SUMMER TRAINING REPORT ON,

COOLING TOWER FUNDAMENTALS

MEJIA THERMAL POWER STATION (DV.C)

NPTI(ER), DURGAPUR

TRAINING PROJECT (27THJUNE, 2018 – 17THJULY, 2018)

SUBMITTED BY,

SOUMYADIP MONDAL (15702615044, 151570110045)

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF: P.K. DUBEY & P. MUKHERJEE (DY. DIRECTOR,
D.V.C, M.T.P.S)

THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
POWER ENGINEERING UNDER M.A.K.A.U.T, W.B
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In this era of extreme global development, we need a great balance between
the theoretical and practical knowledge. For this reason, the vocational
training is a great boon for the to-be engineers. It gives us a great chance to
come in line with the actual problems going on the industries and getting a
chance to work with engineers and learn how to tackle every situation.

The successful completion of any task would be incomplete without

mentioning the name of person who helped us to make it possible. We take
this opportunity to express my gratitude in few words to all those who helped
me in the completion of this project.

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards Mr.
P.K. Dubey for his guidance.

I am also thankful to persons for their cooperation during this period.

Mr. P. Mukherjee, DVC, MTPS.

and my friend, Aditya Anand.

 Certificate Format

To Whom it May Concern

This is to certify that Mr./Mrs. Soumyadip Mondal of National

Power Training Institute (E.R) has undertaken a project work
entitled “COOLING TOWER FUNDAMENTALS” at MTPS (MEJIA
THERMAL POWER STATION), DVC, BANKURA, WESTBENGAL
from 27.06.2018 to 17.07.2018 in partial fulfilment of B.tech
(Power Engineering).
 INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 POWER GENERATION IN INDIA

2. THERMAL POWER STATIONS

3. HISTORY OF ORGANISATION
A. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF MTPS

4. COOLING TOWER
4.1 COMPONENTS

4.2 MATERIALS

4.3 TYPES OF COOLOING TOWER

A. NATURAL DRAFT,
B. MECHANICAL DRAFT,
C. OPEN VS. CLOSED CKT TOWER
D. HYBRID TOWER

4.4 PERFORMANCE

4.5 ASSESSMENT

4.6 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

A. DESIGN,
B. FILL MEDIA EFFECTS,
C. WATER DISTRIBUTION

4.7 GENERAL IMPROVEMENT PROCEDURES

5. COOLING WATER CHEMISTRY

5.1 CORROSION
A. CORROSION CONTROL,
B. CORROSION INHIBITORS,
C. INHIBITORS SELECTION

5.2 SCALING
 A. TYPES OF SCALING,
B. DEPOSIT CONTROL METHODS

5.3 MICROBIAL GROWTH

A. PROBLEMS OF MICROBIAL GROWTH,
B. SELECTION OF MICRO BIOCIDES,

I. OXIDIZING TOXICANTS,
II. NON OXIDIZING BIOCIDES

6. PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
6.1 WATER USE
A. REDUCE WATER LOSE,
B. REDUCE BLOW DOWN,
C. USE ALTERNATIVE WATER SUPPLIES,
D. REUSE BLOW DOWN

6.2 WATER TREATMENT

A. SULPHURIC ACID TREATMENT,
B. SIDE STREAM FILTRATION,
C. OZONE
D. MAGNETS,
E. SONIFICATION,
F. ELECTRO COAGULATION,
G. ACTIVATED CARBON,
H. U.V RADIATION,
I. HYDROCAVITATION,
J. RADIO FREQUENCY

7. RECOMMENDATION
8. CONCLUSION
9. REFERENCES
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Power generation in India

India is the world’s fifth largest electricity generator with a total installed
capacity of 2,28,722 MW. Out of this, 90,062 MW is from state owned utilities,
72,927 MW is from privately owned utilities and 65,733 MW is from central
owned utilities. (as on Dec. 23 2013)

A power station is also referred to as generating station, power plant,

powerhouse, or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of
electric power. Most power station contains one or more generators, ( A
rotating electrical machine that converts mechanical power into electrical
power). The relative motion between a magnetic field and conductor induces
electromotive force (EMF). The energy source harnessed to turn the generator
varies widely.

Most power plants in the word burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural
gas to generate electricity. Others use nuclear power, but there is an increasing
use of cleaner Renewable sources such as wind, solar, wave and hydroelectric.

 TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

1. Hydroelectric power
2. Solar energy
3. Wind energy
4. Marine energy
 TYPES OF NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

1. THERMAL POWER PLANTS

 Coal fired
 Oil fired
 Gas fired
 Biomass fired
 2. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

2. THERMAL POWER STATIONS

A thermal power station is a power plant in which heat energy is converted
into electrical energy. Fuel is burnt, chemical energy stored in it transformed
into heat energy using which, and water is heated. Then water turns into
steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it
passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and
recycled to where it was heated (according to Rankine cycle).

Regenerative rankine cycle

3. HISTORY OF ORGANIGASION
Damoder Valley Corporation was established on 7thjuly 1948. It is the
most reputed company in the eastern zone of India. DVC in established on
the Damoder river. It also consists of the Durgapur thermal power plant in
Durgapur. The MTPS under the DVC is the second largest thermal plant in
west Bengal. It has the capacity of 2340MW with 4 units of 210MW each, 2
units of 250MW each & 2 units of 500MW each. With the introduction of
another two units of 500MW that is in construction it will be the largest in
West Bengal. Mejia Thermal Power Station also known as MTPS is located
in the outskirts of raniganj in Bankura district. It is the one of the 5 thermal
power stations of Damodar Valley Corporation in the state of west Bengal.
The total power plant campus area is surrounded by boundary walls and is
basically divided into two major parts, first the power plant itself and
second is the colony area for the residence and other facilities for MTPSs
employees.

GLIMPSE OF MEJIA THERMAL POWER STATION

A. Technical specifications of MTPS:

Installed capacity:-
 Total number of Units: 4 X 210 MW (unit 1 to 4) with brush type
generators, 2X 250 MW (unit 5 to 6) with brushless type generators, and
2 X 500 MW (unit 7 to 8) generators.
 Total Energy Generation: 2340 MW.
 Source of water: Damodar river.
 Sources of coal: B.C.C.L and E.C.L, also imported from Indonesia.

