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CONTENTS
*Use
The Present Perfect relates past to present. This tense is used:
1. Unfinished past: The Present Perfect Simple is used to express an action or state, which began
in the past and still continues:
I’ve lived in London for six years. (I still do, and will continue to in the future.)
2. Experience: The Present Perfect Simple is used to express an action, which happened in the
past and is finished, but we are not interested in when. We are interested in the experience as part
of someone’s life:
Have you ever been to Africa? (Up to now in my life.)
3. Present result: The Present Perfect Simple refers to a past action and shows the result of that
action in the present:
The taxi has arrived. (It’s outside the house now.)
*Notes
1. We cannot say Yes, I’ve or Yes, she’s in the positive short answer. This is WRONG. ( ’ve =
have / ’s = has )
2. The Present Perfect Simple is often used in connection with certain words:
a. The time prepositions since and for:
She’s lived here for three years. (For + a period of time.)
He’s worked here since 1985. (Since + a point in time.)
b. The adverbs just and already: I’ve just finished it. / I’ve already done it.
c. The adverb yet. This adverb is not used in positive sentences with the Present Perfect
Simple: Have you done it yet? I haven’t done it yet.
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*Use
1. This tense is used to describe an action which began in the past and is either still going on, or
has recently stopped: I’ve been writing letters all morning.
2. It is often used with for and since: I’ve been living here for a few months / I’ve been living here
since September. (I am still living here.)
2. As with all continuous tenses, the Present Perfect Continuous expresses duration and activity
over a period of time. Certain verbs by definition do not suggest duration. The action is quickly
finished. Examples are: die, start, begin, finish, stop, find, lose, break. These verbs are usually
found in the Present Perfect Simple.
Compare these two sentences: I’ve cut my finger.
I’ve been cutting wood.
Cutting wood can be repeated and can take a long time. When you cut your finger, it is done very
quickly. But ‘I’ve been cutting my finger’ is a horrible idea, because it suggests that the cutting
happened again and again.
3. The Present Perfect Simple is interested in the completed action. This is why, if the object of the
verb has a quantity or number, only the Simple is possible:
I’ve eaten five pieces of toast this morning.
NOT I’ve been eating five pieces of toast this morning. The five pieces of toast are eaten, the
action is completed.
EXERCISES
*Put the verbs into the correct form Present Perfect Simple or Continuous.
1. Look! Somebody broken (break) that window.
2. I’ve been reading read) the book you gave me, but I not finished (not/finish) it yet.
3. “Sorry I’m late.” “That’s all right. I not waited not/wait) long.”
4. Hello! I cleaning (clean) the windows. So far I cleaned(clean) five of them and there are two
more to do.
5. There’s a strange smell in here you’ve been cooked (you/cook) something?
6. My brother is an actor. He appearing (appear) in several movies.
7. What you doing (do)
8. She learned (learn) Italian for the past three years.
9. He’ve been listening listen) to the radio all morning.
10. They’ve been waited wait) for two hours, but nobody arrived.
11. I’m exhausted. I ’ve been worked (work) all day, and I not finished yet (not/finish yet)
12. He’s visited (visit) many countries in the last five years.
13. She’ve been shopping (shop) all afternoon, but she not buying (not/buy) anything yet.
14. I’ve been looked (look) for my books for ages, but I can’t find them anywhere.
*Use
The Past Perfect Simple is used to refer to something that happened before another action or
state in the past.
Examples:
They were excited because Judy’s father had managed to get them tickets for the match.
Imagine their horror when they realised they had forgotten the tickets at home.
*Use
This tense is concerned with expressing the duration of an event or activity of the past which was
interrupted or concluded by another past activity or event.
Examples:
The students had been waiting for almost ten minutes when Prof. Baker showed up.
Bill had been working for two hours when Jack called.
*Notes
Two time expressions are required. The first one expresses the duration of the activity. The
second one states the time or the event which interrupted or concluded the activity.
2. However, past perfect statements which refer to completed punctual acts cannot be expressed
in the continuous. Example:
Professor Baker had already dismissed the class when he announced the exam.
