x 9.6 kbps voice application has been presented in
section 3.2.1.3. This example indicates a fundamental governing principle in deployment planning for
3G1x; viz., that the 3G1x voice coverage (footprint) is (slightly) better than or equal to the 2G footprint.
Accordingly, a new or “greenfield” 3G deployment will have essentially the same cell count as a greenfield
2G deployment. In addition, upgrade or migration of a 2G network to a 3G network can be accomplished
through a 1:1 overlay of 3G on 2G (i.e., 3G voice coverage is obtained by upgrading each 2G cell to 3G
functionality). The resulting 3G coverage will match or slightly better that of the underlying 2G network.
This comparison applies to the situation where 3G1x and 2G are each fully loaded. A lighter design
loading on 3G1x will expand the voice coverage at the expense of cell capacity. This design tradeoff
is identical to the coverage-capacity tradeoff that exists in 2G systems. Since full 3G1x loading is
required to reach the full 3G1x voice capacity (see
Table 3.2-1), we presume a fully loaded system in the following discussions.
Link budgets for the 19.2 kbps - 153.6 kbps packet data applications have also been presented in section
4.4. These examples show that the radio coverage (footprint) for 3G high-rate packet data can be
considerably less than that of (2G or 3G) voice. This difference is fundamental, and a straightforward
consequence of the higher rates at which the supplemental channel must operate.
The coverage difference between data and voice is a key issue in design. We consider two scenarios,
overlay and greenfield deployment, below.
Consider a 2G system upgraded to (overlaid by) 3G1x. The physical outer perimeter of the cell is
determined by the existing 2G design. The 3G1x voice coverage extends to this perimeter. Since the link
budget comparison indicates that the voice system supports a greater maximum path loss than the 3G1x
high-rate packet data, the high-rate data service will be available only within an inner circle of cell
coverage. In this case, the supportable packet data rate for a call originated within the inner circle will
dynamically reduce when the mobile moves closer to the cell edge. This reduction will be controlled by the
radio resource management algorithms (see 4.5), which assign data rates based on reported RF conditions
as well as other factors (e.g., mobile history). Similarly, the data rate will dynamically increase as the
mobile moves closer to the cell center.
Now consider the scenario where the overlaid 3G1x system must provide a ubiquitous coverage for the
high-rate 3G1x data. In this case, the link budget based on the high-rate supplemental channel is used for
3G cell layout since the design coverage of the high-rate data channel must extend out to the 3G cell edge.
The footprint of these cells is modest compared to a voice footprint. A 1:1 overlay would not be feasible
since the high data rate could not be supported at all locations between the cells. Additional 3G cells must
be added to obtain ubiquitous high-rate data coverage. The overlay would increase from 1:1 to N:1 (i.e., N
3G cells required for each 2G cell). The N:1 restriction could be relaxed under several conditions. These
include scenarios where:
• High-rate data subscribers possess an additional advantage, such as a directional antenna, to

compensate for the lack of coverage. This advantage must be symmetric (i.e., applicable to both link
directions); for example, the provision of higher mobile transmit power to the high-rate subscribers
would not be effective since this change would not provide a forward link benefit as well.
• The underlying 2G system is not coverage but capacity-driven. In urban or dense urban areas where
the cell count is driven by the capacity, the actual path loss between a 2G mobile and the serving base
station in the existing 2G network could be less than the maximum allowable value dictated by the 3G
link budget. Under such a circumstance, the 1 to 1 overlay of cdma2000 on the IS-95 may still be a
feasible migration.
pg 65 of 140
• The design restriction of extending high-rate data coverage to the 3G cell edge is removed. If voice
rate coverage to the 3G cell edge is acceptable, then a 1:1 overlay becomes feasible (see above). In
this case, mobile data rates would be dynamically adjusted depending upon their location within the
coverage area.
Further means for extending data coverage relative to voice are discussed in section 5.4, below.
The issue of achieving comparable coverage at high data rates is obviated in greenfield deployments, since
there is no underlying network for comparison. In these scenarios, the cell design is driven by selecting the
data rate required out to the cell edge and then using the appropriate link budget in design. Selection of a
very high data rate decreases the cell footprint and increases the design cell count considerably. Design
alternatives employing a more modest data rate at cell edge may be more cost-effective, especially if the
coverage of anticipated high-rate users is enhanced by the use of subscriber directional antennas.
5.3.2 Frequency Design

The implementation of 3G1x within available radio spectrum offers a rich array of possibilities. 3G1x can
be deployed as 1.23 MHz wideband carriers within spectrum cleared for this purpose. Alternatively, 3G1x
can be deployed within an existing 2G carrier, yielding a net per-carrier capacity that lies between that
achieved by 3G1x alone and that achieved by 2G alone.
Decisions regarding specific implementation paths depend upon several factors, including the availability
of radio spectrum, the prediction (and accuracy) of voice and data demands, and the priority placed upon
obtaining maximum air interface capacities and maximum channel element efficiency. Some insight into
these factors is supplied in the various discussions, below.
5.3.2.1 Estimating Capacity: Mix of 3G1x Voice and 2G Voice

We consider a scenario where the anticipated demand is a known mix of 3G1x traffic and 2G traffic. For
simplicity, we examine the case where all 3G1x traffic is voice only (the extension of concepts to include
data traffic as well is straightforward, although computationally more difficult).
In scenarios where 2G and 3G are implemented as distinct carriers, the total Erlang capacity per sector is
readily computed as an appropriately weighted sum of the two. For example, let:
E3G=total voice Erlangs per carrier per sector for 3G1x

E2G=total voice Erlangs per carrier per sector for 2G
N2G=total number of 2G carriers per sector
N3G=total number of 3G carriers per sector
Then the total Erlangs per sector is readily computed as:
Etotal = N 2G E2G + N 3G E3G

Equation 5.3-1 Total Erlang Calculation for 2G-3G Mix
Equation 5.3-1can be used in planning situations where the demand of 3G and 2G traffic is known. In
these situations, the best fit of the integer numbers N2G and N3G are obtained to ensure that the demand is
met.
In scenarios where 2G and 3G are mixed within each carrier, the total Erlangs are best determined by
simulation but can be approximated in the following manner. The total number of 2G voice Erlangs is an
upper bound that cannot be exceeded when the subscriber population consists of 2G users alone. Trivially:
pg 66 of 140
Etotal ≤ E2G
Equation 5.3-2
Let fraction x of the total Erlangs be 2G and fraction (1-x) of the total Erlangs be 3G. Assume that the
Erlang values E2G and E3G that can be achieved by each population alone are proportional to the total
interference that can be tolerated. The equivalent 2G Erlangs generated by each 3G user is therefore the 3G
Erlangs scaled by the ratio E2G/E3G. (For example, a 3G user generates about half the interference as a 2G
user; accordingly, the 3G usage must be scaled by a factor of ½ in totaling equivalent 2G usage). The total
2G Erlangs can therefore be computed, and limited by the upper bound E2G:
E2 G
xEtotal + (1 − x) Etotal ( ) ≤ E2G
E3G
Equation 5.3-3
In Equation 5.3-3, the first term on the left hand side is the number of 2G Erlangs, which is a fraction x of
the total. The second term is the number of 3G Erlangs (a fraction 1-x of the total) scaled to an equivalent
number of 2G Erlangs. The sum of (equivalent) 2G Erlangs is then limited to the same upper bound as a
population consisting entirely of 2G users. Equation 5.3-3 can be solved for Etotal:
1
Etotal =
x / E2G + (1 − x ) / E3G
Equation 5.3-4 Total Erlang Capacity Based on 2G & 3G Capacities
The result Equation 5.3-4 is a planning approximation, and requires a modification in the interpretation of
E3G and E2G in order to be employed. Specifically, in order to convert Erlangs from one population into
equivalent Erlangs of another, the values of E3G and E2G employed must each correspond to the same
interference margin; i.e., the same loading with respect to pole. This requirement ensures that each
population see the same interference rise under full load. Since the 2G population tolerates a lower (~55%)
loading than the 3G population (~72%), the 2G loading must be used. Use of a higher loading could be
tolerated by the 3G population, but would require the 2G population to operate within a background
interference that is too high, thereby compromising 2G performance.
The E3G employed within the above calculation therefore must be the 3G Erlangs that can be achieved
when a 3G carrier is loaded to the lower (55%) point, rather than its maximum of 72%. The restriction of
3G to a lower loading in a mixed carrier scenario influences the decision of deploying 3G in a mixed or
dedicated mode, as described below.
5.3.2.2 Planning: Mixed v. Dedicated Carriers for 3G1x

The decision regarding deployment via mixed or dedicated carriers is driven by several factors. The
relative importance of each of these factors ultimately drives the decision. These factors are discussed
below.
5.3.2.2.1 Accurate mixing proportions.

Employment of dedicated carriers naturally restricts the possible mixes of subscribers. For instance, if only
two carriers are available for two populations, the only possible mix is to dedicate one carrier to the first
population and the other carrier to the second population. This combination cannot reflect all possible
target mixes of the two population. In contrast, mixing populations within the same carrier allows tailoring
to a much larger set of possibilities.
For example, suppose that only two carriers are available and the principle of dedicated carriers is
employed. Further suppose that the anticipated subscriber Erlangs are 2/3 3G voice and 1/3 2G voice. This
mixture of total Erlangs is readily addressed by devoting one carrier to 2G voice and one carrier to 3G
pg 67 of 140
voice, since the 3G voice carrier handles twice as many Erlangs as the 2G voice carrier. However, this
solution would not be adequate if the anticipated mix was 60% 2G voice and 40% 3G voice. Within the
two-carrier limit, there is no combination using dedicated carriers that would support these proportions
when both carriers were fully loaded.
In contrast, this mix could be achieved within each of the two carriers individually if non-dedicated carriers
are allowed (see Equation 5.3-4). The sum across the two carriers would then match the design 60/40
target.
Accordingly, the decision of dedicated vs. mixed carriers can be influenced by the desire to accurately
achieve a design or target mix of subscribers. Mixing carriers allows more degrees of freedom in achieving
specific values. If only approximate values relative to a target need be achieved, this distinction becomes
less important. Further, if many carriers rather than few are available, the ability to achieve a specific
mixture improves since more design degrees of freedom are available.
5.3.2.2.2 Maximum total capacity.

The computation of capacity for any combination of dedicated carriers is straightforward (see 5.3.2.1). The
total capacity achieved is simply the linear combination of the capacities offered by each carrier.
The computation of total capacity for mixed carriers is more complex, since a truly accurate result for
mixed subscribers within the carrier must account for nonlinearities. The impact of these nonlinearities
depends upon the differences between the subscriber populations; for example, if two populations are
distinguished solely by a small difference in Eb/Nt requirement, the impact of nonlinearities becomes
negligible. In contrast, these effects can become important for large Eb/Nt differences.
Presuming that the achievement of an exact mix of subscribers (see above) is unimportant, the presence of
nonlinear effects means that the total Erlang capacity in a mixed subscriber situation is always less
than or equal to the total Erlang capacity that can be achieved with dedicated carriers. The latter is
actually an upper bound on the former, and often used as a reasonable approximation in planning scenarios.
The validity of this approximation decreases as the differences between the populations become more
distinct.
These concepts were outlined in 5.3.2.1 and are expanded upon here. Consider the reverse link. A 13 kbps
2G population can tolerate about 3 dB interference rise over the noise floor. An 8 kbps 3G/1x population
can tolerate about 5 dB interference over the noise floor. In a dedicated carrier scenario with all carriers
full, each population experiences and tolerates its maximum rise. In contrast, in a mixed carrier scenario,
the 3G population must be limited to (roughly) a 3 dB interference rise, since a larger value would result in
a background interference that compromises the ability of the accompanying 2G population to reach the
cell site. More 3G users could be added without loss of 3G performance since each 3G user can tolerate a
higher interference level, but this higher level would degrade the performance of the 2G population. Since
the 3G population is constrained by the presence of the 2G users, the total capacity (2G plus 3G) must be
less than what could be achieved by dedicating carriers to each group. For 55% loading (the typical 2G
value) the 3G capacity is reduced from 26.4 Erlangs (see
Table 3.2-1) to 18.4 Erlangs.
The effects described above are mitigated somewhat by other factors (e.g., the 2G population benefits
somewhat by the statistical benefits of more total users within a single carrier), but in all cases the
dedicated carrier scenario remains an upper bound on achievable capacity. Since these effects depend upon
the extent and nature of the differences in properties between the populations mixed, they are best assessed
on a case-by-case basis. In the situation of small differences, the mixed carrier scenario may indeed
approach the upper bound of performance.
5.3.2.2.3 Efficient Use of Channel Elements
pg 68 of 140
A 2G channel element can accommodate only 2G calls. In contrast, a 3G channel element is dual-mode,
accommodating both 2G and 3G calls. In addition, the 3G channel elements are offered in packs with
higher density than 2G elements (e.g., 32 per pack vs. 20 per pack).
From a provisioning point of view, the choice of mixed or dedicated carriers has little impact for fully
loaded carriers. In the dedicated case, a requisite number is employed per carrier. In a mixed case, the
total number required can be calculated from the anticipated subscriber mixture. The calculation need not
be that accurate, since 3G CE will support both 2G and 3G calls. A conservative estimate of 3G
requirements (i.e., overprovision rather than underprovision) minimizes the impact of any inaccuracy.
Extra 2G cards in this process can be removed, thereby using all elements to best advantage.
In contrast, the mixed/dedicated choice becomes important in a growth scenario, where the 3G population
is slowly becoming a sizable percentage of the total traffic. In the dedicated case, this small 3G population
is placed on a dedicated carrier, requiring 3G channel elements. Since the density of each 3G pack is large,
a sizable fraction of the CE present may be idle, particularly when the nascent 3G traffic is low. In
contrast, CE are used to better efficiency if the emerging 3G traffic is mixed into a 2G carrier. Within this
scenario, a 3G pack is added to accommodate the 3G traffic. The existence of any extra of idle CE can be
balanced by removing the corresponding number of 2G CE, since the 3G CEs are dual-mode. The use of
mixed carriers therefore uses hardware resources more efficiently in the traffic growth stages. This
distinction may not be important if growth on a dedicated 3G carrier is expected to be rapid.
5.3.2.2.4 Conclusions
The decision regarding dedicated vs. mixed carriers is therefore driven by several factors. These must be
weighted in overall importance since all do not indicate the same decision. As an example, a possible
deployment scenario could entail mixing 3G users into 2G carriers in the early stages of 3G growth. As 3G
traffic becomes significant, 3G users could be migrated to a dedicated carrier(s). This scenario could apply
in a situation where there is need to accurately meet in early growth a forecasted target demand (target
mixture of total capacity) within the constraint of available spectrum, and to use CE as efficiently as
possible. This scenario also provides for the maximum possible capacity in later phases of growth, as
dedicated carriers are then employed. These advantages must be weighed against the disadvantages of not
providing the maximum possible capacity in early phases, and against the difficulty of migrating 3G users
to a separate carrier later on.
5.4 Mixed 3G1x Voice/Data Capacity and Coverage

In the following, we presume that 3G1x is deployed within a dedicated carrier, and consider the impact of
mixing voice and data within the carrier. We further assume that the 3G1x is an upgrade (1:1 overlay) of
an existing 2G network, where the cell spacing is dictated by the 2G voice footprint. This scenario is of
particular interest since many service providers desire to upgrade their current 2G networks to 3G.
When the 3G1x packet data service is introduced into the voice network, the high speed data will have an
impact on the voice capacity and coverage. Analysis of the 3G technology indicates that the requirement of
ubiquitous high rate packet data coverage is generally more stringent than that of voice coverage for
comparable assumptions on RF parameters. This difference mainly comes from the decrease in processing
gain. As mentioned in Sections 4.4 and 5.3.1, if the design goal of a 3G1x system is to provide a ubiquitous
coverage for a high-rate data service, then the link budget based on the supplemental channel rate should be
used for cell layout. If the voice link budget is used, then the high-rate data service will be available in an
inner circle of the cell coverage. In this case, the supportable data rate will reduce when the mobile moves
close to the cell edge.
In order to extend the data coverage, the following methods may be employed:
• relaxing the target FER for the data application without causing significant TCP/IP throughput
degradation
pg 69 of 140
• considering less body loss when using a data terminal

• using higher gain antenna at the data terminal
• increasing the base station transmit power and data terminal transmit power
• implementing a scheduling policy to provide fair access to data users on the cell edge
• increasing the number of cell site to provide additional coverage. This could also require re-design of
the network and re-location of some of the existing sites and addition of new cell sites
The total capacity for the mixed voice and data system is expressed as two numbers, the data throughput
capacity and voice Erlang capacity. The higher data subscriber percentage, the more data throughput and
the fewer voice erlangs. Data throughput and voice Erlang capacity will clearly vary depending upon the
mix of voice and data users. Based on the voice and data traffic projection for a service area, a service
provider can calculate the percentages of voice Erlang and data sessions, and then determine the tradeoff
between voice capacity and data throughput.
Calculating the capacity values for the mixed voice and data capacity is a somewhat involved process. In
both cases, capacities are calculated from maximum number of channels from the traffic (Erlang) model.
The general model is described in Section 4.2.2 and is characterized by random arrivals at a system with
finite queues and fixed number of channels (servers).
For voice, the Erlang B (a.k.a, blocked calls cleared) version of the traffic model is typically used. The
Erlang B version is the General Erlang model with no (zero length) queue. No queue implies no waiting.
When a call arrives it is either served or turned away (blocked). The carried load on N channels is
measured in Erlangs (average active channels). The associated performance is measured by probability of
blocking (i.e., all channels busy).
For data, the Erlang C (a.k.a., blocked calls delayed) version of the traffic model is typically used. The
Erlang C version is the General Erlang model with infinite length queue. An infinite length queue implies
that all arrivals are (eventually) served: Hence there is no blocking in the Erlang C model. The carried load
on N channels (N data pipes) is measured by throughput (kbits/sec). The associated performance is
measured by average wait in queue.
The specification of throughput and Erlangs for a particular mix therefore depends upon the performance
requirements (blocking % for voice, average delay for data) imposed on each population within the mix.
The methodology used to estimate the capacity for mixed voice-data networks used the following steps:
• Select mix (e.g., 70% voice, 30% data)
• Treat mix as forward power constraints; i.e.; 70% is used for voice and 30% is used for data
• For data portion:
• For each assigned channel rate:
• Obtain probability distribution of number of supplemental channels over the coverage area from
system level simulation
• For each possibility, compute throughput under average wait time constraint using Erlang C
• Obtain throughput via weighted sum
• Then obtain overall average throughput by using probability of seeing each rate
• For voice portion:
• Determine the number of RF channels the forward link power can support
• Compute carried Erlangs at required probability of block for the number of RF channels
• Repeat for different mixes
Following this methodology yields a collection of (Erlang, throughput) points for the range of mixes. A
different curve can be generated by varying the performance specifications, either wait time constraint for
data or blocking for voice. Typically voice blocking is held constant across all curves and average data
delay time is varied to produce a family of curves. However, there is no inherent reason that the
performance specifications must be the same across the family of curves. Varying the performance
pg 70 of 140
specifications will change the shape of the curve. Figure 5.4-1 shows two curves. The straight line is
obtained by varying the wait time specification for the data services for the different mix ratios (i.e., longer
wait times for lower percentage of data versus voice). The straight line is an approximate upper bound and
is recommended for provisioning purposes (i.e., packet pipe and CEs). The lower curve represents a
constant wait time specification (5 seconds) and is recommended for capacity planning purposes.
Figure 5.4-1 Voice Capacity versus Packet Data Throughput in a Mixed Carrier
For example, if the demand for a typical sector was expected to be 18 voice Erlangs and 70 kilobits, the RF
engineer would start by plotting this point on the figure above. Clearly the point lies above the capacity
curve and cannot be supported by a single carrier. The RF engineer would then divide both demand
numbers by N until he got a point that fell below the curve. N is then the number of carriers required to
support the capacity demand. In this N=2 gives 9 voice erlangs and 35 kilobits per carrier, which falls
below the capacity curve and hence can expect to be supported.
pg 71 of 140
6 Handoff
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Soft Handoff Definition
In soft handoff, multiple cells simultaneously support the mobile's call. In softer handoff, the mobile 's call
is simultaneously supported by multiple sectors of the same cell. The mobile continuously scans for the
pilot signals transmitted by each cell/sector (site), and establishes communication with any site/sector (up
to 69) whose pilot power exceeds a given threshold. Communication with the site/sector is terminated
when the pilot power drops below a threshold for a time period.
These types of handoff do not require an interruption of the communication link as a new link (“leg”) is
added before an old leg is dropped. In contrast, a hard handoff (e.g., AMPS) requires a brief interruption of
the link as the single supporting link is switched from one cell to another. Hard handoffs can also occur in
CDMA when the mobile executes a handoff between carriers.
6.1.2 Procedure
The soft and softer handoff procedures dictate the way in which a call is maintained as a mobile crosses
boundaries between CDMA cells. In soft handoff, multiple cells simultaneously support the mobile's call;
in softer handoff, multiple sectors of the same cell simultaneously support the mobile's call. The distinction
between soft and softer handoff is important since the same Channel Element (CE) is shared to support the
handoff legs in the softer handoff case, but a separate CE is required to support each handoff leg in the soft
handoff case. Each sector transmits a pilot signal of sufficient power to be detected by mobiles within its
vicinity. The mobile continuously scans for pilots, and establishes communication with any sector (up to
six) whose pilot exceeds a given threshold. Similarly, communication with sectors whose pilot drops below
a threshold is terminated. The identification of distinct pilot signals by the mobile relies on the fact that
each pilot exhibits a different time offset within the same PN code. The mobile's search for pilots is
facilitated by the fact that these offsets are in integer multiples of a known time delay. The pilots identified
by the mobile, as well as other pilots specified by the serving sectors(s), are categorized by the mobile as
follows:
• The Active Set consists of those pilots whose sites are currently supporting the mobile's call.
• The Candidate Set consists of those pilots whose sites, based on the received strength of their pilots,
could also support the mobile's call.
• The Neighbor Set consists of those pilots whose sites are not in the active set or the candidate set, but
are nevertheless likely candidates for soft handoff (for example, these sites may be in known
geographic proximity). Each sector in the network has an associated "neighbor list" provisioned. As
sectors are added to the active set the network sends a Neighbor List Update message with the "best"
20 neighbors from the combined neighbor lists of all active set participants. The mobile uses the
information from the network, as well as the normal movement of pilots (i.e., pilots in the candidate
for longer than T_TDROP seconds), to populate the neighbor set.
• The Remaining Set consists of those pilots within the CDMA system but not within the other three
sets. The mobile may move pilots from the remaining set to the candidate set. However, the mobile
typically uses more resources on the neighbor set than the remaining set, hence it is less likely for
9
Typically, mobiles only have three "fingers" that demodulate three different signals (soft handoff legs or
multipaths of a single leg). In six-way soft handoff, signals are transmitted from six different sectors. The
mobile chooses the best three to demodulate, so not all signals are used by the mobile. Previously, only
three-way soft handoff hand been supported. Even in three way soft handoff the mobile’s three fingers
might demodulate different multipaths of the same transmission and not use a signal from one of the
transmitting sectors. The six-way handoff feature is useful in pilot pollution areas. The feature needs to be
carefully optimized so as to not compromise system capacity - see CDMA Translation Application Note #4: Handoff.
pg 72 of 140
pilots in the remaining set to move into the candidate set, than it is for the pilots in the neighbor set.
Furthermore, because of the possible confusion about the unique identification of a sector by PN
offset, the network does not add pilots from the remaining set to the active set that do not appear on the
neighbor list. The undeclared neighbor list feature can be used to track these occurrences so that
neighbor lists can be optimized. Note that provisioning of neighbor lists is one of the most important
optimization activities to assure system performance.
Movement of pilots among the sets is determined by the mobile's assessment of pilot signal strength and a
set of (adjustable) thresholds. This movement is coordinated with the serving sector. The mobile assesses
pilots by comparing pilot strengths to one another, and by comparing each pilot's power to the total
received forward link power. The latter comparison (normalized pilot strength) is the ratio of the pilot
energy in a time chip to the spectral density of total received forward link power: This ratio is called pilot
channel Ec/Io and is defined as:
 Ec  µ ⋅ Pi
∑P
  =
 
