Literature Review

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review Based on the above some papers are enlisted below for the purpose of
record and review

2.1 Influence of Nano Particles on Concrete

Karlson L.H. et al (2008) In his study says that since the manufacture and use of nanoparticles
are increasing, humans are more likely to be exposed occupationally or via consumer products
and the environment. However, so far toxicity data for most manufactured nanoparticles are
limited. The aim of this study was to investigate and compare different nanoparticles and
nanotubes regarding cytotoxicity and ability to cause DNA damage and oxidative stress. The
study was focused on different metal oxide particles (CuO, TiO2, ZnO, CuZnFe2O4, Fe3O4,
Fe2O3), and the toxicity was compared to that of carbon nanoparticles and multiwalled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNT). The human lung epithelial cell line A549 was exposed to the particles,
and cytotoxicity was analysed using trypan blue staining. DNA damage and oxidative lesions
were determined using the comet assay, and intracellular production of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) was measured using the oxidation-sensitive fluoroprobe 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin
diacetate (DCFH-DA). The results showed that there was a high variation among different
nanoparticles concerning their ability to cause toxic effects. CuO nanoparticles were most
potent regarding cytotoxicity and DNA damage. The toxicity was likely not explained by Cu
ions released to the cell medium. These particles also caused oxidative lesions and were the
only particles that induced an almost significant increase (p = 0.058) in intracellular ROS. ZnO
showed effects on cell viability as well as DNA damage, whereas the TiO2 particles (a mix of
rutile and anatase) only caused DNA damage. For iron oxide particles (Fe3O4, Fe2O3), no or
low toxicity was observed, but CuZnFe2O4 particles were rather potent in inducing DNA
lesions. Finally, the carbon nanotubes showed cytotoxic effects and caused DNA damage in
the lowest dose tested. The effects were not explained by soluble metal impurities. In
conclusion, this study highlights the in vitro toxicity of CuO nanoparticles.

Laila R. et al (2010) In their study find that the main product of the hydration of Portland
cement is a nearly amorphous material − Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) − that forms up to

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about 60% by volume of the paste. In cement chemistry, CaO, SiO2, and H2O are represented
by C, S, and H respectively. The hyphens in C-S-H indicate indefinite stoichiometry and the
hydrate is sometimes referred to as “C-S-H gel”. C-S-H is produced along with calcium
hydroxide in the chemical reaction of the silicate phases (i.e., β-C2S and C3S) with water. C-
S-H is the principal binding agent in the cement paste and is responsible for its important
properties such as strength and shrinkage. Resolving the structure of this material at the nano
scale is an essential part of understanding and predicting its behaviour. It is also important in
the context of modification and development of novel C-S-H systems discussed in the next
section. The state of water in a C-S-H system is also vaguely defined. Water can be present
within the interlayer structure of C-S-H (either in the form of H2O or OH-). Water molecules
can also be physically adsorbed on the surface of solid phases. Finally, the capillary pores (10–
50 nm in diameter in well hydrated pastes and as large as 3–5 micrometeres at early ages)
between C-S-H clusters can contain free water. Distinction of water states is not simple as the
energy by which the water molecules are held in C-S-H varies over a wide range and may
overlap for different locations. There are several more ordered calcium silicate hydrates that
are structurally related to the C-S-H. Tobermorite and jennite (with approximate stoichiometry
of C5S6H5 and C9S6H11 respectively), for example, have a defined crystal structure and have
been studied for many years as possible analogues to C-S-H. The reaction between lime and
silica in excess water results in the formation of tobermoritelike and jennite-like systems most
commonly known as C-S-H(I) and C-S-H(II). These hydrates can also be prepared through
mixing sodium silicate and calcium salt in aqueous solution, although they are less crystalline.
These phase pure materials are relatively easy to produce and are convenient for systematic
research work on C-S-H.