The Past Perfect Simple expresses a one-time completed act. It cannot be expressed in the
continuous tense.
EXERCISES
* Join the sentences using the word because and the Past Perfect Simple.
1. He didn’t work hard enough during the year. He failed his exam.
He had not worked hard enough during the year. because He failed his exam.
2. They didn’t pay their telephone bill. The Telephone Company cut them off.
The Telephone Company cut them off because they had not paid their telephone bill.
3. They left their passport at home. They couldn’t cross the frontier.
they had not crossed the frontier because. They left their passport at home.
4. She lost her glasses. She couldn’t read the sign.
she had not read the sign because She lost her glasses
5. They forgot the tickets at home. They missed the concert.
they had not missed the concert because forgot the tickets at home.
6. I left my keys at the office. I couldn’t open the door when I got home.
I had not opened the door when I got home because I left my keys at the office.
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*Complete the sentences with Past Perfect Continuous and Past Simple.
1. Mrs. Allen had been cooking (cook) for three hours when the children arrived (arrive/children)
2. Miss Carter had been studying (study) in her room all night long when phone rings. It was his
brother. (ring/telephone)
3. Betty had been working (work) in the garden all morning when started the rain (rain/start)
4. Jack had been playing (play) with the dog in the afternoon when called its grandfather
(call/grandfather)
5. George had been living (live) in London for two months when his cousins arrived (arrive) to visit
him.
6. Betty had been watching (watch) television in the evening when happened a accident that
shook her (happen/accident)
*Use
This tense is used to expressed an action that will be completed before another action or time in
the future. This tense must include a future time expression usually introduced by the construction
‘by the time (that)’.
Examples: It is now 6:30 p.m.; I will have finished my work by 8 o’clock.
*Use
This tense emphasizes the duration of a future event or a present situation which reaches into the
future. Two time expressions are essential with this tense: (1) a specific future time or event, and
(2) the duration.
Examples:
In September George will have been studying in this University for two years.
(1) (2)
In another month’s time, Henry will have been working in this company for 25 years.
(1) (2)
2. The Future Perfect Simple is used to emphasize completion. The Continuous form is used to
emphasize duration.
3. The Future Perfect tenses are used less often than other tenses, probably because what they
express can be stated in other less complex ways.
EXERCISES
*The Bakers are going to do many things before they start on their trip around the world.
Tell what they will have done by the time they leave. Use the Future Perfect Simple.
Example:
a. Arranged everything The Bakers will have arranged everything by the time they leave.
b. Sell their houseThe Bakers will have sold his house to have money for your trip
c. Buy a smaller houseThe Bakers will have been they bought a smaller house, to have money for
their trip
d. Give the piano to their daughterThe Bakers will have been given the piano to her daughter to
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save space
e. Put their Mercedes in storageThe Bakers will have put your Mercedes in the store to keep it
f. Purchase an expensive movie cameraThe Bakers will have been purchased an expensive
movie camera to take your trip and document everything
III. PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
About I want you to tell me about your work. / There is about $20 difference between this car and
that one. / This ship is about to leave. / I’ll see you at about six o’clock. / That’s all right for
you but what about me?
In They live in London. / He is the best student in my class. / San Diego is a city in Southern
California.
At I’ll be at home tonight at any time you like to call. / Shakespeare died at the age of
fifty-two. / At first sight I thought you were your brother. / He’s very good at football.
Into Turn this from English into Spanish. / He is always getting into trouble. / Come into the
house.
On He put the book on the desk and sat on the chair. / He had a new hat on his head and a
new ring on his finger. / San Diego is on the West coast of the USA. / The blackboard is on
the left of the map, the door is on the right.
From What country do you come from? / You can just see my house from here. / He read that
book from beginning to end in an hour.
For This fresh air is very good for you. / I bought a car for $ 200. / He was sent to prison for
stealing. / He won’t be here for an hour.
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Of This box is made of wood. / The writing of that book took him ten years. / He is a friend of
mine. / I sat at the back of the room.
To I am going to America on Friday. / It is now five minutes to six. / He read the book from
beginning to end.