Station Unit no. Capacity(MW) Boiler Make Turbine Make

Mejia TPS 1,2,3& 4 210 BHEL BHEL
5&6 250 BHEL BHEL
Mejia TPS 7&8 500 BHEL BHEL
Ph-ii

SCHEMETIC DIAGRAM OF THERMAL POWER

STATION
4. Cooling Tower

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary
task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a
relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat
from cooling water. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost
to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower.
The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to
other units for further cooling. Cooling towers are able to lower the water
temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the
radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient.

Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower

4.1 Components
The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill,
cold-water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These
are described below.
a) Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the
exterior enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some
smaller designs, such as some glass fibre units, the casing may essentially be
the frame.

b) Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat
transfer by maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:
 Splash fill: Waterfalls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars,
continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill
surface. Plastic splash fills promote better heat transfer than wood
splash fills.
 Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the
water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces
may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type
of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller
volume than the splash fill.

c) Cold-water basin: The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of

the tower, and it receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower
and fill. The basin usually has a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge
connection. In many tower designs, the coldwater basin is beneath the entire
fill. In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the
bottom of the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that functions as the
coldwater basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up
through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing
easy access to the fans and their motors.

d) Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream
that otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere.

e) Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may
take up an entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the
side or the bottom of the tower (counter-flow design).
f) Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of
louvers is to equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the
tower. Many counter flow tower designs do not require louvers.
g) Nozzles: These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the
top of the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface.
Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round or square patterns, or they can
be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers.

h) Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers.
Generally, propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller
and centrifugal fans are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their
size, the type of propeller fans used is either fixed or variable pitch. A fan with
non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used over a wide kW range
because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest
power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in
response to changing load conditions.

4.2 Materials:
Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the
frame, casing, louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water
basin was made of concrete. Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials
to construct cooling towers.

Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance,

and promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of
stainless steel, glass fibre, and concrete are widely used in tower construction,
as well as aluminium and plastics for some components.

a) Frame and casing: Wooden towers are still available, but many components
are made of different materials, such as the casing around the wooden
framework of glass fibre, the inlet air louvers of glass fibre, the fill of plastic
and the cold-water basin of steel. Many towers (casings and basins) are
constructed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem,
the tower and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger towers
sometimes are made of concrete. Glass fibre is also widely used for cooling
tower casings and basins, because they extend the life of the cooling tower
and provide protection against harmful chemicals.
b) Fill: Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other
polymers. When water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood
splash fill is still used in wooden towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely
used. Because of greater heat transfer efficiency, film fill is chosen for
applications where the circulating water is generally free of debris that could
block the fill passageways .

c) Nozzles: Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of
PVC, ABS, polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon.
d) Fans: Aluminium, glass fibre and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly
used fan materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel.
Propeller fans are made from galvanized steel, aluminium, or moulded glass
fibre reinforced plastic.

4.3 Types of Cooling tower:

A. Natural draft cooling tower:

The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in
temperature between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As
hot air moves upwards through the tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air
is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due to the layout of
the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that
could affect the performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a
height of up to 200 m. These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat
duties because large concrete structures are expensive. There are two main
types of natural draft towers:


 Cross flow tower: air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is
located outside the tower.
 Counter flow tower: air is drawn up through the falling water and the
fill is therefore located inside the tower, although design depends on
specific site conditions.

B. Mechanical draft cooling tower:

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated
water. The water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the
contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer
between the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon
various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for
system resistance etc.

C. Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers:

One of the primary differentiations between cooling towers is whether it is an

open or closed-circuit tower. In open towers, the cooling water is pumped
through the equipment where it picks up thermal energy and then flows
directly to the cooling tower where it is dispersed through spray nozzles over
the fill, where heat transfer occurs. Then, this same water is collected in the
tower sump and is sent back to the equipment to begin the process again. In
an open tower any contaminants in the water are circulated through the
equipment being cooled.

In a closed-circuit tower, sometimes referred to as a fluid cooler, the cooling

water flows through the equipment as in the open tower. The difference is
when the water is pumped to the cooling tower, it is pumped through a closed
loop heat exchanger that is internal to the cooling tower, and then returned to
the equipment. In this application, water in the closed loop is not in direct
contact with the evaporative water in the tower, which means contaminants
are not circulated through the equipment. In a closed-circuit tower, a small
pump, known as a “spray pump” circulates a separate body of evaporative
water from the tower sump, through the spray nozzles and over the internal
heat exchanger piping. This “open” evaporative body of water is contained
within the tower and needs to be regularly made up to replenish evaporative
and other losses. However, once water treatment in the closed cooling loop is
stabilized, the only time it needs to be made up or adjusted is if there is a leak.

D. Hybrid Towers:

Hybrid towers are closed towers which can operate either in the sensible heat
transfer mode only (without evaporation) or a combination of sensible and
latent heat transfer (with evaporation). During periods of low load and/or low
ambient temperature, the spray of water is stopped and heat is sensibly
transferred to the flow of air across the fins of the coils containing the cooling
fluid. During periods when this is not enough, a latent heat transfer system is
activated by switching on an evaporative cooler or water is sprayed across the
dry coils to allow for increased heat transfer through evaporation. These
processes offer substantial savings in water.

Types of Cooling tower

  Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities.
Towers can be either factory built or field erected – for example
concrete towers are only field erected.

 Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to

achieve the desired capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies
of two or more individual cooling towers or “cells.” The number of cells
they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers.
Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the
shape of the individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the
sides or bottoms of the cells.

Table-1: Types of Cooling tower

Type Advantages Disadvantages

 Forced draft:
Air is blown through the
tower by a fan located in the
air inlet.
 Suited for high air  Recirculation due to
resistance due to high air-entry and
centrifugal blower low air-exit
fans velocities, which can
 Fans are relatively be solved by locating
quiet. towers in plant
rooms combined
with discharge ducts.

 Induced draft cross

flow:
 Water enters at top
and passes over fill
 Air enters on one
side (single-flow
tower) or opposite
sides (double-flow
tower)
 An induced draft fan
draws air across fill
towards exit at top of
tower.
 Less recirculation  Fans and the motor
than forced draft drive mechanism
towers because the require weather-
speed of exit air is 3- proofing against
4 times higher than moisture and
entering air. corrosion because
they are in the path
of humid exit air.

 Induced draft counter flow:

 Hot water enters at the top.
 Air enters bottom and exits at the top.
 Uses forced and induced draft fans.
4.4 Performance

These measured parameters and then used to determine the cooling tower
performance in several ways.

a) Range: This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and
outlet temperature. A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been
able to reduce the water temperature effectively, and is thus performing well.
The formula is:

Equation 1: CT Range:

𝑪𝑻 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 (°𝑪) =𝑪𝑾 𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)−𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)

b) Approach: This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet coldwater
temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the
better the cooling tower performance; although, both range and approach
should be monitored, the `Approach’ is a better indicator of cooling tower
performance.

