Course Planning Document

(CE128) FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(Professional Elective-2)

Name of the Instructor

M.Gopikrishna
Department of Civil Engineering
 (CE128) FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
(Professional Elective-2)

Hours/Week Marks
Year Semester C
L T P/D CIE SEE Total
II I 3 - - 3 30 70 100
Pre-requisite Geotechnical engineering

COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course the student should be able to:
1. Calculate the bearing capacity of soils and foundation settlements.
2. Describe various types of foundations and different types of loading coming on them and
Analyse the problems related to shallow and deep foundation.
3. Describe the construction and design methods of well foundation.
4. Determine the earth pressures on foundation and retaining wall and Identify and propose
a solution for the problems associated with various types of combined footings.
5. Analyse the load carrying capacity of pile foundation and Discuss various elements of
soil exploration and presentation of these results

UNIT – I
Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Foundation: Bearing capacity – Basic definitions - Factors
affecting bearing capacity - Estimation of bearing capacity by different methods, - Analytical
measures – Terzaghi’s and Meyerhof - Field measures – Standard Penetration Test - Cone
Penetration Test and Plate Load test. Settlement analysis – Types of foundation settlement -
Components of settlements - estimation, Allowable settlement values - Effects, Causes and
remedial measures of total and differential settlements.

UNIT – II
Shallow Foundations: Types - choice of foundation – Location of depth - Foundations on
layered soils -Types of shallow foundations and choice - Basic requirements - Significance of
these foundations. Combined Footings – Rectangular and trapezoidal combined footings-
Mat/Raft foundations - Computation of loads – Allowable bearing capacity and settlement of mat
foundation - Types of rafts.

UNIT – III
Deep Foundations: Pile foundation: Types of piles – Load carrying capacity of piles based on
static pile formulae – Dynamic pile formulae (ENR and Modified Hiley only) – Pile load tests -
Load carrying capacity of pile groups in sands and clays - Settlement of pile groups - Negative
skin friction - Under reamed piles.
Well foundation - Types – Different shapes of wells – Components of wells – functions and
design criteria – Sinking of wells – Tilts and shifts.

UNIT – IV
Lateral Earth Pressures Theories: Lateral earth pressure theory - Different types of earth
pressures -Rankine’s active and passive earth pressures - pressure distribution diagram for lateral
earth pressures against retaining walls for different conditions in cohesionless and cohesive soils
- Coulomb’s active and passive earth pressure theory, - Culmann’s graphical construction.

UNIT – V
Soil Exploration: Introduction – Methods of soil exploration – Open pits and borings – Methods
of borings - Exploratory borings in the field - Soil sampling – Undisturbed and disturbed
samples – Area ratio – Inside and outside clearance – Recovery ratio – Types of samplers - Rock
coring - Field tests -Planning of subsurface exploration program – Preparation of borehole logs -
Soil exploration report.
Learning Resources
 Course material
 Google Class Room

Required Resources

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Das, B.M, “Principles of Foundation Engineering”, PWS Publishing, Singapore, 2010.
2. K.R. Arora, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, Delhi.

Reference Books:
1. Dr. B.C. Punmia, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation”, Laxmi Publications, 16th Edition.
2. Gopal Ranjan, “Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics”, New Age International Pvt. Ltd.
3. Bowles, J.E., “Foundation Analysis and Design”, McGraw Hill International, 2001.
4. V.N.S. Murthy, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, CBS Publisher.

Additional Resources
 www.nptel.ac.in

Assessment
 Internal Evaluation: Continuous Internal Evaluation - 30Marks

 Exams and quizzes:

 How many: 4
 What kind : Multiple choice
 Assignments/Course Activities – schedule to be specified
Course Activity 1
 Topic : Bearing capacity ( CO1)
 Activity: Think-pair-share
 Rubrics
Description of the Activity:

 Instructor poses question to class

 Students write a response (5-6 minutes)
  Students pair up with another student nearby
 Each student explains his/her response to the other
 If they disagree, each clarifies his/her position and determines how/why they disagree. Why use
it?

