Dams

According to Engineering Articles website in 2015, a dam is as an obstruction constructed across

a stream or river. At the back of this barrier, water is collected forming a pool; the side on which
water is collected is called upstream side and the other side of the barrier is called downstream
side. The pool of water which is formed upstream is called a Reservoir.

Parts of a Dam

Figure 1: Diagram Illustrating the Key Parts of a Dam (Prasiddha, 2015)

 Crest: The top of the Dam. These may in some cases be used for providing a roadway or
walkway over the dam.
 Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the crest.
 Heel: Portion of Dam in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
 Toe: Portion of dam in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
 Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of dam for the passage
of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
 Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right end
of dam are fixed to.
  Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at transverse
or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are generally
provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may also be
used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
 Sluice way: Opening in the dam near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in
the reservoir.
 Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of the
dam.
 Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be
withdrawn.
 Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to bypass
the dam construction site. The dam is built while the river flows through the diversion
tunnel.

(Prasiddha, 2015)

The Purpose and Benefits of Dams

Dams provide a range of economic, environmental, and social benefits, including recreation, flood
control, water supply, hydroelectric power, waste management, river navigation, and wildlife
habitat (The Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA, 2019)
Figure 2: Pie Chart Highlighting the Various Uses of Dams and their Percentages in the United
States (FEMA, 2019)

 Recreation

Dams provide prime recreational facilities throughout the United States. Boating, skiing,
camping, picnic areas, and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams. (FEMA, 2019)

 Flood Control

In addition to helping farmers, dams help prevent the loss of life and property caused by
flooding. Flood control dams impound floodwaters and then either release them under control
to the river below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses. For centuries, people have
built dams to help control devastating floods. (FEMA, 2019)

 Water Storage (Fire & Farm Ponds)

Dams create reservoirs throughout the United States that supply water for many uses, including
industrial, municipal, and agricultural. (FEMA, 2019)
 Irrigation

Ten percent of American cropland is irrigated using water stored behind dams. Thousands of
jobs are tied to producing crops grown with irrigated water. (FEMA, 2019)

 Mine Tailings

There are more than 1,300 mine tailings impoundments in the United States that allow the
mining and processing of coal and other vital minerals while protecting the environment.
(FEMA, 2019)

 Electrical Generation

The United States is one of the largest producers of hydropower in the world, second only to
Canada. Dams produce over 103,800 megawatts of renewable electricity and meet 8 to 12
percent of the Nation's power needs. Hydropower is considered clean because it does not
contribute to global warming, air pollution, acid rain, or ozone depletion. (FEMA, 2019)

 Debris Control

In some instances, dams provide enhanced environmental protection, such as the retention of
hazardous materials and detrimental sedimentation. (FEMA, 2019)

 Navigation

Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation throughout the
heartland of the Nation. (FEMA, 2019)
Classification of Dams based on Structure and Design

1. Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone
masonry. They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the
weight of the dam is able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it.
Therefore it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground,
stopping water from toppling it over.

Image 1: Gravity Dam (USSD, 2019)

2. Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive
layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more
permeable substances on the upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone
prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects
against catastrophic washout should the water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces
exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight of the earth
dam also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely
different from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having
flat slopes at flanks (abutments). The foundation requirements are less stringent than those
of gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the sites where the foundations are less
strong.
3. Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An
impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete.
In early rockfill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they are
obsolete.

Image 2: Rockfill Dam, Mohale dam, Lesoto Africa (Prasiddha, 2015)

4. Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side.
An arch dam transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch
action. An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which can resist
the thrust produced by the arch action.

Image 3: Arch Dam, Hoover Dam USA (Prasiddha, 2015)

5. Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types:

Deck type - A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses.
Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck
slab to the foundation.

Multiple-arch type - In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by
horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made
of concrete.

Massive-head type - In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of
the deck, the upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span
the distance between the buttresses.