Equation 2: CT Approach:

𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (°𝑪) =𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)−𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)

c) Effectiveness.: This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in
percentage), i.e. difference between cooling water inlet temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is = Range / (Range +
Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the cooling tower effectiveness.

Equation 3: CT Effectiveness:

𝑪𝑻 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (%)=(𝑪𝑾 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 – 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑)/ (𝑪𝑾 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 –

𝑾𝑩 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

d) Cooling capacity. This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product
of mass flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
e) Evaporation loss. This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty.
Theoretically the evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000
kCal heat rejected. The following formula can be used.

Equation 4: Evaporation Loss:

𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝒎𝟑/𝒉𝒓 )= 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏.𝟖 𝒙 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

(𝒎𝟑/𝒉𝒓 ) × (𝑻𝟏−𝑻𝟐)
T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water.

f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C). This is the ratio of dissolved solids in

circulating water to the dissolved solids in makeup water.
g) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation
losses and is given by formula:

Equation 5: Blow down:

𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 = 𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔/(𝑪.𝑶.𝑪.− 𝟏).

h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio: The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between
the water and the air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design
values, but seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air
flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness. Adjustments can be
made by water box loading changes or blade angle adjustments.
Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the water must
be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following
formulae can be used:
𝐿 (𝑻𝟏−𝑻 𝟐) = 𝑮 (𝒉𝟐−𝒉𝟏)

Equation 6: Liquid/Gas ratio:

𝑳/𝑮=(𝒉𝟐−𝒉𝟏)/(𝑻𝟏−𝑻 𝟐)
Where: L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg);
T1 = hot water temperature (°C);
T2 = cold-water temperature (°C);
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature;
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature.
4.5 Assessment

The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of

approach and range against their design values, identify areas of energy
wastage and to suggest improvements. During the performance evaluation,
portable monitoring instruments are used to measure the following
parameters:

1. Wet bulb temperature of air

2. Dry bulb temperature of air
3. Cooling tower inlet water temperature
4. Cooling tower outlet water temperature
5. Exhaust air temperature
6. Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
7. Water flow rate
8. Air flow rate

4.6 Factors Affecting Performance

A. Design:

 Capacity :
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not
sufficient to understand cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we
will see, must be stated along with flow rate m3/hr. For example, a cooling
tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 13.9°C range might be larger than a
cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5°C range.

 Range :
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is
serving. The range at the exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load
 and the water circulation rate through the exchanger and on to the cooling
water.

Equation 7: CT Range:

𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 °𝑪 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒌𝑪𝒂𝒍/𝒉𝒓)/𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆

(𝑳𝑷𝑯)

Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the
system.

Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one
temperature to another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For
example, the cooling tower might be specified to cool 48000 m3/hr from 44°C
to 34°C at 26.7°C wet bulb temperature.

𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (𝟓°𝑪) =𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟑𝟒°𝑪) −𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑

(𝟐𝟗°𝑪)

As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more
expensive the cooling tower due to increased size. Usually a 2.8°C approach to
the design wet bulb is the coldest water temperature that cooling tower
manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate, range, approach and wet bulb had
to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a tower, approach would
be first with flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb would be of
lesser importance.

The range increases when the quantity of circulated water and heat
load increase. This means that increasing the range as a result of added
heat load requires a larger tower. There are two possible causes for the
increased range:

 The inlet water temperature is increased (and the cold-water
temperature at the exit remains the same). In this case it is economical
to invest in removing the additional heat.
 The exit water temperature is decreased (and the hot water
temperature at the inlet remains the same). In this case the tower size
would have to be increased considerably because the approach is also
reduced, and this is not always economical.
  Heat Load :
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process
being served. The degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired
operating temperature level of the process. In most cases, a low operating
temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency or to improve the
quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal
combustion engines), however, high operating temperatures are desirable. The
size and cost of the cooling tower is proportional to the heat load. If heat load
calculations are low undersized equipment will be purchased. If the calculated
load is high, oversize and more costly, equipment will result.

Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process
involved. Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very
complex but proper consideration can produce satisfactory results. On the
other hand, air conditioning and refrigeration heat loads can be determined
with greater accuracy.

 Wet Bulb Temperature :

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of

evaporative water cooling equipment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect
of minimum cold water temperature to which water can be cooled by the
evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the
cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant,
process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the
entering wet bulb temperature, when operating without a heat load. However,
a thermal potential is required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water
to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when a heat load is applied. The
approach obtained is a function of thermal conditions and tower capability.

Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be
made on the basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature
selected is generally close to the average maximum wet bulb for the summer
months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection is whether it is specified as
ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which exists
generally in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb
temperature of the air entering the tower. The later can be, and often is,
affected by discharge vapours being re-circulated into the tower. Recirculation
raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower with
corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is no initial
knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb
should be specified. The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower
of sufficient capability to absorb the effects of the increased wet bulb
temperature peculiar to his own equipment.

It is very important to have the cold water temperature low enough to

exchange heat or to condense vapours at the optimum temperature level. By
evaluating the cost and size of heat exchangers versus the cost and size of the
cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the cooling tower water can be
selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.

The design wet bulb temperature is determined by the geographical

location. For a certain approach value (and at a constant range and flow
range), the higher the wet bulb temperature, the smaller the tower
required. For example, a 4540 m3/hr cooling tower selected for a16.67°C
range and a 4.45°C approach to 21.11°C wet bulb would be larger than the
same tower to a 26.67°C wet bulb. The reason is that air at the higher wet
bulb temperature is capable of picking up more heat.

 Tower Size:

If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held

constant, changing the fourth will affect the tower size as follows:
a) Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a
smaller tower. Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger
tower and, at 5°F approach, the effect upon tower size begins to become
asymptotic. For that reason, it is not customary in the cooling tower industry to
guarantee any approach of less than 5°F.
 Tower size v/s approach

b) Tower size varies inversely with wet bulb temperature. When heat load,
range, and approach values are fixed, reducing the design wet-bulb
temperature increases the size of the tower. This is because most of the heat
transfer in a cooling tower occurs by virtue of evaporation (which extracts
approximately 1000 Btu’s for every pound of water evaporated), and air’s
ability to absorb moisture reduces with temperature.

Tower size v/s wet-bulb

c) Tower size varies directly and linearly with heat load.