Grades/Task 0-3points 4-6points 7-10 points

On Task

Course Activity 2
 Topic : Settlement analysis (CO2)
 Activity: Problem Based Learning
 Rubrics

Selection of components Connection Testing Total

(3 Marks) (4 Marks) (3Marks) (10Marks)

Course Activity 3 (CO2)

 Topic : Foundations on layered soils
 Activity: Jigsaw
 Rubrics

Description of the Activity: Students are assigned to four-member teams to work on academic
material that has been broken down into sections. Each team member reads his or her section.
Next, members of different teams who have studied the same sections meet in expert groups to
discuss their sections. Then the students return to their teams and take turns teaching their
teammates about their sections. Since the only way students can learn sections other than their
own is to listen carefully to their teammates, they are motivated to support and show interest in
one another’s work.
Steps:

1. Form team as a team (Course project Team) (5 minutes)

2. Read allotted topic for you (before the class)
3. Members of different teams who have studied the same topic meet and discuss their topic.
(15 minutes)
4. Return to your team and take turns teaching their teammates about your topic.
(45 minutes)
5. Write test on the topic (10Marks) (20 minutes)
  Grades (will be shared immediately if its online and within 3 days from the activity if it is
offline)
 Late Assignments: Late submission of assignments will cost reduction of 2 marks/week

How to Contact Instructor:

 In-person office hours: time and location
 Wednesday: 2:30 to 5:00 PM at Cabin
 Saturday: 2:30 to 4:00 PM at cabin

 Online office hours: time and how to access

Email address: & Mobile
gopi_krishna_m@srecwarangal.ac.in(9494534570)
Pre-requisite
 Geotechnical engineering
 Engineering mechanics

Overview of Course:
 What is the course about: its purpose?
This course exposes students to understand the field testing, site characterisation,
interpretation of field data, design of deep foundation and surface footings, support of
excavations, soil improvement, and geotechnical report writing.

 What are the general topics or focus?

 Soil Sampling
 Bearing Capacity
 Shallow And Deep Foundations
 Lateral Earth Pressures

 How does it fit with other courses in the department or on campus?

Civil engineering mostly deals with construction of engineering structures on ground
and under water which involves proper designing of foundation to have a durable
structure.Other subjects such as structural analysis and reinforced concrete structure deals
with design of structural elements but not the soil which takes the load from the structure,
which is delt only in this subject.

 Why would students want to take this course and learn this material?
A good structure is only ensured by providing a proper foundation, which should
be designed for all load case scenarios the load from the structure should be safely
distributed into the soil.
This subject should be compulsory by the civil engineering students who want to
go for designing structures since only in this subject foundation analysis delt in detail.

Methods of instruction
 Lecture : Chalk and board /Power point presentation
  Discussion: After obtaining the results of examples on various methods.
 Group work: Activities will be conducted dividing the students in to groups.
Workload
 Estimated amount of time to spend on course readings : 55 hours
 Estimate amount of time to spend on course assignments and activities : 12 hours
Key concepts: Identification of determinate and indeterminate beams and frames and analysis
of shear forces, bending moments and deflections in beams and forces and deflections in the
frames.
Difficult Topics: Settlement analysis and bearing capacity of layered soils