I o i FN oW +
 j
all _ j
Equation 6.1-1 Pilot Channel Ec/Io Definition

where:
µ = fraction of sector power allocated to the pilot channel
Pi = the power received from the ith sector
F = mobile receiver noise figure
Pilots in the neighbor and/or remaining set whose Ec/Io exceeds a threshold are associated with sites that
can support the call; accordingly, these pilots are moved to the active or candidate set. The threshold is a
fixed number (T_ADD) in IS-95A and a dynamic number in IS-95B that depends on the quality of the
pilots in the active set. Similarly, pilots in the active and/or candidate set whose Ec/Io drops below a
threshold (T_DROP for IS-95A and dynamic for IS-95B) for a period of time exceeding the parameter
T_T_DROP are moved to the neighbor or remaining set. Finally, a candidate set pilot whose strength
exceeds an active set pilot by at least T_COMP (and an additional dynamic criteria for IS-95B) will be
moved to the active set, possibly displacing that pilot as shown in Figure 6.1-1.
pg 73 of 140
Active
Active set not full and
Pilot exceeds T_ADD Pilot replaced
Or by Candidate
Active set full but swap pilot
criteria met (see text)
Pilot is below T_DROP for
Candidate T_TDROP seconds
T_TDROP
expires
Pilot exceeds
T_ADD
Neighbor
Remaining
Figure 6.1-1 Simplified Pilot Set Transactions

(Diagram does not show all possible transitions)
Figure 6.1-1 is a simplified diagram showing the movement of pilots between sets. Rather than attempting
to show every possible event, we focus the diagram on those events most influenced by the translatable
handoff parameters.
6.1.3 IS-95B Soft Handoff Algorithm

The field data shows that under some conditions there may be more soft handoffs occurring than are
necessary when using the current IS-95A handoff algorithm. Such handoff overheads may also overuse
system resources, thereby degrading total system capacity. An improved soft handoff algorithm was
defined in IS-95B and will be used for 3G1x. The new soft handoff algorithm is intended to improve these
situations by introducing the dynamic handoff threshold determined by combining the pilot strengths from
all pilots in the active set. IS-95B added the following three new parameters to the soft handoff algorithm:
• SOFT_SLOPE
• ADD_INTERCEPT
• DROP_INTERCEPT
These parameters lead to a variable threshold for adding and dropping pilots as opposed to the fixed
threshold in IS-95A (i.e., T_ADD and T_DROP). The threshold is a function of the mobile's measure of the
strength of the pilot's in the active set. The stronger the sum of the pilots strength the less likely a mobile is
to add a pilot to the active set and more likely the mobile is to drop a pilot from the active set.
The equations for the thresholds are:

 
ADD _ THRESH = max  SOFT _ SLOPE × 10 × log PSi + ADD _ INT , T _ ADD 
 i∈A 
∑
pg 74 of 140

∑ 
DROP _ THRESH = max SOFT _ SLOPE × 10 × log PS i + DROP _ INT , T _ DROP 
 i∈A 
where PSi is the mobile's measure of pilot Ec/Io and the sum is performed over all pilots in the active set.
The threshold is plotted as function of combined active set pilot strength below:
Add IS-95B
Threshold Pilots not added
in IS-95B that
would have
been added in
IS-95A
T_ADD
IS-95A
Combined Active Set Pilot Strength
Figure 6.1-2 IS-95B Dynamic Add/Drop Thresholds

Under this algorithm, the mobile will send out a PSMM message to request the base station to add a pilot
into the active set only when the pilot is worthy of being added. This benefit can be seen in the figure as the
gray area of pilot strengths that are not added in IS-95B that would have been added to the active set in IS-
95A. The better the pilots the mobile is currently using (further to the right on combined active set pilot
strength axis), the less likely is that a pilot will be added to the active set (higher add threshold). A similar
figure can be drawn for the drop threshold. The mobile will request the base station to drop a pilot from the
active set if the pilot contributes little. These improvements will reduce the time a call is in soft handoff and
also filter out unnecessary handoffs from each call; therefore, the average number of legs for each call is
reduced and the forward link capacity is increased. Intuitively this makes sense since additional base station
power should not be spent on a mobile that is receiving strong signals elsewhere. Improving forward link
power utilization efficiency will lead to increased system capacity. Simulations have showed a range of
improvements for the soft handoff power overhead factor used in forward link budgets. For forward link
budget planning purposes, a reduction from the typical value of 1.85 for IS-95A to 1.75 for IS-95B is
recommended.
6.1.4 Signal Combining

6.1.4.1 Forward Link
On the forward link, all of the signals from the sectors in soft and softer handoff are combined in the
mobile in a Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) technique (see CMDA Systems Engineering Handbook,
Jhong Sam Lee & Leonard E. Miller). In MRC, each of the soft handoff legs (in addition to any discernible
multipaths) are added together with a weighting for the channel quality, which for IS-95 based systems is
the pilot channel Ec/Io.
6.1.4.2 Reverse Link

For sectors involved in softer handoff the signals from the mobile are combined in the Channel Element in
a MRC fashion as described for the forward link.
For cells involved in soft handoff, the signals from the mobile are not actually combined, but a "frame
selector" at the MSC chooses the "best" signal. The CRC's for the physical layer frames are examined and
pg 75 of 140
the frame without an error is chosen as the best. If neither packet has an error then the decision is made
randomly.
6.1.5 Coverage Contour

Mobiles evaluate base stations' suitability for providing a serving traffic channel by measuring the base
stations' pilot signal strengths relative to total forward link power, or Ec/Io, as described above.
One criteria for determining a coverage contour is that the mobile have at least one pilot with Ec/Io that is
equal to the value of T_ADD: Values of Ec/Io within the contour will be greater than T_ADD; values
outside the contour will be less. Accordingly, a mobile crossing the boundary into the cell will add that
cell's pilot to its active set. (A mobile crossing the boundary out of the cell will not necessarily drop the
pilot, as this function depends on the values of T_DROP and T_T_DROP.) Coverage areas also change
with varying T_ADD.
X Mobile in X
Cell 1 soft handoff Cell 2
T_DROP - T_DROP - Cell 1
T_ADD - Both
Cell 2
Figure 6.1-3 T_ADD Coverage Contour
Consider the sequence shown in Figure 6.1-3 (note the figure is drawn so that the T_ADD boundary for
both cells exactly coincides – in practice the boundaries overlap given the geometry of the cell layout). As
a mobile moves from Cell 1 to Cell 2 it will go through the following sequence:
1. As the mobile moves past the T_DROP boundary for Cell 2, nothing happens
2. When the mobile reaches the T_ADD boundary, it will add cell 2 to its active set and will be in soft
handoff with cell 1 and cell 2.
3. When the mobile moves past the T_DROP boundary for Cell 1, it will drop cell 1 from its active set
and leave the soft handoff state.
Similarly for a mobile moving in the opposite direction, from Cell 2 to Cell 1, goes through the following
sequence, as shown in Figure 6.1-4:
X Mobile in X
Cell 1 soft handoff Cell 2
T_DROP - Cell 2 T_ADD - Both T_DROP - Cell 1
Figure 6.1-4 T_ADD Contour Mobile Moves Opposite Direction
1. As the mobile moves past the T_DROP boundary for Cell 1, nothing happens
2. When the mobile reaches the T_ADD boundary, it will add cell 1 to its active set and will be in soft
handoff with cell 1 and cell 2.
3. When the mobile moves past the T_DROP boundary for Cell 2, it will drop cell 1 from its active set
and leave the soft handoff state.
Note that designing coverage contours for pilot channel Ec/Io values of T_DROP will lead to coverage
holes. Consider the following Figure 6.1-5:
pg 76 of 140
X No pilot!!! X
Cell 1 Cell 2
T_ADD - Cell 1 T_DROP - Both T_ADD - Cell 2

Figure 6.1-5 T_DROP Coverage Contour Leads to Coverage Holes
As a mobile moves from Cell 1 to Cell 2 it will go through the following sequence:
1. As the mobile moves past the T_ADD boundary for Cell 1, nothing happens
2. When the mobile reaches the T_DROP boundary, it will drop cell 1 from its active set. The pilot signal
from cell 2 will still be below T_ADD and hence should not be in the active set. The mobile will not
drop the pilot since it is its only active pilot, but because the pilot is weak the mobiles performance
(FER) will degrade and the call may drop.
Of course given the geometry of cell site coverage it is impossible to have T_ADD contours matching
exactly between cells. Therefore it is important that in designing a network that all areas receive at least one
pilot that is above T_ADD. This design approach will led to most areas having overlapping pilots above
T_ADD. In these overlapping areas the mobile will be expected to be in soft handoff. The mobile will also
be expected to be in soft handoff outside these overlapping T_ADD contours, but the specifics of the soft
handoff locations depend on the mobile direction of travel.
For networks with fixed subscribers, the soft handoff areas will be solely the areas of overlapping pilot
strength above T_ADD. The areas of soft handoff in a mobile with one pilot below T_ADD (but above
T_DROP) and another above T_ADD will not be soft handoff areas in a fixed network.
Note that this discussion uses IS-95A terminology (i.e., T_ADD and T_DROP) but is applicable to IS-95B
as well. As discussed earlier (Section 6.1.3), the add and drop thresholds in IS-95B are a function of
aggregate pilot Ec/Io. However, the IS-95B thresholds will equal the IS-95A fixed thresholds for areas
without strong pilot coverage (i.e., low aggregate pilot Ec/Io). The cell edge is expected to fall into this
category of low aggregate pilot Ec/Io and hence the thresholds for an IS-95B network at the cell edge are
expected to be T_ADD and T_DROP.
6.2 Discussion
6.2.1 Soft Handoff Costs on Channel Elements and Packet Pipe
The cost of soft-handoff is two-fold:
1. Increased number of channel elements (CE). A CE is required at every cell that supports a soft handoff
leg. In the case of softer handoff
2. Increase in backhaul network capacity required. Since multiple cells support the call and the frame
selector that chooses the best soft handoff leg resides at the MSC, backhaul capacity will be required
from all of the cells supporting soft handoff legs.
However, the benefit of soft handoff is increased coverage. Therefore fewer base stations are required to
cover the same area. The reduction in base station count outweighs the increase in CE and backhaul facility
count. For example, for 95% probability of area coverage, the reverse link soft handoff gain is 4.0 dB. For a
typical pathloss slope of 38.5 dB/decade the increase in cell radius is 27%, which equates to an increase of
61% in cell area. The same area can be covered with 38% fewer cells. This reduction in cell count typically
outweighs the cost associated with the extra CEs and backhaul facilities for those cells.
Softer handoffs require fewer resources than soft handoff in terms of channel elements and packet pipe
bandwidth since the signals are combined in a single channel element. The differentiation is important for
provisioning required channel element and packet pipe resources.
pg 77 of 140
6.2.2 Soft Handoff Cost on Forward Link

The cost of soft handoff is forward link capacity in that the soft handoff legs on the forward link require
power that cannot be used to support other users. This cost is captured in the forward link budget with the
line item "Overhead factor to convert from mobiles to the number of active power channels" (commonly
referred to as the "power overhead factor"). The value used is a function of soft handoff algorithm (IS-95A
vs. IS-95B), terminal mobility and cell site antenna configuration. The following table captures values
typically used for planning purposes, which are rounded to nearest 5/100ths:
Table 6.2.1-1 Soft Handoff Overhead Factors for Voice Link Budgets
Cell Antenna Terminal Mobility

Mobile Indoor Fixed Outdoor Fixed
IS-95A Omni 1.50 1.35 1.0
3-sector 1.85 1.60 1.25
IS-95B Omni 1.45 1.30 1.0
3-sector 1.75 1.55 1.25
The soft handoff legs also consume Walsh codes. The power overhead factor is slightly different than the
overhead for Walsh codes. However, the Walsh code overhead is only an issue when there are insufficient
Walsh codes. Typically Walsh codes are not a limiting factor. Networks with fixed subscribers that have
high capacities are cases where the Walsh codes may be limiting.
Note also that the power overhead factor is not the same as the Channel Element (CE) overhead factor.
Since softer handoff does not require extra CEs, the CE overhead factor is less than the power overhead
factor.
6.2.3 Soft Handoff Advantages

Further insight into soft handoff operation can be gained by contrasting this process with the hard handoff
process used in an analog system. In an analog system, each cell is assigned a set of narrowband channels
for use in communication links. Cochannel interference is controlled by not reusing the same channels in
adjacent cells. A mobile proceeding out of one cell into another must switch to an available channel in the
new cell. This switch requires a brief interruption of the communication link. In a CDMA system, the same
wideband channel is reused in every cell. Cochannel interference is accepted but controlled so as to achieve
greater capacity. Accordingly, soft/softer handoff does not require channel switching and its associated link
interruption.
Moreover, with proper threshold settings, the acquisition of new sites is accomplished before the old
(serving) sites are too far away to be useful. The soft handoff procedure is more robust because the
connection with the new host(s) is made before the connection with the old is broken. This process is often
referred to as a make-before-break connection, as opposed to the analog break-before-make. The make-
before-break handoff is more robust and leads to fewer dropped calls at handoff boundaries.
Soft handoff also provides for advantages in terms of coverage and capacity. These advantages appear on
both the forward and reverse link.
Soft handoff provides a diversity gain without which some areas at the cell boundary (the locations furthest
from base stations) would be regions of poor link quality because of shadow fading. The mobiles in these
fringe areas would also be more susceptible to base station interference (see Section 3). Furthermore, the
soft handoff state assures that the mobile is in a 2-path channel. 2-path channels generally have lower
Eb/Nt requirements relative to 1-path channels.
These effects increase the probability that a call will be dropped, since a hard handoff procedure would
typically not be initiated until a mobile reached this area (that is, until the mobile noted a drop in signal
pg 78 of 140
strength from its host cell). In addition, the use of power control without soft handoff could create a
situation where a mobile generates considerable amounts of interference to neighbor cells. Such
interference would reduce capacity.
The last situation arises because the mobile would detect a drop in received signal strength before it
requested a handoff. Since cell boundaries overlap, this reporting point could be well into the boundary of
the neighbor cell. Within this area, power control would boost the mobile's transmit signal strength in an
attempt to maintain the link with the (distant) serving cell. This call-dragging phenomenon reduces the
capacity of the neighbor cell because the mobile 's transmissions increase the level of interference at the
neighbor cell. In contrast, if the mobile were in soft handoff, power control commands from both cells
would ensure that the mobile did not produce undue interference; in fact, the reverse link could be
maintained at a lower level of mobile transmit power due to the gain involved in combining the signals
received at the two base stations.
6.2.3.1 Qualitative Description of Reverse Link Soft Handoff Gain

The effect of soft handoff gain can be understood by considering a simple case of a mobile driving from
one base station to another base station as shown in this figure:
Base Station A Base Station B
Figure 6.2-1 Mobile Traveling Between Two Base Stations

The mobile must generate enough signal (Smob) to overcome the pathloss (Lp) and provide the required
signal (Sreq which accounts for interference from other users) at the base station. This can be expressed
mathematically as:
Smob = Sreq + Lp
Clearly as the pathloss increases the required power from the mobile will increase. In an ideal case the
pathloss profiles would look something like the:
pg 79 of 140
Pathloss to Base Station B Pathloss to Base Station A
Base Station A Base Station B
Figure 6.2-2 Mobile Required Power with and without soft handoff
The following are shown:
• the dashed line shows the pathloss to base station A
• the solid line shows the pathloss to base station B
• the heavy dashed line shows the required mobile power for a system without soft handoff
• the heavy solid line shows the required mobile power for a system with soft handoff.
The system with soft handoff decides frame by frame which path is the better one, allowing the switch from
base station A to base station B to happen immediately. The switch can be immediate since both base
stations, A and B, are receiving and processing the signal from the mobile and the MSC is deciding which
signal is best – hence the “soft” part of the handoff. In a system without soft handoff the switch will be
made later since it needs to have some hysteresis and has delay associated with signaling, etc. The
difference in power during the delay in switching is not the gain claimed for soft handoff, but demonstrates
the critical factor of a soft handoff – the fact that the decision of the best path is done frame by frame
allowing the best path to always be chosen.
The specific gain for soft handoff is shown in the following example that shows the effect of a fade:
Fade to Base Pathloss

Pathloss to Station A to Base
Base Station Station A
B
Base Station B
Base Station A
pg 80 of 140
Figure 6.2-3 Mobile Required During Fade With Soft Handoff

The following are shown:
• the dashed line shows the path loss to base station A
• the solid line shows the path loss to base station B
• the heavy solid line shows the required mobile power for a system with soft handoff.
The figure demonstrates the benefit of soft handoff. As the mobile goes into a fade to base station A, it does
not have to increase its power to the level of the fade, even for a short period. The mobile only has to
increase its power to the level to reach base station B, which is unlikely to be also faded with respect to the
mobile. The difference between these two levels is what leads to “soft handoff gain”, which is a function of
the extent of dissimilarity (decorrelation) between the fading processes with respect to A and B.
It is difficult to definitively measure soft handoff gain in the same way that other link budget parameters
such as antenna gain can be. This difficulty arises from the fact that the specific gain is variable. The gain
depends upon the decorrelation of the fading processes, which can vary by market/morphology and even by
drive routes within a market.
However for planning purposes a gain based upon a conservative decorrelation can be used in link budget
analysis (see Section 3.2.1.3). Furthermore, this gain can be shown to map directly into reduction in
mobile transmit strength, thus enhancing coverage as the link budget dictates. This demonstration is
discussed further, below.
Lucent’s lab environment allows us to set up a specific path loss for a mobile. Utilizing this capability the
following path loss profile was created:
Figure 6.2-4 Path Loss Profile

The mobile was then put through this simulated path loss environment and the mobile transmit power was
measured. The following figure focuses in on the area called “Jump #6” in Figure 6.2-4 (note: time scales
are different):
pg 81 of 140
Figure 6.2-5 Observed Mobile Power without Soft Handoff

As one would expect the mobile power increases by 12 dB, the same magnitude as the fade (increase in
path loss).
A second path loss profile for a different sector was also created as shown in the next figure:
Figure 6.2-6 Additional Path Loss Profile for Second Soft Handoff Leg
The test was rerun with the mobile receiving from and transmitting to the two separate base stations
through the two path loss profiles shown above. The mobile power transmit power was measured and is
plotted here:
pg 82 of 140
Figure 6.2-7 Measured Mobile Power with Soft Handoff

In this case with soft handoff, the mobile power only increases by 6 dB. As can be seen from the two plots,
the soft handoff case reduces the mobile power by the difference between the fade magnitude and the
difference in path loss to the two base stations.
6.2.3.2 Quantitative Description of Reverse Link Soft Handoff Gain

In a CDMA system, there is an advantage due to soft hand-off gain that results in effectively lowering the
fade margin required to obtain a specific probability of edge coverage, as compared to other technologies.
The soft hand-off gain calculation methodology sketched out below follows the development ini. For a
CDMA system that admits soft hand-off, for any given frame, the better (or alternatively, stronger) of two
or more base stations’ reception will be utilized at the switching center. For simplicity, consider that the
decision will depend only on the attenuation, and that the base station with lesser of the two (or more)
attenuations will control the AT. The attenuation of a AT to base station i is given by
10 log(α (di ,ζ i ) = 10γ log(d i ) + ζ i

