Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
A
Head start
To the
Stars and Beyond
Presented By
T. L. Kerr
Table of Contents; Field Of View Page 34
I am aware that everyone is not a mathematician or Don‘t confuse the sciences of Astronomy with the
physics major, neither am I so I will be keeping it as mythological beliefs of Astrology. You might just find
simple as possible sticking as close to the basics and people take their astronomy seriously and will quickly
hopefully still keeping it comprehendible. correct you if you make the mistake of confusing the
two.
There are many resources available to you on any
astronomy related topic. Some of these many resources
will be listed here for you to reference at you leisure. Page 3
To get yourself off to a good journey there are few Note: Planisphere’s are available for both the Northern
things you should do first. While you are doing them and the Southern Hemisphere in addition to various
start saving your money because you might want a nice latitudes. Ensure the Planisphere you buy is for a
telescope in the near future. Then that is probably why latitude that will be suitable for you location.
you are sitting her reading this. Nevertheless, hold off
on spending your money on a telescope just yet. Let us start out slow and easy by getting yourself a
blanket or a lawn chair to lie out under dark skies.
First thing you should do is learn your way around the A little insect repellant might be necessary in the spring
night sky. Explore and learn the constellations starting and summer months!
with the 12 common constellations of the Zodiac. Then Get comfortable and watch the stars of night sky as they
go further and learn to identify the brighter stars all slowly progress from the east to west. Test yourself to
around the night sky at various times of the year. You see which stars and constellations you are able to find
might just find that many of those are the easiest to and identify. See if you can find a wondering star (aka a
learn. Eventually you might learn the names of all 88 Planet). At almost every time of year sometime in the
official constellations. It is the stars and constellations night, at least one of the planets of our solar system will
we use to navigate our way around the night sky. be visible to the naked eye. Venus is so bright it can
even be observed at dusk or dawn without dark skies.
Learning the stars and constellations first will help you
find and locate the many interesting deep sky objects Then, when you are ready to look a little deeper there is
nestled in among the stars throughout our galaxy and something else that can aid you in learning the night sky
the universe. A nice little tool to help learn your way to see a little more. Will this not only aid you now, but
around the stars is a Planisphere. This is an adjust wheel will also be important for future use as well.
star chart that can be adjust to the time and date to
reflect the positions of the stars and constellations as If you do not already have them, get your hands on a
you should see them above. nice set of binoculars. They are very affordable and
make gazing at the stars of the night sky much more
enjoyable. You will be surprised how much more you
can see through a good set of binoculars under clear
dark skies.
Page 6
Glossary: Some more common telescope apertures used by many
amateur astronomers are as follows. Through
This is not a complete glossary of all the terms and experience, I have found the 8” to be the most
definition used by amateur astronomers; however, it is commonly used aperture of telescope, followed by the
enough to get you well on your way in this learning 12” and then the 10”.
experience.
Telescopes considered to be small aperture
Abell = A catalog of rich clusters of galaxies. This 50mm = 1-15/16”
catalog is an all sky catalog covering both northern and 60mm = 2-3/8”
southern hemispheres containing 4,073 rich galaxy 70mm = 2-¾”
clusters. George Ogden Abell (1927-83) published the 80mm = 3-1/8”
original catalog of 2,712 rich clusters of galaxies in 90mm = 3-9/16”
1958, the catalog has since been revised to include 100mm = 3-15/16”
another 1,361 114mm = 4-½”
120mm = 4-¾”
ACHRO = Achromatic refractor 150mm = 6”
3”in. = 76mm
AFOV: Apparent Field Of View: apparent field of 4”in.= 101mm
view is the angular diameter, expressed in degrees of 5”in.= 127mm
the circle of light that the eye sees. 6”in.= 152mm
ALT = Altitude: Elevation above the horizon Telescopes considered being medium aperture
8”in. = 203
Angular Diameter: The diameter of an object as seen 9-¼”in. = 235mm
from a given position is the diameter measured as an 10”in. = 254mm
angle. 11”in. = 279mm
12”in. = 304mm
Angular Size: is a measurement of how large or small 14”in. = 355mm
something is using rotational measurement. It is useful
for measuring things that are so far away that they Telescopes considered as large aperture instruments
appear two-dimensional. 16”in. = 406mm
18”in. = 457mm
Aperture: Aperture is the diameter of the main / 20”in. = 508mm
primary mirror or objective lens elements of the 24”in. = 609mm
telescope. Then larger of course! There are now instruments
The more aperture a telescope has, the more light available to the general public that are much larger.
grasping ability it will have, therefore allowing you to That is if you are willing to fork out the big money for
see farther and fainter objects. one of those monsters. Not to mention; where you are
you going to put it?
Most measurements used when referring to telescopes
are in millimeters. Although, you will still find many
that are in Inches. 1”in. = 25.4 millimeters, 10mm = 1
centimeter, 2.54cm = 1”in, 39”in. = 1meter
Page 7
APO = Apochromatic refractor CA = Chromatic aberration: Color distortion in an
image produced by a lens, caused by the inability of the
Apogee = The point in the orbit of the moon or of an lens to bring the various colors of light to focus at a
artificial satellite most distant from the center of the single point.
earth.
Catadioptric = Optical Systems which involve both
Asterism: A group of stars that has a shape or lenses and mirrors, such as the MCT, SCT and RCT.
appearance of something not necessarily a constellation; Celestial pole: The celestial poles are the axis points
however, asterisms usually are a portion of a the night sky revolves around the Earth.
constellation. A couple good examples for this would
be the two frying pans in the sky known as the big Collimation = To make parallel; line up. To adjust the
dipper and Little Dipper. There are many other line of sight of (an optical device).
asterisms formed with the stars that are good for visual DEC = Declination: The angular distance to a point on
navigation around the night sky. Similar to land marks a celestial object, measured north or south from the
on the surface of the earth. celestial equator.
AU = Astronomical Unit. A unit of length used in DOB = Dobsonian Mount (often referred to a
measuring astronomical distances within the solar Newtonian Reflector mounted on a simple wooden Alt
system equal to the mean distance from Earth to the Az base mount named for it’s inventor, John Dobson.
sun, approximately 150 million kilometers (93 million http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobsonian_telescope
miles).
DSO = Deep Sky Object: Galaxies, Nebulae, Star
Averted Vision: Averted vision is a technique used by Clusters.
many experienced observers. This is a way for your
eyes receptors to absorb more light detail while EP = Eyepiece (ocular)
observing an object through your Eye Piece (EP).
At night, the periphery of the eye's retina is more Eclipse = The partial or complete obscuring, relative to
sensitive to faint light than the center. This area of the a designated observer, of one celestial body by another
eye is more sensitive to light, color, and detail in
objects. Looking slightly to one side of a faint object Ecliptic: The ecliptic is the path through the sky the
(averted vision), so that the faint light falls on the more sun, moon and most of the planets follow. It is the plane
sensitive outer part of the retina, usually reveals the of the solar system.
object more clearly than looking directly at it. Even
with brighter objects, this will reveal more detail. EPOCH = An instant in time that is arbitrarily selected
If the object is in the center of the FOV avert your as a point of reference.
vision and give it a few moments. Allow your eyes to
absorb the light. The longer you look, the more the area Equinox = Either of the two times during a year when
comes into focus. the sun crosses the celestial equator and when the
length of day and night are approximately equal; the
AZ = Azimuth: The horizontal angular distance from a vernal equinox or the autumnal equinox
reference direction
EQ = Equatorial (Commonly used when referring to a
telescope mount)
Page 8
FL = Focal length M### = Messier (pronounced Messy Ay) after the 18th
century French Astronomer Charles Messier (June 1730
FOV: Field Of View: The Area, range or width of - April 1812).
view as we see it measured in degrees. In 1774, he published a catalogue of 45 DSO’s, such as
nebulae, star clusters and galaxies. The purpose of his
F/r, f/r, f/n = Focal Ratio or F/Stop catalogue was to help comet hunters like him and other
astronomical observers to distinguish between
GEM = .German Equatorial Mount permanent and transient objects in the sky.
By 1781 the catalogue became what it is today with 110
GMT = Greenwich Mean Time Messier Objects. The designations of these objects are
Grid North: The northerly or zero direction indicated from M1 to M110.
by the grid datum of directional reference. Grid north is Magnetic North: The direction of the earth's magnetic
a navigational term referring to the direction northwards pole, to which the north-seeking pole of a magnetic
along the grid lines of a map projection. It is contrasted needle points when free from local magnetic influence.
with true north (the direction of the North Pole) and Such as an abundance of Orr deposits in the ground.
Magnetic north (the direction of the Magnetic North The direction indicated by the north-seeking pole of a
Pole). Many topographic maps, including those of the freely suspended magnetic needle, influenced only by
U.S. Geological Survey and the Ordnance Survey, the Earth's magnetic field.
indicate the difference between grid north, true north, The magnetic pole is also on the constant but gradual
and magnetic north. drift.