Optional: Pre Assessment Test – By conducting Quiz

Analysis and average 3years result: 85%

Lesson Plan
S.No Topic of the Lecture Name of the Activity & Tentative Date
Instructional Aids
1 Bearing capacity – Basic definitions Classroom demonstration 12-06-2019
2 Estimation of Classroom demonstration 14-06-2019
bearing capacity by different methods, 22-06-2019
- Analytical measures – Terzaghi’s and
Meyerhof
3 Factors affecting bearing capacity Classroom demonstration 22-06-2019
25-06-2019
4 Standard Penetration Test Classroom demonstration 02-07-2019
03-06-2019
5 Cone Penetration Test and Plate Load Classroom demonstration 06-07-2019
test
6 Settlement analysis – Types of Classroom demonstration 06-07-2019
foundation settlement
7 Components of settlements - Classroom demonstration 09-07-2019
estimation, Allowable settlement values
8 Effects, Causes and remedial measures Classroom demonstration 10-07-2019
of total and
differential settlements.
9 Shallow foundations Classroom demonstration 13-07-2019
Types - choice of foundation – Location
of depth
10 Foundations on layered soils Classroom demonstration 16-07-2019
11 Types of Classroom demonstration 17-07-2019
shallow foundations and choice - Basic
requirements
12 Combined Footings, Rectangular Classroom demonstration 20-07-2019
13 trapezoidal combined footings Classroom demonstration 23-072019
14 Mat/Raft foundations Classroom demonstration 24-07-2019
15 Allowable bearing capacity and Classroom demonstration 27-07-2019
settlement of mat foundation - Types 30-07-2019
of rafts
16 Deep Foundations Classroom demonstration 31-07-2019
Pile foundation: Types of piles
17 Load carrying capacity of piles based on Classroom demonstration 31-07-2019
static pile formulae 03-08-2019

18 Dynamic pile formulae (ENR and Classroom demonstration 10-08-2019

Modified Hiley only)
 19 Pile load tests Classroom demonstration 13-08-2019
20 Load carrying capacity of pile groups in Classroom demonstration 14-08-2019
sands and clays
21 Settlement of pile groups Classroom demonstration 17-08-2019
22 Negative skin friction Classroom demonstration 20-08-2019
- Under reamed piles
23 Well foundation - Types – Different Classroom demonstration 21-08-2019
shapes of wells
24 Components of wells – functions and Classroom demonstration 23-08-2019
design criteria
25 Sinking of wells – Tilts and shifts Classroom demonstration 27-08-2019
26 Soil Exploration: Power point presentation 28-08-2019
Introduction – Methods of soil
exploration
27 Open pits and borings – Methods of Power point presentation 28-08-2019
borings
28 Exploratory borings in the field - Soil Power point presentation 31-08-2019
sampling – Undisturbed and disturbed
samples
29 Area ratio – Inside and outside clearance Power point presentation 31-08-2019
– Recovery ratio
30 Types of samplers - Rock coring - Power point presentation 04-09-2019
Field tests -Planning of subsurface
exploration program – Preparation of
borehole logs - Soil
exploration report.
31 Lateral earth pressure theory - Different Classroom demonstration 07-09-2019
types of earth pressures
32 Rankine’s active and Classroom demonstration 11-09-2019
passive earth pressures
33 pressure distribution diagram for lateral Classroom demonstration 11-09-2019
earth pressures against 14-09-2019
retaining walls for different conditions in
cohesionless and cohesive soils
34 Coulomb’s active Classroom demonstration 17-09-2019
and passive earth pressure theory 18-09-2019
35 Culmann’s graphical construction. Classroom demonstration 24-09-2019

Include activities and tests

Course Outcomes (COs):

At the end of the course the student should be able to:

1. Calculate the bearing capacity of soils and foundation settlements.
2. Describe various types of foundations and different types of loading coming on them and
Analyse the problems related to shallow and deep foundation.
3. Describe the construction and design methods of well foundation.
4. Determine the earth pressures on foundation and retaining wall and Identify and propose
a solution for the problems associated with various types of combined footings.
5. Analyse the load carrying capacity of pile foundation and Discuss various elements of
soil exploration and presentation of these results
Course Articulation Matrix: Mapping of Course Outcomes (COs) with Program Outcomes
(POs)
Course Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PSO1 PSO2
(COs) / Program
Outcomes (POs)
CO 1 3 2 1 1 1 2
CO 2 3 3 2 1 2
CO 3 3 2 1 1
CO 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 2
CO 5 2 2 3 1 1 1
 UNIT I
Bearing capacity and settlement of foundation
UNIT WISE PLAN
UNIT-I: Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Foundation Planned Hours:
Blooms
S. No. Topic Learning Outcomes COs
Levels
1 Describe working process of standard penetration test CO1 L2
2 Identify the types of foundation failures CO1 L2
3 Calculate the bearing capacity and settlement analysis of CO1,CO2 L3
shallow foundation