Image 4: Buttress Dam (Prasiddha, 2015)

Design Equations for a Gravity Dam

1. Wave Pressure

The reservoir behind a dam is prone to generation of waves produced by the shearing action of
wind blowing over the surface. Of course, the pressure of the waves against massive dams of
appreciable height is not of much consequence. The height of wave is generally more important in
determination of the free board requirements of dams to prevent overtopping of the dam crest by
wave splash. The force and dimensions of waves depend mainly on the extent and dimensions of
waves depend mainly on the extent and configuration of the surface area of the reservoir, the depth
of the reservoir, and the velocity of the wind. The procedure to work out the height of waves
generated, and consequently derive the safe free board, may be done according to the method
described in IS: 6512-1984 “Criteria for design of solid gravity dams”. However, since it is a bit
involved, a simpler method is prescribed as that given by the Stevenson formula:

4
𝐻𝑤 = 0.34√𝐹 + 0.76 − 0.26 √𝐹

Where

Hw = Height of wave, crest to through in m

F = Fetch of the reservoir, i.e. the longest straight distance of the reservoir from the dam up to the
farthest point of the reservoir.

When the fetch exceeds 20Km, the above formula can be approximated as:

𝐻𝑤 = 0.34√𝐹

Since the height of the generated waves must be related to the wind velocity, the original formula
has been modified to:

4
𝐻𝑤 = 0.032√𝑉𝐹 + 0.76 − 0.26 √𝐹

Where V = wind speed along the fetch, in km/h

(Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, 2009)

The pressure intensity due to waves (Pw, in KN/m2) is given by the following expression

𝑃𝑤 = 23.554𝐻𝑤

(Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, 2009)

2. Free Board

Free board is the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the sill water level. IS:6512-
1984 recommends that the free board shall be wind set-up plus 4/3 times wave height above
normal pool elevation or above maximum reservoir level corresponding to design flood, whichever
gives higher crest elevation.

Wind set-up is the shear displacement of water towards one end of a reservoir by wind blowing
continuously – or in repeated regular gusts – from one direction. The Zuider Zee formula and
recommended by IS: 6512-1984 may be used as a guide for the estimation of setup (S):

𝑉 2 𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴
𝑆=
𝑘𝐷

Where

S = Wind set-up, in m

V = Velocity of wind over water in m/s

F = Fetch, in km

D = Average depth of reservoir, in m, along maximum fetch

A = Angle of wind to fetch, may be taken as zero degrees for maximum set-up

K = A constant, specified as about 62000

(Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, 2009)

 3. Stability against Sliding

Many of the loads on the dam act horizontally, like water pressure, horizontal earthquake forces,
etc. These forces have to be resisted by frictional or shearing forces along horizontal or nearly-
horizontal seams in foundation.

Sliding resistance is a function of the cohesion inherent in the materials at their contact and the
angle of internal friction of the material at the surface of sliding. The junction plane between the
dam and rock is rarely smooth. In fact, special efforts are made during construction to keep the
interface as rough as possible.

Factor of Safety against sliding (F) along a plane may be computed from the following formula:

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
+
𝐹𝜑 𝐹𝑐
𝐹=
𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

Where Fφ and Fc are the Partial Factor of Safety in respect of friction and Partial Factor of Safety
of cohesion.

(Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, 2009)

Sluices

Sluice gates are big gates which are installed in the dams, canals, rivers, etc. Dams are built to
provide safe and reliable drinking water, it also provides water for irrigation and recreation. Here,
large steel barriers are installed known as Sluice Gates which helps in releasing the water from the
Dam and to control the flow of the water (Upadhaya Valves Manufacturers Private Limited, 2017).

In other words, a sluice gate is an opening in a hydraulic structure used for controlling the discharge
(Swamee, 1992).

Image 5: Sluice Gate

Taken from https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1074803

Types of Sluice Gate

1. Flap Sluice Gate

2. Vertical Rising Sluice Gate
3. Radical Sluice Gate
4. Rising Sector Sluice Gate
5. Niddle Sluice

(Upadhaya Valves Manufacturers Private Limited, 2017).