Sobolov K. (2010) In his paper says The relatively small quantities of Nano sized materials
are sufficient to improve the performance of nano-composites. Yet, the commercial success of
nanomaterials depends on the ability to manufacture these materials in large quantities and at
a reasonable cost relative to the overall effect of the Nano product. The technologies, which
could lead to the industrial outputs of nanomaterials, involve plasma arching, chemical vapour
deposition, electrodeposition, sol-gel synthesis, mechanical attrition and the use of natural
Nano systems. Among chemical technologies, sol-gel synthesis is one of the widely used
“bottom-up” production methods for Nano sized materials, such as nano-silica. The process
involves the formation of a colloidal suspension (sol) and gelation of the sol to form a network
in a continuous liquid phase (gel). Usually, trymethylethoxysilane or tetraethoxysilane

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(TMOS/TEOS) are applied as precursors for synthesis of nanosilica . Sol-gel formation process
can be simplified to few stages: • Hydrolysis of the precursor; • Condensation and
polymerization of monomers to form the particles; • Growth of particles; • Agglomeration of
particles, followed by the formation of networks and, subsequently, gel structure; • Drying
(optional) to remove the solvents; • Thermal treatment (optional) to remove the surface
functional groups and obtain the desired crystal structure. The chemical reaction for synthesis
of nanosilica can be summarized as following There is a number of parameters that affect the
process, including pH, temperature, concentration of reagents, H2O/Si molar ratio (between 7
and 25), type of catalyst, etc. When precisely executed, this process is capable of producing
perfectly spherical nanoparticles of SiO2 within the size range of 1 - 100 nm.

Nazari A.(2010) In his paper says that the definition of high performance concrete (HPC) and
high strength concrete (HSC) have been changing from time to time. Until the late 1960s 35
MPa and 42 MPa were considered as HSC while in the mid 1980s 55 MPa concrete was
considered as HSC. Perhaps by the end of this century, 150 MPa will be branded as HSC [6].
Production of HPC and HSC are a challenge and depends upon so many factors. Also In the
last 15 years Ultra High Performance oncrete (UHPC) has become a vanguard product in
industrial and structural applications gratitude to outstanding properties, such as compressive
strength of 150–200 MPa, tensile strength of 8–15 MPa with significant remaining post-
cracking bearing capacity, and remarkable fracture energy of 20–30 kJ/m2. In view of these
advances, the aim of this study is to investigate the influences of nano-ZrO2 on workability
and compressive strength of binary blended concrete. ZrO2 Journal of American Science
2010;6(4), Nazari, et al, ZrO2 nanoparticles in it reacts with calcium hydroxide produced from
the hydration of calcium zirconias. The rate of the pozzolanic reaction is proportional to the
amount of surface area available for reaction. Therefore, it is possible to add nanoZrO2 of a
high purity (99.9%) and a high Blaine fineness value (60 m2 /g) in order to improve the
characteristics of cement mortars. In this study an attempt has been made to prove that using
new materials, it is possible to obtain HPC or HSC with slight increase in cost. HPC and HSC
are very useful in constructions and multi-storey buildings

Shiho K. (2013) In his paper finds that the work being done at the Center for Advanced
Cement-Based Materials at Northwestern University on the modification of cement-based
materials with nanoparticles, specifically nanoclays, calcium carbonate nanoparticles, and
nanosilica. The rheological properties of clay-modified cement-based materials are
investigated to understand the influence of nanoclays on thixotropy. The influence of the

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method of dispersion of calcium carbonate nanoparticles on rate of hydration, setting, and

compressive strength are evaluated. And an in-depth study on the mechanisms underlying the
influence of nanosilica on the compressive strength gain of fly ash–cement systems is
discussed. The motivation behind these studies is that with proper processing techniques and
fundamental understanding of the mechanisms underlying the effect of the nanoparticles, they
can be used to enhance the fresh-state and hardened properties of cement-based materials for
various applications. Nanoclays can increase the green strength of self-consolidating concrete
for reduced formwork pressure and slipform paving. Calcium carbonate nanoparticles and
nanosilica can offset the negative effects of fly ash on early-age properties to facilitate the
development of a more environmentally friendly, high-volume fly ash concrete.

