The History of Irrigation in Kashmir upto 1947: An Overview

Bashir Ahmad Tantray

Dr Javeed Ul Aziz

Irrigation has played one of the most pivotal roles in the development and
progress of civilization; accordingly, the role of civilization cannot be
overlooked in any study of historical development of irrigation. In the
historical development of irrigation, the small size works carried out by
individuals or groups of farmers using small streams cannot be overlooked,
these have led to large national scale works that characterize irrigation today
and have played a significant role in developing irrigation in the world.1

All efforts to increase agricultural production may prove futile if we fail

to provide required moisture to the plants when required. Since rainfall is
unequal and irregular and shows considerable annual and seasonal,
variations, therefore, it becomes imperative for productive agriculture to
have sound irrigational facilities. The state of agriculture virtually depends
upon the security and flexibility provided by irrigation facilities. 2 In fact,
irrigation is one of the indicators of measuring the development of
agriculture in any region or state. The cropping pattern and agricultural
density of a region are to a considerable extent determined by irrigation
facilities. It is therefore, not surprising to see that the harnessing of water
resources for irrigation was the principal pre-occupation of both peasant and
the state since time immemorial. In the Indian-Subcontinent literary sources
are replete with references underlining the importance accorded to irrigation
development by the state during the ancient and medieval times, here
empire building and irrigation development complemented each other.
During the British colonialism the state in order to effectively control
populations and establish territorial sovereignty initiated the project of
settling people and ordering agrarian spaces. In this new enterprise irrigation
acted as an important instrument of facilitating colonization of lands
hitherto an abode of the non-agrarian communities-tribal, pastoralists etc., 3

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The importance accorded to the development of irrigation infrastructure can
also be gauged from the fact that even the classical economists, who looked
upon economic development as a process initiated by dynamism of
individual entrepreneurs, emphasized that the public works-canals, roads.
harbors etc. should be undertaken as the necessary framework ‘within which
private economic activity be successfully carried on.’ According to Adam
Smith one of the main functions of the state was the construction and
maintenance of certain public works as these could never be the interest of
any individual or any group of individuals to construct and maintain them4.
Strong state role in certain specific areas such as the development of social
and economic overheads was advocated by J.S Mill, Mcculoch and Senior.5

In Kashmir irrigation has been an ancient practice and its history can be
traced back to 1500 BC when paddy cultivation based on permanent
irrigation started.6 It was perhaps from this period that the sources of water–
rivers, streams and springs- were channelized for purposes of irrigating the
paddy fields. As elsewhere, in Kashmir also the harnessing of water
resources for purposes of irrigation seems to be a joint endeavor of peasants
and state. The broad network of water channels that evolved in Kashmir
during the ancient and medieval times amply demonstrate that the then
societies and power structures were consciousness of the importance of
irrigation as a means to achieve an effective breakthrough in the
development of agriculture.7 It is important to mention here that given the
defused power structure that Kashmir had under different political regimes
the local potentates, mostly landed aristocracy, significantly contributed to
the development of an extensive irrigation system. The topography of the
valley with its characteristic inclined terrain suitable for terrace irrigation
and the abundance of surface water sources greatly helped the farmers in the
construction of gravity canals locally called the kuhls 8. In areas where
surface water was not available and water table was not that deep either the
peasants dug wells and employed shadufs to benefit from underground
water. Well irrigation existed in the towns like Srinagar, Baramulla, Sopore

2
 and was used for vegetable lands and also in kitchen gardens. Moreover, it
needs a mention that the cultivators knew by virtue of their experience the
properties of water obtained from different sources. For agriculture the
spring water in presence of alternative sources was generally not preferred
because not only was it cool but also devoid of fertilizing silt usually found
in the stream water (kuhls)9