IC = Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars MCT = Maksutov Cassegrain Telescope
and Galaxies. This catalog is an index extension of the
NGC catalogue.
LP = Light Pollution
Page 9
Minutes of arc (MOA), arc minute, Seconds Of Arc Opposition = The position of two celestial bodies
(SOA) arc seconds: Arc minute is a unit of angular when their longitude differs by 180°
measurement that is equal to one-sixtieth (1/60) of one
degree. Arc Second is (1/60) of one Arc Minute OTA = Optical Tube Assembly (the telescope)
Celestial coordinates / positions are typically indicated Ocular = Eyepiece of an optical instrument
by use of degrees, minutes, and seconds of angles in
two measurements. One for latitude, the angle north or Perigee = The point nearest the earth's center in the
south of the equator, and one for longitude, the angle orbit of the moon or a satellite
east or west of the Prime Meridian. This method is
utilized to precisely calculate and locate any position on Parsec = In astronomy it is a basic unit of length for
or above the surface of the Earth. Although, often measuring interstellar and intergalactic distances, equal
because of the seemingly complicated or awkward to 206,265 times the distance from the earth to the sun,
nature of the base-60 nature of MOA and SOA, More or 3.26 light-years.
and more people prefer to note the positions using
degrees expressed in decimal form to an equal amount Precession = A slow gyration of the earth's axis around
of precision. Degrees, given to three decimal places, the pole of the ecliptic, caused mainly by the
give almost as much accuracy as degrees-minutes- gravitational pull of the sun, moon, and other planets on
seconds. the earth's equatorial bulge
To convert from minutes (angles) to:
degrees, multiply by .01667. Prime Meridian: This is also the location for the
Quadrants, multiply by 1.852E-04. starting of all time zones. This is Greenwich Mean
Radians, multiply by 2.909E-04. Time (GMT) or most commonly Universal Time (UT).
Seconds, multiply by 60.
Quadrant is a circular arc of 90°; one fourth of the
Meridian: The meridian is an imaginary line for your circumference of a circle; Any of the four areas into
specific location. The line will extend from the celestial which a plane is divided by the reference axes in a
North Pole directly over your head to the south. This is Cartesian coordinate system, designated first, second,
the line dividing the east from the west. As you face the third, and fourth, counting counterclockwise from the
north, anything on the right is east of the Meridian. area in which both coordinates are positive.
Anything on the left is west of the meridian. Parsec: A unit of astronomical length based on the
distance from Earth at which stellar parallax is one
Newt = Newtonian Reflector Telescope. Named after second of arc and equal to 3.258 light-years, 3.086 ×
the famed Astronomer English mathematician and 1013 kilometers, or 1.918 × 1013 miles.
scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642- 1727). Credited for
the development of the popular Reflector telescope. RA = Right Ascension: The angular distance of a
celestial body or point on the celestial sphere, measured
NCP = North Celestial Pole eastward from the vernal equinox along the celestial
equator to the hour circle of the body or point and
NGC = New General Catalogue, A catalogue of objects expressed in degrees or hours.
ranging from 1 to 7840
SCP = South Celestial Pole UT = Universal Time: (aka, Greenwich Mean Time)
SCT = Schmidt Cassegrain Telescope Zenith = The point on the celestial sphere that is
directly above the observer.
Sidereal: A Measurement used to determine the
apparent daily motion of the stars: (Sidereal Time). The There are hundreds, possibly even thousands more.
time required for a complete rotation of the earth in This along with what is about to follow should be more
reference to any star or to the vernal equinox at the than enough to get you started in understanding much of
meridian, equal to 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds the amateur astronomer lingo. For that reason I don not
The Sidereal Rate is 15.04 arc-seconds / second. include them all.
Therefore, 100% of Sidereal is roughly equal to 15 Arc- If you want more here is a great resource:
secs / Sec http://tiny.cc/0k31j
Page 11
Prepare to purchase a telescope:
Page 12
There will be a few things you should look for when Department store telescopes are the bottom line cheap
getting ready to purchase from a vendor / retail sales. junk scopes. Avoid the online auctions for cheap
How is their reputation? telescope. Buyer Beware! Remember you get what you
What kind of reviews do they get? pay for. More importantly remember, “If it sounds too
Read the reviews so you are aware of everything about good to be true it usually is“. There are many great
them. Most importantly, how is their customer support? sounding deals advertised, with some that are full of
Once again, do the research and read the reviews. misleading hype aimed toward the naïve consumer. Be
Just because they might be a well known and well very careful and choose wisely! If you want a good
established company that makes an excellent quality telescope, you are probably going to need to spend a
telescope and accessories, does not make them a good little more money than you wanted. Start saving now
company. Some companies let their own success go to while you shop around! This does not mean that you
their heads while forgetting how they got there, by the cannot find good affordable telescope out there.
customer’s purchases! Make sure, before you buy it, they have a satisfaction
Also, shop around at many of the online retailers. Many guarantee that will allow you to return it and get a
of them sell the same brands of equipment. Often you refund.
can find a dealer / distributor that is having a sale and
offering a better deal than what a competitor might have Often people will start out with a small inexpensive
to offer. See what they might be including as part of a telescope yet with high expectations. Consequently,
package deal. I.e. focuser or finder scope upgrades, they soon realize they cannot see all they were
eyepieces etc. expecting. At that time, it is too late, money already
spent.
Last but not least, and certainly a very important matter,
Be patient! Avoid jumping at what sounds like the first One reason for this disappointment is that the size of
good deal you come across. If it is too good to be true, it their nice new telescope is just too small with limited
probably is. Avoid department store telescope. These light grasping ability. Not enough aperture to meet their
are more likely going to be cheap junk telescopes. A expectations!
telescope like that will be more headache and
frustration than enjoyment and will do nothing but We can probably owe these high expectations to
disappoint and discourage you from ever enjoying exposure to so many colorful astronomy photos and
amateur astronomy. images such as those taken with the Hubble Space
Telescope shown on network news and other media
Be careful of the many entry-level telescopes for outlets.
beginners that can also fall into this category. Although
there are many, excellent entry-level telescopes
available. You just need to do the research and shop
around. Just because they bear a popular brand name
does not make them a good telescope.
Page 13
People often see colorful astronomy photos and assume The above are very common recommendations for
that they will see something similar through any anyone to consider which you will frequently see and
telescope. Sorry to tell you this, but that just is not hear most any place you go. These recommendations
going to happen. Very few objects will actually appear are supported by my own experiences in addition to
as they do in those photos. Unfortunately, for those of learning from other people with much more experience.
use grounded here on good ole terra-firma other than a
few objects it is pretty much a colorless (black and
white) universe to the casual observer. However, there
are some of the larger and brighter nebulae, and the
planets will reveal some subtle color, but nothing like
you see in those colorful pictures. Those images are
often long exposures and or multiple stacked exposures
allowing for that color absorption, and then processed
with image processing software.
So that being said, more often than not you will hear
starting recommendations to purchase a telescope with
at least 6 or 8 inches of aperture, maybe even larger if
you can handle it. Usually that recommendation will be
to buy a Dobsonian, (More bang for the buck). Of
course, this is keeping your budget and all other
considerations in mind.
Page 14
Telescopes: A refracting or refractor telescope is a type of optical
telescope that refracts light at each end using lenses.
Following are brief descriptions of a few of the more This refraction causes parallel light rays to converge at
common telescope designs used by amateur a focal point while those that were not parallel converge
astronomers. upon a focal plane. This can enable a user to view a
distant object as if it were brighter, clearer, and/or
The purpose of a telescope is to gather light and to larger. These are similar to microscopes. The
bring that light to a point where it can be brought to monocular is a type of refractor.
focus. The larger the aperture of a telescope, the more
light gathering ability / resolving power the telescope A typical achromatic refractor uses two lenses, an
will have. As previously mentioned, greater light objective lens element and an eyepiece lens (EP). The
gathering ability means you will be able to see fainter objective lens has two pieces of glass (with different
objects. You will also have a greater ability to see more densities), typically crown and flint glass. Each side of
detail in many of the objects. Such as the Moon, each piece is ground and polished, and then the two
planets, nebulae star clusters and galaxies. pieces are sealed together. The curvatures are designed
to cancel (limit?) chromatic and spherical aberration.
____________________________________________
Among some of the best are a compromise of both the One very well corrected design example would be the
refractor and the reflector telescopes. concentric (or monocentric) Schmidt-Cassegrain (SCT),
These are good long focal length general-purpose where all the mirror surfaces and the focal surface are
telescopes. These are a very popular choice of telescope concentric to a single point: the center of curvature of
for their versatility. These use both a lens (aka, the primary. Optically, non-compact designs often yield
Corrector plate) in the front of the OTA and a primary better aberration correction and a flatter field than a
Mirror cell in the rear of the OTA. The difference is that compact design, but at the expense of longer tube
the primary mirror has a whole in the center and is length.
spherical rather than parabolic like a Newtonian
reflector.