With Can you come and stay with me for a time, and bring your wife with you? / Sleep with your
windows open but with your mouth shut!
*Other prepositions (and adverbial particles are): above, across, after, against, ago, along, before,
below, behind, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, inside, near, next to, off, opposite,
outside, over, round, through, towards, under, underneath, until, up, while.
2. But when the word governed by the preposition is an interrogative, which goes at the beginning
of a sentence, the preposition is usually (in conversational English always) at the end of the
sentence. Examples: Who do you live with?
Who did you write to?
What are you laughing at?
Which class are you in?
* Notes
If a verb is used after a preposition, it must be in the –ing form:
He prevented me from speaking.
Thanks for coming!
EXERCISES
*Complete these sentences with a preposition.
1. Ann’s brother lives of a small town_____________ the coast of Maine.
2. I get up early in the morning and go to bed late abouth night.
3. Neruda’s poems have been translated into English.
4. How did you go to school to foot or in the train?
5. I love going for walks for summer. It’s still light at nine o’clock.
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6. I take my annual holiday in June, but I have a few days off for Christmas.
7. I usually go to school in bus, but sometimes I go on my father’s car
8. He usually starts work at 9.30, but about Fridays he starts at 8.30.
9. I was born in 1982, the January 18th, 1982.
10. People exchange presents at Christmas Day.
11. We’re flying from Paris at Amsterdam tomorrow.
12. Turn this for English or Spanish.
13. What are you talking about I don’t understand!
14. My shoes are made with leather.
A. Reported Statements
*Form
Reporting verb Reported clause.
Changes in Verbs
1. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, it is usual for the verb in the reported clause to move
‘one tense back’, that is, the reported verb goes one step into the past.
2. If the reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change of tense in the reported clause.
Examples: ‘The train will be late.’ He says the train will be late.
‘I come from Spain.’ She says she comes from Spain.
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3. The “one tense back rule” is not absolute.
Example:
Direct: ‘I hate football.’
Indirect: I told him I hate football. (No change to the verb ‘hate’ – I still hate football.)
5. The “one tense back rule” also applies to reported thoughts and feelings.
I thought she was married, but she isn’t.
I didn’t know he was a teacher. I thought he worked in a bank.
7. Others do not change: would / should / might / could / must or had to.
Examples: ‘You should go to bed.’ He told me I should go to bed.
‘It might rain.’ She said she thought it might rain.
Changes in Pronouns
The pronouns and possessive adjectives generally change as follow:
Direct: I bring my book every day; the book on the desk is mine.
Indirect: He said that he brought his book every day; the book on the desk was his.
Direct: We bring our books every day; the books on the desk are ours.
Indirect: They said that they brought their books every day; the books on the desk were theirs.
Other Changes
Words denoting ‘nearness’ become the corresponding words denoting ‘remoteness:’
This - that Now - then
These - those Yesterday - the previous day; the day before
Today - that day Ago - before
Here - there Tomorrow - the next day
Examples:
Direct: I saw the boy here in this room today.
Indirect: He said that he had seen the boy there, in that room that day.
Direct: I will see these boys now. I spoke to them yesterday.
Indirect: He said he would see those boys then. He had spoken to them the day before.
Reporting Verbs
Reported Speech is often introduced by say and tell. Say is rarely used with an indirect object (that
is, the person spoken to): ‘Hello everybody,’ he said.
She says she’s having a lovely time.
Tell is always used with an indirect object in reported speech: She told me the news.
He told us about the film.
I told you!
*Notes
Apart from say and tell, there are many other verbs more descriptive. For example: to explain, to
interrupt, to admit, to complain, to warn.
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B. Reported Commands
*Form
*Notes
1. Negative command: He told me not to tell anyone.
The police warned people not to go out.
2. Tell is used both for reported statements and reported commands, but the form is different:
a) Reported statements: He told me that he was going.
They told us that he was going abroad.
She told them what had been happening.
C. Reported Questions
*Form
1. The ‘one tense back rule’ is the same with reported questions as with reported statements:
‘Why have you come here?’ I asked him why he had come here.