Tower size v/s head load

d) Tower size varies inversely with range. Two primary factors account for this.
First; increasing the range—also increases the ITD (driving force) between the
incoming hot water temperature and the entering wet-bulb temperature.
Second, increasing the range (at a constant heat load) requires that the water
flow rate be decreased—which reduces the static pressure opposing the flow
of air.

Tower size v/s range variance

B. Fill media effects:

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is

cooled down through evaporation as it flows down the tower and gets in
contact with air. The fill media impacts energy consumption in two ways:

 Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the
air draft. An efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water
distribution, drift eliminator, fan, gearbox and motor with therefore lead
to lower electricity consumption.
 Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of
heat exchange, duration of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence
in water effecting thoroughness of intermixing. The fill media
determines all of these and therefore influences the heat exchange. The
greater the heat exchange, the more effective the cooling tower
becomes.

There are three types of fills:

a) Splash fill media: Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange
area by splashing water over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The
surface area of the water droplets is the surface area for heat exchange with
the air.
b) Film fill media: In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill
sheets. The surface area of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the
surrounding air. Film fill can result in significant electricity savings due to fewer
air and pumping head requirements.
c) Low-clog film fills: Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently
developed to handle high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as
the best choice for sea water in terms of power savings and performance
compared to conventional splash type fills.

C. Water Distribution:

 Optimize cooling water treatment:

Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended solids, algae growth) is

mandatory for any cooling tower independent of what fill media is used. With
increasing costs of water, efforts to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by
cooling water treatment would help to reduce make up water requirements
significantly. In large industries and power plants improving the COC is often
considered a key area for water conservation.

 Install drift eliminators :

It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers. Nowadays

most of the end user specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to
technological developments and the production of PVC, manufacturers have
improved drift eliminator designs. As a result drift losses can now be as low as
0.003 –0.001%.

 Fans :

The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air

through the system. The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which is
defined as the pressure loss, to move the air. The fan output or work done by
the fan is the product of air flow and the pressure loss. The fan output and kW
input determines the fan efficiency.

The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of the blade.
Blades include:

a) Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes

and therefore it is difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles
b) Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are normally hand moulded which
makes it easier to produce an optimum aerodynamic profile tailored to specific
duty conditions. Because FRP fans are light, they need a low starting torque
requiring a lower HP motor, the lives of the gear box, motor and bearing is
increased, and maintenance is easier.

85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile,

optimum twist, taper and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio.
However, this efficiency is drastically affected by factors such as tip clearance,
obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.
Cases reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades
have been replaced by efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy
savings were in the order of 20-30%and with simple payback period of 6 to 7
months (NPC).

4.7 General Improvement Procedures

The following could be fruitful options to improve energy efficiency of cooling
towers:

i. Follow manufacturer’s recommended clearances around cooling towers and

relocate or modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust.
ii. Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
iii. Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
balance.
iv. In old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new
square spray nozzles that do not clog.
v. Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.
vi. Install nozzles that spray in a more uniform water pattern.
vii. Clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles regularly.
viii. Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
ix. Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling.
x. Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of
concentration (COC) limit.
xi. Replace slat type drift eliminators with low-pressure drop, self-extinguishing
PVC cellular units.
xii. Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
xiii. Keep the cooling water temperature to a minimum level by (a) segregating
high heat loads like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets and (b) isolating cooling
towers from sensitive applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power
plant etc. Note: A 1°Ccooling water temperature increase may increase the
A/C compressor electricity consumption by 2.7%. A 1oC drop in cooling water
temperature can give a heat rate saving of 5 kCal/kWh in a thermal power
plant.

xiv. Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity to continuously

optimize the cooling tower performance, but consider seasonal variations and
side variations.
xv. Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these
depending on the design values and seasonal variations. For example: increase
water loads during summer and times when approach is high and increase air
flow during monsoon times and when approach is low.
xvi. Consider COC improvement measures for water savings.
xvii. Consider energy efficient fibre reinforced plastic blade adoption for fan
energy savings.
xviii. Control cooling tower fans based on exit water temperatures especially in
small units.
xix. Check cooling water pumps regularly to maximize their efficiency.
5. Cooling Water Chemistry
Cooling towers are dynamic systems because of the nature of their operation
and the environment they function within. Tower systems sit outside, open to
the elements, which makes them susceptible to dirt and debris carried by the
wind. Their structure is also popular for birds and bugs to live in or around,
because of the warm, wet environment. These factors present a wide range of
operational concerns that must be understood and managed to ensure optimal
thermal performance and asset reliability. Below is a brief discussion on the
four primary cooling system treatment concerns encountered in most open re-
circulating cooling systems.

5.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical or chemical process that leads to the
destruction of the system metallurgy. Figure illustrates the nature of a
corrosion cell that may be encountered throughout the cooling system
metallurgy. Metal is lost at the anode and deposited at the cathode. The
process is enhanced by elevated dissolved mineral content in the water and
the presence of oxygen, both of which are typical of most cooling tower
systems.

There are different types of corrosion encountered in cooling tower systems

including pitting, galvanic, microbiologically influenced and erosion corrosion
Loss of system metallurgy, if pervasive enough, can result in failed heat
exchangers, piping, or portions of the cooling tower itself.

A. Corrosion Control:

 Cathodic Polarization :

Process of changing the anodic or cathodic potential or both to reduce the

driving force of the corrosion reaction is called “polarization”. Polarization
reduces the driving force of the corrosion reaction and minimizes metal loss by
changing the potential of either the anode or the cathode or both so that the
difference in potential between them is reduced to a minimum. If the amount
of oxygen diffusion to the metal surface can be controlled, the corrosion
reaction can be polarized. This is achieved by cathodic corrosion inhibitors.
They form a film, which prevents the diffusion of oxygen to the cathode side.

 Anodic Polarization :

Anodic surfaces can be polarized by formation of an oxide layer. This film

formation is accomplished by a mechanism known as chemisorption. Stainless
steel naturally forms such films. This unfortunately is not always the case with
all metals. Most metals must be aided by the addition of such anodic corrosion
inhibitors as chromate, nitrite, etc.

 Passivation:

When corrosion reactions are completely polarized, the metal is said to be

at “passive state” At this point there is no difference in potential between the
anode and cathode areas, and corrosion ceases. When polarization is disrupted
in a passive metal at a given point, a very active anodic site is set up, with
resultant accelerated local corrosion, particularly if the metal was strongly
anodically polarized.

