Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186

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Physics and Chemistry of the Earth

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pce

Alternative sewerage solution: Condominial method and its application

Umut Türker *
Near East University, Department of Civil Engineering, Lefkosßa, North Cyprus, via Mersin 10, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, the fundamental of the theory of condominial sewer design is discussed through a readily
Received 1 February 2010 available computer program and the theory is used to bring out the effect of pipe diameter and sewer
Accepted 24 March 2010 gradient on design calculations through alternative solutions. It is proved that the roughness of the pipe
Available online 3 April 2010
is effective on the size, lifetime, and cost-saving property of the condominial sewer system, whereas the
pipe diameter is not a vital parameter for the same criteria. Any expansion on the pipe roughness
Keywords: increased the gradient of flow and thus enlarged the excavation area hence; undermine the cost-saving
Condominial sewer
property of the condominial method.
Roughness
Sewerage
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Wastewater

1. Introduction that condominial sewerage is generally the sanitation technology

As research into the characteristics of wastewater has become
more extensive, and as the potential health and environmental ef-
fects have become more comprehensive, the body of scientific
knowledge has expanded significantly (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003)
bringing forward the sanitation technology. Wastewater collecting
and treating problems usually take place when they are directed to
riversides, or via the pits towards the groundwater. The reason for
developing new alternative solutions to resolve sewerage prob-
lems are frankly, the overwhelming increase in the number of peo-
ple lacking sanitation services, since they faced with the high cost
of conventional solutions. Alternative sewer systems with short
length, small diameter pipes which are laid at shallow depths
and gentle slope have been tested by researchers from Brazil and
Pakistan (De Andrade Neto, 1985; De Azevedo Neto, 1992; Sin-
natamby et al., 1986). Fourty-five percent saving on construction
and maintenance can be reached by condominial systems in Boli-
via, while in Brazil even cutbacks of 60–80% have been reported
(Watson, 1995; Foster, 2000). In an additional economic analysis,
it is shown that a condominial sewerage connection in Bolivia
can be 30–40% cheaper than a conventional sewerage (Foster,
2000). Leal (2004) investigated recurring costs of several sanitation
concepts in Egypt and concluded that condominial and several
other alternatives for sewers would be cheaper options, as opposed
to conventional and vacuum sewers. Zahrah (2005) discussed fun-
damental theory and apply the technique to the semi-urban re-
gions. As it is mentioned in Mara (1999), it is abundantly clear
* Tel.: +90 533 862 78 93; fax: +90 392 227 81 84.
E-mail address: uturker@neu.edu.tr
of first choice in high-density low-income urban and semi-urban
areas. The comparison of cost of installation for different sanitation
options is given in Fig. 1. The figure compares different sewer sys-
tems in which the difference between the cost of conventional and
condominial sanitation options are clearly defined.
The advantage of condominial sewerage sanitation technology
regarding to conventional sewerage is that small diameter pipes
at shallow depths and narrow trenches reduces the cost. It is also
clear that the condominial system can meet the challenge of pro-
viding a full service in many cases where a shortage of resources
and the use of basic sanitation services are out of the reach of most
of the population. Also, the process of community participation
associated with the use of appropriate technology is adapted to
produce acceptable solutions to condominial sanitation systems
(Melo, 1996).
Even though the condominial sewerage method is conceptually
the same as conventional sewerage, the fundamental of the theory
of condominial sewerage eliminates unnecessary conservative de-
sign features and matches design standards to the local situation.
Changes and improvements on conventional sewerage system
while modeling lower cost sewerage is therefore, basically defined
through successful application of hydraulic theories. However, it is
clear that instead of hydraulic analyzes, most of the studies have
been worked out by many researchers on cost analyses of condom-
inial methods. Therefore, in this study a readily available computer
program called ‘‘PC-based simplified sewer design” (Mara et al.,
2001) is used to analyze the effect of the sewer diameters and gra-
dients for different cases, and finally, a case study is carried out to
apply the condominial sewerage techniques for the semi-urban
Taskinkoy region.