Murthy R. (2015) In his paper says that the non-linear theory of fracture mechanics based
on the fictitious crack model is generally employed for the analysis of cracked concrete
structures (Hillerborg 1976). Hillerborg model is based on the fact that an extensive fracture
process zone (FPZ) exists ahead of a real traction-free crack in which concrete softens
progressively due to micro-cracking and other energy dissipation processes. This tension
softening FPZ is included in the model as a fictitious crack (or a cohesive zone), which means
that this portion of the crack cannot be continuous with full separation of its faces, as in a real
traction-free crack. Under mode I loading, the residual tensile stress increases from zero at the
tip of a real traction-free crack to the full uni-axial tensile strength of concrete at the tip of the
fictitious crack (Fig. 1). For the fictitious crack model (FCM), two material properties of
concrete, namely, the specific fracture energy, GF, and the corresponding tension softening
relationship ζ(w) relating the residual stress transfer capacity ζ to the opening displacement w
of the fictitious crack faces are needed in addition to its tensile strength ft and Young's modulus,
E. In practice, the ζ(w) relationship is generally assumed as linear, bilinear, multi-linear or even
an exponentially decaying curve with the bilinear approximation being the most common
(Karihaloo 1995). The significance of the bilinear approximation of the tension softening
diagram (TSD) stems from the fact that it captures the two major mechanisms responsible for
tension softening in concrete, namely micro-cracking and frictional aggregate interlock. Within
the last few decades, testing of discrete macro to micro-fibres to control cracking and crack
propagation in plain concrete, and to increase the overall ductility of the material is in progress.
The development of particles at the nanoscale has opened a new field of research in concrete.
Nanotechnology is an emerging avenue and has a potential improvement in properties of
concrete in fresh and hardened state. Nanotechnology encompasses the techniques of

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manipulation of the structure at the nanometer scale to develop a new generation of tailored,
multifunctional, cementitious composites with superior mechanical performance and durability
potentially, having a range of novel properties such as low electrical resistivity, self-sensing
capabilities, selfcleaning, self-healing, high ductility, and self-control of cracks. Concrete can
be nano-engineered by the incorporation of nano-sized building blocks or objects (e.g.,
nanoparticles and nanotubes) to control material behaviour and add novel properties (Pacheco-
Torgal and Said Jalali 2011, Sanchez and Sobolev 2010, Singh et al. 2013, Said et al. 2012,
Mostafa Jalal 2014, Ramin Tabatabaei et al. 2014). Recently fracture properties of high
performance concrete containing nano silica are investigated by Zhang et al. (2014) with
various proportion of steel fibres in it. Study on fracture behaviour of nano modified concrete
is found be very limited

2.2 Influence of Fly Ash on Concrete

Rafat S (2004) More than 88 million tonnes of fly ash is generated in India each year. Most of
the fly ash is of Class F type. The percentage utilization is around 10 to 15%. To increase its
percentage utilization, an extensive investigation was carried out to use it in concrete. This
article presents the results of an experimental investigation dealing with concrete incorporating
high volumes of Class F fly ash. Portland cement was replaced with three percentages (40%,
45%, and 50%) of Class F fly ash. Tests were performed for fresh concrete properties: slump,
air content, unit weight, and temperature. Compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strengths,
modulus of elasticity, and abrasion resistance were determined up to 365 days of testing.

Test results indicated that the use of high volumes of Class F fly ash as a partial replacement
of cement in concrete decreased its 28-day compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strengths,
modulus of elasticity, and abrasion resistance of the concrete. However, all these strength
properties and abrasion resistance showed continuous and significant improvement at the ages
of 91 and 365 days, which was most probably due to the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash. Based
on the test results, it was concluded that Class F fly ash can be suitably used up to 50% level
of cement replacement in concrete for use in precast elements and reinforced cement concrete
construction.