B. Corrosion Inhibitors :

The principal method of controlling corrosion in cooling water system is

by means of chemical corrosion inhibitors. Their function in preventing
corrosion lies in their ability to insulate the electric current between the
cathode and anode. If the insulation effect occurs at the anodic site, then the
inhibitor is classified as an anodic inhibitor and if the cathodic site is insulated
then the inhibitor is classified as a cathodic inhibitor.

Corrosion inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic or both depending upon

the corrosion reaction each controls. Inhibition usually results from one or
more of three general mechanisms. In the first, the inhibitor molecule is
adsorbed on the metal surface by the process of chemisorptions, forming a
thin protective film either by itself or in conjunction with metallic ions. In
second mechanism inhibitors however merely cause a metal to form its own
protective film of metal oxides, by increasing its resistance. In the third type
inhibitor reacts with a potentially corrosive substance in the water.

Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective film along the anode increasing the
potential at the anode and slowing the corrosion reaction, the film is initiated
at the anode although it may eventually cover the entire metal surface.
Because this film is not visible to the naked eye so the appearance of the metal
will be left unchanged.

Cathodic inhibitors are generally less effective than the anodic type. But they
often form a visible film along the cathode surface, which polarizes the metal
by restricting the access of dissolved oxygen to the metal substrate. The film
also acts to block hydrogen evolution sites and prevent the resultant
depolarizing effect.

Examples include:
 Chromates
 Orthophosphates
 Zinc
 Polyphosphates
Synergic Blends like:
o zinc-chromates
o chromate-polyphosphates
o chromate-orthophosphate

C. Inhibitor Selection:

It is often difficult to make a proper choice between the many cooling

water corrosion inhibitors unless there is some understanding of their
properties. Choice of the proper inhibitor is determined by:

 Design parameters
 Water composition
 Metals in the system
 Stress conditions
 Treatment level required
 pH
 Dissolved oxygen content
  Salts and SS composition

5.2 Scaling
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have
become saturated in solution. Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies
include water quality, pH, and temperature. Scale formation reduces the
heat exchange ability of the system because of the insulating properties of
scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling demand.
Deposits typically consist of mineral scales (i.e.CaCO3. CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2,
CaF2, etc), corrosion products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CuO etc), particular matter
(i.e. clay, slit), and microbiological mass.

A. Types of Scaling:

 Waterborne salts:

Precipitated salts of calcium and magnesium often form dense scales and
sludge’s which are usually quite adherent and therefore difficult to remove. In
addition they are effective heat insulators, which reduce process efficiency.
Calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium and magnesium silicates and
calcium phosphate are some of the more prevalent compounds found in
cooling water systems.

 Waterborne foulants:

A variety of such materials as suspended mud, sand, silt, clay, biological

matter or even oil may enter a cooling water system through its make up
supply. They usually accumulate in low flow areas, or in locations at which an
abrupt change in flow velocity occurs. Therefore the most sedimentation is
found in such places as cooling tower basins and heat exchangers. To control
sedimentation it is necessary to control the suspended particulate matter. The
control of particle size and density is accomplished by use of modern deposit
control materials. To a certain degree mud, sand, slit, dirt and clay are
suspended in most make up supplies. However the amount of these
constituents is usually much greater for surface waters.

Microbiological growth may be a particularly troublesome foulant in the

makeup supply. The microbiological population in a towers make up supply
often approaches or exceeds the control limit for proper tower operation. Oil
often adheres to metal; surfaces and acts as a deposit binder. Oil films serve as
insulators and can seriously retard heat transfer. In addition oil acts as a
nutrient for microbes, therefore increasing microbiological activity, fouling and
slime binding. Also oil films prevent corrosion inhibitors from reaching and
passivating metal surfaces.

 Airborne foulants :

The air in contact with open cooling water systems contains many of the
same suspended materials found in the makeup water. Sand, slit, clay, dirt,
bacteria etc. entering with the air add to the overall fouling of the system.
Airborne contamination by gases also helps in deposition. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide accelerate corrosion, leading to deposition and further corrosion by
the under-deposit mechanism. Since pick up of both gases occur continuously,
near saturation levels of these dissolved gasses are present in the water.
Gaseous contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and
ammonia may also be absorbed from the air. The first two reduce oxidizing
corrosion inhibitors (e.g. chromates) to insoluble foulants. Hydrogen sulphide
is very corrosive and quickly forms iron sulphide deposits, which lead to further
corrosion. Ammonia selectively corrodes copper and its alloys leading to the
deposition of copper corrosion products.

B. Deposit Control Methods:

 Conventional treatments:

 Softening (sodium or hydrogen zeolite exchange, lime softening and

demineralization all remove the ions that cause scale formation)
 Acid feed (acid neutralizes alkalinity in the water, thereby preventing
carbonate formation)
  Side stream filtration (Side stream filters are used in some cooling
tower applications, with 1 to 5 % of the cooling water flow passing
through the filter. Several types of media are used but sand is the most
common, operating at a 10 % to 20 % efficiency level. For greater
efficiency, anthracite or mixed media can be substituted. If the
suspended solids are in the range of 10 to 30 ppm, 50~75 % removal can
be achieved, and in highly turbid waters, 90 % removal is possible. In
general a side stream filter allows cooling water turbidity to approach
the turbidity of the filter effluent. With oil contamination side stream
filters are impractical because of rapid fouling of the filter medium.)

 Use of Polymeric Deposit Control Agents:

A polymer is defined as macromolecule consisting of a number of

repeating units of “building blocks”. These units are referred to as monomers.
Modern technology has made it possible to build chains of various lengths and
compositions by varying the polymerization conditions and the monomer
groups incorporated into the structure. The behaviour of a polymer results
primarily from two factors: its chain length or molecular weight and its
functional group. These polymeric deposit control agents include, Scale
inhibitors, Dispersants, Flocculants.

 Scale Inhibitors:

Scale inhibitors are important to the performance of many treatment

programs. Scale inhibitors function by adsorbing on to suspended
solids/scaling particles and adsorbing on to solids/ surfaces in the system,
thereby acting to prevent growth of scale/deposits and enhancing
performance of corrosion inhibitors.

These polymers have the ability of adsorbing on active sites of the

crystal to prevent any further growth of crystal. Some of the functional groups
of the scale inhibitor adsorbed on the crystals but the rest of them are free
from the adsorption and give electrical charge to the crystals. Thus, the static
electrical repelling force of the crystals is increased and the crystals are kept in
a dispersed condition.

 Dispersants:
“The principal role of a dispersant is to reduce the tendency for small particles
to agglomerate”.