The bearing capacity of soil is defined as the capacity of the soil to bear the loads coming
from the foundation. The pressure which the soil can easily withstand against load is called
allowable bearing pressure.
Following are some types of bearing capacity of soil:
1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)
The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called ultimate bearing
capacity.
2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)
By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get net ultimate
bearing capacity.

Where = unit weight of soil, Df = depth of foundation

3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)
By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by certain factor of
safety will give the net safe bearing capacity.
qns = qnu/ F
Where F = factor of safety = 3 (usual value)
4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)
When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe bearing
capacity.
qs = qu/F
5. Net safe settlement pressure (qnp)
The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement is called
net safe settlement pressure.
6. Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)
This is the pressure we can used for the design of foundations. This is equal to net safe bearing
pressure if qnp > qns. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe settlement pressure.

FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING CAPACITY:-

Bearing capacity is governed by number of factors. The following are some of the more
important ones which affect bearing capacity:
 Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properties;
 Nature of the foundation and other details such as size,shape,depth below the ground
surface and rigidity of the structure;
 Total and differential settlements that the structure can withstand without functional
failure;
 Location of ground water table relative to the level of the foundation; and
 Initial stresses, if any.

Calculation of Bearing Capacity

For the calculation of bearing capacity of soil, there are so many theories. But all the theories are
superseded by Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory.
1. Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory is useful to determine the bearing capacity of soils under a
strip footing. This theory is only applicable to shallow foundations. He considered some
assumptions which are as follows.
1. The base of the strip footing is rough.
2. The depth of footing is less than or equal to its breadth i.e., shallow footing.
3. He neglected the shear strength of soil above the base of footing and replaced it with
uniform surcharge. ( Df)
4. The load acting on the footing is uniformly distributed and is acting in vertical direction.
5. He assumed that the length of the footing is infinite.
6. He considered Mohr-coulomb equation as a governing factor for the shear strength of
soil.
As shown in above figure, AB is base of the footing. He divided the shear zones into 3
categories. Zone -1 (ABC) which is under the base is acts as if it were a part of the footing itself.
Zone -2 (CAF and CBD) acts as radial shear zones which is bear by the sloping edges AC and
BC. Zone -3 (AFG and BDE) is named as Rankine’s passive zones which are taking surcharge (y
Df) coming from its top layer of soil.
From the equation of equilibrium,
Load from footing x weight of wedge = passive pressure + cohesion x CB sin

Where Pp = resultant passive pressure = (Pp)y + (Pp)c + (Pp)q

(Pp)y is derived by considering weight of wedge BCDE and by making cohesion and surcharge
zero.
(Pp)c is derived by considering cohesion and by neglecting weight and surcharge.
(Pp)q is derived by considering surcharge and by neglecting weight and cohesion.
Therefore,

By substituting,

So, finally we get qu = c’Nc + y Df Nq + 0.5 y B Ny

Equations to find the bearing capacity factors are:
Where

Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure.

Finally, to determine bearing capacity under strip footing we can use
qu = c’Nc + Df Nq + 0.5 B Ny
By the modification of above equation, equations for square and circular footings are also given
and they are.
For square footing
qu = 1.2 c’Nc + Df Nq + 0.4 B Ny
For circular footing
qu = 1.2 c’Nc + Df Nq + 0.3 B Ny

Meyerhof Bearing Capacity

Meyerhof (1963) proposed a formula for calculation of bearing capacity similar to the one
proposed by Terzaghi but introducing further foundation shape coefficients.
He introduced a coefficient sq that multiplies the Nq factor, depth factors di and inclination
factors ii depth factors di and inclination factors ii for the cases where the load line is inclined to
the vertical.