Equation 6.2-1
Where:
α(di,ζi) represents a function of d and ζ
di is the distance to the ith base station,
ζ is the corresponding lognormal shadowing.
µ is the path loss exponent
One problem is that the random component of the attenuation to the different base-stations [the various ζ’s
(i=0,1,2,..)] could be correlated with one another. To get around that problem, theζ’s are alternately
expressed in terms of two independent random variables. Following along the same lines as the
development in [2], we define ζi = aξ+ bξi where, a2+b2 = 1. The idea here is that by using different values
for a and b, we can vary the correlation between the ζ’s. a = 1, b = 0 is the completely correlated case,
while a = 0, b = 1 represents the completely uncorrelated case. For numerical calculations, values of a
=b=1/√2, a partially (50%) correlated case, will be considered. Next we evaluate the excess link margin
pg 83 of 140
required in this case. Consider the scenario when a AT is in two way soft hand-off. Link outage will occur
in this case only if attenuation to both soft handoff sectors is greater than the margin γ. Hence
Pout = Pr{Min[10µ log d 0 + ζ 0 ,10µ log d 1 + ζ 1 ] > γ }

Equation 6.2-2
Even before we evaluate the above expression, just a glance at the equation gives us an idea of why we
have gain due to soft hand-off. Instead of a single random variable, ξ, being greater than a fixed value
resulting in an outage, we now need two partially independent random variables, each of which has to be
greater than the fixed value to have an outage. The probability of the later event occurring is certainly less
than the former, or alternatively, for the same outage probability, we need less margin in the later case. This
is the advantage of the soft hand-off capability in reducing the margin required, which effectively translates
into soft hand-off gain.
We do not go into the details of evaluating Equation 6.2-2. The interested reader is referred to [2]. For a = b
= 1/√2, path loss exponent of 4, and fading standard deviation of 8 dB, and probability of edge coverage the
soft hand-off gain numerically works out to 4 dB. For probability of edge coverage of 75% the handoff gain
is less and a value of 3 dB is used in the link budget.
Due to the soft hand-off feature, excess link margin requirement has dropped by 4 dB, from 10.3 dB to 6.3
dB. The soft handoff gain for the case of fading standard deviation equal to 8 dB, but probability of edge
coverage of 75% (probability of area coverage of 90%) works out to approximately 3 dB. Due to the soft
hand-off feature, excess link margin requirement has dropped by 3 dB from 5.4 dB to 2.4 dB. This
reduction in link margin is the advantage due to soft hand-off that results in increased coverage. Reverse
link budgets typically contain the fade margin entered for the no soft handoff case. Then a separate line
called soft handoff gain is included to capture the effect of soft handoff. The values typically used in the
reverse link budget are conservatively rounded down from the values calculated by the methodology above
since the precise correlation is not known. The values used in the reverse link budget for fading standard
deviation of 8 dB are:
Probability of Reverse Link Reverse Link Soft

Edge Coverage Fade Margin Handoff Gain
75 5.4 3.0
80 6.7 3.3
85 8.3 3.5
90 10.3 4.0
For standard deviations other than 8 dB, the required margin to achieve a specified outage (probability of
edge coverage) criteria can be numerically determined using the methodology outlined in [1]. The soft
handoff gain to be entered in the link budget is just the difference between the computed required margin
and fade margin.
6.2.4 Qualitative Description of Forward Link Soft Handoff Benefit

The co-channel nature of CDMA makes soft handoff critical for the forward link. A mobile at the cell edge
will see equal strength signals from at least two base stations. In a non-CDMA system the adjacent base
station would not be using the same frequency channel. In CDMA the adjacent will be using the same
frequency channel. Soft handoff allows for these co-channel signals that would be interferers to contribute
to supporting the call. Consider this simplified case of a mobile receiving equal signals from two different
base stations, no thermal noise and perfect orthogonality:
pg 84 of 140
Base Station 1 Base Station 2
Figure 6.2-8 Mobile In Soft Handoff

In the no soft handoff case the Eb/No at the mobile is:
Eb µ ⋅ g ⋅ S1
=
No S2
where g is the processing gain and µ is the fraction of power from base station 1 required to support the
traffic channel for the mobile. If we assume that the signals from the two base stations of are equal strength,
we can solve for µ as follows:
1 Eb
µ no _ sho =
g No
In the soft handoff case, we know from the theory of maximum ratio combining, that the achieved Eb/No is
the sum of the Eb/No's (linear) from the different soft handoff legs. Therefore the combined Eb/No at the
mobile is:
Eb µ1 ⋅ g ⋅ S1 µ 2 ⋅ g ⋅ S 2 (µ1 ⋅ S12 + µ 2 ⋅ S 22 ) ⋅ g
= + =
No S2 S1 S1 ⋅ S 2
If we assume that the total power (Si) from each base station is the same and the power fraction for the two
base stations are equal (i.e., µ1 equals µ2) and solve for µ:
1 Eb
µ sho =
2 ⋅ g No
Therefore the power required from each base station in the soft handoff case is half of what would have
been required without soft handoff. Of course base station 2 is now transmitting power (utilizing its
forward link capacity) to support the call, which it was not doing in the no soft handoff case; however, the
net power received by other mobiles in the vicinity is unchanged since each base station is transmitting half
of the original power.
The benefit of soft handoff on the forward link comes from the fact that the mobile receives signals from
different base stations that provides a diversity gain against fading. When a mobile enters a fade with
respect to one base station, it is unlikely that it will be also be in the same fade with respect to the other
base stations in its active set. Hence the base station will not require power to overcome the deepest fade a
mobile at the edge may enter, since during that fading period the mobile can rely on signals from other base
stations in its active set.
pg 85 of 140
We can consider the same example with the mobile entering a fade (F) to base station 1, the benefit of soft
handoff becomes very clear.
S1
Eb µ1 ⋅ g ⋅ F and Eb = µ 2 ⋅ g ⋅ S 2
=
No 1 S2 No 2 S1
F
The combined Eb/No is then:
2
 S 
 µ1 ⋅ 1 + µ 2⋅ ⋅ S 22 
Eb  F2 
=
No S1 ⋅ S2
F
If we assume equal power from both base stations then the equation simplifies to:
 µ1
 + µ 2⋅  ⋅ g
Eb  F2   µ1 
= = g + F ⋅ µ2 
No 1  F 
F
If we assume that F is large then the µ1 term can be expected to be much less than the µ2 term. If then
compare to the previous (non-faded case) Eb/No and require that the Eb/No be maintained at the same
level:
F ⋅ g ⋅ µ 2 = 2 ⋅ g ⋅ µ SHO −nofade
we see that the traffic fraction must be:
2 ⋅ µ SHO−nofade
µ2 =
F
The traffic fraction will not increase if the fade is greater than 2 (3 dB) and actually decreases for deeper
fades. This analysis makes it appear that fading is beneficial, due to the assumptions of perfect
orthogonality and no thermal noise leading to the single cell being the only interference term for the given
leg. Hence the deeper the fade the interferer is in, the better. If that perfect orthogonality assumption is
removed, the self-interference (from the same cell) will become the predominant interference term for the
non-faded leg during a fade to other soft handoff legs. Of course the faded leg will benefit from having the
self-interference reduced by the same fade amount as the traffic signal.
6.2.4.1 Quantitative Description of Forward Link Soft Handoff Benefit

The impact of soft handoff is captured in the Monte Carlo simulations used to derive parameter values for
the forward link budget. These simulations capture the benefit of lower power per handoff leg due both to
the diversity gain against fading and maximum ratio combining at the mobile.
The forward link budget contains a term for soft handoff power overhead factor. This term increases the
number of traffic channels the forward link is supporting. For IS-95A empirical data shows that a value of
1.85 to be a good estimate. No empirical data exists for IS-95B. However, simulations suggest a reduction
in this value to 1.75 as a good estimate for planning purposes.
6.2.5 IS-95B parameters

IS-95B added the following three new parameters to the soft handoff algorithm. Lucent's 3G1x system
supports the IS-95B handoff algorithm and hence has these parameters.
• SOFT_SLOPE
• ADD_INTERCEPT
• DROP_INTERCEPT
pg 86 of 140
These parameters lead to a variable threshold for adding and dropping pilots as opposed to the fixed
threshold in IS-95A (i.e., T_ADD and T_DROP). The threshold is a function of the mobile's measure of the
strength of the pilot's in the active set. The stronger the sum of the pilots strength the less likely a mobile is
to add a pilot to the active set and more likely the mobile is to drop a pilot from the active set. Intuitively
this makes sense since additional base station power should not be spent on a mobile that is receiving
strong signals elsewhere. Improving forward link power utilization efficiency will lead to increased system
capacity.
The equations for the thresholds are:


∑ 
ADD _ THRESH = max  SOFT _ SLOPE × 10 × log PSi + ADD _ INT , T _ ADD 
 i∈A 

∑
DROP _ THRESH = max SOFT _ SLOPE × 10 × log PS i + DROP _ INT , T _ DROP 
 i∈A


where PSi is the mobile's measure of pilot Ec/Io and the sum is performed over all pilots in the active set.
Add IS-95B
Threshold Pilots not added
in IS-95B that
would have
been added in
IS-95A
T_ADD IS-95A
Combined Active Set Pilot Strength
Figure 6.2-9 IS-95B Dynamic Threshold
These thresholds are also applied when applying the T_COMP (see Section 6.1.2) criteria.
6.2.5.1 T_ADD, T_DROP

Lower T_ADD and T_DROP thresholds lead to the mobile having more pilots in its active set. More pilots
mean that mobile will have more forward link legs to support it. More forward links can help a mobile in
disadvantageous RF conditions. However, this must be traded off against the cost of supporting those
forward links. The power required to support those soft handoff legs will not be available to support other
calls, thereby possibly lowering capacity. There are two factors that mitigate those costs.
First, the IS-95B dynamic thresholds, as described above, reduce the number of soft handoff legs by not
assigning legs to mobiles that have high good pilots already. The quality of the pilots the mobile is seeing is
determined by the aggregate Ec/Io term.
Second, the faster forward link power control in 3G1x allows the sectors involved in soft handoff to realize
a greater gain from soft handoff. When a soft handoff leg is added in 3G, the mobile will see an immediate
improvement in Eb/No and ask for less power from all base stations involved in the handoff. The base
stations can quickly reduce the power for those links. In IS-95 the impact of adding a soft handoff leg was
realized much more slowly as the power control is EIB based. The power is reduced slowly while no errors
are reported from the mobile.
pg 87 of 140
The impact of faster power control is illustrated in the following simulations. Figure 6.2-10 and Figure
6.2-11 show time series plots of the 2G EIB based power control and the 3G1X Eb/Nt (800 Hz) based
power control. The top sub-plot of each figure shows mobile received Ec/Io from various pilots. Bolded
lines indicate the pilots in the active set. As shown in the figures, the mobile gets into 3-way hand-off
around the 82nd second. Hence the geometry increased dramatically from simplex to 3-way handoff.
However, the EIB based power control method cannot track the geometry changing very efficiently. This
results in transmitting excessive power. On the other hand, the 3G Eb/Nt (800 Hz) based power control can
fully take advantage of tracking capability and results in saving transmit power.
Figure 6.2-10 2G EIB Based Power Control
pg 88 of 140
Figure 6.2-11 3G1X Eb/Nt Based Power Control

6.2.5.2 T_TDROP
A timer is started when the strength Ec/Io of an active or candidate set pilot falls below T_DROP (or
dynamic threshold for IS-95B). An active set pilot that falls below T_DROP for a period exceeding
T_TDROP is moved to either the candidate or neighbor set (the decision is based on serving site direction).
A candidate set pilot that falls below T_DROP for a period exceeding T_TDROP is moved to the neighbor
set. It is expected that the settings for T_TDROP for both the IS-95B and IS-95A implementations will be
similar.
6.2.5.3 T_COMP
The parameter T_COMP controls movement of pilots from the candidate set to the active set. A candidate
set pilot with strength Ec/Io exceeding that of an active set pilot by T_COMPx0.5dB is moved to the active
set, replacing that pilot. T_COMP is measured in units of 0.5 dB
pg 89 of 140
6.2.6 SOFT_SLOPE, DROP_INTERCEPT, ADD_INTERCEPT

The SOFT_SLOPE, DROP_INTERCEPT and ADD_INTERCEPT terms determine the dynamic portion of
the add/drop threshold. Higher values will lead to fewer pilots in the active set, while lower values will lead
to more pilots in the active set. More SHO legs can benefit a call and lead to fewer dropped calls and
possibly lower error rates. However, more SHO legs will reduce base station capacity as more forward link
power is used for SHO legs. These parameters need to be optimized to find the correct tradeoff. Such
optimization can be done, for example, in pre-commercial drive test.
Insight into the initial settings for the new IS-95B parameters can be gained by plotting the improvement in
aggregate pilot channel Ec/Io (i.e., the linear sum of Ec/Io's of pilots in the active set) for a given initial
aggregate pilot channel Ec/Io and additional leg Ec/Io.
Pilot
10.0 Strength
9.0 (dB)
8.0
-6
Improvement (dB)
7.0 -7
6.0 -8
-9
5.0
-10
4.0 -11
3.0 -12
2.0 -13
1.0
0.0
-18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Aggregate Ec/Io (dB)
Figure 6.2-12 Improvement in Aggregate Pilot Strength

• Following any one specific line representing an additional pilot at a fixed Ec/Io, the plot shows the
benefit of adding that pilot decreases as the aggregate Ec/Io increases. The knee of the curve defines a
logical point for deciding whether to add that pilot or not. The knee is not precisely defined, but an
approximate inflection points can be determined where the benefit of adding the additional pilot
diminishes.
6.2.7 SCH Anchor Transfer vs. SHO

While soft handoff is clearly beneficial for voice communications, the cost benefit tradeoff is not as clear
for bursty data transmissions on the SCH (see Section 4). For this reason Lucent has chosen not to
implement soft handoff for the SCH forward link. Lucent instead has implemented an optimized fast
switching algorithm (i.e., anchor transfer) that provides similar performance to soft handoff without the
drawbacks. In contrast, soft handoff is provided for the fundamental channel that serves voice and provides
a continuous support link for the supplemental channel bursts. More detail is provided, below.
pg 90 of 140
6.2.7.1 Fundamental Channel (FCH) – Voice and Data

A fundamental channel is defined as a circuit-switched 9.6 kbps channel, supporting either voice or data.
A FCH for voice is required to maintain a target Quality of Service (QoS) in terms of FER over the
duration of a call. Call holding times can be several seconds to tens of minutes. During the call, the user
most likely moves through a variety of RF conditions, crosses multiple cell boundaries, changes speed, etc.
Soft handoff is designed to reliably maintain the call without speech quality degradation during any part of
the call through these changing conditions.
A FCH for data provides underlying support for data bursts on the supplemental channel (SCH), as well as
to transmit low speed data. Similarly to voice calls, the FCH for data may stay active for durations of
several seconds to durations of hundreds of minutes. The FCH is used to reliably deliver signaling and to
guarantee minimum rate data services throughout the coverage area. Therefore, Lucent has implemented
soft handoff for the FCH for both voice and data.
6.2.7.2 Data Supplemental Channel (SCH)
6.2.7.2.1 Data Service Requirements

High rate packet data transmissions are bursty in nature. SCHs are set up for durations expected to be much
shorter than the typical voice call, in the range from hundreds of milliseconds to a few seconds. Additional
reliability for SCH is provided by the RLP protocol that automatically retransmits physical layer frames in
error. Therefore the SCH does not have the same requirement for a continuous, low error-rate, channel.
6.2.7.2.2 Soft Handoff Cost

Soft handoff has a built-in cost in terms of both backhaul facilities between the base station and the Internet
infrastructure and channel elements. Facilities, which are one of the highest operating expenses for network
providers, would be required between every cell in the soft handoff and the MSC. This cost of facilities and
channel elements is worthwhile for voice that requires a continuous, low latency channel.
6.2.7.2.3 Qualitative Performance Impact of Soft Handoff

Supporting forward link soft handoff would increase the setup time for the channel and hence the latency
any given transmission would see. TCP flow control is very sensitive to round trip delay. At high data rates
even if the “pipe is large” (i.e., high bandwidth channel), it will not be fully utilized unless the end-to-end
latency is minimized. Providing higher rate channels provides no advantage unless latency is controlled.
But setting up a data burst in soft handoff would necessarily take longer and introduce more delay. Soft
handoff requires coordination among the different base stations for the following:
• Channel element availability
• Backhaul facility availability
• RF resource availability
• Time synchronization of the transmission of the burst
Furthermore, to support soft handoff requires that all base-stations providing a forward link as a soft
handoff leg have sufficient power. Data channels are expected to require (on average) more power than
voice channels. Therefore it is more likely in data, as opposed to voice, that sufficient power will not be
available to support the desired forward link rate. The channel rate would have to be reduced to support the
weakest leg with least available power.
6.2.7.2.4 Lucent Anchor Transfer Solution

Lucent has implemented an anchor monitoring and transferring solution for the forward link SCH. Anchor
means the sector that is determined to provide the best server for a given mobile. The mobile monitors the
pilot Ec/Io’s of the nearby base stations and reports these measurements to the network on the reverse link.
The network can then determine which base station will provide the best forward link performance. In this
pg 91 of 140
manner most of the diversity advantage of soft handoff is maintained. Currently, the mobile reports its
measurements up to every 2 seconds. Enhancements to the standard provide for mobile reporting when
significant changes in pilot strengths are observed.
6.2.7.2.5 Quantitative Comparison of Capacity and Coverage Impact of Anchor Transfer

Lucent has performed performance simulations to study the performance of ideal anchor transfer compared
to soft handoff. The simulation had the following assumptions:
• cell layout is based on 3G-1X voice link budget.
• lognormal shadow fading with standard deviation of 8dB and 50% site-to-site correlation.
• maximum supplemental channel transmission power fraction is -3dB with respect to full power.
• due to load variation (voice and/or data), half of the time the maximum Supplemental channel
transmission power fraction for calls in handoff is restricted to -6 dB in at least one of the legs. The
rest of the time, all handoff legs have up to -3dB available. This assumption is the most critical for the
performance comparison. Different distributions for available power among the proposed handoff legs
will yield different results
• no transmission diversity
• turbo codes for SCH
• mobile environments: AWGN, 3kmph one-path Rician (K=2, K=5)
• IS-95B Handoff algorithm
The first plot shows the average SCH power, relative to total power, as a function of RF environment and
SCH channel rate. Lower values are clearly better as less power per user means that more users can be
supported. From the plot it is clear that handoff does not provide a capacity advantage and in many cases
provides a capacity disadvantage.
The second plot shows the SCH coverage area, relative to FCH coverage, as a function of RF environment
and SCH channel rate. In all cases the no handoff case provides equal or better coverage compared to the
handoff case.
pg 92 of 140
Average SCH Power as a Function of RF Environment and Rate
K=2 K=5 AWGN K=2 K=5 AWGN K=2 K=5 AWGN K=2 K=5 AWGN
19.2 19.2 19.2 38.4 38.4 38.4 76.8 76.8 76.8 153.6 153.6 153.6
0.0
Average Supplemental Channel Ec/Ior(dB)
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-6.3
-6.4
-6.9
-8.0 Handoff
-8.0
-8.0
-8.1
-8.2
-8.9
-10.0 No Handoff
-9.5
-9.6
-9.6
-9.9
-10.0
-11.2
-11.5
-12.0
-11.7
-11.7
-12.2
-12.4
-14.0
-13.9
-14.2
-14.3
-15.1
-16.0
-16.5
-18.0
SCH Area Coverage as a Function of RF Environment
K=5 K=2 AWGN K=5 K=5 AWGN

K=2 AWGN K=5 K=2 AWG K=5
19.2 19.2 19.2 38.4 38.4 38.4 76.8 76.8 76.8 153.6 153.6 153.6
100% 10 10 10 10 10 10 99 99 10 10 10 10 98 99 10 10 99
SCH Coverage (% of FCH Coverage)
0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% % % 0% 0% 0% 0% 94 96 % % 0% 0%
90% % 92 91 %
% 87 % %
85
80% 81 % %
%
70%
60%
Handof
50% No
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
6.2.7.2.6 R-SCH
Lucent’s equipment does support soft handoff on the reverse SCH. Reverse link soft handoff has no cost
from an air capacity point of view, and does provide benefit in reducing the mobile required power. The
mobile is only broadcasting a single channel that is received by multiple base station receivers. Compare
this to the forward link where the different base stations in soft handoff are transmitting separate signals,
consuming part of their power and hence capacity. Supporting reverse link soft handoff does require extra
channel elements and backhaul facilities, but given the expected asymmetrical nature of data, the cost is
expected significantly less than if forward link soft handoff were supported.
pg 93 of 140
6.3 Hard Handoffs