Irrigation development was a matter of prime concern for the state in

Kashmir. By contributing to agricultural development, it helped the state in
amassing wealth by appropriating more as revenue. Thus, it is not surprising to
come across some references in Rajatarangani, a predominately political
narrative, talking about canal construction in the region 10. In this very context
the very early refrence that we get from Rajataragni about the construction of
the canal is that of king Suvarna who cut a canal called Suvarnamanyakulya
this canal still irrigates a greater part of south Kashmir the efforts made by king
proved very beneficial for the development of the agricultural activities in
ancient Kashmir.11 However, the most important effort made by the state in
regard to the development of the irrigation system in Kashmir was taken by
king Damoder.12 It was for the first time that efforts were made to provide
irrigation facilities to the karewas. The reasons seems to be being to utilize the
dual importance of Karewas such as these being of fluvial origin were enough
fertile and second the area was considered safe from the annual floods which
created havoc throughout the history of ancient Kashmir. In this context king
Damodar attempts to bring water to great Wadder (Karewa) named after him
here he utilized the cut down the canals from the following streams. This type
of attempt was one among the significant features of ancient agricultural
technology of Kashmir13. These attempts though significant but were very
limited in extent as no other ruler attempts to develop irrigation system to the
certain extents up to the Karkota dynasty.

The rulers of Karkota dynasties being the powerful warriors also contributed
towards the stabilization of Kashmir economy which was based on agriculture.
Among the rulers of Karkota dynasty king Lalitaditya received great attention

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at the hands of Kalhana, who not only praised him as great warrior and
architect but as a great ruler who prospered the Kashmir economy. According
to Kalhana it was Lalitaditya (724–61) who for the first time infused a new
spirit in the economic activities of Kashmir and initiated several schemes for
the development of irrigation. In this case Lalitaditya perhaps being the first
ruler of Kashmir who arranged for conducting the water of Vitasta at
Chakradhara and distributed it to various villages. This he did by adopted the
new technique of lifting water from the river by means of water wheels
(ambhahpratarana). After Lalitaditya the development of irrigation in the state,
for a long period, fell prey to the family feuds and centrifugal tendencies and
revived only under Awantivarman (855-83) who took great pains in the
building of hydraulic structure of the state.14 According to Kalhana “He
(Awantivarman) made different streams with their waves which are like the
quivering tongues (of snakes) move about according to his will, just as a
conjurer (does with) the snakes.”15 The water was channeled for irrigation
purposes and each village was allotted as much water as was necessary for its
crops. Suyya, Avantivarman’s chief engineer and the master architect of all his
irrigation schemes had many villages reclaimed from marshy tracts by having
circular embankments raised round them to keep out water. Such embanked
villages looked like rounded bowls, Kundals in local parlance, thereby earning
them names like Utsakundal, Markundal etc., the nomenclature which they
retain even today16. Owing to this wonderful work food production in the
valley significantly increased making Suya a hero and earning him the name
Anapati from Kalhana17. Suyya’s example to irrigate the unfertile plateau of
Kashmir was probably followed by others. An inscription discovered at Hatun,
in the Punial tract up the Gilgit river records that Makarasimha, a feudatory of
the Sahi kings of Gilgit, cut a canal and brought water to a land which was
waste before.18 It is likely that similar projects were undertaken in Kashmir
proper also.

The irrigation scheme of Suyya or of any other person, however, could not
permanently saved the country from the clutches of famine. This is mentioned

4
by Kalhana by saying that for almost six centuries after the death of
Awantivarman agriculture suffered the worst ever negligence.19 Hydraulic
chaos touched the nadir because of the bestiality and savagery of the rulers,
incessant feuds, civil wars, rebellions, upheavals and foreign invasions that
marked the period. The weak central power led to the insufficient upkeep of
canals, area under cultivation dwindled and irrigation system was thoroughly
destroyed.20