Rangan B.V. et al (2006) Studied in his paper fly ash, one of the source materials for
geopolymer binders, available abundantly worldwide, but to date its utilization is limited. From
1998 estimation, the global coal ash production was more than 390 million tons annually, but
its utilization was less than 15% (Malhotra 1999). In the USA, the annual production of fly ash

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is approximately 63 million tons, and only 18 to 20% of that total is used by the concrete
industries (ACI 232.2R-03 2003). In the future, fly ash production will increase, especially in
countries such as China and India. Just from these two countries, it is estimated that by the year
2010 the production of the fly ash will be about 780 million tonnes annually (Malhotra 2002).
Accordingly, efforts to utilize this by-product material in concrete manufacture are important
to make concrete more environmentally friendly. For instance, every million tons of fly ash
that replaces Portland cement helps to conserve one million tons of lime stone, 0.25 million
tons of coal and over 80 million units of power, notwithstanding the abatement of 1.5 million
tons of CO2 to atmosphere (Bhanumathidas and Kalidas 2004). In the light of the above, a
comprehensive research program was commenced in 2001 on Low-Calcium Fly Ash-Based
Geopolymer Concrete. Earlier Research Reports GC1 and GC2 described the development and
manufacture, short-term properties, and long-term properties of geopolymer concrete (Hardjito
and Rangan 2005, Wallah and Rangan 2006). It was found that heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete possesses high compressive strength, undergoes very little drying
shrinkage and moderately low creep, and shows excellent resistance to sulphate and acid attack.
Other researchers have reported that geopolymers do not suffer from alkali-aggregate reaction
(Davidovits, 1999), and possess excellent fire resistance (Cheng and Chiu, 2003).

Micheal T. (2007) Presented that fly ash is a by-product of burning pulverized coal in an
electrical generating station. Specifically, it is the unburned residue that is carried away from
the burning zone in the boiler by the flue gases and then collected by either mechanical or
electrostatic separators (Figure 2). The heavier unburned material drops to the bottom of the
furnace and is termed bottom ash; this material is not generally used. Schematic layout of a
coal-fired electrical generating station (Sear 2001). In the production of fly ash, coal is first
pulverized in grinding mills before being blown with air into the burning zone of the boiler. In
this zone the coal combusts producing heat with temperatures reaching approximately 1500°C
(2700°F). At this temperature the non-combustible inorganic minerals (such as quartz, calcite,
gypsum, pyrite, feldspar and clay minerals) melt in the furnace and fuse together as tiny molten
droplets. These droplets are carried from the combustion chamber of a furnace by exhaust or
flue gases. Once free of the burning zone, the droplets cool to form spherical glassy particles
called fly ash The fly ash is collected from the exhaust gases by mechanical and electrostatic
precipitators. Steam output to turbines: both high- and low-pressure steam Coal from blending
plant Coal pulverisers Furnace bottom ash Furnace Fly ash Electrostatic precipitators Exhaust

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stack To storage silos or conditioners suitable for use as a cementitious material for concrete,
but is used in the manufacture of concrete masonry block.

Wankhede P.R. Fulari V.A. (2014) Studied in their paper that in the present days construction
industries needs faster development and also require high strength of concrete to facilitate the
fast construction and economical construction. For that purpose, we used high early strength
of cement, to gain early strength of concrete. This demand of high early strength gains of
concrete put forth the use of low w/c ratio. But when Use of fly ash in concrete imparts several
environmental benefits and thus it is eco-friendly. It saves the cement requirement for the same
strength thus saving of raw materials such as limestone, coal etc required for manufacture of
cement. Fly ash is pozzolanic material & it improving the properties of concrete like
compressive strength & Durability. Several researchers in the past investigated the effect of
mineral and chemical admixtures on the properties of the concrete adopting different theories.
Some of the major research works are listed below. Malhotra, 1990, studied in detail the
properties of concrete with a wide range of Canadian fly ashes at 58% of the total cementitious
materials. These concretes were tested for compressive strength, creep strain and resistance to
chloride ion penetration at various ages up to one year. The results of study by Joshi et al
(1994), indicated that with fly ash replacement level up to 50% by cement weight, concrete
with 28 days’ strength ranging from 40 to 60 mpa and with adequate durability can be produced
with cost saving of 16% by 50% replacement level.