‘What time is it?’ He wants to know what time it is.
2. As it is no longer a direct question, the word order is not the word order of a question, and the
auxiliary DO and DID is not necessary.
Examples:
Direct: ‘How long have you been here?’
Indirect: He asked me how long I had been here. (NOT He asked me how long had I…)
Direct: ‘Where do you live?’
Indirect: She asked me where I lived. (NOT She asked me where did I live.)
4. In indirect questions there is not much difference in meaning between whether and if: Whether
usually expresses a doubt and an alternative possibility or a choice between two alternatives, and
so is often followed by the correlative or:
I don’t know whether I should go away or stay here.
I don’t know whether is raining or not.
*Notes
Notice that ‘ask’ is used for both reported commands and reported questions, but the form is
different: a) Reported commands: I was asked to attend an interview.
He asked me to open my bag.
She asked me not to smoke.
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EXERCISES
*Sally went to see a landlady called Mrs. Smith about an apartment. Now she is telling her friend,
Paul, about it. Report the sentences.
Example: ‘The rent is $50 a week.’
The lady said the rent was $50 a week.
1. ‘The rent includes gas and electricity.’
She told me that the rent includes gas and electricity
2. ‘I need $100 deposit.###
Then she said needed a deposit of 100
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4. ‘Is there a fridge in the kitchen?’
I asked her if has a refrigerator
*For the following verbs that introduce reported commands, write an appropriate sentence (an
imperative) then report it.
Example: (Warn)
Direct: ‘Be careful of strangers and don’t go out at night.’ (a father to a son)
Indirect: My father warned me to be careful of strangers and not to go out at night. (the son to a friend)
b. (Advise) Direct: when you try hard you're going to see the results
Indirect: my mother advised me that if I made an effort I would accomplish all my
goals
V. PASSIVE VOICE
*Form: Champagne is made in France.
Passive sentences move the focus from the subject to the object of active sentences. All passive
tenses are formed in the same way: by combining the verb to be (in the tense required) with the
past participle of the main verb.
Examples:
TENSES TO BE
PAST PARTICIPLE
Present simple: is
Present continuous: is being
Present perfect: has been
Past simple: was
Past continuous: Champagne was being made…
Past perfect: had been
Future: will be
Future going to: is going to be
Modal verbs: might be
*Use
1. When what is done is more important than who did the action:
Wine from California is exported to France.
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*Notes
1. Very often by and the agent are omitted in passive sentences. This might be because:
a. The agent is unknown: My flat was burgled yesterday.
b. The agent is unimportant: The bridge was built in 1876.
c. It is understood who the agent is: He was fined $100 for speeding.
2. The Passive is associated with an impersonal style: It has been noted that reference books
have been removed from the library.
3. The Passive can be avoided in informal language. In daily, informal language we tend to use the
Active Voice. The Passive Voice is used more often in formal written English.
Be born
Remember that be born is a passive verb and is usually past:
Where were you born? (Not ‘Where are you born?) Past Simple.
I was born in Chicago. (Not I am born in Chicago) Past Simple.
How many babies are born in this hospital every day? Present Simple.
Get + Passive
1. Sometimes you can use Get instead of Be in the Passive:
There was a fight at the party, but nobody got hurt. (= Nobody was hurt).
Did Ann get fired from her new job? (= Was Ann fired from her new job?).
2. You can use get in the passive to say that something happens to someone or something. Often
the action is not planned; it happens by chance:
The dog got run over by a car. (= the dog was run over).
In other types of situation get is not usually possible:
George is liked by everyone. (Not ###George gets liked by everyone###)
3. Get is used mainly in informal spoken English. You can use to be in all situations.
We sometimes use the subject of an active sentence (Marconi) as ‘the agent’ in passive
sentences. When this happens, we use by to introduce the agent in the passive. We only use by +
agent when it is important to say who or what is responsible for something.
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2. With + instrument
We use with to talk about an instrument which is used by the agent to do something..
Compare: I was hit with an umbrella.
I was hit by an old lady.