1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2010.03.038
180 U. Türker / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186
Fig. 1. Unit cost of sanitation options (WHO & UNICEF, 2004).
2. Hydraulic design characteristics and limitations
It is required that the condominial sewerage system should be
designed using methods and data that ensure compatibility of all
system elements. The elements such as design flow, diameter
and gradient of flow, depth of sewer and depth of flow are the main
designing criteria that should be compatible for a successful sewer
model.
2.1. Design flow characteristics
The value of wastewater flow for the design of sewerage system
is based on the daily peak flow capacity in the system. Daily peak
flow is proportional with four contributing parameters, ‘equivalent
population’ (p); the ratio between the daily peak flow and average
daily flow, ‘peak factor’ (k1); the ratio between the wastewater
flow and water consumption, ‘return factor’ (k2); and the ‘average
water consumption’ (w). The daily peak flow (q) equation is there-
fore defined as:
q ¼ k1 k2 pw=86; 400 ð1Þ
The suitable design values for ‘peak factor’ and ‘return factor’ for
condominial sewerage are 1.8 and 0.85, respectively. The peak fac-
tor and return factor may need to be changed especially if storm-
water is also discharged into the sewer system (Mara et al.,
2001). On the other hand, daily peak flow has lower limitation
boundary attained to be approximately 1.5 L/s (ABNT, 1986; Sin-
natamby, 1986). The limitations of daily peak flow is related with
the diameter of and gradient of flow. The rate of infiltration from
the system as a leakage is between 0.05–1 L/s/km of pipe, depend-
ing on the infiltration capacity of the soil. Wastewater infiltration
causes an increase in the total organic carbon concentration, indi-
cating a serious contamination risks on soil and groundwater re-
sources (Franceys et al., 1992; Cotton and Saywell, 1998; GHK,
2000). There is a difference between the amount of water used
and the amount of effluent discharged into the sewer. Seepage, irri-
gation, car wash and house cleaning represents volume of water
non-return to the sewer.
Consequently, the return factor represents 80–85% of total
water consumption discharged to the sewer. The design flow as
it is given in Eq. (1) is based on returned quantity of wastewater
multiplied by a peak factor, which is inversely proportional to
the population size. Even for a population of a few hundred, the
peak factor unlikely exceed two.
2.2. Diameter and gradient of flow
The working principle of condominial sewerage is based on the
reliable wastewater consumption. The criteria is at least 60 L per
person per day. If this basic criterion cannot be met, other options
should be evaluated. Sewers, preceded by settlement tanks and
carrying ‘settled’ wastewater might be considered when water
use is limited, such as, 30 L per person per day. Otis and Mara
(1985) and Mara (1996), in their studies described the settled sew-
erage, which is also called small-bore or solids-free sewerage.
The minimum sewer diameter criterion is to be specified for
reliable design. This will prevent clogging of pipes due to gross sol-
ids and objects. Regarding to the philosophy of the condominial
sewerage method small diameters are recommended for pipes
(minimum 100 mm) since, at the upstream of the system where
the flow is low, the use of smaller diameter sewers results in great-
er depths of flow and higher velocities, and hence improves the
cleaning of pipes (Bakalian et al., 1994).
For conventional sewerage, the minimum diameter commonly
specified for street sewer in many standards is 200 mm (Ciceron,
2004). In Brazil, where the condominial sewerage system was first
developed as an efficient and economic solution for sewerage,
