Dedicated

To
My teachers,
For showing me the excitement and joy of
engineering ..

My family,
For the abundant support, patience, understanding
and love they had given me ..

And my friends,
For being in my side when I needed them ..

i
 Acknowledgments

I am grateful for the support of

Dr. Ahmed Segayer and Dr. Ali Zregh,
for their continual encouragement,
help and valuable discussions.

Special recognition to all the professors

of the civil Engineering Department
of Al-Fateh University.

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 ABSTRACT

The strut and tie model method is a powerful tool for the design of
structural elements, which have no defined models, this tool makes
possible the development of their formulae and dimensionality. Also
used to design of what is known as “discontinuity” or “disturbed”
regions in reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. In this work
a revision about strut and tie models as well as the basic knowledge in
linear programming is presented. A new procedure will be developed
depending on old models. This will be based on both stress solutions
of a linear finite element analysis and on the experience of the
designer, as this one may be in doubt about the best model to be used
he may superimpose in the initial model all the available solutions he
may find, the aim of the procedure is to choose from those available
solutions the more economical (which corresponds to the less
consumption of reinforcement). A linear programming will be
developed to obtain the optimum strut-and-tie model using excel, the
visualization of the model and results is also part of the system. It is
based on the data generated by the excel program. The work is
basically divided in three parts. In the first one a revision about strut
and tie models as well as the basic knowledge in linear programming
is presented. In the second part the problem formulation is shown and
in the last the results of the program are compared with those old the
technical literature. The computational tool presented here may be of
great utility in the definition of strut and tie models, but it has not by
far the intention and the feeling of the engineers which shall ever
prevail, inclusive in the critic analysis of the program results.

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‫ملخص‬
‫نماذج الرأبطة والدعامات ‪........‬‬

‫‪iv‬‬
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
Chapter 1 Introduction
1
1.1 General Presentation
3
1.2 Objective and Motivation
3
1.3 Organization of the Thesis
4
Chapter 2 Strut-and-Tie Models
4
2.1 Structure’s B And D Regions
5
2.2 General Design Procedure and Modeling
9
Load Path Method
11
2.3 Dimensioning the Struts, Ties And Nodes
12
2.3.1 Struts and Ties
14
2.3.2 Nodes
2.4 Reinforcement of different structural elements 16
using the strut-and-tie method.

2.5 Illustrative Design Example of a Deep Beam 17

Using Strut-and-Tie Method per ACI 318-02
Appendix A

25
Chapter 3 Fundamentals Of Linear Programming
25
3.1 Introduction
26
3.2 Linear Programming
27
3.3 Methods of LP
30
3.4 Example of solving a LP problem

v
 31
3.4.1 Graphical Solution
32
3.4.2 Solution using the simplex method
33
3.4.3 Solution using excel spreadsheets
40
Chapter 4 Problem Formulation
40
4.1 Introduction
41
4.2 Formation of the Articulate Strut-and-Tie Model
41
4.3 Basic Conditions that must be Imposed
42
4.3.1 Equilibrium Condition
43
4.3.2 Reinforcement of Ties
44
4.3.3 Minimum Forces of Struts
44
4.3.4 Criterion of Optimization
46
4.4 Linear Programming Problem and its Solution
48
Chapter 5 Applications of the LP
48
5.1 Application on ordinary Beams
52
5.2 Application on Deep Beams
58
5.3 Application on Deep Beams with openings
61
5.4 Application on Beams with dapped ends
70
5.5 Application on corners of Moment Frames
78
5.6 Application on Brackets or Corbels
84
Chapter 6 Conclusions and Suggestions
84
6.1 Conclusions

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 85
6.2 Suggestions

References

vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1- Examples of D regions . 5

Figure 2.2. Stress trajectories in B-and-D regions. 6
Figure 2.3. The load path method (a) The structure and its 10

loads. (b) The loads path through the structure. (c) The

corresponding strut-and-tie model.

