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universe?
look at Allan Newel
The answer must have the details
Deep, scientific question.
07
We can represet things we cannot talk about. You can see the difference, however, you might not have
the words to express all of them.
One of the main problems with machine translation is that they do not translate from language A to
(though/meaning), and then to language B.
Language translation programs translate directly from language to language, that means LA to LB
The main stream study of semantics is based on logic and truth conditions.
/In literary studies the concept of truth is questioned. Because they apparently don’t accept the idea of
declarative sentences, or meaning that is independent of language.
Language is not neutral, so there are no neutral or denotative meaning of sentences, words.
Truth-conditional Semantics. Language is about states of affairs in the world. Regardless of how people
actually represent the words in their minds, language is objective in the sense that it does not depends
on the way it is represented.
Postructuralist will reject this theory or way of understanding language.
Thoughts have a different syntax, so the rules that allows us to combine meaning is no the same
syntactical rules in language.
08
Vehicle
Content
Causation by content
One coin is facing the real world, (physical), and the other is facing the content/semantics.
Potential problem with LoT: it pushes the mind-problem one step back.
09
The finite part is crucial, that is why they are called finite state machines
A Slide: Facts of physical life
10
Turing Machines is synonymous with the mathematical notion of computation
Turing-Church Thesis, every machine that can be build can be a Turing machine.
Von Neumman:
Turing machine
The type or memory of the machine is infinite, but only a finite part is used at a time
Functional equivalent
11
They wanted to vanish the notions of intuitions, and wanted to develop a procedure
Effective procedure
What justifies the almost universal belief that othes have minds very like my own?
The pressure to have a response to this problem tends to counteract the Cartesian tendency to
subjectivism.
See the Private-language argument in Lecture 4.
It also is
What is intelligence?
People have this desire or refusal to accept that robots are afraid to lose their uniqueness. Old this
are psychological explanations that can be used in the same way, so one can say that people that
claim that robots are intelligent don’t want to accept their uniqueness. Or that they have a desire to
break a boundary of the forbidden, and so on.
Is the weak AI actually Stringer? There is a different between simulation and duplication, computers
mainly simulate intelligence but they don’t have the causal powers of how to produce.
13 Functionalism
For functionalism what matters is what it does and not what it is made of.
A problem is.
The problem is the mismatch between the current state and the goal state.
How do you solve the problem? Operators, moves,
Branching factor> has to to with the number of possibilities. It says that on average how many nodes
come out of a single node. If the branching factor is 1, then it is linear,
COMbinatorial Explotion: tic tac toe has a small number of possibilities, it has a small combinatorial
factor, that every single move can be calculated.
Heuristic Search,
Searching business,
14 Neuroanatomy
This lecture is about systems and pathways, similar to geography, identifying the big parts.
Brain evolution: the brain or nervous system started as a long tube, like the spinal cords
QUESTION: the human brain is unique so many of the studies we can do in animals, do not necessarily
translate into humans. So in order to understand it we would have to experiment in humans, which is
very problematic due to all the ethical aspects.
Now,
The Thalamus
Thalamus has more than 50 nuclei, only five are sensory, but the rest are different.
An important part is the
In new animals, whenever they come up with a new part with the brain, it hooks to the rest of
everything through the Thalamus, so every other part of the Brain connects
There seems to be a relationship between the unity of consciousness and the Thalamus.
Terminology
There are a lot of problems with brain terminology. Because historically the anatomist have drawn the
line or divided the different parts using different criteria. In the brain there are no lear or define
boundaries. That is why some divisions are anatomical or functional, or typological based on te type of
cell, and more.
Neuropsyhocoloy, it is the branch that correlates deficits of behavior to damage to brain regions.
Decortication is the removal of the neocortex, leaving the basal ganglia and the brainstem intact, and
also leaving the thalamus.
One major
Thre major players> thalamus, basal ganglia (straitum is a collective name for several important basal
ganglia)
One major principle of organization is that the higher parts of the brain have to be closely
interconnected with the central area of the brain, like the thalamus, and stratum…
Myelin
Engineers have found that it is very problematic to connect different computer parts without interfering
with functions. \
The thalamus is functionally integrated with the other six sections or layers of the cortex.
In lobes or sensory crtex. In sesory cortex parts, the layer IV will be more prominent, for example the
occipital cortex.
Brodmann Areas.
Neuromodulation
Inside the brain stem has special nuclei that projects neuromodulator or meurochemicals to the rest of
the brain.
Voxel, is analogous to pixel, a voxel is little brick sized, in three dimensional images.