Page 20
Fork Mount. This is the mount that a lot of Cassegrain The Dobsonian mount: Thanks to the inventive
telescopes use. A more complicated and sturdier form imagination of one man who set out to make amateur
of the Alt Az mount. Many larger fork mounts are often astronomy more accessible and more affordable to the
computerized GOTO mounts. Meade Instruments has a average person. The Dobsonian is a variant of the alt-
popular line of telescopes using these mounts. Also azimuth mount that has become very popular since
does Celestron. To utilize this type of mount for about the 1960's; affectionately referred to as a DOB.
astrophotography you will also need an additional This is due to its ease of construction. Most often used a
accessory called an Equatorial Wedge. very rugged and stable Alt-Az base system as the
carriage of a Newtonian Reflector.
Page 21
The Dobsonian is most often made of wood used to Not only do they have the altitude and azimuth axis's,
mount the telescope on an easy swivel / turn table base. but also declination (DEC) and right ascension (RA). It
Many of the mass produced Dobsonian mounts are is the RA and DEC that are important for properly
coated with a course veneer coating that protects the tracking celestial objects by counteracting the rotation
wood and allows for an easier more fluid movement of the Earth.
with small Teflon pads as surface bearings. What
makes these popular, are the low cost to produce. Thus Note: There are some poor quality mounts out there so
allowing for a larger reflector telescope for a lot less beware. These are usually the EQ1, EQ2 and EQ3
money, more bang for you buck. mounts. You want stability, which these are not.
____________________________________________
Page 23
Before we can effectively use a telescope, we must first Longitude is lines (line of Meridian) extending from
learn how to navigate our way around the night sky. I pole to pole dividing the earth into segments much like
hope that the following information should help with an orange. There are 360 of these lines around the earth.
that. They are units of measurement from 0° to 180° west
and 0° to 180° east. Greenwich England is the point of
Celestial Coordinates: 0 (Zero) Degrees. Much like our times zones begin
Understanding the Celestial Coordinate System and there also (Universal Time (UT)) so do the lines of
Using Setting Circles. This is often easier said than longitude.
done. First, imagine you are standing on a very large
ball; the sky is a sphere all around you. Almost as Note: Degrees of measurement as visualized in the
though the earth is in the middle of a spherical dome. night sky, Degrees are angular units of measurement. 1
degree equaling twice the size of the Full Moon or Sun
as seen in the sky. Then we divide degrees into the
smaller units of measurement call Arc Minutes and Arc
Seconds. 1 degree breaks down into 60' Arc Minutes,
then 1' Arc Min breaks down into 60" arc Seconds.
Page 24
Right Ascension (RA) is the celestial equivalent to Living in the northern latitudes, Polaris (The North
longitude. Imagine projecting those lines of longitude Star) is real close to the actual celestial pole. This is a
into the sky. Only instead of 360 lines, you would have great advantage giving us in the northern hemisphere a
only 24. 24 hours of Right Ascension. very close reference point to the celestial pole.
There are smaller divisions that are more precise / Whatever the latitude is for your location will be the
fractions of DEC and RA. Arc Minutes and Arc angle or altitude above the northern horizon where you
Seconds. 24 hours in a day, 60 minutes of arc in and will find the north celestial pole. An example would be,
hour, and 60 seconds of arc in a minute. if you live at 40° north latitude then the north celestial
pole would be at 40° angle above the northern horizon.
Let us say something is half way between RA 20 hrs Then, to clarify the location of the celestial equator will
and 21hrs. Then it would be RA 20hrs 30mins. If not be your southern horizon. The celestial equator
necessary for more precision, you could break it down would be 90° from the celestial pole to the south.
to the seconds. RA coordinate would be as follows: Therefore, if you were at 40° north then the Celestial
hrs-min-sec. Equator would be 50° above your southern horizon…
Declination. (DEC) This should give you a better understanding when you
The second of two angular measurements used for see those numbered dials on the equatorial mount.
celestial navigation. Declination is the angular distance These dials are known as Setting Circles. Although they
of a celestial object north or south of the celestial are a nice thing to learn, these day the use of setting
equator, measured in degrees. One of the two circles is neither common nor necessary for your typical
coordinates that guide you to a celestial object with the backyard star gazing experience. It is often easier to
help of a star chart and the setting circles on the learn the night sky visually making it easier to navigate
telescope mount. (RA being the other) This coordinate and locate objects. However, if you cannot find
is called Declination because the positions in degrees reference points (stars) easily due to light pollution then
Decline or Decrease from 90° at the north and south the use of setting circles can be a great benefit. It is not
celestial poles to 0°. The poles being the area of which that difficult to learn and calibrate them for use as a
everything in the sky revolves around. Then the navigational tool.
Celestial equator would be zero degrees. Degrees of
Declination are positive if north of the equator (0° to Many people are now using Computerized “GOTO”
+90°) and negative if south of the equator (0° to -90°). telescopes, which have grown in popularity in more
recent years. They take away a great majority of the
Declination coordinate would be Degrees-min-sec For work involved in navigation and locating objects.
example the current location of Jupiter is RA Nevertheless, you still need a knowledge of the brighter
12h45m02sec, DEC -03d 29’49” stars used to set up and align the telescope for
computerized navigation.
Page 25
Navigating with your telescope mount: Once you have the Altitude and Azimuth set properly
you will leave it alone. You will not need those for
When preparing a mount for the purpose of celestial celestial navigation with an equatorial mount unless you
navigation there are four different angles (scales of have relocated the telescope and mount to a different
measurement) we need work with. They are Altitude location.
(Alt), Angle or tilt above the horizon (0° to 90° from
the equator). Azimuth (Az), Circular angle around your Now we have to calibrate the setting circles so we can
point on the surface in 360 degrees. North as 0° or 360° navigate the night sky in Right Ascension and
degrees, East as 90°, South as 180° west as 270°, and Declination. To do this there are two methods that can
then RA and DEC as described earlier. be used! The easier of the two is the Guide Star method,
and then the more difficult is the Sidereal Method.
There are two basic styles of mounts used by backyard
amateur astronomers. Those mounts that are just Alt Az Guide Star Method of Setting Circles Calibration:
which of course then you won‘t have to worry about RA
and DEC. Then there is the German Equatorial Mount You already have your mount aligned on the celestial
(GEM). The GEM uses all four scales of measurement pole with the use of the Altitude and Azimuth
and is better for locating and accurately tracking adjustments. Next, you would set your Declination
celestial bodies in the same arcing motion as they Setting Circle to 90 degrees. Was that was easy
progress across the sky. enough? That is all that is need to set the Declination
Setting Circle.
One of the first things probably noticed on an
Equatorial mount will be the two setting circles. The Now to set the RA setting circle you will need a star
numbered dials on the RA and Declination Axis of the chart. The star chart should have the RA coordinates
mount! The RA setting circle will have two sets of listed for all the most common named stars.
numbers. One set is for use in the northern hemisphere Visually locate a star and slew the telescope to it
and the other is for the southern hemisphere. carefully getting the star centered in the Field Of View
(FOV) when you look into the Eyepiece.
Setting Circle Calibration: With the star centered, next you will take the
coordinates of that star from the chart and turn the RA
To get the setting circles properly aligned and calibrated setting circle until those coordinates are indicated on the
for use you must first align the polar axis of the mount dial.
on your celestial pole. Aligning the mount on the
celestial pole is where you will need to use the Altitude Note: An Illuminated Reticle EP would be more
and Azimuth adjustments. accurate for this or any star alignment purpose
including polar alignment.
Set the mount up so that it is facing north, (South if in
the southern hemisphere) then you can use the azimuth I hope that this will help ready your mount to locate
adjustment for fine-tuning the direction. Next, you objects in the night sky with the aid of setting circles.
want to adjust the Altitude (Elevation) so the polar axis
of the mount is pointing directly toward the celestial
pole.
Your geographical latitude is the altitude / elevation
angle you will set your mount to.
Page 26
Sidereal Method of Setting Circle Calibration: This reasoning ignores loss of light in the optics and or
due to the quality of optics. Also ignores atmospheric
The sidereal method requires that you know your local conditions effect on astronomical seeing. (The turbulent
sidereal time at the time of observation. You must thermal currents within the atmosphere)
either keep a clock set to sidereal time or you must
calculate the sidereal time for the time of the intended To calculate what the aperture gain is for your telescope
observation. you would divide the aperture of your telescope by the
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/sidereal.html diameter of your pupil squared. Unless you know the
exact diameter, you can only guess that you are an
First, calibrate your declination circle according to the average person. Therefore, we can estimate that your
methods above. pupil size when dark-adapt is 7mm. Let’s say you have
Next, determine the target's hour angle by subtracting a telescope with an aperture of 6”
its right ascension from your local sidereal time. A
positive hour angle indicates the target is west of your Aperture gain = Objective Diameter / Eye Pupil
meridian; a negative hour angle indicates the target is Diameter²
east of your meridian. Now, turn your telescope to read
the target's declination and then use the hour circle to Since we know, 6” is equal to 150mm you would take
point the calculated hours (and minutes or fractional 150 / 7 = 21.42 or 462
hours) east or west of you meridian. so a 6” aperture telescope would have 462x aperture
____________________________________________ gain over the 7mm pupil of your eye.
The larger the aperture of a telescope the greater the Focal Ratio
light gathering capability of the telescope. Greater light The only thing you really need to know about this is
collecting ability means ability to see greater distances that it is the ratio of the focal length of a lens or lens
to see more stars and smaller fainter deep sky objects. system to the effective diameter of its aperture.