100 mm diameter pipes are used in residential areas (Melo, 1996).
Depending on the slope of the ground surface and the clogging
risk of the pipes, the ‘minimum sewer gradient’ (Imin) can be at-
tained through the following equation:
Imin ¼ 5:64  103 q6=13 ð2Þ
in which ‘q’ is the daily peak flow in L/s. Eq. (2) is valid under the
assumption that minimum tractive tension in the system is 1 Pa.
CAESB, the water and sewerage company of Brasil and the Federal
District uses minimum tractive tension of 1 Pa. and a minimum
sewer gradient of 0.5%. In low-income areas, this has not resulted
with any significant operational problem (Luduvice, 2000).
 U. Türker / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186
2.3. Depth of cover above the sewer
The minimum cover distance over a sewer is also important; to
provide protection against imposed loads, particularly vehicle
loads; to allow an adequate fall on house connections, and; to re-
duce the possibility of cross-contamination of water mains by
making sure that, wherever possible, sewers are located below
water mains. The minimum cover criteria adopted depend on local
factors, in particular on the pipe material used (Sinnatamby, 1986).
The minimum depth at which pipes are laid should suffice to make
house connections possible and protect pipes against structural
damage caused by external loads and sometimes from frost. The
restrictions enforce at least 1 m of cover above the pipe when it
is laid below the basement. Otherwise, minimum 1.8 m is required
below the top of the surface. The design depth of condominial sew-
er under consideration may be equal or greater than, the minimum
depth which is the sum of sewer diameter and minimum cover re-
quired above the pipe (Table 1).
Minimum required cover depths are 20 cm for sewers laid at
front gardens and 40 cm for those which lay at sidewalks.
2.4. Depth of flow
Permissible velocity approach and tractive force approach are
the two main well-known methods used for sewer design. Latter,
is usually preferred in the design of condominial sewer whereas
the former is preferred in conventional sewer design. Permissible
velocity approach is based on minimum flow velocity criteria.
Since sewers are fouled by the deposition of waste matters, per-
missible velocity approach impart minimum flow velocity criteria
for self cleaning of sewer. The flow velocity of sewer flowing
through the pipes must be always greater than 0.6 m/s. On the
other hand, tractive force approach is derived on the basis of main-
taining a boundary shear stress of 0.1 kg/m2, which is sufficient to
re-suspend a 1 mm particle of sand (Ciceron, 2004). The ‘resis-
tance’ equation is:
s ¼ cRS
where s is the boundary shear stress, c is the specific weight of li-
quid, R is the hydraulic radius which depends on wetted perimeter
and area of pipe cross section and S is the slope of the conduit. The
basic assumption of condominial sewer design requires minimum
slope and considerable free space above the top width of flow of
wastewater. Free space is vital for the calculation of the risk of
hydrogen sulphide generation (Pomeroy, 1990). Therefore, the nec-
essary hydraulic elements for the design can be derived by incorpo-
rating resistance equation into Manning’s equation:
1 2=3 1=2
Q¼ AR S
n
where Q is the volume of wastewater passing a cross-section per
unit time; n is the Manning’s roughness coefficient of the conduit;
S is the slope of flow; and R is the hydraulic radius which depends
on wetted perimeter and area of cross-section. On the basis of the
former discussions, the design requires the knowledge of the area
of flow and the hydraulic radius. Both these parameters vary with
Table 1
Minimum cover for concrete pipes laid in lanes and roads (Tayler, 1996).
Road width Heaviest vehicle Minimum cover
(m) (cm)
<3 Motorcycle 25
3–4.5 Light car or van 35
4.5–6 Cars, horse-drawn carts, small 40