15 Neurophysiology
Glial cells are neurons best friends. The term come from latin and it means omething like glue.
Myelin plasticity in adult brains. People think neurons do not divide, they become as stem cells, but
when they turn into neurons they lose the ability to do mitosis, that means that there is a gene that
activates that produces that.
You can synthesize new brain cells, and then they can migrate into the brain and become neurons.
Neurons can be generate outside the brain
The membrane potential is the difference between the inside and the outside.
We say that the membrane is polarized. Polarized means the voltage inside negative. Depolirize means
to bring the voltage insice closer to zero.
Takes sodium out and brings potassium in. For every 2 k, 3 Na is brought in. That means there is a
deficiency and that is why the restenting membrane potential arises and makes it negative.
Gates
Ion channels are the gates in brains. Transistors is the name for computers.
50 spikes per second is the healthy rate for neurons. 200 is probably the fastest they can go. Like when
The neuron cannot receive the spike selectively, it broadcast to everybody that is listening
Nodes of Ranvier.
Is there a piece of your nervous system that can be seen from the outside.
16
Ca = Calcium
Potassium = K
Sodium = Na
Synaptic Cleft =
The more active the sender the more neurotransmitters are released.
The Neurotransmitter does it work a t the synaptic cleft and then gets reabsorbed, recycle, and
repackage,
EPSP
IPSP
If it does directly change the membrane, if it affects what another transmitter, it is a modulator.
Modulators do not act by themselves, they affect the behavior of other transmitters.
Every neuron listens to about 1000 other neuros, and transmits to another 1000.
Learning
Synaptic Plasticity: the strength and/or number of synaptic connections change as a result of
experience.
Hippocampus
EC – entrorinal cortex
Dental gyrus
17.
Moravecs Paradox,
Brain-Style Computation
In artificial Intelligence, there used to be two theoretical bodies competing for the best type of
Maybe computing in the same way that the brain works it is a more fruitful enterprise.
If the brain is a computer, what kind of computer it is? And what kind of information processing
Levels.
Models are useful to fill in those gaps where we do not have enough data or cannot collected it.
Models are important. Ask about how to build models and what would I need to learn to be able to
implement a modelling approach to the humanities.
Problem of representation
Representation
It was important in Semantics.
Languages are a form of representation
Philosophers talks about derivative representation
The word representation is used a lot in cognitive science
The main problem> they have NOT quite articulate how (by virtue of what) mental
representations represent
What is representation?
It is a relation between two things. (Some theories point to three)
One things stands in for (or represents, means, denotes, refers to, or carries information
about)
Examples>
Symbolic representation: “Alex Petrov”
Analog representation
Representation (vehicle/content) = Sign (signified/signified)
Information
It has a lot of uses or meanings.
Shannon’s theory of information measure information (or information bearing capacities)
Information is uncountable. So it is a mass noun, or uncountable.
Shannon information does get to the meaning, only measures the “amount” of the content.
For information theory noise is bad, but for evolution it is the mechanism by which natural
selection produces the changes.
18 Pattern associator
a) The more
b) Asd
c) For low input the activity does not change too much. But there is a gradual increase, and a sudden
increase in the spike activatino
d) Binary, once the threshold is crossed, then max activation. This is the mondel that we will be using.
data
Interdisciplinary Methodology
Behavioral, constraints, can collect data about how well people can remember
Computational constraints, it has to do with mathematical computations, so we can know how long the
whole procedure
Distributed representations
Input-output mapping
19 Hebbian learning
The learning rule gives you a recipe for calculating the changes in the weight.
Hebbian learning is the intersection of activation. When the input and out??? Intersect.
Interference. It does not occur with orthogonal, but it does with linear, algebra
The main idea in Hebbian learning is the coincident discoveries. At the intersections of the horinzontal
and vertical yellow columms. You need to be able to detect coincidence.
“Assuming a binary threshold activation function with a threshold θ=2, will the receiving neuron be
activated by this net input?
Mental processes, making logical inferences, getting scared, making associations, all of those are
transformations of those patterns.
The weight will produced some output given certain input patterns.
Orthogonal Patterns
Patterns are vector in this multidimensional space. There are many dmensions, thousands of them.
The presence of Calcium is the memory trace on the synapse. The brain lies down traces of the
experience. So traces are changes in the weight, which is
In Theory, all the experience that you have lived through leave traces.
Auto/associator Network
Take the case of learning English. When a non native speaker of English provided a different (noisy)
input, and you get a clean image on the other side.
Inputs and outputs can talk to each other and their neightborgs within the same layer.