The focal length divided by the aperture in millimeters
Resolving Power: equals the focal ratio.
A measure of the ability of a lens or optical system to Not to be confused with f-stop among photography
form separate and distinct images of two objects with enthusiasts. Adjustment of a cameras f/stop is actually
small angular separation. adjusting the aperture opening (size) decreasing or
An optical system cannot form a perfect image of a increasing the amount of light allowed into the camera.
point (i.e., point source). Instead, it performs what is
essentially a Fourier transform, and the resolving power Do not become overwhelmed by this number. For
of an optical system may be expressed in terms of an visual astronomy, this number is not an issue of
optical transform (transfer function) called the importance. Other than, to calculate other numbers that
modulation transfer function (MTF). might be more important which we will cover shortly.
The resolving power of an optical system is ultimately Note: This number does have some importance for film
limited by (a) the wavelength involved, and (b) photography of deep sky objects when calculating
diffraction by the aperture, a larger aperture having exposure times. However, currently more and more
greater resolving power than a smaller one. people are using Digital SLR cameras or CCD imagers.
Refer to Dawes Limit - http://tiny.cc/hbq94 The CCD and CMOS sensor chips used in these
or imagers and DSLR cameras are more sensitive. In other
Rayleigh Criterion - http://tiny.cc/l6xjb words, focal ratio does not have the same effect as it
does with film photography.
Page 28
A shorter focal length short focal ratio telescope will the telescopes resolving Power. The larger the aperture,
yield a wider (FOV) Field Of View giving you more sky the brighter and more resolved the image would appear.
coverage. Generally, a shorter focal ratio will result in Because of a telescopes resolving power, images as
brighter objects. However, if you have two telescopes seen with a larger telescopes will be brighter and show
of equal aperture and different focal ratios you probably detail greater than it would at the same magnification
will not notice much if any difference in brightness. The with a smaller telescope.
human eye is not sensitive enough to notice such subtle
changes. The focal length of the telescope and the focal length of
the EP determine the magnification of the object image
Magnification: you will see from your telescope.
The act of magnifying or the state of being magnified. The aperture of the telescope will determine the
The process of enlarging the size of something, as an maximum useful magnification that you can use. As a
optical image. general rule of thumb, you can count on getting 50 to 60
Something that has been magnified; an enlarged times magnification per inch of aperture. Alternatively,
representation, image, or model. about 2 to 2.4x magnification per millimeter of
The ratio of the size of an image to the size of an object. aperture.
Note: This amount is also dictated by the conditions of
There will be times you might see a telescope the atmosphere at the time.
advertisement listing its specifications such as A 6” (150mm) telescope can get a maximum useful
600x100mm. Do not allow yourself to be mislead by magnification of 300x. That is figuring the maximum
these numbers. Unlike binoculars, this does not mean magnification using the average 50x per inch (2x per
the telescope has a magnification of 600x. millimeter) of aperture.
Often this becomes confusing to a beginner due to the
fact that is how the magnification and aperture of More often you will not be able to achieve these higher
binoculars are identified. magnifications. Atmospheric conditions will often keep
For example, a pair of 16x50 binoculars would have an you below the maximums that you can achieve at any
aperture of 50mm and a magnification of 16x. An given time.
object at 1000 feet will appear 16 times closer than with
the naked eye. If you have never had or used a telescope before, this
When it comes to telescopes, these numbers specify the information and these numbers is something you will
focal length and aperture. A 600x100 would mean that want to remember.
the telescope has an aperture of 100mm with a focal
length of 600mm. Unfortunately, there are misleading advertising and
marketing ploys that will try to get the unwary shopper
Magnification is a product of a telescope and eyepieces or patron to believe a telescope can reach unreasonable
focal lengths. It is not the objective lens or primary or unreachable magnifications. This is a tactic used just
mirror of the telescope that magnifies the image, but to get you to buy that piece of junk telescope.
rather it is the lens or mirror that collects the light for Remember a maximum of 60x per inch of aperture or
the image to be magnified using the eyepiece. 2.4x per mm. Anything beyond that is often useless
darker Empty Magnification.
The power of a telescope is often confused with
magnification; it is not! The aperture (size) of the
telescope does however determine how much
magnification we can effectively use. The true power of
telescope is a product of its aperture; this is known as Page 29
Eyepieces (Oculars) (EP) An (EP) Eyepiece is a small microscope or series of
magnifying glasses (Lenses) that we use to bring the
The purpose and function of a telescope is to collect light from the telescope to focus for our eyes.
light and form a small fixed-size image at a point that is
determined by the focal length of the Optical Tube Most Eyepieces are constructed with multiple lens
Assembly (OTA). That point is the Point of Primary elements. Usually a minimum of two and not
Focus. However, the average healthy human eye cannot uncommon are designs with three, four, or more lens
focus sharply on an image unless it is more than eight elements. These lens elements are stacked and aligned
inches away. It is difficult to see to see any kind of in an arrangement that is incased inside some kind of
detail in prime focus images formed by the telescope housing.
unless of course you use an Eyepiece.
When looking into an eyepiece, the lens element that is
closest to your eye is the eye lens, and then the lens
element closest to the telescope end at the bottom of the
eyepiece is the Field Lens.
Page 30
The closer you can get to the point of primary focus to A person with healthy eyes will have an average dark-
focus on an image the larger the image will appear. adapted pupil (entrance pupil) that will usually be about
Increased Magnification! In other words, a longer focal 7mm diameter. Unfortunately as we get older, the eye's
length eyepiece will mean lower magnification than you ability to dilate declines. By the time the average person
would get with an eyepiece with a shorter focal length. reaches the age of 50 the dark-adapt eye only dilates to
about 5mm instead of 7mm. That is only one of the eye
The glass elements of a quality eyepiece will be coated problems encountered with age. Other effects of age on
with some kind of anti-reflective coating to increase the eyes will also effect your telescope observing. Such
light transmission enhancing the sharpness of the as, the ability for the eyes to focus on or slow to focus
image. You might see specification for eyepieces that on objects at a close distance to the eyes.
say Multi-Coated or Fully Multi-Coated. A Multi-
Coated eyepiece generally means that only some of the At first for telescope observation, this is not a real
glass elements have multiple anti-reflective coatings. A problem. Many people only need glasses for reading
Fully Multi-Coated eyepiece means that all the glass and may not require them for telescope observation.
lens elements will have multiple anti-reflective Nevertheless, you do still want them handy for reading
coatings. These eyepieces generally yield the best light your star charts.
transmission that will give you a sharper image. As you get older and this problem persists or worsens,
_____________________________________________ you will eventually need to wear glasses even when
observing with a telescope.
Exit Pupil
Often overlooked, but it is still a very important In order to get the most advantage out of the telescope
consideration, especially when choosing eyepieces to aperture and Light gathering ability. It is preferable that
match the entrance pupil of your dark-adapt eye the exit pupil of the EP is no large than your dark-adapt
with your telescope. eye’s pupil. This way all the light of the image is
gathered and focused into your eye.
This is the point at where all the light rays of the image
come to focus. A cone of light concentrating the light to For this purpose it helps to know what the exit pupil is.
a smaller point for a clear focused image. A circular We will have to figure that out on our own, so in order
image or beam of light formed by the eyepiece of a to do that we will calculated what the exit pupil is by
telescope. dividing the EP focal length by the telescope focal ratio,
or by dividing the Aperture of the telescope by the
magnification achieved with the EP.
Now we can calculate the exit pupil of the EP when When using a Newtonian reflector with an exit pupil
used with this telescope. that is too large shadowing from the secondary mirror
might become too noticeable and even obtrusive.
The EP is a 25mm and the focal ratio is f/8
Longer focal length (low magnification) eyepieces will
EP Focal length divided by Telescope focal ratio = exit have a larger exit pupil. Shorter focal length (higher
pupil magnification) eyepieces will have a smaller exit pupil.
If the exit pupil is too small, your eyes will not be able
25 / 8 = 3.125, Or to field the exit pupil. Generally, you will not want an
eyepiece that yields an exit pupil less than 0.5mm with
Telescope aperture divided by Magnification your telescope.
For the best visual acuity an exit pupil smaller than your
150 / 48 = 3.125 dark-adapted pupil of about 2 to 3mm diameter is
preferred.
Page 32
Eye Relief Maximum Optimal Eyepiece Focal Length.