Irrigation facilities markedly improved after the establishment and

consolidation of the Sultanate. The early sultans could not contribute much to
irrigation sector because of their pre-occupations with consolidation of power
and suppression of rival elements. Phenomenal development in canal building
occurred during the reign of sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-70) who while
understanding the importance of agriculture evolved an integrated programme
for the revival of canal building. According to Jonaraja “There was not a piece of
land, and not a forest, where the king did not dig a canal.” 21 The sultan
constructed and reconstructed several canals some of which included Utpalpora
22
canal, Lal canal, Naidshai canal, Lachman canal and Mar canal. He converted
the low lands into tanks adorned with birds, lotuses and water nuts. He extended
river Mar to the confluence of Jhelum, Sindh and the Mar was used for drinking
and bathing purposes. He built a lake in Pampore and named it Zain-Sarai; the
site of this artificially built lake is probably modern swamp on Northeastern side
of Pampore.23 This extensive canalization manifested in the considerable
increase in agricultural production during his reign.

The Mughals also built a number of canals in Kashmir however, the primary
purpose of such networks was beautification of the pleasure gardens and not
irrigation.24 During the reign of Akbar, Yusuf Khan Rizvi (Subadar) built a canal
connecting a stream known as Nallah Sindh with Bagh Illahi. Jahangir
constructed a canal for Shalimar garden and Asif Khan built another for Nishat
garden. Zakir Kol was expanded to provide water to Naseem Bagh and Badshahi
Canal was channelized to provide water to Mulla Akhoon Garden (Mullah Shahi
Bagh) and Noor Bagh. A seminal contribution of the Mughals to the irrigation

5
system of Kashmir came in the form of certain rules guiding the distribution of
water to avoid disputes among the villagers. The post of Mirab was created to
ensure the repairs of canals and call out for labour. This system is said to have
been introduced by emperor Jahangir.25 The Mughals earned a huge amount of
revenue from agriculture sector of the economy, but showed least interest in
constructing canals for the benefit of the peasants.26

Like Mughals the Afghans also adopted an attitude of medieval

conquerors showing interest only in squeezing the life blood of the Kashmiri
people by imposing exorbitant taxes and draining the same out of the valley to
their capital Kabul. The Afghans did not construct a single canal for increasing
the productive capacity of the valley.27 The Sikh state was essentially medieval in
character and the drain of wealth from Kashmir reached to its climax during the
Sikh rule. No attention was paid towards the construction and repairement of
canals. Moorcraft observed in 1823 that most of the canals were chocked with
silt or were out of the order.28

Irrigation remained a largely neglected economic activity during the early Dogra
rule.29 As the state had introduced a fixed revenue assessment, the village
dwellers were forced to look after the repairs of the canals themselves. In the
absence of state support, it was difficult for the peasantry to make use of
available water resources for irrigation purposes of fields with unfriendly
landscapes. When the canal passed through hard ground irrigation became very
uncertain and when a ravine had to be crossed, a flat-bottomed boat was erected
on high trestles and the water flowed over in a quaint- looking aqueduct but
nevertheless very difficult to maintain. Moreover, the Mirab had not received
pay for years and the channels had fallen into great disorder. 30 It was under
colonial pressure that the state accorded some attention to the overhaul of the
irrigation system. A. Wingate who surveyed the Valley for the land settlement of
1889 says “I propose to reserve the Durbar all rights in respect of water because
in Kashmir nothing is so important or stands so much in need of control or
organization. There is abundance of water but the villages unless very strong in
men and so able to send up contingent to fight for it cannot get and much water

6
turns to the waste and much irrigable land is dry.” 31 After the commencement of
the land settlement in 1889 the state looked after irrigation channels promptly but
this was not done without levying an extra irrigation cess. Secondly the
developments of activities were concentrated in Jammu and registered very little
progress in Kashmir where there was a large room for development.32