Recurrent network.
Pattern Completion
Content-Addressable Memory
Index
22 Error Correct
Perceptron conversion theorem, if you have some input/output mapping task and if you train the
netwoek using the delta rule… if you train long enough the network will stop changing when everything
balances out.
Example, when you have a leaking bucket when the amount of water leaking and the amount out water
being poured are equals, so they achieve a state of equilibrium
The learning rule discover the best possible weight, but sometimes that weight is not enough, so there is
enough.
There are certain mappings in which it is simple not possible, another book was published about the
Linear inseparable problem, which are relative simple problems and functions that cannot be done in
single networks.
Even the minimal error is not zero and the network canot get better than that. The most famous
example is the XOR problem, there is not enough time but look it up on the book.
Sociologist of Science: the idea out there was that these networks do not work, so there were very
There is no point of having multilayer networks if the operations are all linear functions, because they
would be equivalent.
Borel measurable:
The hidden
Delta learning rule does not work for multiayer networks because the teacher signal is available.
The hidden network does not have access to the teaching signal, which only communicates with the
output layers.
The problem with the hidden layers is that they generate the blame assignment,
One of the main problems in cognitive science is the problem of backpropagation in networks.
23. Amnesia
Declarative v. nondeclarative
Haberlant, Memory
You can only transfer certain amount of information at a time through a channel. This has to do with
the ontology of film and documentary. Because all representation, when judging it this effects has to be
taken into account.
Information
Representation
Modal Model
Rehearsal is important because otherwise the items fade away as a function of time.
25 Active Maintenance
Active maintenance means that the activity of the neuron persist after the stimulus that originated the
activity
The controller does not care about the identity of the … it cares about the timing.
27.
Each level has a reaction time that is approx. 10 slower than the lower level.
This is the minimum unit of cognition you can become aware of. The fastest thing you can do is
reaction time task. React and press a buttom in front of you. When you have young, motivated patients
they get very fast reaction times.
- ***Fr example, you should be able to come up with some vocablulary, like difficult of the task,
knoeledge that is needed and other constraints, that you should not have to worieed about
neurons, or terms in lower levels. You you need to develop vocabulary that is limited to the level
where you are operating.
- It is also nice to have a story how a lower level relates to a higher level. The patterns associator
is an example, how to identify objects and words.
- Hebbian learning was reduced to LTP and LTD, and that was reduced to NMDA and calcium and
others chemicals.
- This is not complete reduction, but it is important to have some idea about how to move from
one level to another level.
- Another example, pertains to the molecular level.
Horizontal integration
- You need a common language so can talk about all the domains in a unified way. Cognitive
architecture is like a blue print of a building.
Cognitive Architecture
Leabra
- Not all the parts of the brain are the same. There is a division of labor.
- Posterior cortex is everything the prefrontal cortex, including the motor cortex in the frontal
cortex.
- Posterior cortex can do generalization.
- Posterior cortex and Neocortex in oreilly are interchangeable terms.
- HM did no forget about what happened before the surgery.
- An architecture takes into account that there are many parts and it is an attempt to put all the
parts together.
The illusion that shows a person to grow and shrink in a room. Your verbal, declarative knowledge about
the room and about how the illusion work does not penetrate or affect your vision, you will see the
person growing and shrinking and cannot control it.
- Perception builds this representations and puts them in Working Memory, and from then they
can be stored in Long-termed memory.
In 1972 Shakey was using logical representatinos, and mathematical, search in problem spaces, GOFAI.
As you move, you represent your current position in the world. The
Dead reckoning isa problem where robots need to find out where they are, what is their location in the
world.
Descartes: The main idea, most of the action is inside your head. You build this representation of the
world. Descartes started by doubting everything around him. Solipsm because everything might be
inside my mind.
Fodor, Methodological Solipsis, there is an external world, but because we use what is in our mind to
understand the outer world, we need to care only about that. Because the world is not presented in our
mind, it is Represented.
Critique: it is very hard to maintain a model that is an actual true representation of the world out there.
The laws of physics can take of any kind of unexpected consequences, without the need of any
representation and processes, simulations or calculations.
There are many different cycles., and ways to get from perception to actions without passing through
cognition, or the central executive unit.
Basal Ganglia, each of the areas is analogous to the rivers in the illustration of the basal ganglia. Lower
levels usually have precedence. Sometimes different levels conflict with each other,
29 Consciousness
Consciousness is not one thing, but a whole array of things. And this distinction helps account for the
particular portion of the phenomenon that we want to explain, which could easily be treated as a
different phenomenon altogether.