Although the focus of this chapter is on soft handoff, it should be noted that , hard handoffs also occur in a
3G network. Briefly, hard handoffs would occur in the following cases:
• from 3G1X to 3G1X on a different carrier
• from 3G1X to 2G on the same carrier
• from 3G1X to 2G on a different carrier
• from 3G1X to AMPS on a different carrier
Note that hard handoffs from 2G to 3G and AMPS to 3G are not currently supported.
Of course, hard handoffs from 3G1X to either 2G or AMPS require the mobile to support the other
technology being handed to (i.e., dual mode mobile).
The reliability of hard handoffs is enhanced by carrying forward all of the improvements in hard handoff
that Lucent has made for 2G IS-95. These improvements include:
• CDMA Inter-frequency Handoff Trigger Improvement (IFHOTI)
• Pilot-Only Carriers
• CDMA Multiple Pilots Interfrequency Handoff (CMPIFHO)
The combination of these features has led to extremely robust inter-frequency handoff performance.
Further information can be found in the references [2].
References:
1. Soft Handoff Extends CDMA Cell Coverage and Increases Reverse Link Capacity, Andrew Viterbi,
Audrey Viterbi, Klein Gilhousen, Ephraim Zehavi, IEEE Journal On Selected Areas in Communications,
Volume 12, No. 8, October 1994.
2. Neil Bernstein, “CDMA Multi-Carrier Performance Enhancements”, October 1998
pg 94 of 140
7 Power Control
This section describes the power control functions for both the forward link (base station transmitting
signal to mobile) and the reverse link (mobile to base station) for the CDMA 3G1x voice and packet data
calls.
The primary objective of power control mechanism is to maintain satisfactory traffic channel quality and
reliability with minimal required power while maximizing system capacity within the design coverage area.
The quality of each channel depends strongly on the ratio of signal power to the interference power, or
Eb/Nt, Eb being the energy per signal bit and Nt the spectral density of the interference and noise. The
required Eb/Nt is a function of vehicle speed and channel conditions. In addition, the forward link Eb/Nt
requirement can also be affected by the mobile location with respect to the serving cell and other mobiles.
This varying signal-to-noise ratio influences the frame error rate (FER) and the measured FER values can
best characterize the voice quality for the CDMA system providing voice services. The power control
algorithm is formulated based on tracking the measured FER values and comparison against the FER
design target.
The reverse power control is more complex than that of the forward link. The RPC consists of an open
loop and a closed loop. The latter consists of an inner loop and an outer loop. The open loop power
control algorithm primarily resides in the mobile. This serves to adjust the mobile transmit power level to
compensate for larger scaled, slow varying effects such as propagation loss and shadow fading. The closed
loop algorithm involves both the base station and the mobile and it mainly serves to compensate for fast
power fluctuation such as Rayleigh fading. The outer loop algorithm continuously updates the appropriate
target Eb/Nt value required to maintain a desired average reverse FER for signals received at the serving
cell. The inner loop then compares the measured Eb/Nt value with the target value. As the base station
examines each reverse traffic frame reported by the mobile via the inner loop with each frame subdivided
into 16 power control groups (PCG) having 1.25 msec time duration. The reported FER value is used as a
reference in the outer loop to determine a new Eb/Nt target value.
Both 2G and 3G RPC algorithms support the same basic open and closed loop functions although the 3G
algorithm offers significant enhancement over the 2G. The 2G average reverse link output power for sub-
rate frames (non-voice frames) is reduced by gating off PCG’s in the reverse traffic channel while
maintaining the same power level per PCG. This reduces the reverse link power control speed for sub-rate
frames. For instance, for 1/8-rate frames the power control speed is reduced from 800 Hz (for full– rate
frames) down to 100 Hz. The 3G reverse power control allows for continuous transmission rather than the
gated transmission for the sub-rate frames, thus maintaining the 800 Hz power control speed regardless of
the frame rate.
In addition, the 3G fundamental and supplemental channels are adjusted using a simple integrated scheme,
established by introducing the reverse link pilot channel (R-PICH), which serves as a reference in the inner
closed loop for measuring the mobile Ec /Io level and for scaling.
The forward link power control (FPC) algorithm is less complex than that of the reverse link. The mobile
measures the FER statistics over a time frame and report that to the base station. The measured FER is then
compared with the FER target value. Upon the comparison, the base station increases the forward link
output power level if the measured FER is higher than the target, and vice versa.
Unlike the 2G FPC, which was not designed to effectively mitigate fading, the 3G1x FPC algorithm adopts
a faster FPC scheme operating at a higher rate up to 800 Hz. The 3G power control mechanism facilitates a
faster tracking of RF fades and provides a tighter gain adjustment to satisfy the minimum required Eb/Nt per
call, thereby enhancing forward link capacity. The 3G FPC algorithm for voice calls operates at 800 Hz.
For packet data service, the forward fundamental channel (F-FCH) power control operates at 800 Hz when
the power control function for forward supplemental channel (F-SCH) is off. The F-FCH power control
rate reduces to 400 Hz during the F-SCH bursts while F-SCH power control is on, at a rate of also 400 Hz.
pg 95 of 140
7.1 Reverse Power Control

The primary objective of reverse link power control is to resolve the near-far issue, where a mobile that is
near the serving cell yields a better signal path than a mobile that is far away from the cell. Thus the
mobiles near the cell may possibly raise too much RF interference to allow for the mobiles far away to
reach the serving cell with sufficient signal-to-noise ratio. This issue can be resolved by dynamically
controlling the mobile transmit power such that the serving cell observes the same signal-to-noise ratio
from each mobile.
The 3G1x reverse power control (RPC) algorithm consists of an open loop as well as a nested closed loop.
The RPC supports the integrated fundamental and supplemental channel power control algorithms by
introducing the R-PICH. The R-PICH provides a phase reference to the base station on a per PCG basis for
coherent detection of the reverse fundamental channel (R-FCH). The power allocated to the R-PICH is
related to the R-FCH power by a translation value. The R-PICH Ec/Io is also closely correlated with the
transmission of the estimated R-FCH Eb/Nt value and other power control commands from the base station
to the mobile.
In the 3G reverse open loop, the mobile estimates the required transmitted power of the reverse link
channels based on the measured aggregate received power. Similar to the 2G RPC algorithm, the 3G RPC
open loop function is performed in the mobile, using necessary operating parameters supplied by the base
station via signaling messages in the overhead channels and in the forward traffic channel. The 3G system
applies several new open loop parameters, which were not included in the 2G RPC algorithm before.
These include, for example, the mobile determined R-PICH mean output power (as a function of the access
channel power) and a gain-adjusting cell translation parameter, RLGAIN_ADJ. This parameter is set by the
base station and sent to the mobile via the Extended Channel Assigned Message (ECAM). These allow for
the mobile to compute the R-FCH mean output power to be transmitted based on the R-PICH mean output
power.
Both the 2G and 3G reverse closed loop power control algorithms consist of nested inner and outer loops
although there is a major difference between the 2G closed loop function and the 3G. In the 2G inner loop
algorithm, the mobile reduces the average power for sub-rate frames by gating off certain PCG’s thus
reducing the output power level per frame. For example, for half-rate frames, eight PCG’s are gated off.
For ¼-rate frames, twelve PCG’s are gated off. As the 2G mobile outputs the same power level for each
non-gated PCG, the base station only measures the traffic channel Eb/Nt for the non-gated PCG’s.
Although the average reverse link power is regulated as required, such gating reduces the closed loop
operating speed. In lieu of such PCG gating, the baseline 3G RPC algorithm applies a continuous
transmission scheme by reducing power level per PCG and avoids reducing the power control speed during
sub-rate frame transmission.
It should be noted that the IS-2000 protocol allows for a reverse eighth-rate gating feature, also known as
R-FCH gating. When transmitting the R-FCH at 1/8 rate, in order to reduce the mobile power consumption
and conserve the battery, the mobile may request for such R-FCH gating via the page response message or
the origination message. The base station shall then address its response to such a request via the signaling
messages.
If the R-FCH gating is enabled for the 1/8-rate frame transmission, the FPC inner loop at the base station
only receives half the PCG’s in the reverse PC sub-channel. For the gated PCG’s, the base station receives
a noisy signal without any knowledge of the frame rate and gating situation. This prevents the CMS-5000
ASIC from locking the finger energy for those gated PCG’s, but rather maintaining the previous F-FCH
gain and thus preventing the FPC inner loop function from being impaired. In this case, the effective FPC
inner loop speed for the 1/8-rate frame R-FCH is reduced by half.
In the RPC inner loop, up power control commands will be sent to the mobile as the base station measures
noisy finger energy for the gated PCG’s. The frame rate information being available, the mobile will
execute only the PC commands associated with non-gated PCG’s and ignore those gated while the gated
pg 96 of 140
PC commands are discarded. This is based on information concerning the relative delay between the R-
PICH PCG number and the F-FCH PCG carrying the PC commands associated with the R-PICH
measurement as per IS-2000 standard.
7.1.1 Reverse Power Control for Voice Traffic

For 3G1x voice service, RPC algorithm consists of an open loop and nested inner and outer closed loops.
The details for the open loop and the closed loops are provided below.
7.1.1.1 RPC Open Loop for Voice Traffic

The primary algorithm for the open loop resides in the mobile. This serves to adjust the mobile transmit
power level to compensate for larger scaled, slow varying effects such as propagation loss and shadow
fading.
As per IS-2000.2, for voice calls, two equations are used for computing the open loop mean R-PICH and
R-FCH output power levels from mobile respectively.
First the mean R-PICH power is computed via
PR − PICH (dBm) = −8.5dB + PACCESS −CH (dBm) + RLGAIN _ ADJ ,
where RLGAIN _ ADJ is a base station translation parameter for initial power variation, sent to the
mobile via ECAM signaling message.
The mean output power of the R-FCH can then be computed based on the mean R-PICH power and other
parameters as per IS-2000 standard. These parameters include the band class constant, channel power
adjustment parameters and a parameter that is set by the base station and a power offset parameter,
RLGAIN_TRAFFIC_PILOT.
RLGAIN_TRAFFIC_PILOT is a translation parameter set at the base station and transmitted to the mobile
via signaling messages for updating the relative power between R-PICH and R-FCH power. The detailed
translation information is described in CDMA Translation Applications Note #3V.
7.1.1.2 RPC Closed Loop for Voice Traffic

As stated in the Introduction of this power control section, the 3G1x reverse power control closed loop
consists of a nested inner /outer loop. The inner loop algorithm primarily determines and regulates the R-
FCH output power level based on the detected R-PICH signal strength and the outer loop adjusted full rate
Eb/Nt set point value. This new Eb/Nt set point value is determined in the outer loop based on the
monitored reverse FER. The following is a functional block diagram of the RPC closed loop function for
3G1x voice traffic.
Need to add Open loop diagram
pg 97 of 140
REVERSE LINK PO WER CONTRO L CLOSED LO OP FOR 3G1X R-FCH

ATTRIBUTE_ADJUSTMENT_GAIN
NOMINAL_ATTRIBUTE_G AIN RLGAIN_TRAFFIC_PILOT
FROM MOBILE STATION FROM BASE STATION
Forward
Power Control
INNER S ub-Channel M OBIL E STATION
LOOP in F-FCH REVER SE
POW ER CONTROL
CONVER T
R -FCH E b /N t INNER LOOP O UTER LO OP
SETPOINT
TO
R EVER SE
PILOT ENERG Y
THR ESH OLD M EASU RE
REC EIVED S/N OF REVERSE
REVERSE PILOT PILOT
CHANNEL REVERSE PILOT
OU TER
AND R-FCH
LOOP
CHAN NEL
R-FCH FER R-FC H TRAN SM ITTER
ESTIM AT IO N
BASE ST ATION M OBILE STATION
Figure 8.2.1.2 -1 RPC Closed Loop for 3G1x Voice
As shown in the diagram, the reverse outer loop computes a new R-FCH Eb/Nt set point iteratively based
on the base station detected reverse frame errors at full rate. The base station then converts this Eb/Nt set
point value to a R-PICH signal-to-noise ratio (Ec/Io) set point value. This updated R-PICH Ec/Io set point
is mapped to an R-PICH energy threshold provided in a lookup table in the ASIC. As an embedded ASIC
function, the inner loop algorithm compares the measured R-PICH pilot energy with the above threshold
and determines the reverse power control bits to be sent to the mobile via the forward power control sub-
channel.
As a voice call is initially setup, the F-FCH is assigned prior to the R-PICH and R-FCH assignments and
this F-FCH also carries the forward power control sub-channel. During this initial period, the forward
power control sub-channel sent to the mobile from each leg alternating up and down commands to
maintain a zero net gain in mobile transmit power in the inner loop. If the call starts in multiple legs, the
first leg acquiring the R-PICH sends special preamble frames to the frame selector, which echoes the best
frame to all active legs. The outer loop is initialized upon the cell receiving the first R-FCH with a good
frame and meanwhile the inner loop stops sending the alternating PC commands to the mobile.
Consequently, upon receiving the R-PICH measurement, the inner loop begins its normal routine. For
Simplex calls, the inner loop starts as soon as the R-PICH is measured.
The R-PICH Ec/Io set point value used in the voice R-FCH inner loop is determined as follows:
R − PICH _ Ec I o setpo int( dB) = ξ − 10 log 10 (G F ) − η F ,
where
F
 Eb 
ξ = 10 log 10   , the R-FCH set point in dB, as R-FCH outer loop output,

 Nt 
GF = 1228800/R-FCH (full information rate), the R-FCH processing Gain,
pg 98 of 140
F
 EC 
η F = 10 log 10   , the R-FCH power to R-PICH power offset at the mobile.
P 
 EC 
F in the above equation denotes the R-FCH at full rate with the data rate equal to 9.6 kbps for RC3 and 14.4
kbps for RC4. The frames are each 20 msec in length, with convolution coding.
7.1.2 RPC for Packet Data Traffic

The reverse power control algorithm for packet data traffic is capable of performing power control
functions on the R-FCH and the R-SCH separately. When the data session is an active mode, the base
station regulates the mobile output power levels for the R-FCH and R-SCH when assigned. During the
dormancy periods, the RPC function is disabled.
Similar to that for voice services, the RPC algorithm for packet data services consists of an open loop and a
nested inner/outer closed loop.
The R-FCH power control open loop algorithm for packet data is analogous to that for voice service.
During the R-SCH bursts, the open loop algorithm determines and regulates the R-SCH output power.
The mean R-SCH transmit power is computed based on the mean R-FCH power, mean R-PICH power and
parameters similar to those for determining R-FCH power. The data calls involve an offset translation
parameter that defines different percentages for reverse pilot power required for voice calls and for data to
achieve the desired FER.
For 3G1x packet data services, there is only one inner loop in the reverse power control algorithm. This
inner loop is controlled by the R-FCH RPC outer loop. Similar to that for the R-FCH, an R-SCH outer
loop is designed to meet the R-SCH target frame error rate. The R-SCH outer loop detects the R-SCH
frame errors and generates an updated R-SCH Eb/Nt set point value according to the correlation between
the target R-SCH FER set point and that measured. Although the output from the R-SCH outer loop does
not affect the reverse inner loop and the R-FCH outer loop, the R-SCH outer loop function depends on the
performance of the inner loop and the R-FCH outer loop.
The detailed R-SCH outer loop algorithm is implemented via two steps. In the first step, if the based
station is in soft or softer handoff, it detects the R-SCH frame quality and sends a quality indicator to the
FCH frame selector in the switch via R-FCH. The frame selector determines the best R-SCH frame and
sends back to the base station via F-FCH. Based on this frame quality, the R-SCH outer loop algorithm
determines an updated R-SCH Eb/Nt set point value If in simplex mode, the R-SCH outer loop directly
uses the frame quality bit for deducing a new Eb/Nt set point and by-passes the frame selector process.
In the second step, the R-SCH Eb/Nt and R-FCH Eb/Nt set point values are compared in a frame-by-frame
basis. If the difference for a frame relative to the difference for the previous frame is greater than an offset
threshold, a signaling message will be sent to the mobile to adjust for the R-SCH mean output power
relative to the R-FCH mean output power.
7.1.3 Reverse SARA for 3G1x Packet Data Calls

The R-SCH bursts typically transmit much higher power than that of the low-rate R-FCH for voice or for
low speed packet data traffic. As the base station receives much greater RF power from such SCH bursts
than that from weaker mobiles, the reverse links for the latter may possibly be impaired. The reverse
supplemental air resource allocation (R- SARA) mechanism functions to assess the impact of admitting a
new R-SCH burst on the current system performance and regulate any possible new R-SCH assignments.
For each new R-SCH burst request, the call-processing algorithm identifies the highest rate that may
possibly be assigned based on the hardware and software resources available and other service constraints.
pg 99 of 140
Each leg then independently executes the R-SARA algorithm for this call and determines the maximum R-
SCH rate that can be supported based on the assessed RF performance while considering the impact of
adding this new R-SCH. To assess the impact of adding a new R-SCH, the RF loading must be evaluated.
The contribution to the loading from active R-SCH bursts can be significant and this is greatly dependent
on how strongly it is received at the sector.
Contrarily to using the assumed constant receive Eb/Nt for RC3 for the active fundamental channel; an
actual measurement of the received reverse link pilot signal strength is used to estimate the loading
contribution from an active R-SCH burst at each of the active legs. Such estimate is based on the number
of the current active Walsh codes on the sector under consideration. Also included are the reverse
fundamental active channels along with any R-SCH bursts.
If the difference between the strongest pilot Ec/Io among the non-active-set and that of the current strongest
active-set is greater than a threshold, the R-SCH request will be rejected.
7.2 Forward Power Control

As discussed above, in the 3G1x forward link, each serving sector transmitter must ensure that the required
Eb / Nt is achieved at each mobile within that sector.
The required Eb/Nt range is significantly influenced by mobile speed and multipath conditions due
especially to the fact that the mobile receiver does not employ antenna diversity.
The 3G1x forward power control algorithm is designed to compensate for the fast varying Eb/Nt and other
cell interference via a fast tracking closed loop in a sub-frame interval in place of the slower FER based
algorithm used in the 2G FPC algorithm. Thus tighter base station transmit gain adjustment can be
achieved and this results in an increased forward link capacity.
The 3G forward power control feature is highlighted below:
• Compatible with TR45 TIA/EIA/IS-2000 Standard

• Supports voice and low speed data (9.6 kbps and sub-rates) in F-FCH and high speed data (up to
153.6 kbps) in F-SCH
• Supports Convolution and Turbo coding for F-SCH data rates of 19.2 kHz, 38.4 kHz, 76.8 kHz
and 153.6 kHz. For Release 20 and higher 307.2 kbps will be supported as well.
• F-FCH can be in soft or softer handoff, while F-SCH is currently designed for single leg (anchor
leg) condition namely Reduced Active Set. Softer handoff for F-SCH will be available for future
release.
• Supported by first release of 3G1X product for voice and data traffic
The forward closed loop power control algorithm consists of an outer loop and an inner loop and the
algorithm is implemented effectively at a rate of up to 800 Hz.
As per IS-2000, the FPC algorithm for 3G1x voice and packet data traffic is designed for the mobile station
to support up to two (2) inner loops. One is the “primary inner loop” that controls operation of the F-FCH
for voice and the low speed packet data (at 9.6 kbps data rate); the other is the “secondary inner loop” that
controls the F-SCH packet data traffic with data rates of 19.2 kbps, 38.4 kbps, 76.8 kbps and 153.6 kbps.
Additionally, if a forward link dedicated control channel (F-DCCH) is assigned, its output power is also
controlled by the same inner loop algorithm. Any other F-SCH assigned will also be controlled by the
secondary inner loop. Though the closed loop algorithm in the mobiles has not been standardized, the most
common procedure for the primary inner loop is based on the power control bits (PCB), which is
corresponding to the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) measured at the mobile. The secondary inner loop function
is based on the mobile measured F-SCH traffic S/N.
pg 100 of 140
In the forward link, the base station configures the mobile and passes the following information to the
traffic channel:
• Forward Target FER values for the F-FCH and the F-SCH
• Initial, minimum and maximum Eb / Nt set point values
• Ratio of PCB power in primary channel over primary channel traffic power at full rate (denoted as
FPC_SUBCHAN_GAIN)
• Primary channel (F-FCH or F-DCCH) and secondary channel (F-SCH) with possible inner loop
rates at (800,0), (400, 400) Hz or (200, 600) Hz.
7.2.1 Forward Power Control for Voice Traffic
The FPC functional diagram for voice service is illustrated in Figure 8.3.1.2-1. As shown in this diagram,
the main functionality of both inner and outer loops resides in the mobile. The key functional blocks
include the following:
• The F-FCH Eb/Nt detector,
• The primary inner loop block that generates the PC commands sent to the base station,
• The F-FER detector,
• The main outer loop block, which adjusts the Eb/Nt target value at the mobile.
More detailed description for the voice FPC inner and outer loops are provided below.
7.2.1.1 FPC Inner Loop for Voice

The voice FPC inner loop algorithm is an iterative procedure. As the F-FCH traffic channel power is being
transmitted from the base station to the mobile, the mobile monitors the F-FCH received PCB and estimates
the Eb/Nt for the full-rate traffic bit based on the value of the base station provided FPC sub-channel gain
(denoted as FPC_SUBCHAN_GAIN). When compared with the current Eb/Nt target value, if the
performance degrades, the inner loop commands the base station (via the RPC sub-channel) to increase the
traffic channel transmit power gain. On the contrary, if the forward link quality exceeds the updated Eb/Nt
target value, then it commands the based station to reduce the transmitting power. The base station ASIC
detects the forward link power control commands in the reverse power control sub-channel via R-PICH at a
rate of 16 per 20 msec frame, or 1.25 msec, which amounts to 800 Hz. This 1.25 msec is the time interval
of each power control group (PCG).
The following initial parameters are required for executing the voice FPC inner loop algorithm:
• Forward power control initial gain, FPC_INI_GAIN
• Forward minimum gain
• Forward maximum gain
• Gain adjustment step size (up step size and down step bias).
The units of the initial, minimum and maximum gain values are in dB, relative to the forward pilot power.
The initial gain setting is not as critical because the inner loop operates at a speed of 800 Hz which is
sufficient for adjusting the forward gain to meet the updated Eb/Nt set point without much delay. However,
the values for the minimum and maximum gains are critical. The values required for achieving optimal
capacity are dependent on the radio configuration and the number of soft handoff legs of the call. In soft
handoff, the primary leg passes the above four parameters to each active leg thus allowing for different gain
constrains and power control steps for different calls in the same cell/sector.
For troubleshooting and/or RF optimization, one may disable the F-FCH inner loop by setting the inner
loop power control step sizes (both up step and down step bias) to 0 dB via translation parameter settings.
With such settings, the power control commands received and processed by the cell allows the F-FCH
forward gain to remain constant via the cell ASIC. By disabling the inner loop, the forward power control
is effectively turned off regardless of the on/off status of the outer loop.
pg 101 of 140
7.2.1.2 FPC Outer Loop for Voice