Dispersants are polymers, which control particles by increasing charge on the

particle surface, thereby keeping the particles repelled and suspended. A
polymer can be adsorbed on foulant surface imparting a like charge to them
and thereby causing the particles to remain in suspension because of charge
repulsion. Dispersant polymer is a common component of cooling water
treatment programs. These polymers prevent deposit because they keep
suspended particles from adhering to pipes, tubes, or other surfaces in the
cooling systems and are removed with the water by blow down.

 Flocculants:

A high molecular weight polymer can attach itself to many foulant

particles creating a low density floc. With an increase in the overall size of
suspended material, there is a corresponding decrease in the surface area
available for attachment, which reduces the extent of deposition possible.
Much of suspended matter found in cooling water has a negative surface
charge. This charge keeps the suspended matter separated. If the surface
charge of the particles can be reduced, the particle will agglomerate into light,
fluffy flocs with little tendency to adhere to metal surfaces. This can be
accomplished by adding a long chain oppositely charged (cationic) polymer to
the cooling water, which neutralizes the negative charge of the suspended
material.

5.3 Microbial Growth

Microbiological activity is microorganisms that live and grow in the cooling

tower and cooling system. Cooling towers present the perfect environment for
biological activity due to the warm, moist environment. There are two distinct
categories of biological activity in the tower system. The first being plank tonic,
which is bioactivity suspended, or floating in solution. The other is sessile bio-
growth, which is the category given to all biological activity, bio films, or bio-
fouling that stick to a surface in the cooling system. Bio films are problematic
for multiple reasons. They have strong insulating properties, they contribute to
fouling and corrosion, and the bi-products they create that contribute to
further micro-biological activity. They can be found in and around the tower
structure, or they can be found in chiller bundles, on heat exchangers surfaces,
and in the system piping. Additionally, bio films and algae mats are
problematic because they are difficult to kill. Careful monitoring of biocide
treatments, along with routine measurements of biological activity are
important to ensure bio-activity is controlled and limited throughout the
cooling system. Cooling water microorganisms include: Algae, Fungi, and
Bacteria etc.

A. Problems of Microbial growth:

Continued accumulation and growth of microorganisms in a cooling

water system causes a number of problems. Good corrosion and deposit
control programs are incumbent upon a successful microbial control program.
A plant unable to control microbial growth will experience increased difficulty
in controlling corrosion and deposition. Another problem associated with
microbial growth is the deterioration of cooling tower lumber this reduces the
efficiency of the cooling tower operation and increases operating cost of the
plant. Microbiological growth also causes environmental pollution.

 Microbiological Induced Corrosion, (MIC):

Any corrosion initiated or propagated by the action of microorganisms

either directly or indirectly is called MIC.

Many microorganisms found in cooling water utilize hydrogen in their

metabolic processes, which often results in the cathodic depolarization of the
corrosion reaction. Many microbial species present special corrosion problems,
in addition to those inherent in the basic nature of their actions. Sulphate
reducing bacteria produce extremely dangerous hydrogen sulphide gas, which
corrodes metals by low pH attack and by the formation of ferrous sulphide.
Sulphate oxidizing bacteria produce sulphuric acid and produce localized low
pH areas in the system. Corrosion proceeds very rapidly in these low pH areas.
Nitrifying bacteria nullify the effectiveness of nitrite corrosion inhibitors by
oxidizing nitrite to nitrate. This is the most serious in closed re-circulating
systems which commonly use nitrite as a corrosion inhibitor in the systems
where NH3 is present in water.

 Deposit Problems:

Deposit of microbial matter may lead to physical problems in the system,

culminating in loss of efficiency, heat transfer and production. The
accumulation of bio matter on the internal sections of cooling towers can
seriously reduce the units efficiency e.g. deposition on splash plates will
increase the water droplet size and will reduce the effective surface area.
Algae can plug the holes in the distribution deck of a cooling tower producing
uneven distribution of water over the tower packing, resulting in a serious loss
in efficiency.

B. Selection of Micro Biocides:

A number of factors will determine the proper choice of micro biocide or

combination of micro biocides, oxidizing and non-oxidizing micro biocide. The
selection of a micro biocide involves several factors. First it must be effective in
inhibiting almost all -microbial activity. Second, it must be economical in a
treatment programme. This is often accomplished by combining a small
amount of an expensive but highly effective, micro biocide with another less
expensive one resulting in broad spectrum control at reasonable cost.
Environmental discharge and disposal considerations constitute another
factor, which determines the choice of micro biocides. Disposal problems
caused by toxicity have limited the use of certain micro biocides in many areas.
The micro biocide chosen must be easily detoxified before cooling system
bleed off reaches receiving streams. The operating parameters of the cooling
water system will also affect the choice of a micro biocide. Temperature, pH
and system design are fundamental considerations in a decision involving
oxidizing or non oxidizing toxicants.
 I. Oxidizing Toxicants:

 Chlorination:

The most commonly used oxidizing micro biocide is Chlorine. It is the most
effective of all halogens. Chlorine is an excellent algaecide and sporicide. It is
also an excellent bactericide in most circumstances. Free residual chlorine at
levels of 0.5 ppm and slightly above are usually enough to control most
microbial growth. A number of factors determine the amount of chlorine
required in an open cooling water system. These include chlorine demand,
contact time, pH, and temperature of the water.

When chlorine gas is fed to water, it hydrolyzes to form two acids,

hypochlorous acid (biocide) and hydrochloric acid, respectively.

Cl2 + H2O = HOCl + HCl

Hypochlorous acid is very weak acid but an extremely powerful oxidizing

agent. It easily diffuses through the cell walls of microorganisms, and reacts
with the cytoplasm to produce chemically stable nitrogen chlorine bonds with
the cell proteins.

The PH of the cooling water is directly responsible for the extent of ionization
of hypochlorous acid. The acid state is favoured by low pH .At pH 7.5 there will
be approximately equal amounts of acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine
becomes ineffective as a micro biocide at pH 9.5 or greater as a result of total
ionization. A, pH range of 6.5~7 is considered practical for chlorine based
microbial control programme.

The amount of chlorine added to the system is directly proportional to the

alkalinity reduction. Many plants find it necessary to suspend acid feed during
chlorination periods in order to avoid low PH excursions. Chlorine is destroyed
by sunlight and by aeration so, its dosing is preferred at night to prolong its
effect.
Other oxidizing biocides include ozone, chlorine dioxide and hypochlorites.