trucks
>6 Occasional trucks 50
181
the depth of flow. By the help of geometric relationships of typical
cross-section of pipe flow the ratio between the flow depth ‘d’ and
pipe diameter ‘D’, termed as ‘proportional depth of flow’ is gener-
ated to limit the velocity and the free surface criteria. The limit
for d/D in condominial sewage is as follows:
d
0:2 < < 0:8 ð5Þ
D
The lower limit ensures that there is sufficient velocity of flow
to prevent solids deposition, and the upper limit provides limits
for sufficient ventilation.
3. Condominial sewer application: Taskinkoy case
As developed densities and the household water use have in-
creased in Cyprus, sanitation pit systems threaten the groundwater
resources (Kambanellas, 1999). Since the financial activities of the
Northern part of Cyprus is out of the international interest due to
the political isolations on the North Cyprus, the development of
the economy and consequently built environment remained unim-
proved until 2004. 2004 was the date of the referendum for the
reunification of the two major communities in Cyprus, while the
community at the South part was to be the member of European
Union (EU), representing the whole island. The referendum was re-
jected and the island became European Union member as a whole.
The EU regulations however, were not applicable at the North part
of the island, hence, attracting the interest of the foreign investors
for construction and development. This unplanned accelerated
development in the built environment brings about problems on
the infrastructure of the main cities and rural areas (Türker and
Dinçyürek, 2007). One of these problems is the lack of sanitation
which is a need in all urban and rural areas. The problem can be
handled through the application of centralized low cost sewer sys-
tems which can be suited to bring about solutions via environmen-
tal circumstances. Condominial wastewater collection system is
one of those solutions which can be applicable to facilitate the
ð3Þ
accelerated and sustainable provision of sanitation.
The case study about the condominial sewer method is applied
to the Taskinkoy region, which is one of the most densely popu-
lated areas of Lefkosa. The study initiated as soon as the number
of houses, the location of houses and streets are figured out by
the help of cadastral maps (1:2500). Digital Elevation Model is
used in order to create topographical map of the region. In Fig. 2
detailed surface elevations at 0.5 m intervals are plotted. The num-
ber of houses available at the region is 180, and the total distance
under consideration is 1360 m. Since the population at the region
is not steady, it is preferred to use the number of houses as the de-
ð4Þ sign criteria rather than population.
The input data like, the length of the sewer, number of houses
and ground surface elevations of the region are all digitalized
and then incorporated into ‘‘PC-based simplified sewer design pro-
gram” (Mara et al., 2001). Thus, the risk of error has been mini-
mized, and, the analyses are achieved efficiently.
The method of application is carried for two alternative sewer
designs named Design I (Fig. 3) and Design II (Fig. 4). In the first
one of these design studies (Fig. 3), the sewer system is collected
at the center of the region through the sub connections located
at the backyards of the houses. By this way, the distance between
the main sewer and individual connections was not too long to in-
crease the gradient of sewer. The approximate distances between
the junctions were around 30–50 m.
On the other hand, Design II is arranged to discharge the sewer
through the main road, which is at the Northern part of the region.
However this design alternative required long distances for back-
yard connections.
182 U. Türker / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186