Figure 2.4 Load path based on an elastic analysis using finite 11

element method.
Figure 2.5 The basic compression fields: fan, bottle and 14

prism.
Figure 2.6 Types of nodes of strut-and-tie model and their 15

stress fields .
Figure 2.8 Deep beam subjected to two points of loading 18
Figure 2.9 Strut-and-tie model for the deep beam . 19
Figure 3.1 x1 – x2 plane showing the constraints of 3.5 31
Figure 3.2 Representation of the objective function with the 32

restraints.
Figure 3.3 : Introduction of the problem in Excel 34
Figure 3.4 : The Solver Dialogue Box 35
Figure 3.5 : Entering Constraints 36
Figure 3.6 : The Completed Solver Dialogue Box 36
Figure 3.7 : Solver Results 37
Figure 3.8: Output of the problem in Excel 38
Figure 3.9 : Answer Report for the problem 38
Figure 4.1 .Equilibrium condition 43
Figure 5.1 simple supported beam subjected to a 48

concentrated load at its center.

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Figure 5.1.a truss model presented by Mörsch Objective 49

function equals 7.42

Figure 5.1.b The BSTM Objective function equals 6.73 50
Figure 5.2 Beam having two equals spans 51
Figure 5.2.1 Mörsch model for figure 5.2 Objective function 51

equals 5.13
Figure 5.2.2 BSTM for figure 5.2 Objective function equals 51

4.46
Figure 5.3 Slenderness limits of deep beams (a) simply 52

supported (b) continuous span

Figure 5.4 Simple supported deep beam subjected to two 53

concentrated points of loading

Figure 5.4.a Strut-and-tie model proposed by literatures 54

Z = 0.84
Figure 5.4.b BSTM Z = 0.66 54
Figure 5.5 Deep beam with lower points of loading. (poor 55

model) Z = 3.84
Figure 5.6 Deep beam with lower points of loading. (good 56

model) Z = 2.82
Figure 5.7 Deep beam subjected to a concentrated at middle . 57
Figure 5.8 BSTM Z = 0.66 57
Figure 5.9 Deep beam with an opening near the support . 58
59
Figure 5.9.a Strut-and-Tie model 1 for deep beam with an

opening near the support considering 50% of the loading.

Objective function Z = 16.4

Figure 5.9.b Strut-and-Tie model 2 for deep beam with an 59

opening near the support considering 50% of the

x
loading.Objective function Z = 24.18
Figure 5.9.c Strut-and-Tie model 3 for deep beam with an 60

opening near the support overlapping models 1 and 2 .

Figure 5.10 BSTM for the deep beam shown in figure 5.9 61
Figure 5.11 Two types of dapped ends of beams 62
Figure 5.12 Stress fields and reinforcement of dapped ends 63
Figure 5.13 Combination of two model lading to 64

Schlaich and Schafer model

Figure 5.14 Model # 1 for beam #1 65
Figure 5.15 Model # 2 for beam #2 65
Figure 5.16 Model # 3 for beam #3 66
Figure 5.17 Beam # 1 loaded to be experimented. 66
Figure 5.18 Beam # 2 loaded to be experimented. 67
Figure 5.19 Beam # 3 loaded to be experimented. 67
Figure 5.20 Nagato and Melo Souza’s model 69
Figure 5.21 BSTM 69
Figure 5.22 : Typical Exterior (Knee) Frame Connection 71

Failure [Northridge Earthquake, January 1994].

Figure 5.23 Corner (shaded area) in a moment frame. 73
Figure 5.24 Strut-and-tie models proposed by Schlaich 73

for corners of MF
Figure 5.25 BSTM proposed for corners of moment frames 74

where the height of the beam equals the height of the column
Figure 5.26 Schlaich proposed model for corners of moment 75

frames where the height of the beam don’t equal the height

of the column.
Figure 5.27 BSTM proposed for corners of moment frames 76

where the height of the beam don’t equal the height of the

xi
column.
Figure 5.28 BSTM proposed for corners of moment frames 77

where beams are reinforced.

Figure 5.29 BSTM proposed for corners of moment frames 78

where beams are reinforced.

5.30 Brackets shapes and reinforcement detailing. 79
Figure 5.31 Schlaich and Schafer’s Model 80
Figure 5.32 BSTM for a bracket subjected to an axial load at 81

its top.
Figure 5.33 Schlaich and Schafer model for a bracket 82

subjected to an axial load along its height.

Figure 5.34 BSTM for the bracket shown in figure 5.33.a . 83

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Analysis leading to strut-and-tie forces 7

Table 2.2 some strut-and-tie examples and the 16
corresponding reinforcement .

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