 Bromination:

Target bromination is one of the most effective oxidizing biocide

treatments for cooling water systems. For systems, operating at above
7.0 pH i.e. alkaline media like Phosphate treatment system, bromine is
more efficient than chlorine as a biocide. Because 50 % of hypochlorous
acid, HOCl (biocide) formed due to chlorination, ionize into hypochlorite
ions (OCl-) at pH 7.5. Hypochlorite ions as a biocide are twenty times
less effective than HOCl. At pH 8.0, Chlorination will yield only 20 %
HOCl& 80 % OCl ions. But at this pH bromination will yield 80 % HOBr
(micro biocide) & 20 % OBr ions-. That is why at alkaline pH bromination
is more effective than chlorination in the control of microbiological
growth. At pH (8~9.3), only a small percentage of chlorine is available as
the active toxicant, hypochlorous acid.

In the presence of NH3 bromamines are formed which are more

effective than chloramines in the control of bacteria. Also bromamines
breakdown more quickly than chloramines in the environment and has
lower long- term environmental toxicity.

II. Non Oxidizing Biocides:

Non-oxidizing biocides can be more effective than oxidizing biocide

because of their overall control of algae, fungi, and bacteria. They have
also greater persistence, as many of them are PH independent. They are
used in conjunction with oxidizing micro biocides for broad control.
Most of plants chlorinate intermittently and add a non -oxidizer once or
twice a week or as per requirement. Their mode of activity is ‘to inhibit
cell growth by preventing the transfer of energy or life sustaining
chemical reactions occurring within the cell’. Organic sulphur
 compounds include a wide variety of different biocides, Methylene
bisthiocynate` (MTB) is most common, which is effective in controlling
algae, Fungi and bacteria.

6. Performance Improvement

6.1 Water Use

The hierarchy of opportunities approach can be used to identify and

prioritise water efficiency opportunities.

 1. Reduce water loss

 2. Reduce blow down
 3. Use alternative water supplies
 4. Reuse blow down

A. Reduce water loss:

Reducing water losses reduces the quantity of make-up water required for
the system. Potential opportunities to reduce water loss include:

• Fixing leaks
• Reducing splash
• Optimising overflow
• Eliminating drift – drift losses should be maintained at less than 0.002% of
cooling water circulation rate. Repair or install new systems to achieve best
practice.

Equation 8: Water losses

𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐋𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 = (𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞−𝐮𝐩 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫/𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟

𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧) − 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧
 B. Reduce blow down:

 Increase cycles of concentration:

As water evaporates from cooling towers the contaminants, salts and minerals
measured as total dissolved solids (TDS) that accumulate can cause biological
growth, corrosion and scale resulting in tower damage, poor heat transfer and
possibly the growth of harmful bacteria such as Legionella. The sources of
contaminants include:

• Salts and minerals already in the make-up water

• Chemicals added to reduce corrosion, scale and biological growth
• Pollutants entering the water during the evaporation phase from the
surrounding air such as dust.

To reduce the build up of these contaminants, a portion of the water in the

tower is bled off (blow down). This water loss from the tower is then replaced
with fresh incoming make-up water. A conductivity probe or sensor in the
tower basin initiates blow down when the levels of dissolved solids exceed a
set value. ‘Cycles of concentration’ (C.O.C.) compare the level of dissolved
solids in the tower’s make-up water to the level of dissolved solids in the
tower’s bleed water.

Equation 9: Cycle of Concentration (C.O.C)

𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂.𝐎.𝐂 = (𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞

𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞−𝐮𝐩 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫)/𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

Increasing the number of C.O.C. will reduce the volume of blow down
and consequently the volume of make-up water required by the tower. The
maximum C.O.C. for a tower will depend on the quality of the make-up water
and the corrosion resistance of the tower’s basin and condenser. C.O.C. over 5
is considered to be efficient but this is not always achievable. Scale forming
ions such as calcium and magnesium can often be precipitated out (by water
softeners) or kept in solution (by acids) through effective water treatment
enabling the tower to operate at higher cycles of concentration. According to
the Queensland Water Commission, a cooling tower is considered inefficient if:
• The system is operating at less than 5 COC or 1850 mg/L TDS/2750 μs/cm
conductivity (allowed only in documented instances of high-TDS make-up
water); and/or
• System losses are greater than 8% of the make-up water.

C. Use alternative water supplies:

Alternative water supplies have the potential to reduce potable water

requirements in cooling towers, through direct substitution and by reducing
the cycles of concentration. Alternative water supply options include recycled
water, process or rainwater. Note that health risks need to be considered
when assessing the viability of alternate water supplies. Additional water
treatment may also be required depending on the quality of water available.

D. Reuse blow down:

Potential opportunities to reuse cooling tower blow down include:

• Toilet and urinal flushing (treatment may be required)

• Landscape irrigation (may require dilution with potable or rainwater due to
salt content or treatment)
• Cleaning (health risk assessment may be required and the impacts of
corrosion should be considered).

6.2 Water treatment

Almost all well-managed cooling towers use a water treatment program.

The goal of a water treatment program is to maintain a clean heat transfer
surface and preserve capital while minimizing water consumption and meeting
discharge limits. Critical water chemistry parameters that require review and
control include pH, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness, microbial growth, biocide
and corrosion inhibitor levels. Depending on the quality of the make-up water,
treatment programs may include corrosion and scaling inhibitors, such as
organo-phosphate types, along with biological fouling inhibitors. Historically,
chemicals have been fed into the system by automatic feeders on timers or
actuated by conductivity meters. Automatic chemical feeding tends to
decrease chemical dosing requirements. Current technology allows chemicals
to be monitored and controlled online 24-7 in proportion to demand. This
ensures results and can allow cycles to be increased. Where overfeed is
prevalent, it can reduce chemical feed, too. Water treatment is required in
cooling towers to prevent corrosion of the system, build up of scale and for
microbiological control. Typically this is carried out through one of the
following:

• Direct chemical dosing (to prevent scale and prohibit corrosion)

• Acid dosing (to control ph and scale)
• Ozone dosing (or other microbial treatment to prevent microbial growth)
• Pre-treatment of make-up water (e.g. Water softening, reverse osmosis)
• Side stream filtration (to prevent solid build up)
• Cover exposed areas of cooling towers (to reduce algal growth).