Fig. 2. Surface elevations which are given in 0.5 m intervals.

Fig. 3. Sewer network designs at Taskinkoy, titled, Design I.

The data input for both designs are given in an order of junction
names; lengths between each junction; the number of houses con-
nected to each junction interval; and the ground level elevations of
each junction point.
In order to facilitate the performance of analysis the physical
environmental information is also gathered and use as an input
data. These information are, initial water use per capita; final water
use per capita; initial mean number of people per house; final
mean number of people per house; minimum self-cleaning veloc-
ity; Manning’s coefficient; minimum sewer cover; return factor;
peak flow factor; minimum flow; minimum diameter. These values
are attained as given in Table 2.
 U. Türker / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186
Fig. 4. Alternative sewer network design at Taskinkoy, titled, Design II.
Table 2
The initial input parameters for condominial sewer design.
Description
Initial water consumption per person
Final water consumption per person
Mean number of people per house
Minimum self-cleansing velocity
Manning’s coefficient
Minimum sewer code
Return factor
Peak flow factor
Minimum flow
Minimum diameter
4. Discussion and results
The results of the two case studies, Design I and Design II, are
compared with respect to the limitation of the model and analyzed
regarding to the dependent variables such as roughness of pipes,
slope of flows and the diameter of the pipe. The effect of the num-
ber of houses on water consumption and sewer diameter is also
worked out. The ventilation criteria due to hydrogen sulphide gen-
eration and stable flow conditions is controlled through the ‘‘pro-
portional depth of flow” limits. In both of the design studies
successful results were achieved in the case of solid deposition
and ventilation.
The length of the sewer network on Design I and II was approx-
imately equal. Thus, reviewing the volume of excavations associ-
ated with the two design studies, I and II, an economic
assessment can be achieved and a comparison of design alterna-
tives of condominial system can be identified in order to decide
on the best alternative environmental friendly and cost affecting
desirable solution. Therefore, the total volume of excavation in
both designs are calculated where the trench width of the excava-
tion is 0.8 m. For Design I, the total surface area to be excavated is
measured to be 943.2 m2 whereas the total volume is estimated to
be 754.6 m3. For Design II, the total surface area to be excavated is
measured to be 1772.3 m2 whereas the total volume is estimated
183
to be 1417.8 m3. According to the results it is observed that the
excavation volume of Design I is less than Design II by 87.89%.
Quantity
This result predicts that shorter backyard network system is
50 L/day more economic than longer sewer design. The main reason of such
120 L/day
5
result is because of the slope of the sewer network. Since the slope
0.5 m/s is nearly the same for all the connections, the shorter distances will
0.0130 need less excavation, resulting in more economic solutions. At the
0.4 m end, the relationship between the dependent and independent
85%
variables and the proportionality between these variables are ob-
1.8
1.5 L/s served and are given as below:
100 mm
 Water consumption is inversely proportional with the number
of houses.
 The slope of the sewers is directly proportional with the veloc-
ity of flow.
 The roughness of the pipes is inversely proportional with the
velocity of flow.
 The roughness of the pipes is inversely proportional with the
number of houses connected to the sewer.
The graph of the above proportionality relations are figured out
through Figs. 5–8 and the relationship between the parameters are
discussed. The effect of number of houses connected to sewer ver-
sus the water consumption for two different pipe diameters,
100 mm and 150 mm is given in Fig. 5.
In some sense, the number of houses that are connected to the
sewer system can be calculated theoretically for even a pipe diam-
eter of 50 mm. However, the behavior of sewer for 50 mm diame-
ter is not as effective as 100 mm creating problems of ventilation
and clogging while operating and maintenance. It is observed that
the initial water consumption rates per capita is around 50 L,
whereas, the final water consumption is more than 100 L/day.
Therefore, design consideration does not allow full design calcula-
tions for 50 L/day/ca. Fig. 5 depicts that for the constant water con-
sumption, any increment for the pipe diameter from 100 mm to
150 mm will triple the number of houses that can be connected
to the sewer.
184 U. Türker / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186

1200
100 mm pipe

# of houses connected
150 mm pipe
1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
water consumption (L/day/ca.)

Fig. 5. The change of number of houses connected to sewer with respect to water consumption, for a sewer diameter of 100 mm and 150 mm.

0.5

0.4
velocity (m/sec)

0,49
v = 6,23S
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
slope

Fig. 6. Roughness coefficient and the diameter are constant 100 mm, change in velocity of flow when the slope is changing.

0.4 slope = 0,001

slope = 0,0015
slope = 0,002
slope = 0,003
velocity (m/sec)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
pipe roughness

Fig. 7. Slope and the diameter are constant 100 mm, change in velocity of flow when the roughness is changing.