Because the primary objective for the FPC for voice traffic is to maintain an acceptable voice quality while
maximizing the system capacity, and FER is a performance measure that well characterizes the voice
quality, maintaining an acceptable FER is an important part of the FPC. However, given that there is no
direct close mapping between FER and the measured Eb/Nt, some adjustment in the inner loop is required
in order to maintain an acceptable averaged forward link FER. Specifically, the F-FCH Eb/Nt target value
used in the inner loop function must be continuously adjusted based on the detected FER value. This FER
detection is performed in the outer loop. In addition, the outer loop algorithm also includes estimating FER
and dynamically determining the appropriate Eb/Nt target value. These outer loop functions are
implemented in the mobile on a per frame basis at a rate of 50 Hz.
As the time a call is just being setup, the outer loop is configured by the cell via layer 3 signaling via the
paging channel and continuously updated via the F-FCH. The following are the required parameters for
configuring the outer loop:
• Forward target FER
• Initial Eb/Nt target value
• Minimum Eb/Nt target
• Maximum Eb/Nt target.
These parameters are passed to the mobile during call setup via the ECAM signaling messages, the service
connect messages and the forward power control message when the mobile is assigned an F-FCH. In
handoff, the outer loop parameters are updated to reflect the new number of soft and softer handoff legs
that affects the minimum and maximum Eb/Nt target values.
For troubleshooting and/or RF optimization, one may disable the outer loop regardless of the inner loop
status. This is achieved by “freezing” the output Eb/Nt set point value, either to the current target value or a
specific base station determined value that is passed to the mobile via the power control message. The
outer loop function will be resumed as the cell sends to the mobile a new power control message with
updated minimum and maximum Eb/Nt set point values.
pg 102 of 140
FORWARD LINK POWER CONTROL CLOSED LOOP FOR 3G1X F-FCH
Forward Power
FORW ARD Control Sub- MEASURE F-FCH FER
Channel
FUNDAMENTAL in F-FCH
RECEIVED E b /N t OF ESTIMATION
CHANNEL FUNDAMENTAL
TRANSMITTER CHANNEL
INNER LOOP OUTER

LOOP
F-FCH
OUTER
BASE STATION LOOP
FORW ARD Reverse Power PRIMARY
Control Sub- INNER LOOP
POW ER Channel in
CONTROL Reverse Pilot
Channel
F-FCH E b /N t SETPOINT
BASE STATION MOBILE STATION

FPC_FCH_INIT_S ETP T FPC_MODE
FPC_SUBCHAN_GA IN FPC_PRI_CHAN
FPC_FCH_FER
FROM BASE STATION FPC_MIN_S ETP T
FPC_MAX_SETP T
FROM BA SE STATION
Figure 8.3.1.2-1 Forward Power Control Function for Voice Service
7.2.2 Forward Power Control for Packet Data Traffic

In 3G1x packet data mode, the forward traffic data is transmitted via the F-FCH and F-SCH channels,
where the F-FCH transmits signaling and low rate data (at 9.6 kbps) and F-SCH transmits packet data at
higher rates as discussed above. A data session consists of one or more active periods where data is
transmitted over the air interface. These active periods are separated by periods of inactive mode, or
dormant mode. In dormant mode, neither the F-FCH nor the F-SCH is assigned and thus any information
stored in the base station associated with the previous data call is erased. When in active mode, the F-FCH
is on at all time while F-SCH may be on or off, depending on the availability of the air interface resources
and the amount of data in the buffer awaiting to be sent. For trouble shooting and/or optimization, the
3G1x F-FCH and F-SCH FPC functions can be disabled separately by setting the inner loop power control
step sizes to 0 dB.
7.2.2.1 F-FCH Power Control for Packet Data

When the 3G1x packet data calls are in active mode, the F-FCH power control algorithm follows the same
closed loop process, which consists of nested inner and outer loops as that for the 3G1x voice calls.
However, some of the required translation parameter values must be set differently because of the
following reasons:
• The FER target for a voice call is dictated by the voice quality requirement while the FER target
for a packet data call is established by signaling traffic requirements (delay and reliability) as well
as the radio link protocol (RLP) performance.
• The minimum and maximum gain values are dependent on the rate at which the power control
operates. The F-FCH forward power control (FPC) for voice calls operates at 800 Hz, while for
packet data calls only operates at 800 Hz when the F-SCH is off. The F-FCH FPC rate reduces to
400 Hz during a F-SCH burst.
pg 103 of 140
As per IS-2000, the closed loop may operate in several modes. The base station selects the mode and
configures the mobile via the layer 3 messages at the instance when the F-FCH is first assigned. It also
updates the mobile configuration via an in-band signaling during the F-FCH operation. The packet data
FPC algorithm is designed such that the base station may configure up to two reverse power control sub-
channels via the R-PICH and this closes up to two independent inner loops. When there is no F-SCH
assigned, mobile is configured to support only one reverse power control sub-channel, operating at 800 Hz.
During an F-SCH burst, two reverse power control sub-channels are configured in a time-multiplexed
fashion via the single R-PICH such that the combined speed of these two inner loops becomes 800 Hz.
Two traffic channels, defined as primary and secondary traffic channels (as per IS-2000) are mapped to the
above two inner loops. The primary channel refers to the forward traffic channel that carries the FPC sub-
channel used by the primary FPC inner loop. The secondary traffic channel is only meaningful when there
are two co-existing inner loops. When the secondary FPC inner loop is active, the mobile performs the
Eb/Nt measurements via the secondary traffic channel.
At a data rate of 9.6 kbps, the packet data FPC algorithm is basically operating with F-FCH inner/outer
nested power control loops, similar to that for the voice FPC. The packet data also F-FCH supports soft
handoff. As an F-SCH is assigned (with a data rate higher than 9.6 kbps), for Release 20 and below, it only
operates in a simplex mode so as to optimize the burst setup time. The packet data FPC algorithm consists
of two inner loops and two outer loops whether the F-FCH is in the simplex mode or in handoff.
The Primary and Secondary power control loops are shown in Figures 8.3.2.1-1 and 8.3.2.1-2 respectively.
Forward Power
FO RW AR D Con tro l S ub- M E AS U R E F-FC H FE R
Ch annel
FUN D AM E NTA L R E C EIVE D E b /N t OF ES TIM ATIO N
in F-FCH
CH AN N E L FU ND AM EN TAL
TRANSMITTER CH AN N E L
IN N ER LO O P O UTE R
LO O P
F-FC H
O UTE R
B AS E S T ATIO N LO O P
FO RW AR D
Re verse P ower PR IM AR Y
Control S ub- INN ER LO O P
P OW ER Channel in
C O NTR O L Reverse P ilot
Channel
F-FC H E b /N t S ET P O IN T
BA S E STA T IO N MO B ILE S T ATIO N

F PC _F CH _IN IT _SETP T F PC_MO D E
F PC _S UB CH AN _G A IN F PC_P RI_C H AN
F PC_F CH _FER
F RO M BAS E STAT IO N F PC_MIN_SE TPT
F PC_MAX _SET PT
F RO M BAS E S TATIO N
Figure 8.3.2.1-1 Forward Packet Data Primary Closed Loop for FCH FPC
pg 104 of 140
Forward Power
FORWARD Control Sub-Channel MEASURE RECEIVED F-SCH FER
in F-FCH
SUPPLEMENTAL Eb/Nt OF ESTIMATION
CHANNEL SUPPLEMENTAL
TRANSMITTER CHANNEL
INNER LOOP OUTER LOOP
F-SCH
OUTER
BASE STATION LOOP
FORWARD POWER Reverse Power SECONDARY
Control Sub-Channel INNER LOOP
CONTROL in Reverse Pilot
Channel
F-SCH Eb/Nt SETPOINT
BASE STATION MOBILE STATION

FPC_FSCH_INIT_SETPT FPC_MODE
FPC_FSCH_FER
FROM BASE STATION FPC_FSCH_MIN_SETPT
FPC_FSCH_MAX_SETPT
FROM BASE STATION
Figure 8.3.2.1-2 Forward Packet Data Secondary Closed Loop for SCH FPC
7.2.2.2 Forward SARA for 3G1x Packet Data Calls

The forward supplemental air resources allocation (F-SARA) is a mechanism residing at the base station
and it determines whether the air interface resources is sufficient to be appropriately assigned to an F-SCH
when the anchor cell received a request for F-SCH assignment.
Prior to invoking the F-SARA, the call-processing algorithm estimates a maximum F-SCH data rate based
on the CE availability, Walsh code, packet data and other required hardware and software resources
without accounting for the RF air interface resources. This maximum F-SCH data rate serves as initial
input to the F-SARA algorithm for determining a more accurate F-SCH maximum data rate that can be
supported by the current RF conditions in the anchor sector/carrier. This new output data rate may be less
than or equal to the earlier input data rate. Also predicted by F-SARA are the initial, the minimum and the
maximum transmitted F-SCH power and the initial, the minimum and the maximum F-SCH Eb/Nt set point
values corresponding to the output F-SCH data rate.
Under certain conditions the call-processing algorithm may update the data rate to a rate lower than that
previously determined via the F-SARA algorithm. The F-SARA reassesses the power commitment as it
determines an updated maximum allowable data rate iteratively.
pg 105 of 140
8 Extended Carrier
8.1 Introduction
This section provides guidelines for RF planning for "extended" carrier deployment.
An extended carrier, as used here, is a CDMA carrier that is intentionally designed to carry a limited
amount of traffic in order to increase the coverage area, or reap other benefits such as enhancing building
penetration or better matching the offered traffic density to subscriber demands.
The concept of reducing design capacity in order to achieve extended coverage is not new; indeed, this
fundamental tradeoff exists in 2G CDMA and has occasionally been exploited to advantage (e.g., a modest
number of large, lightly loaded cells covering a low-traffic rural area). These 2G tradeoffs have been
naturally limited by the low reverse link interference margins10 (about 3 to 4 dB) used in 2G designs. For
example, an interference margin of 3.5 dB (55% loading with respect to pole) means that at most the cell
can be expanded 3 dB relative to this footprint, with associated reduction of the interference margin to 0.5
dB (10% loading with respect to pole). Further expansion of the footprint by sacrificing capacity is not
possible, since the cell capacity would be driven to zero.
The use of higher (i.e., typically 5.5 dB) nominal interference margins in 3G1x opens several new
possibilities for design. These include:
• Single extended carrier. This concept embodies the standard design tradeoff of capacity for coverage.
This tradeoff can be more extensive, since there is more dB of interference margin (loading) to trade
for coverage.
• Concentric extended. This configuration uses a modest number of large, lightly loaded single carrier
cells for initial deployment. The expanded footprint of the cells is achieved by trading off capacity
(interference margin) for coverage. Traffic growth is accommodated by adding fully loaded carriers (of
smaller footprint) to each cell as needed. The first (extended) carrier provides ubiquitous coverage,
whereas the additional (smaller footprint) carriers provide localized capacity relief.
• Quasi-omni. This strategy services a 3-sectored configuration with a single (as opposed to 3)
transmitter/receiver. The coverage penalties inherent in sharing the single transceiver via a splitter and
combiner are offset by reducing the loading (the interference margin). This lightly loaded
configuration can later be upgraded to full capacity at the same footprint by adding two transceivers
(the additional equipment offsets the coverage penalties introduced by the additional loading).
• Asymmetric cell (“split sector”). This strategy is similar to the previous one but services a 3-sectored
configuration with two transmitters/receivers instead on just one. The first (dedicated) transceiver
services the cell busy sector, which offers full capacity. The second transceiver services the remaining
two sectors. The coverage of these two sectors is identical to that of the busy sector, since the
penalties inherent in sharing (splitting) the transceiver are offset by reducing the sector loading. This
configuration provides full (nominal) coverage for cells with asymmetric traffic distributions, at
reduced cost.
In the following, we consider each of these methods in turn. In section 8.2 (single extended carrier), the
mechanics of basic capacity-coverage tradeoffs are reviewed, with particular attention paid to required
forward link adjustments in an expanded cell. The concentric configuration is discussed in section 8.3. The
quasi-omni and asymmetric cell configurations are discussed in sections 8.4 and 8.5, respectively.
10
Note that reverse link will be left off the name of the interference margin throughout the rest of this
section. The interference margin referenced here is always a reverse link term.
pg 106 of 140
Note that all strategies discussed provide a potential means for reducing the cost of initial deployment
either through reducing cell or equipment (transceiver) count. The optimal strategy for a given deployment
depends largely upon traffic needs and projected traffic growth. For example, single extended carrier may
not be feasible for an area with aggressive traffic growth, since the small design capacity per (large) cell
would necessitate rapid addition of carriers. In such an area, a configuration that begins with quasi-omni
and is later upgraded to normal (3 transceiver) configuration may be a more suitable way to contain initial
deployment costs and smoothly migrate as needed to higher capacity cells. Alternatively, if the projected
traffic within the area is likely to be asymmetric (one busy sector), then the best solution may be
deployment of the split-sector configuration. Finally, if the traffic growth is likely to be highly localized
close to the cells, then concentric carrier may offer the best answer.
8.2 Single Extended Carrier

This section describes the deployment of a carrier with extended coverage. If capacity demands exceed the
capacity of the extended carrier, then either more extended carriers or more cells are required.
8.2.1 Reverse Link

The design tradeoff for capacity and coverage in the reverse link is embedded in the interference margin
term. Interference margin is defined as:
1
Rim = (see PCS CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines equation 7.6)
1− µ
where:
µ is the ratio of the planned number of RF channels to the "pole capacity".
The reduced interference margin directly translates to an increased maximum allowable pathloss. The cell
radius is proportional to the maximum allowable pathloss raised to the pathloss slope. Therefore changes in
maximum allowable pathloss can be translated to changes in cell radius as follows:
 P1 − P2 
R1  
= 10  S 
R2
Where the Rs are the respective cell radii and the Ps are the respective maximum allowable path losses (in
dBs) and S is the pathloss slope (in dB/decade).
For a typical 3G1x system with 3-sector cells and Radio Configuration 3 (RC3), the pole capacity is 48.5
channels. The following table summarizes the capacity coverage tradeoff:
Table 8.2-1 Capacity versus Coverage
Channels % load relative Erlangs Interference Area rel to 72%
to pole Margin (dB) loading
1 2% 0.02 0.1 191%
2 4% 0.223 0.2 189%
3 6% 0.602 0.3 187%
4 8% 1.09 0.4 185%
5 10% 1.66 0.5 183%
6 12% 2.28 0.6 181%
7 14% 2.94 0.7 179%
8 16% 3.63 0.8 176%
9 19% 4.34 0.9 173%
10 21% 5.08 1.0 171%
11 23% 5.84 1.1 169%
12 25% 6.61 1.2 166%
13 27% 7.4 1.4 164%
pg 107 of 140
14 29% 8.2 1.5 162%

15 31% 9.01 1.6 159%
16 33% 9.83 1.7 157%
17 35% 10.7 1.9 154%
18 37% 11.5 2.0 152%
19 39% 12.3 2.1 149%
20 41% 13.2 2.3 147%
21 43% 14 2.4 144%
22 45% 14.9 2.6 142%
23 47% 15.8 2.8 139%
24 49% 16.6 2.9 136%
25 52% 17.5 3.2 132%
26 54% 18.4 3.4 129%
27 56% 19.3 3.6 126%
28 58% 20.2 3.8 123%
29 60% 21 4.0 120%
30 62% 21.9 4.2 117%
31 64% 22.8 4.4 114%
32 66% 23.7 4.7 110%
33 68% 24.6 4.9 107%
34 70% 25.5 5.2 103%
35 72% 26.4 5.5 100%
The following figure shows the tradeoff of capacity versus cover graphically where the coverage is
expressed as a percentage of the nominal case (72% reverse link pole loading):
30
25
Erlang Capcity
20
15
10
5
0
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200%
Area Relative to Nominal Case
Figure 8.2-1 Capacity vs. Coverage

Of course it is important to remember that supportable Erlang density (traffic Erlangs divided by area) falls
faster than the plot above (Erlang capacity) since as the cell footprint grows the capacity decreases. Thus
the density (ratio of capacity to area) is negatively impacted twice. The following plot illustrates
supportable density (relative to nominal case of 72% loading) versus area gain:
pg 108 of 140
Traffic Density Rel to Nominal

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200%
Figure 8.2-2 Traffic Density versus Coverage
8.2.2 Forward Link

It is necessary to verify that the forward link will support the extended coverage area, by examining the
impact on the forward link pilot and traffic channels.
8.2.2.1 Forward Link Pilot Channel

As the maximum allowable pathloss increases, pilot power must also be increased to maintain a constant
pilot channel Ec/Io at the cell edge. Pilot Ec/Io is defined as follows:
 Ec  δ ⋅ Pi
=
∑P
 
 Io  FN oW +
 i j
all _ j
where:
Ec = the time chip energy received at the mobile
Io = the total noise and interference from all sectors
δ = the fraction of sector power allocated to the pilot channel
Pj = the power received from the jth sector
i = index of serving sector
For insight, we can consider two simple cases analytically, the completely interference limited case and the
completely noise limited case.
In the interference-limited case, we assume the thermal noise power to be small compared to the
interference power (i.e., FNoW << ΣPj). In this case, as the maximum allowable path loss is increased, both
the pilot signal and the interference are reduced by the same amount. Hence in the interference-limited case
no increase in pilot power is required as the cell area is increased by decreasing the loading.
In the noise-limited case, we assume that the interference power is small compared to the thermal noise
power (i.e., ΣPj << FNoW). In this case, the pilot power will need to be increased by the same amount as
the increase in path loss to maintain the same pilot Ec/Io at the cell edge.
Intermediate cases (the most likely scenario) require the pilot channel power to be increased somewhere
between zero and the increase in maximum allowable path loss.
pg 109 of 140
The actual pilot power required, as a percentage of total amplifier power, to maintain a given Ec/Io at the
cell edge, was computed (via spreadsheet) for the typical 3G1x case for various values of interference
margin (resulting in various cell footprint sizes), with the following results:
18.0%
Pilot % of Total Power

17.5%
17.0%
16.5%
16.0%
15.5%
15.0%
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200%
Figure 8.2-3 Required Pilot Percentage of Total Power versus Capacity

As can be seen from the graph, the pilot percentage only increases from the standard value of 15 percent at
full loading of 26.4 Erlangs (72% of pole capacity) to a little less than 18 percent at no loading. The
additional amount of power required for the pilot channel can be calculated on a case-by-base basis and
will reduce the power available for the traffic channels. The impact on capacity is examined in the next
section.
8.2.2.2 Forward Link Traffic Channel

The traffic channel is more complicated than the pilot channel since two effects of lighter loading must be
accounted for: the increase in path loss and the decreased number of users. In our analysis we assume that
all mobiles have an equal share of total base station power, which can be interpreted as all mobiles are
located at the cell edge.
Pi′
 Eb  n ⋅ Lp
=
∑P +γ ⋅P

 N o  FN oW +
 j i
j ≠i
where:
i is the index of the serving sector
P' is the transmitted power for all traffic channels
Lp is the maximum allowable pathloss
n is the number of mobiles
Pi = the power received from the ith sector
γ is the orthogonality factor
Again, for insight, we can consider two simple cases analytically, the completely interference limited case
and the completely noise limited case.
In the interference limited case, as the maximum allowable path loss is increased, the P' terms stays the
same since the pilot channel does not require any extra power, as discussed above. The increase in pathloss
reduces both the serving signal and the interfering signals equally. The number of users (n) decreases to
pg 110 of 140
provide the reduced loading that allows for the increase in maximum allowable pathloss. Therefore, the
Eb/No for this case will necessarily increase. Alternatively, the total power required to maintain a given
Eb/No will decrease. Accordingly, less power is required to support fewer users, even though the footprint
is enlarged.
In the noise limited case, the P' term will be decreased by amount equivalent to the increase in pilot power,
which, from above, would equal the increase in path loss. If we assume that the Eb/Nt achieved for the
nominal case is acceptable, we can compare the achievable Eb/Nt for the expanded carrier case. Here
achieved Eb/Nt is the Eb/Nt that is calculated for a mobile at the edge of a sector’s coverage area if that
mobile receives 1/n of the available traffic power, where n is the number of channels supported by the
sector. If the ratio of the extended carrier achievable Eb/Nt to the nominal achievable Eb/Nt is greater than
one we can assume that the extended carrier case has sufficient power to close the forward link.
Let case 1 be the "nominal carrier case", supporting n1 RF channels and case 2 be the
"extended carrier case", supporting n2 RF channels.
 Eb 
P2′

 N o  2 L p 2 ⋅ n2  P2′   L p1   n1 
= =   ⋅  ⋅ 
 Eb  P1′   
 P1′   L p 2   n2 
 N o 1
 L p1 ⋅ n1
If the overhead fraction is δ, then power available for all the traffic channels is:
P1′ = (1 − δ 1 ) ⋅ Ptot and P2′ = (1 − δ 2 ) ⋅ Ptot
As stated above, the overhead fraction for this noise limited case increases by an amount
equal to the increase in pathloss:
Lp 2
δ2 = ⋅ δ1
L p1
Therefore the ratio of total traffic powers can be expressed as:
Lp2
1− ⋅ δ1
P2′ (1 − δ 2 ) ⋅ Ptot L p1
= =
P1′ (1 − δ 1 ) ⋅ Ptot 1 − δ1
Substituting back into the Eb/No ratio and simplifying gives:
 Lp2   L p1 
 Eb