2.3 Influence of Polypropylene Fibre on Concrete

Dave U.V. (2007) States that the purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of various
polypropylene fibre additions (types and volume) to concrete with regard to explosive spalling
when subject to high temperatures similar to those experienced in building or tunnel fires.
Design/methodology/approach – Medium strength concrete was manufactured with varying
proportions of polypropylene fibres. Plain control samples were used to determine the original
concrete strength and this was used as a benchmark following high temperature heat tests to
evaluate the surface condition and final compressive strength. A pilot study was used to
determine an appropriate heat source for the test. This was three Bunsen burners, however
sufficient heat could not be generated within 150mm concrete cubes and the concrete was
shown to be a significant insulator and fire protection for structural members. The concrete test
cubes were tested in a saturated condition which may reflect conditions where concrete is used
in an external environment and thus is subject to soaking. It was concluded that monofilament
polypropylene fibres reduce explosive spalling when used as a concrete additive. Increased

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fibre content did affect the anti-spalling performance of the concrete when compared to plain
concrete.

Saeid K et al (2011) In their investigation say that in recent years, many studies have been
conducted in the mechanical characteristics of reinforced fibre concrete. Such concrete is used
in retrofitting and repairing the covering of concrete structure tunnels, carpentries stabilizing,
etc. According to the researches, the increase of formability and bending strength are the extra
advantages of adding the fibres to the concrete. Two kinds of fibre that very often used in the
concrete are: steel fibre and polypropylene fibre. The evaporation of concrete surface water is
a factor in creating the contract paste fracture in concrete which leads to the formation of
tension stress since the concrete starts to strengthen. Zeiml et al. mentioned that using
polypropylene fibres can improve spalling behaviour of concrete. The paste fractures are
formed when the acceleration of water evaporation is more than the movement of concrete
emulsion to the surface. Here, the negative pressure is generated in the capillaries through
which the concrete paste flows and proportionately the tension stress is formed. Such stress is
developed during the concrete strengthening and the concrete is cracked where the stress is
more than the concrete strength. The cracks caused by paste contracting in the concrete are
formed in the first hours after pouring the concrete in the frames and before the concrete reaches
its initial strength. Such cracks create critical points in the concrete sensitivity for attaching
harmful materials to internal parts of concrete that finally can lead to corrosion and damaging
the material in the concrete.
Priti A.P.(2012) In her study says addition of fibres in cement or cement concrete may be of
current interest, but this is not a new idea or concept. fibres of any material and form (shape)
play an important role in improving the strength and deformation characteristics of the cement
matrix in which they are incorporated. The new concept and technology reveal that the
engineering advantages of putting fibre in concrete may improve the fracture toughness, fatigue
resistance, impact resistance, flexural strength, compressive strength, thermal crack resistance,
rebound loss, shear strength and so on. The magnitude of the improvement depends upon both
the amount and the type of fibres used. In fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), millions of fibres
are introduced into the concrete as it is mixed. These fibres are dispersed randomly throughout
the concrete and thus improve concrete properties in all directions. A number of studies have
been reported on the steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) with particular reference to
improvements in cracking resistance, shear capacity, impact resistance, resistance to abrasion
with the addition of steel fibres. Now a day; synthetic fibres such as polyester polypropylene,