In 1890-92 the land settlement commissioner laid down that there

was much to be done in the way of agricultural improvement of the state by
sinking irrigation wells in certain dry localities, utilizing peat as fuel for stream
pumps, to drain the swamps of the valley and so on. In kandi areas irrigation was
difficult except in case of small water channels taken along the hill side.33 But
here at the convenient points on the mountain streams temporary weirs or
projecting snags were erected, and the water is taken off in main channels, which
then pass into a network of small ducts and eventually empty themselves into the
Jhelum.34 Lower down in the valley, where the streams flow gently, dams were
erected.35 All villages which depend for their irrigation on a certain weir are
obliged to assist in its construction and repair. 36 It was because of the
combination of the state and society that a well developed irrigation system was
existed in Kashmir even before the end of the 19th century. In the network of the
irrigation system the other source of irrigation that was mostly prevalent in
Kashmir was in the form of Wells. Well irrigation system was seen in towns like
Srinagar, Anantnag, Sopore and Baramulla. 37 The water from these wells was
lifted not by using Persian wheels but by that of the in expense dip well, and in
Srinagar and other areas garden cultivation was depended on the dhenkil. But the
most important and useful technique of lifting water from the wells was that of
bucked tired with rope was mostly used to irrigate the splendid gardens in
Kashmir.

However, at the end of the 19th century because of the many factors many
source of water were seen received a very less importance at the hands of the
state because of which some of the canals in Kashmir became totally useless for
irrigation. River Jhelum which was of great importance to the valley also did not
give any proof of extensive irrigation. But during the reign of Maharaja Partap

7
Singh, attention was paid towards the irrigational facilities. It was in 1901 that a
regular division of Public Works Department was established and canals like
Martand, Lal Kuhl, Dadi and Naindi canals were reconstructed and repaired.38
The Irrigation Department came into existence as a separate entity in November
1923 as a result of a scheme prepared by H.A.D. Fraser in 1916. 39 Water for
irrigation was available in abundance almost everywhere in Kashmir but in many
areas use could not be made use of owing to different gradients. The use of
Arhatas (water wheel/Persian wheel) for irrigation remained confined only to
some feudal lords as it was very expensive. It needed a well, a bullock, laborer to
handle the ox and a machine. Further, the land to be irrigated should have been in
a consolidated form. Throughout the 1930`s the percentage of irrigated area had
stagnated at an average of about 30% and most of the land was irrigated through
the Zamindari kuhls (private canals).40 It is pertinent to mention here that the
change in the political geography of the state changed after 1947 41did not have
negative impact on the percentage of irrigated area in the state as a substantial
part of the land area that came under the occupation of Pakistan was unirrigated.
This was unlike what happened in the case of Punjab where a vast area of canal
irrigated land went to Pakistan and drastically reduced the net irrigated. 42 In fact
in case of Kashmir the percentage of net irrigated area increased from 30.4% to
41.1% as out of about 232 thousand hectares of cropped area which came under
the occupation of Pakistan only 40 thousand hectares were irrigated.43

The canals dominated the irrigation pattern of the Valley and in 1949-50
about 86% of the total cropped area was irrigated by the Zamindari kuhls. The
task of the state government was, therefore, to restore irrigation to its maximum
by focusing on zamindari khuls. Along with it, it was necessary to extend
irrigation by tapping natural resources in the shape of available water discharge
in various river basins for providing necessary infrastructure for agricultural
development, both for intensive and extensive cultivation. The development of
irrigation received impetus after 1950s when the state entered upon an era of
planned economic development. Irrigation was the main focus of the productive
investments by the state. Under different Five Year Plans the development of

8
irrigation was accorded high priority and a considerable proportion of the plan
amount was earmarked for different irrigation schemes.44