3. With + material
We also use with to talk about materials or ingredients:
The room was filled with smoke.
Irish coffee is made with whiskey.
EXERCISES
*Put these sentences into the passive.
1. The postman delivers the letters at 8:00.
The letters were delivered at 8:00 by the postman.
2. Someone built this hotel two years ago.
The hotel was built two years ago by someone
3. Has anyone answered your question?
Your question has been answered by someone ?
4. Somebody found your keys on top of the photocopier.
the keys were found on top of the copier by someone
5. People should not take reference books out of the library.
library reference books should not be taken out by people
6. People speak English all over the world.
the world all over is spoken english
7. The students must do the exercises carefully.
exercises should be done carefully by the students
8. Someone told me the news.
the news was told to me by someone
*Rewrite the sentences in active voice.
1. This room is cleaned every day.
Every day the room is cleaned.
2. Many accidents are caused by dangerous driving.
dangerous driving causes many accidents
3. We were being followed.
Someone was following us.
4. Have you ever been bitten by a dog?
A dog has ever bitten you.
5. I’m not often invited to parties.
I hardly go to parties, I'm not invited.
6. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
shakeaspeare wrote to hamlet
7. Have you ever been stopped by the police?
The police have ever stopped you.
8. An office block is being built near our school.
at our school we are building an office building
*When were these famous people born? Choose the right year: 1889, 1770, 1452, 1564.
1. Shakespeare 1564
2. Leonardo Da Vinci 1452
3. Charlie Chaplin 1889
4. Beethoven 1770
5. And you? 1999
*Complete the sentences with get and one of these verbs: break, sting, use, damage, steal.
1. Ted sting by a bee while he was sitting in the garden.
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2. How did that window break ?
3. Did any of these houses damage in the storm last night?
4. These tennis courts don’t use often. Not many people want to play.
5. I used to have a bicycle, but it steal
VI. CONDITIONALS
A.
*Notes
1. Notice that a future tense is not used in the condition clause:
If you will leave now, you’ll catch the train. This is WRONG.
2. Alternative forms:
a. If can be replaced by in case: I’ll take my umbrella in case it rains.
b. If … not can be replaced by unless to add emphasis: Unless you go now, you’ll miss the bus.
c. Will can be replaced by certain modals in the result clause.
I can buy you an ice-cream.
If you find my money, you should give it back to me.
you must tell me immediately.
d. Will can be replaced by an imperative: If you like good food, eat at Brown’s restaurant.
e. In certain cases, will can be replaced by going to: If it doesn’t rain, I’m going to play tennis.
f. The Present Simple can be replaced by the Present Perfect in the conditional clause:
If you’ve finished this exercise, you can do the next one.
If you’ve never been to Wales, you should try to go there.
*Use
This structure is used:
1. To talk about hypothetical but possible situations:
If I had an apartment in New York, I’d have to pay an enormous rent.
2. To talk about totally imaginary situations. The condition is imaginary because the speaker
knows that what he or she is saying is improbable or impossible or contrary to known facts:
If I were a bird, I’d fly to you. (Impossible – I’m not a bird.)
If we could travel in time, I’d go back to the Roman era. (Impossible)
2. The verb in the if clause is always in the past tense even though it refers to future or present
time. Would never occurs in the if clause.
3. Alternative forms:
If … not can be replaced by unless: I wouldn’t do it unless I loved you.
Would can be replaced by another modal verb in the result clause:
If I stopped smoking, I could run faster.
I might have more money.
*Use
This structure is used to express hypothetical conditions in the past time, that is to say, to imagine
consequences of things that did not happen in the past:
If you had parked on a meter, you wouldn’t have gotten a ticket.
(You didn’t park on a meter so you got a ticket.)
*Notes
1. Would have never occurs in the if clause.
2. Might have or could have are used instead of would have if the consequence is less definite:
If you’d asked me earlier, I might have been able to help.
I could have helped you.
*Use
The Zero Conditional expresses conditions that are always true, with automatic or habitual results.
Examples: Flowers die if you don’t water them.
If you mix black and white you get grey.