This is especially important if you are required to wear For every telescope, there is a minimum and maximum
eyeglasses. threshold for magnification. Since we use eyepieces to
Eye Relief is the distance from the lens of an eyepiece magnify and focus the image there is a minimum and
that you want to keep your eye at. This is also the point maximum focal length we can use.
behind the eyepiece where the light of the exit pupil We have learned that the aperture of the telescope is the
comes to a focus and forms the image. This is where limiting factor for the maximum; therefore, we will not
you should have your eye positioned to see the full field want an eyepiece with a focal length so short that it will
of view (FOV) of the image from the EP. This is also exceed that.
the best position to get the most clearly detailed focus
on the image. If you are someone who has to wear On the other hand, if the eyepiece you are using has a
glasses, you will want 15mm or more eye relief. This focal length that is too long it will yield a magnification
will allow you to see the full FOV with your glasses on. that is too low for use with your telescope. At very low
magnifications, you will start to introduce optical
aberrations and other errors into your view. Such as
severe Coma near and at the edge of the FOV, possible
Astigmatism from the EP, and even severe secondary
mirror shadowing over the object and the FOV.
Page 33
Above we discussed how to choose eyepieces by using EP apparent FOV / Magnification of View = True FOV
the size of the exit pupil for our reference. Now we will
discuss how to choose eyepieces by the various For example if the EP has an Apparent Field Of View
magnifications that you would like to use with your of 50 degrees and that EP yields a magnification of 48x
telescope. then we would divide 50 by 48.
50 / 48 = 1.04 degree True FOV
Starting with the minimum optimal magnification for or if you like you can aim the telescope at a star near the
your telescope use 1.4x as a multiplier to produce the celestial equator. Time the star as it moves from on side
next higher magnification. For example, let us say the of the FOV to the other. Obviously, you cannot do this
minimum optimal magnification for your telescope is with a motorized mount when the motors are activated.
35x. Multiply 35 x 1.4 = 49x, then for the next eyepiece Multiply that time of drift in minutes by 4
49 x 1.4 = 68x, 68 x 1.4 = 95x and so on. If it only takes 15 second for the star to cross the FOV
(.25 minutes)
If you wish to convert those magnifications into focal
lengths just divide the telescopes focal length by the 4 x .25 = 1 degree True FOV
magnification.
For example when using an eyepiece yielding a A more accurate method is to measure the Field Stop
magnification of 48x in a 1200mm focal length located inside the Bottom end of the EP barrel that
telescope: 1200mm / 48x = 25mm secures the lens elements with in the EP. The bottom
Lens element we have already discussed is the Field
Field Of View: lens. The Field Stop is the ring you see holding those in
place. Measure across the diameter in millimeters.
When we use eyepieces, we are concerned about two
different forms of the Field Of View (FOV). First is the Example: a 25 mm EP will have a field stop at or near
Apparent Field Of View (AFOV) of the eyepiece itself. 22mm
Then the True Field Of View (TFOV) we will see
through the eyepiece when used with our telescope. The formula used to calculate the True FOV with this
measurement is as follows.
There are a few different formulas we can use to
determine the True Field Of View we will see when we Field Stop Diameter divided by Telescope focal length
looking into the eyepiece. multiplied by 57.3
We have already learned how to calculate the 22 / 1200 x 57.3 = 1.05 degrees True FOV
magnification of an EP when use in a telescope of a
specific focal length. Just in case you already forgot,
here it is again anyways.
Page 35
Even galaxies considered to have high luminosity can Limiting Magnitude
be hard to see because of low surface brightness. M33 This is the top limit of the magnitude or brightness of
is especially difficult if not impossible to find in Moon the faintest star that can be seen with a telescope. The
illuminated or light polluted skies. The Galaxy M101 is (light grasp) aperture of the objective lens or primary
another example. There are also many Nebulae that mirror of the telescope limits this Magnitude.
could fall into this category. Often to find these nebulae
a special filter is needed. This number does not take into consideration light loss
within the telescope, the astronomical seeing
conditions, observers vision characteristics (age), light
Here is a list of the Messier Galaxies and their pollution etc.
integrated magnitudes and actual surface brightness.
The limiting magnitudes specified by telescope
Object Mag. Sur. Br. | Object Mag. Sur. Br. manufacturers, assume ideal observing conditions and
M31 3.4 13.6 | M87 8.6 12.7 an experience observer. (Very dark skies, experienced
M32 8.1 12.7 | M88 9.6 12.6 observers, excellent atmospheric seeing and
M33 * 5.7 14.2 | M89 9.8 12.3 transparency). Under average observing conditions, this
M49 8.4 12.7 | M90 9.5 13.6 limiting magnitude is rarely obtainable.
M51 8.4 12.6 | M91 10.2 13.3
M58 9.7 13.0 | M94 8.2 13.5 For astrophotography purposes, since film, CCD, or
M59 9.6 12.5 | M95 9.7 13.5 CMOS chips are more sensitive and more efficient at
M60 8.8 12.8 | M96 9.2 12.9 gathering light photons, the limiting magnitude will be
M61 9.7 13.4 | M98 10.1 13.2 more than the limited visual magnitude, usually by a
M63 8.6 13.6 | M99 9.9 13.0 factor of two magnitudes difference. However, Light
M64 8.5 12.4 | M100 9.3 13.0 pollution and atmospheric conditions are still a big
M65 9.3 12.4 | M101 * 7.9 14.8 factor for astrophotography. The key to good images or
M66 8.9 12.5 | M104 8.0 11.6 photos is clear stable dark skies.
M74 * 9.4 14.4 | M105 9.3 12.1
M77 8.9 13.2 | M106 8.4 13.8
M81 6.9 13.0 | M108 10.0 13.0
M82 8.4 12.8 | M109 9.8 13.5
M83 7.6 13.2 | M110 8.1 13.9
M84 9.1 12.3
M85 9.1 13.0
M86 8.9 13.9
Page 36
The Atmosphere
When a nice breezy day turns into a nice clear dark
night and the stars are shinning brightly. We have a
night that we can safely say is a night with good
transparency. Clear dark sky and high contrast are ideal
conditions for viewing the many objects visible in the
night sky. Objects such as distant galaxies, nebulae, and
cluster of stars in addition to the moon and the planets
Page 37
Transparency: Astronomical Seeing:
The measurement of how clear the sky is on any given Is a term used in astronomy that describes the stability
night. It is a measurement of total moisture content in of the atmosphere and the clarity that celestial objects
the air at all levels of the atmosphere. In addition to can be observed. Seeing is one of the biggest problems
moisture, transparency can be affected by dust and faced by earth based telescopes. The atmospheric
pollution in the atmosphere, as well as the amount of conditions are the primary determining factor of the
light pollution. seeing. Most common and obvious phenomenon is
when there are stars twinkling or scintillating in the
After allowing your eyes to become dark-adapt, if you night sky.
can see the faint outline of the Milky Way and the four
brighter stars in the bowl of the little dipper. In order of This condition is caused by currents of air which move
magnitude, they are 2.2, 3.1, 4.3, and 5.0 being the and swirl in the different layers of the sky. This
faintest. You can safely say the transparency is rated as turbulent circulation of air masses is caused by
a 5. You are probably at a good dark sky location. differences in temperature and density. Atmospheric
turbulence creates very small alterations or deflections
If you could only see the Magnitude 4.3 star then your in the path the light from a star travels to your eyes.
skies would only be down rated to a transparency of 4. Variations in air densities will cause light rays to bend
Then you will probably be more limited when by different amounts.
observing with as small telescopes such as a 5” or 6”.
When a sky can only be rated as a 4 Transparency, the The closer a star is to the horizon the more you will
conditions can only be considered fair for observing noticeable this scintillation effect. This is because the
DSO’s. light has to pass through more of the Earths atmosphere
At a transparency of 4 or lower, finding and observing before reaching your eyes.
objects will be more difficult.
Since the planets such as Saturn and Jupiter are a disk
A common way you can determine the transparency of reflecting Sun light rather producing their own source
your skies is to get a star chart. of light like a star does, they usually do not twinkle, but
After allowing your eyes time to become dark adapt and undulations / wave like motions across the surface can
with the use of the star chart, identify the faintest star be observed through a telescope, especially when closer
you can easily see without squinting or using averted to the horizon! Another reason is that the atmosphere is
vision. much denser at the bottom (Surface Level) than at the
What ever that faintest stars magnitude is, that will be top allowing for a more continual bending of light rays
the transparency of your skies. If you can see a star of a from stars! As you move closer to Zenith (Straight
magnitude of 6.4 then your transparency is a 6. This overhead) there is less bending of light rays and
would be considered good to excellent transparency for twinkling of stars is less obvious.
telescope observation.
The effects of the atmosphere can cause the Sun or
Moon to appear elliptical when it is rising or setting
because its bottom edge is raised more by the refraction
of the atmosphere than its top.