References and Notes

9
1
Hitoshi Fukuda Irrigation in the World, Comparative Developments University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo,
1976, p.8.
2
U.M Jha, Irrigation and Agricultural Development, Deep and Deep Publications, Delhi, 1984, p, 57.
3
For more details see Neeladri Bhattacharya, the great Agrarian Conquest
4
Smith Adam, An Inquiry into the nature and the wealth of Nations
5
M Mufakharul - ul – Islam, Irrigation, Agriculture and the Raj 1887-1947, Manohar Publishers, New
Delhi, 1997, p.139.
6
Ray, S.C., Early History and Culture of Kashmir, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 121-122
7
Abdul Waheed Traditional Agricultural Technology of Kashmir, unpublished M.Phill Dissertation,
Department of History, University of Kashmir p.33.
8
Moonis Raza, Valley of Kashmir a Geographical interpretation,”vol.1 (The land,) Vikas Publishers, New
Delhi, 1978, p.97.
9
Lawrence, Walter., The Valley of Kashmir, Chinar Publishing House, Mirpur, 1992, p. 324
10
M.A Stein (tr), Rajtarangni, 1989, Gulshan Books Srinagar, p. 17,151.
11
Ray, S.C., Early History and Culture of Kashmir, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 121-122
12
Stein, M.A., Rajtarangni, op cit. p. 159
13
ibid
14
M.A Stein, Ancient Geography of Kashmir, Gulshan Books Srinagar, p.121.
15
Stein., Rajtarangni, op cit, p. 188
16
Stein., Ancient Geography of Kashmir, op cit. p.125
17
Stein., Rajtarngni., op cit. p. 158, see also P.N.K.Bamzai, Cultural and Political History of Kashmi, M.
D. Publications, Delhi, n 1994. Vol.1, p.137.
18
Journal of Research of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1944, pp. 5-14.
19
M.A.Stein (tr) Rajtaranni, op.cit, p.271.
20
M.A.Stein (tr) Rajtaranni, op.cit, p.196.
21
J.C.Dutt (tr) Jonaraja,s Rajtarangni, Gulshan Books Srinagar, p.140.
22
Mohibul Hassan, Kashmir under Sultans, Gulshan Books, Srinagar, pp.125-30.
23
Fouq., Mohamad Din., Tariek-i-Budshahi, Jay Kay Publishing House, Srinagar, 1992, p. 55
24
A.M. Matoo, Kashmir under Mughals 1586-1755, Golden Hordge Enterprises, 1998 p.39.
25
Walter R. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir, Chinar Publishing House, reprint, 1992, pp. 23-24.
26
A.M.Matoo, op.cit, p. 39-40.
27
Ghulam Hassan Khan, Irrigation, Flood and Food problems in Jammu and Kashmir, Broca’s Art Press
Printers and Publishers, 1961, p.33-34.
28
D.N Dhar, Socio-Economic History of Kashmir Peasantry from Ancient Times to Modern Times, Center
for Kashmir Studies, Srinagar 1989, pp.86-90.
29
R. Hangloo, Agrarian system of Kashmir (1846-89) Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, 1995, p.38.
30
Walter R. Lawrence, Provincial Gazetteers of Kashmir, Rima Publishing House , New Delhi, reprint
1985, p. 46-47.
31
A. Wingate, Preliminary Report of The Land Settlement in Jammu and Kashmir, 1889, p.36
32
R.L. Hangloo, op.cit. p.41
33
Capt Knight, Diary of a Pedestrian in Kashmir and Tibet, City Book Center, Srinagar, 2009, p.42.
34
Lawrence., op cit. p. 323
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.
37
Capt Knight, Diary of a Pedestrian in Kashmir and Tibet, City Book Center, Srinagar, 2009, p.42.
38
R.G.Wreford, Census of India .vol.xxii, 1941, p.22-23.
39
Ghulam Hassan Khan, op.cit, p.52.
40
Abdul Rehman Mir, Kashmir mein Abpashi, Shaheen Publishers, Srinagar 1981, pp, 33-35
41
A substantial part of the state came under the occupation Pakistan in 1947
42
Ta Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudaisya, The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia, London , Routledge,
2000,pp. 15,37,
43
N.S.Gupta and Amarjit Singh, Agricultural development of states in India, Vol.i Jammu and Kashmir,
Seema Publications, Delhi, 1979.p.69.
44
Government of India , First Five Year Plan( 1951- 52) , Planning commission of India ,Delhi, 1952-52,