 1 − ⋅ δ1   − δ1 
 N o  2  P2′   L p1  n   L p1   L p1  n   Lp2   n1 
=  ⋅
 
⋅ 1  = ⋅ ⋅ 1  = ⋅ 
 Eb  ′  n   1−δ  L  n   1 − δ1  n 
  1   Lp 2
P   2    p2   2    2 
N o 1  1

    
   
The ratio of path losses can be related to the number of channels as follows:
1
L p1 Rim 2 1 − µ 2 1 − µ1
= = =
Lp2 Rim1 1 1 − µ2
1 − µ1
Substituting into the Eb/No ratio equation gives:
pg 111 of 140
 1 − µ1 
 Eb


 − δ1 
 N o  2  1 − µ2 ⋅ n 
=  1



 Eb   1 − δ1  n2
 
 N o 1  
  
For 3G1x, the loading for the nominal case is 72%, or µ is 0.72. Also the pilot fraction for
the nominal case (δ) is equal to 15% or 0.15.
 Eb  1 − 0.72  
  − 0.15 
 N o  2 1 − µ2 ⋅ 0.72 ⋅ nmax   0.33   0.72 
= 


 =  − 0.18  ⋅  

 Eb

  1 − 0.15   n2   1 − µ2   µ2 
 N o 1  
 
0.33 ⋅ 0.72 0.18 ⋅ 0.72 0.11 + 0.13 ⋅ µ 2
= − =
µ 2 − µ 22 µ2 µ 2 − µ 22
A plot of this function looks like:
5
Eb/No relative to nominal case
3
2
(dB)
1
0
-1
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Loading (mu)
Figure 8.2-4 Eb/Nt versus Loading

From the chart it can be observed that the achieved Eb/No for the extended carrier case will be less
than for the nominal case for loadings between nominal (0.72) and about 0.16. Therefore no
general conclusion that the traffic channel will achieve the required Eb/Nt for the noise limited
case can be drawn. Therefore a full link budget analysis is required to examine real scenarios that
fall between the noise limited and interference limited cases.
The actual achieved forward link Eb/No at cell edge, was computed (via spreadsheet) for a typical
case (i.e. not either extreme of interference or noise limited) with the following results:
pg 112 of 140
Achieved FL Eb/No (dB)

25
20
15
10
0
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200%
Figure 8.2-5 Achieved Forward Link Eb/Nt versus Capacity

As can be seen from the figure the achieved Eb/Nt grows with the decrease in Erlang capacity,
which is to say that the required Eb/Nt is achieved and the forward link should close.
8.2.3 Forward Data Capacity

One would also expect that as the cell radius is increased the data capacity of the cell would decrease.
There is no simple analytical approach to deriving a data capacity versus cell radius relation. Hence,
simulations were run to model the behavior. The simulations focused on the impact to the forward link
since data applications are expected to be asymmetric and have much lower reverse link demands relative
to forward link demands. The simulations assumed a typical link budget. The simulation was a set of single
rate simulations, whose outputs (per rate throughputs) were combined with a standard rate distribution. The
single rate distribution was a typical forward link simulation where the number of users was increased until
a certain probability of outage (defined as exceeding max amplifier power) was exceeded. The results of
the simulation are shown in Figure 8.2-6.
112
Sector Throughput (kbps)
110
Forward Link Aggregate
108
106
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
90
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200%
Figure 8.2-6 Forward Link Data Capacity Versus Cell Size
pg 113 of 140
8.2.4 Growth Strategies

8.2.4.1 Multiple Extended Carriers with Traffic Growth
The simplest way to add capacity is to add carriers. Carrier additions provide a linear growth in capacity,
i.e., 2 carriers doubles Erlang capacity and 3 carriers triples Erlang capacity, etc11. However, adding cells
has some advantage as will be discussed next.
8.2.4.2 Additional Cell Sites with Traffic Growth

Adding cells enhances capacity in two ways:
1. The greater the number of cells, the less area per cell and hence a higher interference margin can be
tolerated
2. The additional cell can carry additional capacity.
The network capacity is the product of the capacity per cell and the number of cells. Adding cells increases
both of these terms and hence provides a double benefit to network capacity. For example, doubling
network capacity by adding carriers requires adding an additional carrier to all cells in the network.
Doubling network capacity by adding cells does not require a doubling of cell count. For example, if the
starting point was cells designed for 1.5 times the nominal cell area by reducing the capacity to 12.3
Erlangs per sector, the network capacity could be theoretically doubled by reducing cell area to 1.23 times
nominal with a capacity of 20.2 Erlangs per sector since 2*12.3/1.5=20.2/1.23. The increase in cell count
would be 1.5 divided by 1.23 or 22%. Whether this approach is more cost effective than simply adding
carriers depends on the relative costs of the hardware to support the additionally carriers versus the cost
associated with the new cells (hardware, real estate, backhaul, etc).
Although the above example demonstrates the nonlinear (more than linear) gain that can be achieved by
cell addition, the result is at best approximate since it assumes that the cell count is simply the total network
area divided by the area per cell. However, once a network is deployed it is unlikely that cells will be
moved. So the actually increase in number of cells would probably be higher than the 22% computed.
Consider the following figure that shows the typical hexagonal geometry for a 7-cell cluster. The cells are
spaced at 1.5 times the nominal cell spacing. The borders shown are the nominal cell size borders.
Cell/Mobile Map
4 3
2
0 5 1 2
-1
-2
6 7
-3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Figure 8.2-7 Cell Deployment at 1.5X Typical Cell Radius

To fill the coverage holes would require on the order of 6 new cells as shown in heavy red on the following
figure:
11
The capacity growth versus number of carriers is slightly greater than strictly linear due to trunking
efficiency. The trunking efficiency is not the full value predicted by Erlang B, but is greater than 0.
pg 114 of 140
Cell/Mobile Map
4 3
2
0 5 1 2
-1
-2
6 7
-3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Figure 8.2-8 Cell Deployment to Fill Holes at Full Capacity

This method of cell addition can clearly be inefficient in the sense that coverage overlay inevitably occurs;
however, from a traffic perspective this method of adding cells allows selective focus on areas where traffic
demand is highest. Accordingly, the net cell count for a coverage-driven area with isolated hot traffic spots
is likely to be less than the number required if an initial dense array of cells were uniformly deployed.
Another issue associated with adding cells is that the network may require reoptimization. However, the
costs of reoptimization maybe minimized through the use of Lucent's Ocelot tool. Ocelot uses a general
nonlinear optimization procedure to adjust certain parameters (e.g., antenna tilts, forward powers) of
cellular networks in order to maximize a particular "objective function". The current objective function is
various combinations of coverage (the percentage of the served area where a call can be made from) and
capacity (how much traffic can be carried simultaneously). When Ocelot runs an optimization, the user sees
a Tradeoff Curve window, with different coverage/capacity points; clicking any point affords a detailed
examination of the proposed design in a graphical display of the market area. It is expected that the original
design and optimization will provide a baseline set of data that will allow Ocelot to generate accurate
predictions of the revised optimization settings appropriate for additional cell sites.
8.2.5 Applications
8.2.5.1 Low Traffic Areas
The simplest application of extended carriers is to serve low traffic areas. Using larger cells will reduce cell
count, reducing expenses associated with each cell such as:
• cell site hardware
• real estate
• backhaul facilities
If traffic grows beyond the planned capacity coverage holes will occur unless steps (e.g., added cell count)
are taken. Of course this statement is true regardless of whether the carrier is "extended" or not. However,
the lower capacity of an extended carrier means that the planned capacity is lower than frequently
employed and hence extra attention must be paid to traffic growth to ensure the extended carrier does not
suffer overload.
8.2.5.2 Building Penetration

Another use for the extended carriers is to provide building penetration margin. The extra interference
margin on the reverse link and extra power on the forward link are used to provide building penetration
margin rather than extended radius in this case. It would be expected that concentric carriers would be used,
pg 115 of 140
with the core carrier serving pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic (and indoor traffic close to the cell site),
while the extended carrier serving in-building traffic toward the cell edge. Arguably, if buildings that are
important are known, it is better to place cells near or in those buildings.
8.3 Concentric Carriers

Another application for extended carriers is a multi-carrier cell with carrier-dependent coverage. In this
scenario, an extended carrier is used to extend the coverage of the cell and a "core" carrier to provide the
bulk of the capacity of the cell as shown in this figure:
Core Carrier
Extended Carrier
Figure 8.3-1 Core and Extended Carriers

In this scenario, the extended (first) carrier provides ubiquitous coverage across the region of
interest with a modest number of cell sites. Each extended carrier offers low capacity only, since
its capacity has been traded away for expanded coverage. As traffic increases, smaller full-
capacity carriers are added as needed at selected cells. The smaller carriers address the additional
capacity, which is presumed to be locally concentrated around the cell sites. Handoffs between the
core and extended carriers allow mobiles to traverse between cells, while restricting the number of
active mobiles on the extended carrier.
This configuration alters a number of RF engineering considerations, which typically apply to

carriers of identical footprint. These are discussed, below, and include:
• Core carrier reverse link

• Core carrier forward link
• Core and extended carrier traffic densities
Note that the RF engineering issues associated with the extended carrier reverse and forward link
are identical to those in section 2 and are therefore not re-examined here.
8.3.1 Core Carrier Reverse Link

As explained in the RF Engineering Guidelines, the pilot Ec/Io at the edge of a cell should be equal to
T_ADD12. The handoff zone is the area where one cell's pilot is above T_ADD and another cells pilot is
above T_DROP. Therefore it is expected that handoff zone is an area where the pilot Ec/Io changes by the
difference between T_ADD and T_DROP, which is typically 2 dB. Changes in pilot Ec/Io are not precisely
equal to differences in pathloss, but can be taken as an approximation. The difference between the core and
extended carriers is expected to be greater than 2 dB. Therefore little soft handoff is expected in the core
carrier coverage area. The impact of no soft handoff on the link budget is to shrink the reverse link
12
For simplification the IS-95A terms are used here, but the same discussion applies to networks utilizing
the IS-95B soft handoff algorithm
pg 116 of 140
coverage by an amount equal to the soft handoff gain. So the actual carrier coverages will look something
like the following figure, where:
• the extended carrier coverage is increased by reducing the interference margin and maintaining full
soft handoff gain
• the nominal carrier coverage is the coverage of a carrier with nominal interference margin (i.e.,
corresponding to 72% loading) and full soft handoff gain
• the core carrier coverage is the coverage of a carrier with nominal loading (i.e., corresponding to 72%
loading) but with no soft handoff gain
Extended Carrier
Nominal Carrier
Difference in
Core Carrier Interference
Margin
Loss of
Soft
Handoff
Gain
Figure 8.3-2 Core, Nominal and Extended Carriers

Since the coverage areas of the core carriers do not overlap, or even touch, the expected interference ratio is
less. The reduced interference ratio will lead to an increase in reverse link capacity. This increase can be
advantageous since the core carrier by design services localized areas of high traffic demand.
In the following we estimate the reverse link interference ratio in order to compute the core carrier pole
capacity. The loss of soft handoff gain will cause the core carrier to be 4.3 dB less in maximum allowable
path loss than a nominal carrier. The difference between the nominal carrier coverage and the extended
carrier coverage is the difference in interference margin and is a design parameter. If we consider 3 dB to
be a typical amount for the reduction in interference margin for the extended carrier, the total difference in
path loss between the core and extended carrier is 7.3 dB
Rext
Rcore Rc-c
Figure 8.3-3 Definition of Different Distances

Therefore the ratio of the radius of the extended carrier in terms of the radius of the core carrier is:
pg 117 of 140
Pec − Pcore
Rext = Rcore ⋅ 10 S
where Pec is the maximum allowable path loss for the extended carrier and Pcore is the maximum allowable
path loss for the core carrier and S is the path loss slope. The difference between extended carrier and core
carrier maximum allowable path losses is 7.3 dB, as stated above. Therefore, the extended carrier radius is
1.55 times the radius of the core carrier (assuming a path loss slope of 38.5 dB per decade). The distance
between the centers of the cells, Rc-c, is 3.10 times the core carrier (twice the radius of the extended carrier).
Therefore, the path loss from the center of one cell to the other cell in terms of the path loss to the edge of
the core carrier is:
 Rc −c 
Pc −c = Pcore + S ⋅ log  = Pcore + 38.5 ⋅ log(3.1) = Pcore + 18.9

 Rcore 
For the nominal case (72% loading), the center-to-center distance is simply twice the core carrier distance
and hence the center-to-center path loss is:
 Rc − c 
Pc′−c = Pcore + S ⋅ log  = Pcore + 38.5 ⋅ log(2 ) = Pcore + 11.6

 Rcore 
Therefore, the extended carrier case has 7.3 dB more path loss between a cell and its first tier interferers.
The reverse link interference ratio, β, is defined as the ratio of the other cell to same cell interference. As a
first order approximation, we can treat the interference from other cells as coming from a point at the center
of the other cells. By increasing the path loss by 7.3 dB to those other cells from the nominal case, the
interference from those other cells should be reduced by 7.3 dB. So the interference ratio, β, should also be
reduced by 7.3 dB. For the 3-sector case the interference ratio would then be reduced from 0.85 to 0.16.
The pole capacity for this reduced interference ratio is:

g 128
n max = +1 = (4 )
+ 1 = 77 RF channels
α ⋅ d ⋅ (1 + β ) 0.58 ⋅ 10 10
⋅ (1 + 0.16 )
If the typical 3G1x loading of 72% is assumed, the core carrier will support 55 RF channels. Since no soft
handoff is expected on the core carrier, this number of channels needs to be increased by only a factor to
account for the softer handoff links, which is 1.3. Therefore the number of channels is 72. This value
exceeds the number of Walsh codes available, which is 59. Given the 1.3 factor for softer handoff links, the
Walsh code limit translates to a limit of 45 "primary" RF channels per sector. The loading cannot simply be
reduced to the value associated with this number of channels since as the loading, as a percentage of pole
capacity, is reduced the interference margin is decreased. However, this will change the coverage of the
core carrier and hence our computed interference ratio. Therefore, the optimum solution can only be found
through an iterative trial and error process. A solution was found for the following conditions:
Parameter Value
Interference Ratio 0.22
Pole capacity 73
Loading 61%
RF channel capacity 45
Erlang capacity 35.6
Interference Margin (dB) 4.1
The process outlined above can be repeated for different values of extended carrier interference margin
reduction with the following results:
pg 118 of 140
Extended Core Carrier

Carrier
Interference Forward Link Pole Loading RF Erlang Interference
Margin Interference Capacity (% of pole Channel Capacity Margin (dB)
Reduction (dB) Ratio (linear) point) Capacity
0.5 0.329 67.06 67.1% 45 35.6 4.8
1 0.304 68.32 65.9% 45 35.6 4.7
1.5 0.281 69.64 64.6% 45 35.6 4.5
2.0 0.257 70.73 63.6% 45 35.6 4.4
2.5 0.237 72.14 62.4% 45 35.6 4.2
3.0 0.217 73.25 61.4% 45 35.6 4.1
3.5 0.197 74.22 60.6% 45 35.6 4.0
4.0 0.180 75.46 59.6% 45 35.6 3.9
4.5 0.164 76.54 58.8% 45 35.6 3.8
5.0 0.148 77.40 58.1% 45 35.6 3.8
8.3.2 Core Carrier Forward Link

The core carrier forward link must be assessed on a case-by-base basis to ensure link balance. The issues
affecting the ability of the forward link to support the reverse link are discussed, below.
The forward link traffic channel coverage of the core carrier will also suffer due to the loss of soft handoff
gain. Soft handoff gain is not explicitly listed in the forward link Eb/Nt analysis, but instead is embedded in
a reduced fade margin for the forward link. The fade margin listed in the forward link is actually reduced
fade margin. The reduction is due to both soft handoff gain and other effects. The reduction for 95% area
coverage is 6.0 dB. While the Eb/Nt analysis does not state what proportion of this is due to soft handoff
and what is due to other effects (independence of fading within the cell, limited dynamic range of forward
link transmit power), it is expected that the soft handoff gain would be no greater than the value for the
reverse link soft handoff gain, which is 4.0 dB.
However, the forward link benefits from the lack of soft handoff in that no power must be allocated for the
soft handoff legs. The impact of the lack of soft handoff is manifested in the forward link Eb/Nt analysis by
setting the soft handoff overhead factor to 1.3 (value for softer handoff) instead of 1.75 typically used for
3G1x. This difference in soft handoff overhead factor leads to a corresponding increase in traffic channel
power of 1.3 dB. The net impact of no soft handoff on the received traffic channel signal in the Eb/Nt
analysis is a loss of 2.7 dB (4.0 -1.3).
The forward link of the core carrier also benefits in terms of forward link interference ratio. The lack of soft
handoff increases the interference ratio since the power from all the sectors involved in the soft handoff are
excluded from the interference term. However, the fact that the border of the core carrier is within the cell
border reduces the interference ratio more than the lack of soft handoff increases it. The reduction in
interference ratio for the case considered here (no soft handoff on inner border and inner border 5 dB inside
outer border) is believed to be up to 6 dB. The reduction in the interference ratio reduces the other cell
interference term.
The overall effect on the core carrier forward link depends on to the ratio of the other cell interference to
the thermal noise. In a noise limited system, the reduction in other cell interference will provide little
benefit and the forward link will fall short of power. In an interference limited system the reduction in other
cell interference will more than make up for the reduced received traffic channel signal. The typical case
considered here was analyzed and the forward link did balance.
The forward link pilot channel does not have a soft handoff gain. So the loss of soft handoff gain does not
penalize the core carrier pilot coverage. The reduced interference ratio will benefit the core carrier pilot
channel and hence the pilot channel coverage in the core carrier area is not an issue.
pg 119 of 140
8.3.3 Traffic Density

By design, the traffic density in the extended carrier coverage area must be less than the traffic density of
the core carrier area. The difference depends upon the extent to which the extended carrier capacity has
been lowered in design in order to expand coverage. The plot below shows the design traffic density,
relative to the design density in the core carrier coverage area, versus the design area of the extended carrier
relative to the nominal carrier design area. As coverage of the extended carrier grows the traffic density
between the core and extended carriers becomes more imbalanced.
Extended Carrier Erlang Density

Density Relative to Core
Extended Carrier Erlang
1.00
0.80
Carrier
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
Extended Carrier Area Relative to Nominal
Carrier
Figure 8.3-4 Extended Carrier Traffic Density versus Coverage
8.3.4 Determining Mobile Location

To make the concentric carrier approach work it is necessary to avoid violating the design capacities of the
core and extended carrier. To keep the extended carrier lightly loaded, all mobiles in the coverage area of
the core carrier need to be served by the core carrier. Also mobiles outside the core carrier coverage area
need to be served by the extended carrier or they will suffer degradation (e.g., high FER, call drop, etc).
Through call processing it is possible to have the mobile report (PPSMM message) pilot strength as
measured in terms of Ec/Io and overall interference in the band, Io. Multiplying these two terms together
will provide the mobile's received energy per pilot chip, Ec. The base station knows the transmitted energy
per chip. The difference between transmitted and received energy per chip is the path loss. The base station
can then use this path loss value to estimate whether the mobile is in the core carrier's coverage area or the
extended carrier's coverage area13.
The same measurement of path loss would also be used for triggering inter-frequency handoffs at the
boundaries between the core and extended carriers.
Currently the capability to make this estimate of path loss does not exist in the Lucent products. A new
feature is required to support this capability.
13
One caveat to this approach is that IS-98 does not specify how accurately the mobile must
measure Io.
pg 120 of 140
The deployment of concentric carriers will cause an increase in inter-frequency hard handoff. While Lucent
has implemented several features that increase the robustness of inter-frequency handoffs, inter-frequency
handoffs are still hard handoffs are hence inherently less reliable than soft handoffs. Therefore it is possible
some increase in call drop rate could result from the deployment of concentric carriers. This increase could
be minimized by careful optimization, particularly in an area where the mobile locations are concentrated
(e.g., along rural highways) and the locations of hard handoffs are well known.