A. Sulphuric “Acid” Treatment:

Sulphuric acid can be used in cooling tower water to help control scale
build-up. When properly applied, sulphuric acid will lower the water’s pH and
help convert the calcium bicarbonate scale to a more soluble calcium sulphate
form. In central North Carolina, most plants will be able to operate six to 10
cycles of concentration without acid feed. Along our coasts, acid can be used
to increase cycles as water tends to be harder and higher in alkalinity. The
same can be said if hard alkaline well water is used as tower make-up.
Important precautions need to be taken when using sulphuric acid treatment.
Because sulphuric acid is an aggressive acid that will corrode metal, it must be
carefully dosed into the system and must be used in conjunction with an
appropriate corrosion inhibitor. Workers handling sulphuric acid must exercise
caution to prevent contact with eyes or skin. All personnel should receive
training on proper handling, management and accident response for sulphuric
acid used at the facility.

B. Side Stream Filtration:

In cooling towers that use make-up water with high suspended solids, or in
cases where airborne contaminants such as dust can enter cooling tower
water, side stream filtration can be used to reduce solids build up in the
system. Typically, five to 20 per-cent of the circulating flow can be filtered
using a rapid sand filter or a cartridge filter system.
Rapid sand filters can remove solids as small as 15 microns in diameter while
cartridges are effective to remove solids to 10 microns or less. High efficiency
filters can remove particles down to 0.5 microns. Neither of these filters are
effective at removing dissolved solids, but can remove mobile mineral scale
precipitants and other solid contaminants in the water. The advantages of side
stream filtration systems are reduced particle loading on the tower. This
ensures heat transfer efficiency and may reduce biocide or dispersant
demands.

C. Ozone:

Ozone can be a very effective agent to treat nuisance organics in the

cooling water. Ozone treatment also is reported to control the scale by forming
mineral oxides that will precipitate out to the water in the form of sludge. This
sludge collects on the cooling tower basin, in a separation tank or other low-
flow areas. Ozone treatment consists of an air compressor, an ozone
generator, a diffuser or contactor and a control system. The initial capital costs
of such systems are high but have been reported to provide payback in
18months.

D. Magnets:

Some vendors offer special water-treating magnets that are reported to

alter the surface charge of suspended particles in cooling tower water. The
particles help disrupt and break loose deposits on surfaces in the cooling tower
system. The particles settle in a low-velocity area of the cooling tower -- such
as sumps --where they can be mechanically removed. Suppliers of these
magnetic treatment systems claim that magnets will remove scale without
conventional chemicals. Also, a similar novel treatment technology, called an
electrostatic field generator, is also reported.

E. Sonication:

An emerging technology is sonication or ultrasound which uses vibration to

remove fats. This technology can be used in wastewater systems to emulsify
fats making them easier to remove by methods such as DAF. Sonication has
also been trialled in conjunction with anaerobic treatment as a means of
disrupting sludge production to yield a larger quantity of biogas.
 F. Electro coagulation:

Electro coagulation can be used to remove suspended and colloidal solids,

fats, oils and grease and complex organics. The process involves passing an
electrical current through water to initiate a range of electrochemical reactions
which destabilise, suspend, emulsify or dissolve contaminants in the
wastewater which forces them to precipitate.

G. Activated carbon:

Activated carbon is generally used after biological or physical-chemical

treatment to polish waste water for reuse. The carbon absorbs both organic
and inorganic compounds including heavy metals. Activated carbon is formed
by heating carbon containing substances such as coal or charcoal in the
presence of steam to form highly porous carbon providing a large surface area
for contaminants to adsorb onto. Activated carbon can be regenerated on site
by heating carbon to a high temperature. Using activated carbon prior to a
disinfection phase can reduce the disinfection requirement. The use of
activated carbon as part of the cooling tower or boiler water treatment can
lead to better water efficiencies through reduced bleed.

H. Ultraviolet radiation (UV):

This chemical-free method of disinfecting water inactivates microorganisms

such as protozoa, bacteria, moulds and yeasts through the use of ultraviolet
radiation. The effectiveness of the system can be increased with the
simultaneous use of ozone. However, water quality characteristics such as high
turbidity, organic components and flow rate can reduce efficacy. Like ozone,
UV radiation does not provide any residual sanitisation compared with chlorine
.
I. Hydrocavitation:

Hydrocavitation is a chemical free system of water treatment. Two streams

of water are accelerated to high velocities and collide which results in
hydrodynamic cavitation and mechanical shear forces, which are believed to
kill bacteria and reduce corrosion activity. It removes the need for chemicals
and can increase the ability to reuse water. It is generally applied to cooling
tower water (refer to case study below) as it can control corrosion and kill
legionella. However, new studies are investigating the efficiency of removing
heavy metals, phosphorous and trichloroethylene (TCE) from wastewater with
additional reductions in BOD.

J. Radio frequencies:

Radio frequencies alter the water’s scaling tendencies by creating a

“seeding” mechanism that agglomerates scale-forming minerals in the water.
This technology removes minerals before they can be deposited on heat
exchange surfaces.
7. Recommendation
Based on the study on the assigned project, it is recommended to reduce the
water leakages in the tower by overcoming the construction flaws of the
project. Further it also recommended to pursue the options for water and
chemical conservation opportunities in cooling tower operation. The field will
unleash the wide spectrum of cost effective and environmental friendly
operating practices which would be next to the international eco-efficiency
standards. Water conservation will not only reduce the load on environment
and natural resources, but would also enable the organization to claim for eco-
efficiency indicator points – a new brand image perspective. The adoption of
chemical free platforms completely or partially will reduce the cost of chemical
purchases, dependence of service provider and most important – regional
leadership in emerging the cooling water treatment technologies.

Cooling towers of MTPS, DVC.

8. Conclusion
Industrial training being an integral part of engineering curriculum provides not
only easier understanding but also helps acquaint an individual with
technologies. It exposes an individual to practical aspect of all things which
differ considerably from theoretical models. During my training, I gained a lot
of practical knowledge which otherwise could have been exclusive to me. The
practical exposure required here will pay dividends to me when I will set my
foot as an Engineer.

The training at MTPS was altogether an exotic experience, since work, culture
and mutual cooperation was excellent here. Moreover, fruitful result of
adherence to quality control awareness of safety and employees were fare
which is much evident here.

Glimpse of Mejia Thermal Power Station

9. References

1. Power Plant Engineering by P.K Nag.

2. Technical hard copy received from MTPS, DVC.

3. Cooling Tower (chemistry and performance improvement) for

Engro Fertilizers Limited (EFERT) Daharki, District Ghotki, Sindh, prepared
by Osama Hasan Operations (URUT III), Intern School of Chemical and
Materials Engineering (SCME), National University of Sciences and
Technology (NUST).

4. Photos from www.slideshare.net.

5. Short notes and photos from MTPS premises.

THE END