Page 38
Below is a commonly used scale to judge the seeing Atmospheric Prismatic Dispersion:
conditions the sky is at your current time and location. Most people who have observed the night sky have seen
bright stars low to the horizon that appear to be
This is the Pickering Scale, Named by Harvard glittering with color. Blue fringing on top and a red
Observatory’s William H. Pickering (1858-1938). A 5- fringing on the bottom! The bright star Sirius and the
inch refractor was used to develop this scale. He noted planet Venus are often both good examples of this
the diffraction patterns would have to be modified for effect.
larger or smaller instruments. Although, this is still a
good starting point for most amateur astronomers When we see the light from stars in the night sky, that
light is passing through the Earth's atmosphere where it
P1 worst to p10 the best. is refracted, and the different wavelengths are dispersed.
This is called atmospheric prismatic dispersion
p1.) The image of the star is usually twice the diameter
of the third diffraction ring if the ring could be seen Whenever light travels through one medium, such as
air, water, or different types of glass it slows down. For
p2.) Image occasionally twice the diameter of the third each different medium, the speed of light is different.
ring When light travels from one medium to another, it
bends and changes direction as its speed changes. This
p3.) Image about the same diameter as the third ring, is called refraction.
and brighter at the center.
Light refraction causes celestial objects to appear as
p4.) The central Airy diffraction disk often visible; arcs though they change in their apparent positions. Such as
of diffraction rings sometimes seen on brighter stars. when you observe the Sun breaking over the horizon at
Sunrise, it is actually about one solar diameter below
p5.) Airy disk always visible; arcs frequently seen on the horizon; however, because the atmosphere refracts
brighter stars. the light, it appears above the horizon before it actually
is. In other words when you look at a star in the night
p6.) Airy disk always visible; short arcs constantly seen. sky it is not actually where it appears to be.
p7.) Disk sometimes sharply defined; diffraction rings Different (colors) wavelengths of light bend differently;
seen as long arcs or complete circles. this is the dispersion effect. Longer red wavelengths do
not slow down as much and bend less than the others.
p8.) Disk always sharply defined rings seen as long arcs On the other hand, the blue (shorter) wavelengths slow
or complete circles, but always in motion. the greatest, and bend the most. Therefore, you will see
the color fringing at different points on an object as it is
p9.) The inner diffraction ring is stationary. Outer rings flickering in the night sky. Usually blue on top and red
momentarily stationary. on the bottom! The closer to the horizon the more
noticeable this effect is. Coupled with unstable
p10.) The complete diffraction pattern is stationary. atmospheric seeing, bright stars such as Sirius will have
the appearance of flickering and fluctuating colors
between blue and red.
Page 39
Optical Effects: (CA) Chromatic aberration
Airy Disc
This is the light pattern you will see through your
telescope when looking at an out of focus star.
Due to the wave nature of light, when light passes
through a lens it is diffracted. The resulting diffraction
pattern of a uniformly illuminated circular aperture has
Also known as chromatism, this optical aberration is
a bright region in the center, known as the Airy Disc
common in achromatic refractor telescopes!
that is surrounded by concentric rings known as the
CA, common in telescopes is color distortion around
Airy pattern, or diffraction rings.
the image produced by a lens, caused by the inability of
This pattern can be used to determine whether the
the lens to bring the various colors of light to focus at a
optical alignment of the telescope is correct. If the
single point. CA is often more pronounced on brighter
atmosphere is stable, the diffraction rings of the Airy
objects and at higher magnification. Also, more
pattern should all be perfectly concentric and evenly
pronounce in refractors with short focal lengths.
spaced.
Chromatic aberration is caused by the dispersion of the
lens material, the variation of its refractive index with
the different wavelengths of light. Since the focal length
of a lens is dependent on the refractive index, different
wavelengths of light will focus at different positions.
Chromatic aberration is noticeable as fringes or halos of
color around the image (Often the color violet). This is
because each color in the light spectrum cannot be
focused at a single common point on the optical axis.
However, there is a point called the circle of least
confusion where this effect can be minimized.
Page 40
Many types of glass have been developed and used to Curvature of Field or Field Curvature:
reduce chromatic aberration, most notably, glasses An optical defect in which objects at the edge of the
containing fluorite. These hybrid glasses have a very field of view cannot be brought into sharp focus at the
low level of optical dispersion; only two compiled same time as objects in the center, and vice versa.
lenses made of these substances can yield a high level Common with mirrored telescopes, especially
of correction. noticeable when the alignment of the mirrors
(collimation) is incorrect.
Other ways to reduce the effect of chromatic aberration
are a minus violet or anti fringing filter that screws onto Spherical aberration: (dioptric aberration)
the eyepiece. In some circumstance, the use of an This is an (astigmatic) out of focused distorting of an
aperture stop can help. This is a cap that fit in place of image from the light around the margin of a lens or
the dust cover over the objective lens. Thus in effect mirror with a spherical surface comes to a shorter focus
covering or shadowing the halo around the object. than light from the central portion. The changing focal
Especially useful on the Moon Jupiter and Saturn! length is the result of deviations in the lens or mirror
surface from a true sphere.
Astigmatism:
A condition in which unequal curvatures along the Ghosting
different meridians in one or more of the refractive The appearance of one or more false images, this can be
surfaces of the telescope or eyepiece cause the rays cause by something as simple as the reflection of your
from a light source not to be focused at a single point on eye back onto the Eye Piece. It can also be caused by
the axis of the focal plane. hazy and unstable / turbulent conditions of the
atmosphere. Alternatively, something such as poor
Coma: optics, poor coatings on the lens elements, or
An optical defect in a mirror or lens (more common in misaligned elements may be the cause. Often when
reflector telescopes) where in-focus star images appear using binoculars, if not adjusted to the width of your
progressively more triangular or have a comet-like tail. eyes you can see the ghosting of, or double images. This
The effect is more noticeable as you look closer get to can also be caused in the binoculars if the optics are
the outer edge of the field of view. Coma is usually misaligned.
more prominent in a shorter/faster focal ratio telescope.
Page 41
Te skill of observing the night sky: First and most important is that you have nice dark
Many people are easily frustrated and discouraged when skies with excellent transparency and atmospheric
unable to find an object in the night sky. There are seeing. Poor atmospheric conditions can often make
reasons these objects are hard to find. Nevertheless, observing hard. More often than not, we cannot always
they are still within the grasp of the telescope you are have those perfect conditions. More so in the summer
using. It will get easier as you gain more experience. months when the air is warmer and humidity is higher.
There are many tricks or techniques that people use to When you look at the brighter stars and they remind you
help them, which you can easily use as well. of a nursery rhyme, (Twinkle Twinkle Little Star) odds
are good the conditions are turbulent. Areas to avoid
There are numerous books, star atlases, star charts, would be those around houses and buildings. Other
maps and computer software that can help make areas would be those closely surrounded by trees heavy
locating objects much faster and easier. Additionally in foliage. Especially any kind of pine tree, and then
there are accessories you can purchase such as higher areas with lots of roads covered in black top pavement.
quality eyepieces. Then there are different finder scopes These areas will store then radiate heat as the
and reflex sites that will help significantly. surrounding air temperature cools throughout and into
Some of the more popular finders are 1:1 zero the night.
magnification reflex sights. When you look through one
these, it is the same as looking at the night sky with the Observing objects low in the sky close to the horizon is
naked eye. However, they will paint either a small not a good idea either. When you are looking through
illuminate red dot or an illuminated target of gauged your telescope at objects closer to the horizon, you are
circular rings and a bull’s eye. This makes it much looking through more of the Earths moist and denser
easier to recognize an area of the sky when using in atmosphere. Like viewing an object at the bottom of a
conjunction with a star atlas/chart or software. rippling pool of water. You will also be looking through
Take a look at the picture of my Orion SkyQuest XT10 more of the air turbulence caused by differences in the
earlier on and you will see that I have one mounted it, air temperature of surrounding objects as mentioned
but still have the stock 9x50 finder scope mounted also. above. The higher the object gets into the sky, the better
The one I use is a Telrad 1:1 zero Magnification Reflex it will be for observing. You will be able to achieve
site. better focus and resolve much more detail when the
object is higher in the sky.
The illuminated circles you will see to aim at the sky.
Believe it or not, like it or not, there is a better time of
night to be out observing the night sky If observing
shortly after sunset the atmosphere is still unsettled and
somewhat more turbulent. The heat of the day mixing
with the cooling air of the night can make for turbulent
skies. It is quite of better for observing at late night or
However, since not every one has all these extras the early AM hours after midnight and prior to sunrise.
immediately available to them, there are the more These are the hours when the atmosphere is usually
common age-old techniques to locate and find the more stable. Then of course, we want to avoid as much
objects of interest with the finder scope and accessories light pollution and stray light as possible. This leads me
that are usually included as stock items with a new to my next tip.
telescope.
Page 42
Even during daylight hours, when ever out doors take A good set of binoculars, which I hope you already have
care of your eyes. Avoid bright lights, and bright at this point, will assist in finding your way around.
sunlight. Wear protective sunglasses whenever exposed You can use the binocular for locating many objects
to the sunlight. prior to turning your telescope on them.