The changes in slope and its effects on velocity of flow are stud-
ies under constant diameter of 100 mm and constant roughness
(Fig. 6). It is observed that as the slope increases the change in
velocity also increases.
An attempt is made to generate a definition representing the
change in velocity with respect to slope of condominial sewer.
The resultant equation that defines the flow velocity inside the
sewer that depends on the gradient of flow is given in the following
equation:
v ¼ 6:23S0:49
where v is the flow velocity (m/s) and S is the gradient of the sewer.
Eq. (6) depends directly on the gravitational flow conditions. The re-
sult shows that the velocity is proportional with the square root of
sewer gradient, which is already discussed in Manning’s equation.
The changes in roughness coefficient and its effects on velocity
of flow are studied under constant diameter (100 mm) and slope
(Fig. 7). It is observed that as the roughness increases the change
in velocity decreases.
Analyzing in more detail clarifies that as the slope of sewer de-
creases, the velocity change due to roughness flattens whereas,
steep differences occurs as the slope increases. The interpretation
of Fig. 7 is that any enlargement on the roughness of the pipe
ð6Þ should be balanced by increasing the slope of the sewer. The most
widely used design information available for determining the
velocity of flow can be improved by relating all the above findings
 U. Türker / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (2011) 179–186
400
# of houses connected
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.01 0.012 0.014
Fig. 8. The change of number of houses connected to sewer with respect to roughness of the sewer, for a sewer diameter of 100 mm and 150 mm.
by incorporating pipe roughness and velocity of flow into the
graphical representation. The resultant equation can be defined as:
v ¼ 0:003n1:64
where n is the roughness coefficient. A feasible result for roughness
versus number of houses is maintained when the roughness is in
between 0.013 and 0.02 (Fig. 8). In Fig. 8 it is clear that, if roughness
shows any deficiency below the limit of 0.013 and above 0.02, the
number of houses changes deficiently. For the two different pipe
diameters the relationship between the number of connected
houses and the roughness of the pipe is calculated as:
# of houses ¼ 0:627n1:3
# of houses ¼ 6:235n0:94
Eq. (8) is valid for the pipe diameters of 100 mm whereas, Eq.
(9) is valid at 150 mm diameter pipes. The outcome of the neces-
sary magnitudes of number of houses versus the pipe roughness,
depending on the changes in pipe diameter is analyzed in more de-
tail. The results depicted the independency of connected number of
houses to the pipe diameter. However, any change in pipe rough-
ness is directly affecting the number of connections to the sewer.
It can be concluded that the performance of the sewer system dur-
ing its life time is strictly dependent on the roughness which can
be handled through maintenance and operation facilities. There-
fore, after the construction, the responsibility for operation and
maintenance of the condominial sewer system must be entirely
delegated to the responsibility of community. Community involve-
ment helps to improve the physical and organizational facilities by
establishing solutions to operational and maintenance works,
within the limits of financial, natural and human resources avail-
able, minimizing the cost of sewer.
5. Conclusions
In this study the theory of the hydraulic design of condominial
sewerage systems have been investigated. In brief, the standards
associated with the condominial sewer designs led to savings in
the length and diameter of pipes and savings in the volume of soil
excavation as a result of shallower trenches. The use of the con-
dominial sewer design in the case study has shown satisfactory re-
sults. Also, the design has shown that the condominial method is
equal of conventional sewerage in effectiveness, but due to savings
on pipes and excavations it is a cost-saving alternative to conven-
tional sewerage.
The graphical representation of the results for different ranges
of flow velocity and slope, pipe roughness, water consumption,
185
100 mm pipe
150 mm pipe
-0,9441
y = 6,2348x
-1,3011
y = 0,6277x
0.016 0.018 0.02 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03
pipe roughness
and house connections, provides very valuable quantitative infor-
mation about the essential factors affecting the sewer design.
PC-computer software implementations enable the applicability
ð7Þ of method for different design proposals that could easily be
solved.
On the other hand, detailed case studies and their implementa-
tions should be developed in order to make small adjustments for
optimal performance, effectiveness and the behavior of condomi-
nial sewer system. These studies would provide answers about
the reliability of the method for future developments. The results
that have been shown here are very promising and show that con-
dominial sewer is a reliable design procedure that must be consid-
ð8Þ ered as an excellent alternative to face the sewerage problems of
dense population and settlements.
ð9Þ The practical developments of the method can also help to
decline the cost of condominial method while improving the
operation and maintenance services through use of educated com-
munity participation. This is necessary to protect the original
roughness of the pipes and population density connected to the
condominial sewer. The engineers and authorities working on san-
itation technology rather than countries like Brazil, Pakistan and
Egypt, know little about the condominial method. Therefore, as
the method gets accumulated through published studies and re-
ports, an accelerated number of countries will discover the attrac-
tive benefits of the method and make use of it.
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