As traffic demand grows in the core carrier region, clearly the growth path is to add carriers. As traffic
demand grows in the extended carrier region the same alternatives (adding carriers or adding cells) and
tradeoffs apply as in the simple extended carrier case as discussed in Section 8.2.4. Note that since the core
carriers are placed at traffic hot spots, the pattern of growth could well dictate that multiple additional core
carriers are added well before a second extended carrier is required.
8.3.6 Applications
The concentric carrier approach makes sense for regions of low traffic density punctuated by localized hot
spots, such as scattered small towns or villages surrounded by a rural area. The town would have to be
small enough to fit within the footprint of the core carrier. The traffic demand from within the town would
have to be small enough to be served by the number of carriers available. The areas around the town are
expected to generate light traffic demand and hence be ideal for the extended carrier.
8.4 Amplifier Sharing - Quasi Omni

One novel application for extended carriers is amplifier sharing. Schematically amplifier sharing looks like
the following figure:
Alpha Beta Gamma

Tx Rx Rx Tx Rx Rx Tx Rx Rx
Splitter
LA
Radio
Combiner
Figure 8.4-1 Quasi-Omni Illustration
pg 121 of 140
In this configuration, a single amplifier and single receiver service 3 sectors (“quasi-omni”). The splitter
splits the power from the linear amplifier three ways, reducing the power per antenna by 1/3 or -4.814 dB.
The combiner combines the signals from the three faces (alpha, beta and gamma) and hence increases the
reverse link noise figure by a factor of 3 or 4.8 dB. The coverage advantage gained by reducing capacity
can be used to overcome the combiner and splitter disadvantages instead of extending the cell radius. Each
sector is lightly loaded but the footprint of the cell remains the same as that of a fully loaded, conventional
3-sector cell.
In the reverse link budget, the increased noise figure directly translates to a decrease in maximum allowable
path loss. In the forward link, as was shown previously, the decrease in capacity will be sufficient to offset
the loss in power (i.e., the link will balance), typically with some margin.
To fully overcome the combiner/splitter disadvantage of 4.8 dB, would require reducing the capacity to 2.9
Erlangs per cell. As traffic demand increased past this capacity, more radios and amplifiers are added and
the splitter/combiners removed. The penalty for the splitters and combiners is removed from the link
budget so there is no longer any need to reduce capacity. The cell can then run at full capacity of 26.4
Erlangs per sector, or 79.2 Erlangs per cell, in the same footprint. This approach has the advantage of
lowering initial cost in a deployment (one as opposed to 3 transmitters/receivers per 3-sectored cell), and
selectively paying over time as needed for the additional equipment required to address traffic growth.
In the case analyzed here, the forward achieved Eb/No is 7.1 dB higher than the nominal case (note: pilot
was increased to 16.8% of total power), so clearly the forward link has more than enough power. This
asymmetry can be reduced by the use of Tower Top Low Noise Amplifiers (TTLNA). As discussed in
Section 8 of the PCS CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines, TTLNA's reduce the reverse link noise figure.
The reduction depends on the value for cell site cable loss. Taking 2 dB as a typical value for cell site cable
loss, the typical reduction in reverse link noise figure is 1.9 dB. Thus the net increase between the signal
combiner and TTLNA is 2.9 dB (4.8 - 1.9). To achieve this reduction in interference margin requires that
the cell capacity be reduced to 14 Erlangs per face or 42 Erlangs per cell. The forward link shows that there
is sufficient power to achieve the same pilot channel Ec/Io and traffic channel Eb/No as the nominal case.
Again, as traffic demand increases past the capacity of the cell, the combiner/splitters can be removed as
well as the TTLNA. The degree to which this approach is advantageous depends on the relative cost of a
single TTLNA versus the cost of 2 amplifiers and radios.
8.4.1 Growth strategies

The benefit of this approach is that it delays the cost of the second and third amplifiers and radios until they
are needed, while maintaining the same cell footprint. Thus a network provider can "pay as they grow", by
simply adding hardware to existing sites.
As traffic increases on the cell the network operator can either grow to two amplifiers (see next section) if
the traffic demand is asymmetric among the three sectors or to three amplifiers if the traffic demand is
roughly equal among the sectors. This decision requires some knowledge of the traffic distribution amongst
the sectors. Since all three sectors are served by the same radio they have the same PN code and hence
traditional service measurements will not capture per-sector traffic information. However, a network
operator can use the Lucent On-Demand PSMM Collection (ODPC) feature (FID-7067) in conjunction
with post processing to determine traffic demand patterns. The ODPC feature allows the network operator
to collect periodic (period from 1 to 10 minutes) pilot strength information from each mobile on several (up
to 20) cells for a specified time period (up to 2 hours). The pilot strength information is stored in a file at
the OMP. Post-processing of the pilot strength measurement data, for example using the Lucent EFLT
(Enhanced Forward Link Triangulation) algorithm, can determine the mobile location to accuracy sufficient
to determine per-sector traffic demand.
14
Note that no insertion loss is considered here since values of insertion loss may vary widely. Once
hardware is chosen and the insertion loss is known, it should be considered as well.
pg 122 of 140
Another issue associated with adding amplifiers is that the network may require reoptimization. This
process could be required since the addition of amplifiers will clearly impact the internal interference
distribution throughout the network, thus necessitating changes in such parameters as antenna downtilts,
neighbor lists, and pilot power. However, the costs of reoptimization can be minimized through the use of
Lucent's Ocelot tool. Ocelot uses a general nonlinear optimization procedure to adjust certain parameters of
cellular networks in order to maximize a particular "objective function". The current objective function is
various combinations of coverage (the percentage of the served area where a call can be made from) and
capacity (how much traffic can be carried simultaneously). When Ocelot runs an optimization, the user sees
a Tradeoff Curve window, with different coverage/capacity points; clicking any point affords a detailed
examination of the proposed design in a graphical display of the market area. It is expected that the original
design and optimization will provide a baseline set of data that will allow Ocelot to generate accurate
predictions of the parameter changes required when additional equipment is added.
8.5 Amplifier Sharing - Asymmetric Cell

An approach similar to the quasi-omni approach of the last section is the asymmetric cell configuration.
Instead of sharing a single amplifier among all three sectors two total amplifiers are employed. One
amplifier is shared among two of the three of sectors, while the remaining amplifier is devoted to the third
sector. This approach is appropriate for a cell that has high traffic demand on one sector and low traffic
demand on the other two sectors. For a case of high demand on the alpha sector and low demand on beta
and gamma sectors the scheme would schematically looks like the following figure:
Alpha Beta Gamma

Tx Rx Rx Tx Rx Rx Tx Rx Rx
Radio LA
Splitter
LA
Radio
Combiner
Figure 8.5-1 Asymmetric Cell Illustration

The splitter splits the power from the linear amplifier two ways, reducing the power per antenna by 1/2 or -
3.0 dB in the lightly loaded beta and gamma sectors. The remaining amplifier services the fully loaded
alpha sector. The combiner combines the signals from the two lightly loaded faces (beta and gamma) and
hence increases the reverse link noise figure by a factor of 2 or 3.0 dB. In this configuration, the coverage
footprint of all three sectors is the same. In beta and gamma, the coverage advantage gained by reducing
capacity can be used to overcome the combiner and splitter disadvantages instead of extending the cell
radius.
pg 123 of 140
In the beta/gamma reverse link budget, the increased noise figure directly translates to a decrease in
maximum allowable path loss. In the forward link, as was shown previously, the decrease in capacity helps
offset the loss in power. The standard link budget cannot be used since the standard link budget uses an
interference ratio that assumes that all sectors are at equal power. The problem is under study and we’re
not currently prepared to deliver a split-sector budget, even though we’re introducing the concept here.
To fully overcome the combiner/splitter disadvantage of 3.0 dB, would require reducing the capacity to 14
Erlangs for the two lightly loaded sectors. The third sector that is equipped with its own amplifier would
support the full capacity of 26.4 Erlangs. Thus the cell's total capacity is 40.4 Erlangs.

If traffic demand grows in the same pattern, i.e., the busy sector remains significantly higher loading than
the other two sectors, then the logical growth path is to add carriers in the same arrangement of amplifier
sharing. If traffic grows and the sectors are more uniformly loaded then a third amplifier should be
deployed with each sector being supported by its own amplifier. The penalty for the splitters and combiners
is removed from the link budget so there is no longer any need to reduce capacity. The cell can then run at
full capacity of 26.4 Erlangs per sector, or 79.2 Erlangs per cell, in the same footprint.
If amplifiers are added, the network may require reoptimization. However, the costs of reoptimization can
be minimized through the use of Lucent's Ocelot tool., as described in section 4.2, above.
8.6 Summary
In CDMA, cell design capacity can be lowered in order to expand cell coverage. A carrier in which this
design tradeoff occurs is termed an “extended carrier”. Although this design tradeoff exists in 2G systems,
it is of greater interest in 3G systems since the allowed higher loading of 3G yields more dynamic range in
which to trade off capacity for coverage.
The concept of extended carrier may be used in several ways, lowering deployment costs by better tailoring
the design to the specific needs of the network. These include:
Single extended carrier. This concept embodies the standard design concept of lowering capacity to extend
coverage. Such expanded, low-capacity cells may reduce deployment costs in lightly loaded (e.g., rural
areas) where traffic demand is slight. Additional extended carriers are added when needed to address
growth.
Concentric extended carrier. This concept uses a base extended carrier to achieve ubiquitous, low capacity
coverage over a large area. Traffic growth is addressed by adding reduced coverage, high capacity (core)
carrier at the cell sites, which are centered in the traffic hot spots. Coverage is thus carrier-dependent.
Mobiles crossing the boundary between core and extended carriers will hard handoff between the two
carriers. This configuration is useful for large low traffic areas punctuated by traffic hot spots. To fully
realize the benefits of this configuration feature development is required to determine mobile location to
trigger handoffs between core and extended carriers.
Quasi-omni. This configuration services a 3-sector arrangement with a single transmitter/receiver by

lowering the design capacity and using the benefit to overcome splitter/combiner losses rather than expand
the coverage. The quasi-omni footprint is thus identical to that of a standard 3-sector serviced by 3
transmitters/receivers. Traffic growth can be accommodated within the footprint by adding additional
transmitters/receivers as needed, thus “paying as you grow”.
Asymmetric cell (split-sector). This configuration services a 3-sector arrangement with two
transmitters/receivers. One transmitter/receiver services 2 sectors with low capacity, exploiting the benefit
of lower traffic to overcome splitter/combiner losses rather than expanding the footprint. The split-sector
footprint is thus identical to that of a standard 3-sector serviced by 3 transmitters/receivers. This
pg 124 of 140
configuration minimizes deployment costs for cells where the traffic tends to be concentrated on a single
sector.
In each of the above scenarios, case-by-base analysis of the forward link is required in order to ensure link
balance. Additionally, some of the growth scenarios may require re-optimization; however, use of the
Ocelot tool to specify recommended parameter settings can minimize any associated costs.
pg 125 of 140
9 Fixed Wireless Voice Networks
9.1 Introduction
This section provides detailed analysis of system performance of 2G and 3G1x CDMA fixed wireless voice
networks.
The method of calculating voice Erlang capacity for 2G and 3G CDMA systems (i.e., IS-95 and
CDMA2000 or 3G1x) is well understood and well documented (see CDMA RF Engineering Guidelines and
Section 3.2.1.3). The same methodology can be used to estimate the capacity of a CDMA system when the
constraint is added that the subscriber units are fixed. The capacity of a fixed system is expected to be
greater than for a full mobility system since the fixed condition of the subscriber unit leads to a relaxed
requirement for Eb/Nt (signal power to impairment power) of both the cell site and subscriber receiver.
Fixed wireless networks are categorized into two types of applications based on whether the subscriber unit
is located within a building or outside a building. For the indoor application, the subscriber unit with
conventional omnidirectional antenna is placed in fixed position within a building. Here the building
penetration loss has to be taken into account in network design due to signal attenuation through the wall of
the building. For outdoor application, the subscriber unit with narrow beam directional antenna is likely to
be on mounted at a elevated location on a building wall or roof-top and connected to telephone terminal
within the building through a wired connection. The narrow beam antenna at the subscriber unit reduces the
interference from a given subscriber to cells other than the serving cell. The narrow beam antenna also
reduces the average number of handoff legs subscribers will use, which will benefit forward link capacity.
The outdoor application has coverage and capacity advantages over the indoor application due to both the
directional antenna at the subscriber location and the lack of building penetration loss.
9.2 Parameters for Fixed Wireless Analysis

9.2.1 Reverse Link Interference Ratio (β r)
For indoor applications, the interference ratio is the same as the mobile case because omnidirectional
antenna is used at the subscriber unit. It is well known that the reverse link interference ratio of a mobile
system is 0.6, 0.85, and 1.2 for omni cell, 3-sector, and 6-sector, respectively.
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
Figure 9.2-1 . Directional antenna points to desired base station

For outdoor application, as discussed earlier, the main effect of the directional antenna is to reduce
interference to cells other than the serving cell. In order to determine how βr depends on the antenna
beamwidth and cell site sectorization, simulations were done that modeled a network like that pictured in
Figure 9.2-1with the following assumptions:
pg 126 of 140
• a total of 19 cell sites consisting of two tiers

• subscriber units are randomly placed over the entire service area
• the subscriber unit antenna is correctly oriented toward the serving antenna
• Hata propagation mode is employed and the correlated log-normal shadowing effects is added in
calculating path loss
• perfect power control is assumed
• the horizontal and vertical antenna patterns as well as antenna downtilt in base station and uptilt in
subscriber unit are included.
Figure 2 shows the simulated interference ratio as function of antenna beamwidth (from 300 to 600 and
cell site sectorization. As we can see, βr increases with increasing antenna beamwidth. At 600 of antenna
beamwidth, the interference ratio of omni cell (β=0.2) is lower than that of 3-sector (βr=0.3) and 6-sector
(βr=0.27), at 450, βr of 6-sector is the same as omni cell (βr=0.15) which is lower than that of 3-sector
(βr=0.22), and at 300, βr of 6-sector is slightly less than 0.1 which is interference ratio of omni cell. A
explanation why 6-sector configuration has low interference ratio is that for given antenna beamwidth of
subscriber unit the 6-sector configuration can suppress the interference from all other sectors due to using
narrow beam antenna at base station. Compared to the indoor or mobile scenario, the interference ratio of
directional antenna is significant lower in the fixed wireless system. For estimation and comparison
purposes, the capacities in this paper for outdoor fixed wireless applications will assume a 500 beamwidth
for the subscriber unit which leads to the following values of reverse link interference ratio
(omnidirectional or indoor applications are included to make the table complete):
Table 9.2-1 Reverse Link Interference Ratios

Subscriber Cell Sectorization
Antenna Omni 2-sector 3 -Sector 6-Sector
(linear
highway)
Omni 0.6 0.3 0.85 1.2
Directional 0.15 0.09 0.25 0.2
Figure 9.2-2 Interference ratio as function of antenna beamwidth of subscriber unit and cell site
sectorization
9.2.2 Required Reverse Link Eb/Nt for 3G

Reverse link required Eb/Nt is used both in capacity calculations (pole capacity equation) and in coverage
calculations (link budgets). Required Eb/Nt is a function of channel condition. One of the main
characteristics of the channel condition is subscriber speed. Subscribers at zero velocity are typically
thought of being in a Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel. However, field experience shows
that the AWGN value of required Eb/Nt may not properly reflect the subscriber conditions due to the fact
pg 127 of 140
that the subscriber receiver sees some apparent motion due to movement of its surrounding environment.
Therefore we derive a required Eb/Nt for the fixed case from an interpolation of the link level simulation
results for the AWGN and slow speed channel models.
Link level simulation results for the 3G ASIC (CSM5000) at 1% FER show that the worst-case total
reverse link traffic Eb/Nt for 2 paths at 9.6 kbps is 5.4 dB. This value corresponds to 5.4 –3 =2.4 dB traffic
Eb/Nt per diversity branch, and shall be used in further calculations for the full mobility case. Note that the
bit energy Eb in this value corresponds only to the traffic energy and does not include the energy embedded
in the reverse link pilot signal.
The total per-branch Eb/Nt that must be applied in capacity or coverage applications must include the pilot.
The pilot is 3.75 dB below the traffic channel, or 42% of the traffic channel. The total per-branch Eb/Nt
can be obtained from the traffic per-branch Eb/No by scaling the numerator to contain both traffic and pilot
energy:
 Eb   Eb  TrafficPower + PilotPower  Eb 




=  

=  

(1 + 0.42) = 10 0.393
 Nt  total  Nt  traffic TrafficPower  Nt  traffic
We therefore take the full mobility total per-branch Eb/Nt as 4 dB. Similar calculations establish that the
fixed Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) total per-branch Eb/Nt is 2.15 or approximately 2.2 dB.
As stated previously, the AWGN value may not properly reflect the subscriber conditions since the receiver
sees some apparent motion due to movement of its surrounding environment. For example, Qualcomm 2G
ASIC simulations indicated that the per-branch Eb/No for 0 velocity AWGN was 3 dB. Later field
measurements indicated that the value for fixed subscribers was higher; viz. 4.6 dB. This difference
suggests that the AWGN model underestimates the fixed receiver requirements.
This information can be used to estimate a reasonable 3G fixed Eb/Nt from available information. The 2G
ASIC values for required Eb/Nt for the cases of AWGN and full mobility are 3.0 dB and 7.0 dB,
respectively. The observed fixed receiver Eb/Nt of 4.6 dB can be viewed as the Eb/Nt corresponding to a
partial or limited mobility that corresponds to the situation of a fixed receiver within a surrounding, moving
environment. Each of these values can be associated with a relative mobility index varying between 0 and
1, where AWGN corresponds to index 0 and full mobility corresponds to index 1. The mobility index for a
fixed receiver in a moving environment (i.e., the mobility index corresponding to the observed Eb/Nt of 4.6
dB) can be estimated from a line fit to the AWGN and full mobility values.
Table 9.2-2 Eb/No Values and Mobility Index for 2G/ASIC 1.0
Condition Per-branch Eb/Nt(dB) Mobility Index
AWGN 3.0 0
Full 7.0 1
Fixed, moving 4.6 x?
environment
10 0.46 = (10 0.7 − 100.3 ) ⋅ x + 10 0.3
The equation is a linear fit to the values in the table. The equation can be solved for the value of mobility
index, x (x=0.3) that corresponds to the 4.6 dB associated with the fixed receiver in a moving environment.
A line can also be fit to the data from the CSM5000 in the same manner, since the endpoints for 0 relative
mobility (AWGN) and full relative mobility (1) are known. Since x=0.3 or 30% relative mobility appears
from the above to be the proper choice for a fixed receiver in a moving environment, the appropriate Eb/Nt
requirement for 3G fixed wireless can be estimated by substituting x=0.3 into this equation:
pg 128 of 140
Table 9.2-3 Eb/No Values and Mobility Index for 3G ASIC

Condition Per-branch Eb/Nt (dB) Mobility Index
AWGN 2.2 0
Full 4.0 1
Fixed, moving Y? 0.3 (from above)
environment
Y = (100.4 − 10 0.22 ) ⋅ 0.3 + 10 0.22
The substitution of x=0.3 into this equation yields Y=1.92 or an estimated per-branch Eb/Nt of
10*log(1.92)=2.8 dB. This value will be used to compute uplink fixed wireless capacity for 3G.
9.2.3 Walsh code overhead

Each soft/softer handoff leg requires a Walsh code. Based on IS-95A handoff probabilities in [1], we can
calculate the Walsh code overhead factors for 3-sector and omni configurations. The maximum number of
primary Walsh codes is the maximum number of Walsh codes available divided by this Walsh code
overhead and then rounded down to the nearest integer. Note that the soft handoff Walsh code overhead
differs from the forward link soft handoff power overhead (note that the latter term, power overhead, is the
one that appears in forward link budgets). This difference is due to the fact the legs consume Walsh codes
in the same manner regardless of the soft handoff state, but the amount of power consumed by a leg is a
function of its soft handoff state. For 3G1x,, IS-95B handoff algorithm is used. Due to the improvement in
the IS-95B handoff algorithm, a 10% handoff reduction is applied to the IS-95A handoff probabilities. The
Walsh code limit for traffic channels in 2G and 3G1x is 60 (four overhead channels: pilot, sync, paging and
quick paging (although not quick paging is not used in 2G, the Walsh Code is reserved to avoid any
possible conflicts with bordering 3G systems)). The addition of dual paging channels (FID2064) will
reduce the number by 1 to 59. The calculated Walsh code overhead and the number of primary traffic
channels supported with Walsh code limitation (61 for 2G and 60 for 3G) are listed in Table 9.2-4 and
Table 9.2-5below:
Table 9.2-4 Walsh code overhead
Subscriber 2G (IS-95 A) 3G
Application Omni 3-sector Omni 3-sector
mobility (for 1.4 1.76 1.36 1.68
comparison)
indoor fixed 1.29 1.54 1.26 1.49
outdoor fixed 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.25
Table 9.2-5 Walsh Code limitation to primary traffic channels for max of 60 available
Subscriber 2G (IS-95 A) 3G
Application Omni 3-sector Omni 3-sector
mobility (for
comparison) 42 34 44 35
indoor fixed 46 38 47 40
outdoor fixed 60 48 60 48
For 3G1x system the Walsh code limit can be greatly increased (more than doubled) by using Radio
Configuration 4 (RC4) on the forward link. Note that RC3 is still used for the reverse link, so any reverse
link air interface limit still exists. The cost of the extra Walsh codes for the forward link is an approximate
pg 129 of 140
1 dB penalty in required Eb/Nt. The impact of the increase in required Eb/Nt will be examined Section 9.5.
A single 3G1x carrier can support both RC3 and RC4 on the forward link. Lucent has developed
proprietary algorithms (FID 3747.2) that maximize forward link capacity optimizes the system capacity
based on the instant value of multiple parameters such as RF Power, RC3 Walsh code usage, voice vs. data
call, etc. The feature will make the RC3/RC4 assignment decision at call set-up time.
9.2.4 Recommended Loading Factor

In a fixed wireless system, the recommended loading factors (relative to pole capacity) are:
• 72% for 3G1x systems (the standard 3G value)
• 65% for 2G systems with pole capacities greater than or equal to 69 (the higher values of channels
allows for higher loadings without risk of system instability since the larger number of subscribers
tends to smooth potential instabilities)
• 55% loading otherwise (the standard 2G value)
9.2.5 Channel Activity Factor

The channel activity factor for 2G voice systems is 0.40. The value for 3G1x must also account for the
reverse link pilot and is 0.58. The Selectable mode vocoders (SMV) will result in lower channel activity
factors. The following values are used by Lucent (see Summary of Capacity Estimates for Selectable Mode
Vocoders) for estimating capacities of a SMV system:
Table 9.2-6 Reverse Link Channel Activity Factors For Different SMV Modes
Mode Reverse Link VAF
Mode 0 0.58 (same as EVRC)
Mode 1 0.51
Mode 2 0.47
9.3 Reverse Link Coverage

Reverse link coverage for fixed wireless networks is estimated in the same manner as for mobile networks
(see Section 3.2.1.3). However, some of the parameters for fixed wireless networks will be different,
typically leading to larger predicted coverage areas. The differences that expand coverage include:
• Lower Eb/Nt requirements
• Higher subscriber unit antenna gains for outdoor fixed wireless networks
• Lower interference margins for cases when Walsh codes are the limiting resource
• Lower building penetration margins for outdoor fixed wireless.
The differences that shrink coverage include:

• Higher interference margins for some 2G scenarios since the higher values of channels allows for
higher loadings without risk of system instability since the larger number of subscribers tends to
smooth potential instabilities (note that this item shrinks coverage as opposed to the other items that
expand coverage)
• Possibly higher building penetration margins or fade margins for indoor wireless case. Some customers
may require higher building penetration losses for indoor fixed systems since all subscribers are
indoors. Other customers may require that the fade margin term be increased to account for the
variability of building penetration values.
For a typical indoor fixed wireless system the coverage advantage over a mobile network will be just the
difference in Eb/Nt’s which is 1.2 dB for 3G1x. For outdoor fixed wireless systems the coverage advantage
can be quite large since it includes both the gain of the directional subscriber antenna and also the gain due
to not having a building penetration loss.
pg 130 of 140
9.4 System Capacity Calculation

9.4.1 Capacity Calculation Methodology
The RF Engineering Guidelines explain the methodology for computing system capacity, which is a five
step process as follows:
1. Compute the "pole capacity":

g
n pole = +1
α ⋅ d ⋅ (1 + β r )
where:
g is the processing gain (bandwidth divided by channel rate)
α is the channel activity factor
βr is the reverse link interference ratio
d is the required Eb/Nt expressed as a linear ratio (as opposed to dB)
2. Choose a loading factor, which is a relative amount of the pole capacity to determine maximum
number of simultaneous RF channels. This loading factor is directly related to the predicted
coverage through the interference margin term (sometimes called noise rise). The higher the
loading the higher the interference margin and the smaller the coverage area.
3. This maximum number of channels must be checked against the forward link Walsh Code limit. If
the Walsh Code limit is less than the computed value, the Walsh Code limit is the maximum
number of channels
4. Choose a grade of service and use that to translate maximum number of channels to voice capacity
in terms of Erlangs. Erlang B tables are typically used for this mapping.
5. The forward link air interface capacity is then verified by checking that the forward link has
sufficient power to support the number of users.
For a fixed system, two parameters (reverse link interference ratio and required Eb/Nt) of the pole capacity
equation are different than the mobile case, as explained below.
9.4.2 Reverse Link Based Capacity Calculations

The capacities considering just reverse link air interface limits and Walsh code limits (to step 4 in the 5-
step process described in Section 9.4.1) are presented below:
9.4.2.1 Indoor
Table 9.4-1 2G ASIC 1.0 Reverse Link capacity of indoor fixed application
ASCI 1.0 Voice Indoor Fixed

Configuration 3-sector BS, omni terminal omni BS, omni terminal
Vocoder 8K 13K 8K 13K
Data rate 9600 14400 9600 14400
Eb/Nt in dB 4.6 4 4.6 4
d=Eb/Nt|rqd in ratio 2.9 2.5 2.9 2.5
g, processing gain 128 85.3 128 85.3
α, voice activity factor 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
reverse beta 0.85 0.85 0.6 0.6
Nmax=g/(alpha*d*(1+beta))+1 61.0 46.9 70.3 54.1
% of loading 55% 55% 65% 55%
N=Nmax*% of loading 33 25 45 29
Reverse Link Channel Capacity with Walsh code limitation 33 25 45 29
pg 131 of 140
Reverse Link Erlang Capacity @ 1% blocking 22.9 16.1 33.4 19.5

Table 9.4-2 2G ASIC 1.1 Reverse Link capacity of indoor fixed application
ASCI 1.1 Voice Indoor Fixed

Configuration 3-sector BS, omni terminal omni BS, omni terminal
Data rate 9600 14400 9600 14400
Eb/Nt in dB 4 3.4 4 3.4
reverse beta 0.85 0.85 0.6 0.6
% of loading 65% 55% 65% 55%
Table 9.4-3 3G1x RC3 Reverse Link capacity of indoor fixed application
3G1x Voice RC3 Indoor Fixed

3-sector BS, omni
Configuration terminal omni BS, omni terminal
Data rate 9600 14400 9600 14400
Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.6 2.8 2.6
reverse beta 0.85 0.85 0.6 0.6
% of loading 72% 72% 72% 72%
Table 9.4-4 3G1x RC4 Reverse Link capacity of indoor fixed application
3G1x Voice RC4 Indoor Fixed

3-sector BS, omni BS,
omni omni
Configuration terminal terminal
Vocoder 8K 8K
pg 132 of 140
Data rate 9600 9600

Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.8
d=Eb/Nt|rqd in ratio 1.9 1.9
g, processing gain 128 128
α, voice activity factor 0.58 0.58
reverse beta 0.85 0.6
Nmax=g/(alpha*d*(1+beta))+1 63.6 73.4
% of loading 72% 72%
N=Nmax*% of loading 45 52
Reverse Link Channel Capacity with Walsh code limitation 45 52
Reverse Link Erlang Capacity @ 1% blocking 33.4 39.7
Table 9.4-5 3G1x RC4 with SMV Mode 1 Reverse Link capacity of indoor fixed application
3G1x Voice RC4 & SMV Mode 1 Indoor Fixed

omni omni
Vocoder 8K 8K
Data rate 9600 9600
Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.8

omni
3-sector BS, BS,
omni omni
Vocoder 8K 8K
Data rate 9600 9600
Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.8
pg 133 of 140

9.4.2.2 Outdoor
The capacity improvement of a sector is an important benefit obtained from the reduced in the outer sector
interference when the directional antenna is used.
Table 9.4-7 2G ASIC 1.0 Reverse Link capacity of outdoor fixed application
ASCI 1.0 Voice Outdoor Fixed

3-sector BS, directional omni BS, directional
Data rate 9600 14400 9600 14400
Eb/Nt in dB 4.6 4 4.6 4
reverse beta 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.15
% of loading 65% 65% 65% 65%
Table 9.4-8 2G ASIC 1.1 Reverse Link capacity of outdoor fixed application
ASCI 1.1 Voice Outdoor Fixed

Data rate 9600 14400 9600 14400
Eb/Nt in dB 4 3.4 4 3.4
reverse beta 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.15
% of loading 65% 65% 65% 65%
pg 134 of 140
Table 9.4-9 3G1x Reverse Link capacity of outdoor fixed application
3G1x Voice RC3/RC2 Outdoor Fixed

Data rate 9600 14400 9600 14400
Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.6 2.8 2.6
reverse beta 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.15
% of loading 72% 72% 72% 72%
Table 9.4-10 3G1x Reverse Link capacity of outdoor fixed application
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) Outdoor Fixed

directional directional
Vocoder 8K 8K
Data rate 9600 9600
Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.8

omni
3-sector BS, BS,
omni omni
Vocoder 8K 8K
pg 135 of 140
Data rate 9600 9600

Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.8

omni
3-sector BS, BS,
omni omni
Vocoder 8K 8K
Data rate 9600 9600
Eb/Nt in dB 2.8 2.8
As we see, the capacity of outdoor is significant higher than that of indoor with or without Walsh code
limitation.
9.5 Power Requirements of Forward Link

9.5.1 3G1x RC3
To assess the forward link, we begin with the fundamental forward link equation that conserves power at
the J4 (antenna connector) port at the base station15:
all
∑α x Q
links
j j max + µQmax ≤ Qmax
15
See “3G1x RF Engineering Guidelines”, section 3.2.2. at
http://nwswww.wh.lucent.com/~seamps/files/documents_page.html.
pg 136 of 140
where α and x are the forward link voice activity and forward link power allocation, respectively, for the jth
link (user). The allocation is the fraction of total transmit power allocated to the link, and is frequently
referenced as Ec/Ior. Qmax is the maximum power (e.g., 16 watts for PCS Modcell) broadcast at the J4
port. The fraction µ is the (fixed) percentage of maximum power provided for overhead functions (e.g.,
pilot, page). At full power, the expression above reduces to:
all
∑α x
links
j j ≤ 1− µ
The capacity is determined by the allowed number of links in the sum; i.e., for a given distribution of the
random variables α and x, there is a maximum number N of links that can be supported in order to satisfy
the equation above with a high degree of probability. We will use the equation above to estimate the
difference between fixed and fully mobile capacity by projecting the allowed change in N when the
distribution of x’s is shifted from fully mobile to fixed only. This process requires estimation of the x
values for both conditions.
To proceed further, we conservatively assume that all subscriber units are located at the edge of cell
coverage, where “edge” in this context denotes a cell exit or entry point.. This assumption can be exploited
in two ways:
• At design edge, the ratio of received pilot strength to total background interference (Ec/Io) must
be optimized to be greater than the handoff add threshold T_ADD .(e.g., -12 dB). The physical
boundary of the cell must correspond to this value (as opposed to T_DROP) in order to ensure that
a subscriber entering the cell adds a new pilot before dropping the old one (the “make before
break” rule of soft handoff).
• Given the subscriber placement, all subscribers are in a handoff state, which (conservatively)
establishes a minimum of two paths.
The value of x (Ec/Ior) for each subscriber can therefore be obtained from curves of Ec/Ior vs. geometry for
2-path cases. These curves are available as a function of subscriber speed and for the AWGN cases. The
curves are generated from link level simulations. In reverse link analysis (see above), the AWGN values
were scaled to obtain Eb/Nt requirements for a fixed receiver in a moving environment. This scaling was
done by comparing measurements of 2G fixed wireless requirements to AWGN values. Since there are less
empirical results on 2G forward link fixed wireless Eb/Nt requirements, the forward link 3G AWGN values
shall be used without adjustment as fixed wireless requirements.
The link level simulation curves16 plot Ec/Ior as a function of the geometry. Geometry is defined as
Ior/(FNoW+Ioc), where Ior=the sum of received power density from the cell(s) in the active set, FNoW is
the mobile noise floor and Ioc=the received power density from all surrounding cells not in the active set.
The Ec/Ior value from the curves applies to the link from the host cell only. The Ioc term does not contain
the receiver noise, as the underlying simulations were interference-limited. For the handoff case, this value
becomes the ratio of the total received power density from the two handoff cells (i.e., Ior = Ior (1) + Ior
(2) ) to the total impairment density Ioc. The curves were produced with 20% of the host power allocated
to pilot.
To compute the appropriate value of Ec/Ior for the subscriber placement presumed, the value of geometry
for each subscriber must be computed. The value of geometry can be computed by noting the following:
• The pilot power is a constant fraction η of the total maximum cell power (Ior1W)
• At the cell edge, each subscriber’s ratio of pilot power to total background power is THRES
16
These curves are found in the document “Simulation Study of the OTD Mode for the Voice Service Case
in IS-2000”, by Qi Bi, Yung-Fang Chen, and Raafat Kamel; March 2000.
pg 137 of 140
• At the cell edge, Ior1=Ior2 due to the placement of subscribers and the assumption that all cells
broadcast at full, equal power
Accordingly:
pilot = ηI or1W
pilot
= 10 THRES / 10
FN tW + I or1W + I or 2W + I ocW
I or1W + I or 2W
geometry G =
FN tW + I ocW
These three equations can be combined to yield:
1
G=
η 
10 −THRES / 10   −1
2
Evaluation of this expression for THRES=-12 dB and a 20% ratio of pilot to host power yields a geometry
of 1.7, or 2.3 dB. Note that this analysis implies that the geometry is constant for all subscribers on the
edge, regardless of effects such as lognormal fading. The constant value follows from the assumption that
optimization for all possible boundary (i.e., exit/entry) positions has established a value equal to the
THRES value in order to ensure handoff performance at the cell edge
The value of Ec/Ior for AWGN and 3 velocities for a geometry of 2.3 dB are tabulated below for 2 GHz.
These values can therefore be used to analyze the relative increase between the 3G1x full mobility and
3G1x fixed wireless capacities for the PCS case. These results will serve as a conservative estimate of the
relative increase at lower frequencies (e.g., 450 MHz, 850 MHz) since at longer wavelengths typical
subscriber velocities will yield lower fast fading rates. These rates will bias the spread of Ec/Ior for
nonzero velocities towards the upper rows of the table,17 resulting in a slightly higher relative increase
when the receiver is fixed.
Ec/Ior for 2-path, d=0 (equal strength handoff legs), geometry is 2.3 dB, frequency=2GHz
Velocity x=Ec/Ior
“0” km/hr (AWGN) -16.7 dB (2.1%)
3 km/hr -14.3 dB (3.7%)
30 km/hr -15.3 dB (3.0%)
100 km/hr -15.9 dB (2.6%)
For the full mobility case, presuming that each velocity is equally probable, the mean and standard
deviation of the random variable x is 0.028 and 0.0058, respectively. In contrast, for the fixed wireless case
the single constant value of x is 0.021 (equivalently, a mean of 0.021 and a standard deviation of 0).
This information can now be used to evaluate the fundamental forward link equation for the fixed and fully
mobile cases. The left hand side is a random variable that can be approximated as Gaussian since the sum is
over a large number of independent variables (note that the voice activity and allocation x are independent).
17
For example, a speed of 100 km/hr at 2 GHz is roughly equivalent to a speed of 400 km/hr at 450 MHz:
each achieves the same fast fading rate, since the wavelength at 450 MHz is approximately 4 times greater
than that at 2 GHz. The value of –15.9 dB would therefore be excluded from the 450 MHz case.
pg 138 of 140
To satisfy the equation with high (e.g., 98%) probability, we require that the 98th percentile (the value
corresponding to the mean plus two standard deviations) of the Gaussian distribution be less than or equal
to the right hand side. In summary:
∑α x ≤
N
y= j j 1− µ
j =1
η + 2σ y ≤ 1 − µ
y
η y = E [ y ] = Nηαη x
σ y = N σ x2σ α2 + ηα2σ x2 + η x2σ α2
Accordingly ,
Nηαη x + 2 N σ x2σ α2 + ηα2σ x2 + η x2σ α2 − (1 − µ ) ≤ 0
The last equation is quadratic in √(N), and can be solved for N. In solution, a value of µ=0.29 is employed
since this is the fraction of total power consumed by a pilot at 20% total (the value employed in the Ec/Ior
simulations) and the additional overhead channels of page and sync. Additionally, the mean and standard
deviation of voice activity are estimated simply by presuming full rate (1) with a probability of 0.4 and 1/8
rate with a probability of 0.6.
With these assignments, the quadratic equation in √(N) is evaluated for 1) the N corresponding to full
mobility; and 2) the N corresponding to AWGN. The ratio of the latter to the former is 1.4, or a 40%
increase in channels. Since the full-power (blocking) condition for full mobility has been estimated in
simulations to be 35 channels (26.4 Erlangs), the corresponding number of primary channels at the AWGN
full-power (blocking) condition should be 35(1.4)=49. This corresponds to 37 Erlangs at the 1% blocking
condition and 39.3 Erlangs for the 2% blocking condition.
This estimate must be treated as an upper bound on the capacity for a fixed receiver in a moving
environment, since in arriving at this value no adjustment was made to the Ec/Ior value obtained from the
AWGN condition. In contrast, the AWGN value in uplink analysis was scaled in order to account for
motion in the surrounding environment. Nevertheless, the forward link result of 37 Erlangs is significant in
that it suggests that the forward link should be able to support the 34 Erlangs estimated for the uplink.
This conclusion is applicable to lower frequencies as well, since the relative increase between fixed and
mobile capacity at PCS frequencies should be less than or equal to the relative increase at longer
wavelengths (see above).
9.5.2 3G1x RC4

In several cases Walsh codes are the capacity limiting resource. Forward link RC4 allows for twice the
number of Walsh codes relative to RC3 (128 vs. 64). However, the cost of the extra Walsh codes is higher
required power requirements to support RC4 subscriber units. The power fraction (Ec/Ior) versus Geometry
curves show about 1 dB power penalty for RC4. This 1 dB can be directly applied as an Erlang capacity
reduction. Thus the 37 Erlangs for RC3 is reduced by 1 dB to 29.4 Erlangs for 1% blocking and from 39.3
to 31.2 Erlangs for 2% blocking. In this case the limiting resource is forward link air interface capacity.
9.5.3 3G1x with SMV

The 1 dB Eb/Nt penalty from utilizing RC4 typically leads to the forward link air interface being the
limiting resource. The SMV (Selectable Mode Vocoder) provides capacity gains for the forward link. The
capacity gains for SMV in the forward link are expected to be as follows:
pg 139 of 140
Mode Forward link gain

Mode 0 0%
Mode 1 34 %
Mode 2 64 %
Mode 3 80 %
½ Max mode 1 70 %
½ Mac mode 2 93 %
Thus the increase in forward link capacity relative to the RC4 case for Mode 1 is to 39.3 Erlangs for 1%
blocking or 41.8 Erlangs for 2% blocking. For Mode 2 the capacity increases to 48.2 Erlangs for 1%
blocking and 51.2 Erlangs for 2% blocking.
9.6 Conclusions
The following table summarizes the capacities for various configurations:
Indoor (Omni Subscriber Outdoor (Directional Subscriber

Fixed Wireless Application Antenna) Antenna)
Base Station Antenna 3-sector omni 3-sector omni
Vocoder 8K 13K 8K 13K 8K 13K 8K 13K
1 % blocking
ASCI 1.0 Voice 22.9 16.1 33.4 19.5 36.1 32.5 46.9 36.1
ASCI 1.1 Voice 27.3 19.5 34.3 23.8 36.1 36.1 46.9 42.4
3G1x Voice RC3/RC2 (RL & FL) 29.0 24.6 35.2 29.9 36.1 36.1 46.9 44.2
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) 29.4 TBD TBD TBD
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) SMV Mode 1 39.3 N/A TBD N/A TBD N/A TBD N/A
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) SMV Mode 2 43.3 TBD TBD TBD
2 % blocking
ASCI 1.0 Voice 24.6 17.5 35.6 21.0 38.4 34.7 49.6 38.4
ASCI 1.1 Voice 29.2 21.0 36.5 25.5 38.4 38.4 49.6 44.9
3G1x Voice RC3/RC2 (RL & FL) 31.0 26.4 37.5 31.9 38.4 38.4 49.6 46.8
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) 31.2 TBD TBD TBD
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) SMV Mode 1 41.8 N/A TBD N/A TBD N/A TBD N/A
3G1x Voice RC4 (FL) SMV Mode 2 45.9 TBD TBD TBD
where the highlighting indicates the limiting resource as follows:

• no highlighting indicates that the reverse link air interface is the limiting resource
• pink highlighting indicates that Walsh codes are the limiting resource
• yellow highlighting indicates that the forward link air interface is the limiting resource.
• green highlighting indicates that further analysis is required to verify the forward link power
requirements are satisfied.
Capacities for fixed wireless 3G1x data networks are currently being studied.
References:
[1] Qualcomm, “Range vs. number of subscribers for the forward and reverse links”, July 18, 1995
i
Soft Handoff Extends CDMA Cell Coverage and Increases Reverse Link Capacity, IEEE Journal Selected
Areas of Communications, vol. 12, pp. 1281-1288, October 1994, A. J. Viterbi, A. M. Viterbi, K. S.
Gilhousen, and E. Zehavi.
pg 140 of 140

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6.2 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 77

AG = cell site antenna gain in dBi

ξ = the orthogonality factor

2.3 Capacity and Coverage for Voice Applications

2.3.2 Link Budgets

2.3.3 Voice Capacity

2.4 RF Engineering for Data

2.4.2 Overview of Traffic Theory

2.4.3 Data Link Budget

2.4.4 Resource Management

3 Voice Coverage/Capacity/Link Budget

3.2.1 Reverse Link

For all mobiles within the sector:

Equation 3.2-1 Eb/Nt Requirement

Equation 3.2-2 Expanded Eb/Nt Definition

Equation 3.2-3 Reverse Link Eb/Nt Matrix

Equation 3.2-4 Reverse Link Expanded Matrix Form

Table 3.2-1 Air Interface Capacity

We seek an approximate solution to 3.2—2, repeated here for convenience.

Equation 3.2-5 Reverse Link Eb/Nt with Interference Ratio

Equation 3.2-7 Required Received Reverse Link Power

Equation 3.2-9 Reverse Link Receiver Sensitivity - Approximation

Differentiating Equation 3.2-11 with respect to u, we obtain:

Equation 3.2-14 Sensitivity of Receiver Sensitivity to Loading

These concepts are illustrated in the curve in Figure 3.2-1, below.

3.2.1.3 Link Budget

CDMA CDMA Base

X max - HL - fade - BL/VL - PL + AG - CL ≥ 10 log( S min )

PL ≤ X max - HL - fade - BL/VL + AG - CL - 10log(S min ) = PLmax

(f) Receiver Cable and Connector dB 3 3 3

3.2.2 Forward Link

Let I i = Pi / W ; or received sec tor power density

Equation 3.2-18 Geometry Calculation Examples

Figure 3.2-3 Required Fractional Power versus Geometry Examples

N links N+1 links N+2 links Nmax links

Table 3.2-4 Forward Link Budget

• The presumption of all users at the cell edge is very conservative

• The presumption of identical multipath for each user is not correct

4 RF Engineering for Data

4.2 Traffic Theory

4.2.2 General Erlang Model

Figure 4.2-1 General Erlang Model Completions µ

The above concepts are summarized in the table below.

4.2.3 Special Cases: Erlang B and Erlang C

Equation 4.2-1 Throughput Equation

4.2.4 Applications of Erlang C to 3G1x Data

4.3 Data Capacity

We focus our attention on the capacity calculation.

4.3.2 Estimation of Data Capacity

• Radio Configuration 3 (RC3)

• Snapshot simulation technique

Web Browsing Session

Dormant Active Dormant Active

Mouse Start Fundamental

Channel Total Delay Average User Number of Throughput per

4.4 Data Link Budgets

(b) Transmit Cable, dB 2 0 0 0 0 no body loss for data user

(e) Receiver Antenna dBi 18 18 18 18 18

(h) Receiver Noise dBm/Hz -174 -174 -174 -174 -174

- 9.6 kbps Fundamental Voice or Data Coverage

4.4.2 Forward Link