Avoid alcohol! Alcohol is a depressant that can restrict
the blood flow to your eyes reducing your ability to see A good detailed easy to read star chart or atlas will
well. identify many objects of interest. These charts and
Avoid too much caffeine! Caffeine can raise your atlases are of great assistance to help you identify and
blood pressure, which can also have an effect on your locate objects very easy. That is of course if you can
vision. Caffeine can also increase your anxiety level identify the brighter stars in the night sky that we can
reducing your patience, which is a necessity for a good use as reference points. The more detailed the chart or
night of observing. atlas the easier it will be to locate and identify the
When ever indoors take care of your vision. To much objects of interest. There are some excellent small
time behind a television screen or computer monitor pocket size field guides that you can purchase at most
can be harmful to your eyes. It can cause tired and or bookstores
dry eyes making it hard on your vision. Again, avoid
bright lighting. Other things to consider would be Now it is time to decide what object you want to
proper nutrition and vitamin supplements. Eat healthy observe. Look it up and locate it on your chart or atlas.
portions of vegetables and fruits that can maintain good Look up at the sky and identify the area of sky matching
vision and even improve you night vision. it to your chart. Look at that area with your binoculars
to see if you can locate the object. Deep sky objects will
When you are ready to go out and observe with your often appear as a smudge of faint light against the dark
telescopes. Wait about 15 to 20 minutes allowing your sky. It won‘t look the same as the stars surrounding it.
eyes to become adapted to the dark skies. Avoid any Depending on the magnitude of the object, you may or
white light. If you need light, use red light. may not be able to locate the object with your
binoculars. Using binoculars will also allow you to see
Locating objects: fainter stars than you can see with the naked eye.
Some are hard to find, some are easy and visible even to Looking at patterns in the stars can give you some
the unaided eye once you have learned where to look. reference points to look for when you aim your
Much easier when you have first taken the time to learn telescope in that direction and look through your finder
your way around the night sky! scope.
References are often a great assistance in learning the Note: Before we can effectively use our finder scope we
night sky and locating the many objects in the universe. fist need to align it with the optical axis of the
Books, Charts, Planisphere are good to have along with telescope. This is easiest when done during daylight.
you at all times. You will want something you can take You aim the telescope at a distant object focusing and
along that can handle the elements of the weather. I.e. centering it the eyepieces field of view. Without
dew! moving the telescope, you then adjust the finder scope
In my area, it is often humid, items just lying around to bring the same object into the center of the finder
tend to gather dew and get soaking wet. scopes field of view.
Page 43
When you aim your telescope and have possibly located Sometimes it will take a little time to find and focus on
an object using the finder scope you will then change some objects. Patience will be required, do not get
over to looking through the eyepiece. Start with a low discouraged. It is not a race to see how many object you
power / longer focal length EP. If you have good charts can find. It is a rather rewarding challenge to find the
and you are close to that point in space, and it is within object and observe it. Once you do find an object, spend
the grasp of your telescope, all conditions allowing, you a little time to study it for a while. See how much detail
will find it easily. Lower magnification will give you a you can see in it. Take notes or keep records of your
wider field of view allowing you to view more area of observing sessions. Some people even make drawings
the sky enabling you to find the objects easier. of what they observe. Sketching the object will help you
Some objects are bright and easy to identify. Others are enhance your observing skills.
not, and are harder to locate. Objects with lower surface Once you have found the object using a low
brightness are much less obvious and take time to find magnification then without moving the telescope
and focus your eyes on. For those hard to find objects change eyepieces to the next higher magnification. If
there is a couple things to do. First, keep observing that you can and the conditions allow go to the highest
area and let your eyes adjust to looking through the EP, magnification you can on the object.
and the background FOV. Some times, it takes a
moment or two for the object to come into your eyes
focus. You will also use what is known as averted
vision. http://tiny.cc/tsln5
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The key to a good night of observing is:
Take care of your eyes day and night. Learn the night
sky, Take your time, relax and have patience. Use
averted vision, move slowly in your search, and most
importantly have Patience. The rest is up to Mother
Nature. Good stable seeing and dark skies will make
your observing the night sky much easier and more
pleasing.
Knowing what to look for and expect when you look
into the eyepiece will also make your many evenings of
star gazing more enjoyable. A little bit of imagination
when staring into the night sky never hurts either.
Page 45
M81 and M82 at about 48x magnification M42/43 The Great Orion Nebula complex at about 48x
Saturn at about 300x magnification M27 The Dumbbell Nebula at about 120x
M57, The Ring Nebula at about 220x magnification M31 Andromeda Galaxy (w/M32 and M110) at 48x
Page 46
Effects of Light Pollution Obviously there is no substitute for dark skies, on the
same token there is also no substitute for a larger
As I am sure, you are already aware the glow of man aperture to allow you to see fainter objects in greater
made light pollution can make it hard to see the stars in detail. Due to the effects of light pollution the
the night sky. However, did you know that about one background contrast will not be near as good as it
quarter the world population could not even see the would be in an area of dark skies. Sure, you will not be
dense star fields of our own Milky Way Galaxy? The able to see as much as you would if the skies were pure
sky glow in or near large population districts makes it black, but even under light polluted skies, larger
difficult if not impossible to see the stars visible under aperture still equates to greater resolving power and
otherwise dark skies. There are millions more people ability to utilize more magnification.
who do not even realize what they are missing.
Light pollution will inhibit the limited visible
Light pollution is just that, Pollution! Aside from magnitude of your skies; therefore inhibit the limiting
clouds and rain man made light pollution is our biggest visual magnitude of any telescope regardless of its
enemy. If it makes it hard to see bright stars imagine aperture.
what it does for observing those distant faint galaxies
and nebulae. For many, it completely washes them out You might not be able to see as much with an 8"
making it impossible to find and observe them. telescope as you would under pristine dark skies, but
you will see even less with a smaller aperture telescope
This brings to question for many who live in or near a and you would not be able to resolve as much detail.
large city what size telescope should they get for However, do not just take my word for it, there are
observing under light polluted skies. We know that the plenty others around with much more experience than I
purpose of a telescope is to grasp light, and that the who will back me up. If that is not enough perhaps the
larger the telescope the more light it will grasp. So does following web links will help clear up any questions
this make it worse under the sky glow of the city lights? pertaining to light pollution and aperture.
Simple answer is No! Nevertheless, you will get some
knucklehead who will tell you do not buy a large www.skyandtelescope.com/howto/visualobserving
telescope it will only increase the effects of light
pollution. Wait just a minute; let us put the breaks on www.darksky.org/
that nonsense right now. That is nothing more that a
Myth. That is a myth brought about by ignorance and www.astronomy.com Urban Stargazing
misunderstanding of a telescopes light grasp and limited
visible magnitude. My recommendation is to get the largest telescope you
can handle, both physically and financially. There is no
The physics do not lie. reason not to try enjoying the night sky even under light
Larger aperture equals greater light grasp, ability to use polluted conditions.
higher magnification, and greater resolving power. It
does not increase light pollution effects on a telescope.
The only thing that will increase the light pollution is
the addition of more lights.
A smaller telescope will not be better in an area of light
polluted skies any more than it is under dark skies. A
smaller aperture still gathers less light, uses less
magnification and has a lower resolving power than its
larger counterpart has. Page 47
Accessories:
Orion Nebula Complex in the Orion Constellation M13 the great Globular Cluster in the Hercules
Constellation
On the other hand, you might want to use a much higher
magnification to get up close and personal with those Page 48
much smaller fainter deep sky objects.
We have already covered the fact that eyepieces come Earlier on, we covered Apparent Field Of View and the
in various focal length, and that it is the focal length True Field Of View with eyepieces. Typically, a Plössl
that determines the magnification. Additionally we has around 50° or 52° Apparent FOV. However, there
covered ways you can determine which focal length are other designs such as the Erfle and the Naglers that
eyepieces you might want to get for yourself. have a much Wider AFOV. As much as an 80° AFOV,
What we did not cover however, is enough to give you and now there are eyepieces available from TeleVue
a pounding headache. That is the many designs and that have as much as 100° AFOV. These Ultra-Wide
brand names that are available. I will try to keep it as and Mega-Wide view eyepieces can make your
brief as possible. stargazing experience unforgettable.
As mentioned already when you buy a new telescope On the other end of the scale, you might however
you usually get at least one or two eyepiece included. decide you want a smaller FOV. Planetary observers
These eyepieces are sufficient to get you introduced and often like to use eyepiece designs such as the
keep you interested for a little while. Orthoscopic that have a narrower AFOV. This will
These are usually the Plössl design eyepieces. These allow you to concentrate on the planet rather than being
are among some of the more common, but that does not distracted by everything around it.
make them the best for all situations. There are other
designs that might be more suitable for the purpose, or Designs such as the Huygenian, Ramsden and Kellner
just more suitable to your own personal preference. are not widely available, and with good reason, I might
add. You might however still find some included with
one of those junk department store telescopes.