EXERCISES
*Put the verb in parenthesis into the correct tense for a clause of condition or result. There are
examples of the First, Second, and Zero Conditional.
1. If you goes (go) away, please write to me.
2. If my wife be (be) as violent as yours, I will leave (leave) her.
3. If I sees (see) Peter this afternoon, I tell (tell) him the news.
4. Please start your meal. If you not has (not have) your soup now, it gets (get) cold.
5. If he be (be) taller, he can (can) be a policeman, but he’s too short.
6. If it rains (rain) this weekend, we will not be able (not able) to play tennis.
7. I not likes (not like) meat if it be (be) undercooked. I prefer it well done.
8. I have to work about 80 hours a week. If I has (have) more time, I will to take (take up) a sport
like tennis.
*Join each pair of sentences to make one sentence in the Third Conditional.
1. I didn’t catch the bus. I was late for work.
If hadn’t caught the bus, I would’ve late for work
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2. I didn’t work hard at school. I didn’t go to university.
If I hadn’t worked hard at school, I wouldn’t have gone to university
3. She went out with wet hair. She caught a cold.
If she had outed with wet hair. She would have caught a cold_
4. We couldn’t find a baby-sitter. We didn’t go out.
If we hadn’t found a baby-sitter. We wouldn’t have gone out
5. I borrowed the money. I was able to buy the bike.
If I had borrowed the money. I would have able to bought the bike
*Notes
Ought to is more emphatic than should.
These structures also have a continuous form:
You should have been wearing a seatbelt.
B. MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, COULD HAVE
These structures are all similar in meaning. They are used when the speaker is speculating about
the past: She may have
She might have had a late meeting at the office.
She could have
*Notes
These structures also have a continuous form:
She might
She must have been waiting all morning.
She can’t
EXERCISES
*Write a sentence for the following situations. Use should have or ought to have.
Example: I’ve been waiting for hours for you to phone!
You should have phoned earlier.
*Complete the sentences using must have or can’t have and the verb in parenthesis.
Example: She _________ (be) asleep. She must have been asleep.
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1. I can’t have run out of (run out of) gas. I only filled up the tank this morning.
2. I’m so sorry I’m late. You must have wonder (wonder) what had happened.
3. Cathy’s got a new BMW! She must have win (win) a lottery.
4. I can’t have lose (lose) my glasses. They were here a minute ago.
5. The flowers are beautiful! They must have cost (cost) you a fortune.
VIII. LINKING WORDS
a) Reason, Result and Purpose
Because / as / since / thus / therefore / consequently / as a result / so …
that / such … that / for / so / in order to / the reason why … is that… / because
of /
the reason that … is that
b) Contrast
Although / even though / but … anyway / however / in spite of*
*In spite of is followed by a noun, an ing-form, or a clause introduced by the construction the fact
that:
a) In spite of + noun:
In spite of Miss Smith’s present problems, she will probably do quite well.
*More useful Linking Words that help to join phrases, sentences and paragraphs are:
A case in point / according to / after / an example / an illustration / as for / as shown by / as soon as
/ during / for example / for instance / nevertheless / nonetheless / on the one hand … on the other
hand / particularly / then / until / when / while
*Notes
Besides (It means ‘in addition to’) It should not be confused with beside, which means ‘by the side
of’.
EXERCISES
*Put one of the following Linking Words into each gap. There are eleven gaps. Two of the words or
phrases aren’t used!
as a result / above all / which / before / and / especially / if
although / however / this is why / such as / on the contrary / to
Doing vigorous exercise can be dangerous, above all if you are over 40. however it is a very good
idea to see your doctor especially starting if you think you are not very fit. Some people try to
exercise too vigorously too soon, and this is why they cause themselves injuries which can take a
long time to heal. if_ although it is not only older people who should take care. Doctors report
many injuries as a result backaches, sprained ankles and pulled muscles, which can all be
avoided such as a little care is taken. If you do injure yourself, rest for a while and allow your body
to recover naturally. before don’t push yourself because you think it is doing you good. on the
contrary you could do yourself permanent damage.
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