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polyethylene etc. capture the one –third of market in the world and becoming popular for
engineering application due to their some unique
Ghosni N. et al (2014) Investigates this research project on utilization of synthetic fibres as
intrinsic reinforcement in reinforced concrete beam in order to evaluate the structural behaviour
of such element under cyclic loadings. The invaluable goal of this project is to improve the
ductility and damping of the concrete beam element. The former helps eliminate or reduce the
need for steel reinforcement in concrete structures and the latter provides characteristics with
which the structure itself can be responsible for the dynamic loads, therefore the extra costs for
external dampers can be eliminated. A simply supported beam approximated as a single degree
of freedom system (SDOF) is tested and analysed as part of this project. In such systems there
is only one direction of movement defined for a mass under dynamic loads. Hysteresis loops
are gathered by applying cyclic loads the results of which are analysed to evaluate the
performance of fibre matrix in reinforced beam comparing to the conventional concrete.
Results show that by adding Polypropylene fibres by specific percentages, it is possible to
improve not only the mechanical performance of reinforce beam but also the behaviour of the
structural beam under dynamic loads. The behaviour of such beams demonstrated elevated
performance to a considerable extend when PP fibres are included in the mix design
2.4 Conclusions on Literature Review

Future Challenges and Directions one of the potential areas of applications of nano-based
products as well as future direction are listed below. Engineered materials using
nanotechnology that will allow maximum use of locally available materials and avoid
unnecessary transport. It is clear that nanotechnology has changed and will continue to change
our vision, expectations and abilities to control the material world. These developments will
definitely affect construction and also the field of construction materials. Of late, the major
achievements include: the ability to observe the structure at its atomic level and measure the
strength and hardness of micro- and nano-scopic phases of composite materials; discovery of
a highly ordered crystal nanostructure of “amorphous” C-S-H gel; development of materials
with self-cleaning properties based on photocatalyst technology; nanometer-thin coatings
protecting carbon steel against corrosion and enhancing thermal insulation of window glass;
etc. Among new nano-engineered polymers are highly efficient superplasticizers for concrete
and high strength fibres with exceptional energy absorbing capacity. Nanoparticles, such as
silicon dioxide, were found to be a very effective additive to polymers and concrete, a

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development realized in high-performance and self-compacting concrete with improved

workability and strength.

It was observed that the efficiency of nanoparticles such as nano-SiO2 depends on their
morphology and genesis, as well as on the application of superplasticizer and additional
treatment options such as thermal treatment, ultrasonification, etc. Sol-gel method is capable
of manufacturing the wide range of nanoparticles with engineered parameters such as particle
size, porosity and surface conditions. It was demonstrated that all synthesized nano-SiO2
improve the early (1-3- day) compressive strength of portland cement mortars; however, at
later stages of hardening, strength was adversely affected by these additives.

Here, the major problem of nano-SiO2 application and such strength loss is related to the
agglomeration of nanoparticles (30-100 nm) at the final drying stage

2.5 Aim & Objective

Aim

To show the comparative results of improvement on the ductility and yield of concrete beams
etc. by use of special purpose additives like nano particles fly ash and steel fibres etc. and
analyse by use of software.

Objectives

i) To check compressive strength of concrete cubes.

ii) To check flexural strength of concrete beams.

iii)To show effect of fibre addition on strength.

iv)To show the effect of fly ash on the concrete strength.

v) To examine the effect of nanoparticles on strength and workability of concrete.

vi)To carry out FEM modelling of the beam for the mixed effect

2.6 Outline of the Project

To achieve the objective of the project the work is outlined in following stages.

1. Study of about nano particles, admixture, fly ash, fibres.

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2. Study different properties of materials involved in concrete like cement, aggregates, nano
material, admixture, fly ash, fibres.

3. Study of mix design proportioning

4. Experimental investigations:

 In first step compressive strength and flexural strength of conventional concrete for
M30 grade concrete is examined.

 In second step compressive strength and flexural strength of concrete with 30% of fly
ash is studied

 in third step 30%of fly ash and 0.25%of fibres are replaced with cement and
compressive strength and flexural strength is examined.

 In fourth step 30%of fly ash, 0.25%of fibres and 0.50% of nano particles are replaced
with cement and compressive strength and flexural strength is examined.

 In fifth step different variations in nano particles is taken for cube casting and tested
for compressive strength.

 For compressive strength cubes and for flexural strength beams are casted in all steps
mentioned above

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