Design Equations for Sluice Gates

1. Discharge Q

The conventional sluice-gate discharge equation is written in the form:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑎𝑏√2𝑔ℎ0

In which

Q – the sluice gate discharge

a – the sluice-gate opening

b – the sluice-gate length

h0 – the upstream water depth

g – gravitational acceleration

Cd – discharge coefficient

(Swamee, 1992)
 2. Discharge Coefficient Equations Cd

The discharge coefficient is analyzed and calculated under two conditions:

1. Free Flow
2. Submerged Flow

The following image highlights the difference between these two configurations

Figure 3: Sluice Gate under (a) Free Flow and (b) Submerged Flow (Swamee, 1992)

Free flow condition

This equation is derived from a Discharge Coefficient graph (as seen below), and the hydraulic
concept that the sluice gate ceases to exist when h0 equals to a or less than a.
 Figure 4: Variation of Discharge Coefficient (Swamee, 1992)

The figure above shows the variation of Cd under free and submerged flow conditions as obtained
by Henry (1950). Henry's experimental investigation is considered most extensive and reliable.
Henry's investigation was later confirmed by Rajaratnam and Subramanya (1967). From a quick
study of the graph, it is seen that the discharge coefficient for free flow reaches a saturated value
of 0.611. With this limiting value, and the understanding that for h0=a, Cd = 0, the equation for the
discharge coefficient for free flow was obtained. (Swamee, 1992)

Under free flow conditions, the discharge coefficient is given by the following equation:

0.072
(ℎ0 − 𝑎)
𝐶𝑑 = 0.611 ( )
(ℎ0 + 15𝑎)

Using this expression for Cd, we can substitute into the discharge equation Q and this gives:

0.072
(ℎ0 − 𝑎)
𝑄 = 0.864𝑎𝑏√𝑔ℎ0 ( )
(ℎ0 + 15𝑎)

(Swamee, 1992)
Submerged Condition

Under submerged flow conditions as seen in Figure 3, the discharge coefficient is zero when ha =
h2 (the tailwater depth). Any increase in h0 above h2 results in rapid increase in the discharge
coefficient until h0 attains a maximum value h0max at which the flow is free. (Swamee, 1992)

Through calculations and graphical methods, the discharge coefficient for submerged condition is
quite complex and is given as:

0.072 0.7 −1
(ℎ0 − 𝑎) ℎ2 0.72
𝐶𝑑 = 0.611 ( ) (ℎ0 − ℎ2 )0.7 {0.32 [0.81ℎ2 ( ) − ℎ0 ] + (ℎ0 − ℎ2 )0.7 }
(ℎ0 + 15𝑎) 𝑎

This expression for Cd can also be substituted into the discharge equation Q if needed.

(Swamee, 1992)

References
 Engineering Articles. (2015, May 15). Dams Definition and Uses of Dams. Retrieved
from Engineering Articles: http://www.engineeringarticles.org/what-is-dam-definition-
and-uses-of-dams/

 FEMA. (2019, February 15). Benefits of Dams. Retrieved from FEMA:

https://www.fema.gov/benefits-dams

 Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. (2009, December 31). Design and

Construction of Concrete Gravity Dams. Retrieved from NPTEL:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105110/30

 Prasiddha. (2015, August 28). Types of Dams. Retrieved from civileblog:

http://www.civileblog.com/types-of-dams/

 Swamee, P. K. (1992). SluiceGate Discharge Equations. Journal of Irrigation and

Drainage Engineering, 56-59.
 Upadhaya Valves Manufacturers Private Limited. (2017, December 21). Uses of Sluice
Gate. Retrieved from Medium: https://medium.com/@uvml/use-of-sluice-gate-
df69a1f55fdf

 USSD. (2019). Types of Dams. Retrieved from USSD: https://www.ussdams.org/dam-

levee-education/overview/types-of-dams/