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Collimating Tool:
This is necessary to have accessory for any telescope, Filters are made of specialty glasses coated and
and especially a Reflector. This is the tool we use to polished to specific performance characteristics.
adjust the mirrors making sure they are properly aligned The filter is thread to screw into the bottom end of the
on the optical axis of the telescope. These come in eyepiece barrel. Additionally there are also filters made
various form ranging from a simple plastic collimation specifically thread onto the rear cell of an SCT. Filters
cap to more advanced Laser collimating tools. for an SCT are generally more expensive; however, you
do not need to buy that kind just because you might
When you buy a telescope, it should include a own an SCT. You can still use filters that thread to the
collimating tool. Most reflectors will come with a eyepiece. Most SCT owners will nevertheless still keep
collimation cap. This is plenty suitable to get you close a filter such as a clear or broadband filter installed on
enough to get a start. Nevertheless, you will need a the rear cell to be use as a dust seal. Those that thread
more precise method of alignment to achieve the onto the eyepiece barrel are available in the two most
sharpest focus. common sizes, i.e. 1.25” and 2”. Eyepiece and filters
sizes are standardized throughout the industry. You can
A laser collimator is only as good as its own alignment. mix and match brands without worry that it might not
Some are adjustable while others are not. These are work for you.
great for use on very large telescopes when you are
alone, otherwise you will be moving back and forth Types of filters:
from the back lower end of the telescope where you
make the adjustments back up to the collimating Moon / Lunar Filters:
eyepiece to check it. With a laser, you can stay at the Used to reduce the brightness and enhance the contrast
back making adjustments as you view the light from the and surface detail. Usually some kind of polarizing or
laser in a small view port. neutral density filter.
Imagine putting sunglasses on to view the Moon. They
One of the more popular and more accurate tools is the will tone down the brightness of the Moon making it
Cheshire Site Tube Collimating Tools. easier and more comfortable to observe. Moon Filters
http://tiny.cc/phs0y come in various shades or densities, and some are even
variable.
All too often beginners are intimidated by the prospect A variable polarizing filter is great for observing the
of having to adjust the optics of a telescope. Do not Moon. It is a two-piece filter that can be separated or
worry! Collimating a telescope is not as difficult as it left together, turning it adjusts the brightness. Some
might at first seem. people will thread one piece onto the diagonal use for
Refractors or Cassegrain, and the other to the eyepiece.
Filters This way you will not have to remove the eyepiece from
the focuser to adjust it. Instead, you can just turn the
Filters are use for any number of purposes, most often eyepiece.
to enhance your viewing pleasure. There are filters to
help enhance various details on the moon and planets,
there are filters to enhance the detail of nebula and
galaxies, filters for correcting optical errors such as the
Chromatic Error inherent with most achromatic
refractors, and then there are filters to help reduce the
effects of man made light pollutions for general purpose
observing. Page 50
Planetary Filters: Light Pollution and Nebula Filters.
Planetary filters usually come in various colors such a Otherwise, known as Broadband or Narrow band filters
Red Green Blue Yellow Violet and so on. Among the these filters can make deep sky objects such as nebula
colors, there are various shades or coating. These color pop into view much easier.
coatings control the transmission of various
wavelengths of light allowing you to enhance different Broadband filters: are typically those used to combat
subtle details of the planetary surfaces. against the effects of light pollution and sky glow.
They work by blocking out the specific wavelengths of
Some examples of the basic Red Green Blue and light common to man made lighting such as mercury
Yellow Filters you might find available in a starter kit. vapor, sodium vapor like that used in street lights, and
neon light as well while allowing other wavelengths of
#25 Red light through from the deep sky.
Mars: Maria Others will also help reduce the reflective light from the
Mars: Polar Caps Moon while improving the contrast of the night sky
Jupiter: Belts through your eyepiece.
Saturn: Clouds
Among the more popular broad band light pollution and
#58 Green sky glow filters are the Orion Sky-Glow, Lumicon Deep
Mars: Polar Caps Sky, Baader Planetariums Moon and Sky-Glow, and the
Jupiter: Red/Blue/Light Contrast Hutech IDAS LPR filter. The IDAS is often touted as
Saturn: Belts one of the best.
Saturn: Polar Regions These broadband filters can also be utilized to reduce
the effects of light pollution on astrophotography. I
#80A Blue personally use the Baader Moon and Sky-Glow quite
Jupiter: Belts often. However, you might find for astrophotography
Jupiter: Festoons the IDAS is often the preferred giving a much better
Jupiter: Great Red Spot over all quality image.
Saturn: Belts
Saturn: Polar Regions Narrow band filters: are more specialized and block all
Have you ever seen a real blue moon? Try this filter out but specific wavelengths of light. Also known as Line
and check out the surface details you can see. Filters! A few of the most common narrowband filters
are the UHC, OIII and the H-Beta.
#8 Light Yellow
Mars: Maria UHC = Ultra High Contrast is a narrow band pass line
Jupiter: Belts filter that is probably the best dark sky nebula filter
Uranus: Dusky Detail there is. If there were only one of these filters you can
Neptune: Dusky Detail buy, this would be the first I would get. This filter will
greatly enhance the views of nebulae such as M42 the
These are just some of the many examples. As you get Orion Nebula, M17 the Swan Nebula and M8 the
more into observational astronomy, especially Lagoon Nebula and many others.
planetary, you might think about learning more about
color planetary filters.
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OIII = Oxygen 3 is a narrow band pass filter blocks all Mylar:
but the wavelengths of light along the double ionize Developed in the 1950’s by DuPont can be aluminized
Oxygen line that are emitted by many faint nebula and with a thin film of metal onto it. This reflects up to 99%
planetary nebula such as M57 the Ring Nebula, and of light including much of the infrared spectrum
M27 the Dumbbell Nebula. allowing for solar observation, producing an image
This would be my second filter after the UHC. allowing you to observe sun spot activity and eclipses.
This film is strong and does not tear easily. Although
H-Beta =Hydrogen Beta is a narrow band pass filter you must be careful of tearing so you do not damage
which isolates only the Hydrogen beta wavelength and your eyes.
works well with moderate to larger telescope under dark
skies for view very faint or dark nebula such as the Baader solar film:
Horse Head Nebula in the Orion Constellation or the This is another film much like the DuPont Mylar film.
California Nebula in the Perseus Constellation. This is a popular less expensive form of filter for solar
This is one of those filters that would be nice to have, observation. You can purchase this film in sheets and
but it is also one that would not get much use since it is make your own filter for binoculars or your telescope.
only a benefit on very few deep sky objects. This film is good for viewing suns spots and solar
eclipses. With this, you must also be careful not to tear
Note: Narrow band pass or line filters for use with it.
monochrome CCD Cameras are different from these we
use for observing. You do not want to use these filters
with a One Shot Color Digital CCD Camera or a
Digital SLR.
Solar filters:
Page 52
Solar Glass filters:
Coated with multiple coatings of nickel chromium Calcium K:
stainless steel alloy these filters are more expensive This is a filter use more for University research to study
than the Mylar or Baader Solar film. They produce a the solar atmosphere. Nevertheless, you can still find
more natural color image of yellow-orange rather than Calcium K Solar telescopes and Solar filters available
the blue of a Mylar or white of the Baader Solar Film for the general public. This filter system is becoming
filters. These filters only allow a fraction of the light more popular among solar photography enthusiasts.
spectrum to pass through eliminating the harmful UV To the average person the images might look very
and infrared radiation. similar in detail like that you would see with a Ha filter
With this, you need to be careful of any imperfections only in the color of blue or purple. That different color
or cracks that could allow the direct complete sunlight is actually the Calcium within the solar atmosphere
through causing damage to your eyes. rather than the Hydrogen we are viewing with the Ha.
If you want to see the Sun in all its colorful and active
glory the next two filters (or telescopes) are the ones
you will want.
____________________________________________
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Books Additional accessories that you might want to include
might be items like a case to carry and store all your
There are numerous books on the subject of astronomy eyepieces and filters. (accessory case) If you purchase
and observing the night sky. You should be able to find an electronic (Goto) mount you will need a power
them at any major bookstore or even in some public supply and/or a AC/DC power adapter.
libraries. If not there, they are available at various on- You might want an observing chair to make yourself
line resources such as Amazon.com. Although there are more comfortable while observing an object of interest.
virtually hundreds of great books, tome of the more
popular that should top your list are as follows. More importantly is an accessory that nobody should be
with out is a Red Light. Do not use a flashlight with
Night Watch white light while out under darks skies. This will
Turn Left at Orion temporarily ruin your night vision. Additionally, if you
365 Starry Nights are attending a public observing event (Star Party) I is
Starwatch considered inconsiderate or rude to use white lights.
Peterson field guide
Backyard astronomers guide
Seeing in the dark
If you really want to get into the deep dark secrets of the
universe then these might interest you.
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Internet Resources and References: http://www.optcorp.com/product.aspx?pid=3050
http://www.celestron.com/ http://cleardarksky.com/csk/
http://www.astronomyboy.com/eq/ http://www.calsky.com/cs.cgi?
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