Meyerhof provided two general equations - one for the case when the resultant
load at the bearing level (Qb) is vertical (no horizontal component), and one for the case when
Qb is inclined from vertical (can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components)
with the horizontal component of load in the direction of the width of the footing.
Vertical load:
Qb = c Nc Sc dc + q0 Nq Sq dq + 0.5 g B Ng Sg dg
Inclined load:
Qb = c Nc dc ic Sc + q0 Nq dq iq Sq + 0.5 g B Ng dg ig Sg
where q0 is the vertical stress at the bearing level outside the footprint of the foundation (called
the surcharge pressure). q0 should be the total vertical stress for total stress strength parameters,
and the effective vertical stress for effective strength parameters. The value of g to be used in the
above equations depends on the depth of the groundwater table relative to the depth of
embedment of the foundation. See how ground waterlevel can affect unit weight.
Meyerhof's bearing capacity factors
Nc, Nq, Nr: Meyerhof’s bearing capacity factors depend on soil friction angle,
Sc, Sq, Sg: shape factors
dc, dq, dg: depth factors
ic, iq, ig: incline load factors

C: Cohesion of soil
γ: unit weight of soil
D: depth of footing
B, L: width and length of footing
Kp = tan2(45+f/2), passive pressure coefficient.
q = tan-1(Qh/Qv) = angle of the load in degrees
Types of shear failure of foundation soils
Depending on the stiffness of foundation soil and depth of foundation, the following are the
modes of shear failure experienced by the foundation soil.
1. General shear failure (Fig.1(a))
2. Local shear failure (Fig.1(b))
3. Punching shear failure (Fig.1(c))
 Fig.1: Shear failure in foundation soil

Fig: Curve in different foundation soils

General Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in dense and stiff soil. The following are some characteristics of
general shear failure.
1. Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops between the edge of
footing and ground surface.
2. Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.
3. Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.
4. Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.

5. Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in curve.

 6. The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
7. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads gradually
downwards and outwards.

8. General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (<5%) in a soil with considerable (
>36o) and large N (N > 30) having high relative density (ID> 70%).

Local Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in relatively loose and soft soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
1) A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development of plastic
equilibrium is observed.
2) Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.
3) Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging of soil around the
footing is observed.
4) Failure surface is not well defined.
5) Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.\

6) Well defined peak is absent in curve.

7) Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (> 10 to 20%) in a soil with considerably
low ( <28o) and low N (N < 5) having low relative density (ID> 20%).
Punching Shear Failure of foundation soils
This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper elevations. The following are
some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
2. Failure pattern is not observed.
3. Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.
4. Failure is characterized by very large settlement.

5. Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in curve.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT) ( IS -2131:1963)

The standard penetration test is an in-situ test that is coming under the category of penetrometer
tests. The standard penetration tests are carried out in borehole. The test will measure the
resistance of the soil strata to the penetration undergone. A penetration emphirical correlation is
derived between the soil properties and the penetration resistance.
The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the angle of shearing
resistance of cohesionless soils. It can also be used to determine the unconfined compressive
strength of cohesive soils.
The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler.Once the
drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and the sampler is placed
inside the bore hole.

By means of a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate
of 30 blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil. This is as per IS -2131:1963.

The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150mm is counted. Further it is
driven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.
Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the number of blows recorded.
The number of blows recorded for the first 150mm not taken into consideration.. The number of
blows recorded for last two 150mm intervals are added to give the standard penetration number
(N). In other words,
N = No: of blows required for 150mm penetration beyond seating drive of 150mm.

If the number of blows for 150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is
discontinued. The standard penetration number is corrected for dilatancy correction and
overburden correction.
Corrections in Standard Penetration Test
Before the SPT values are used in empirical correlations and in design charts, the field ‘N’ value
have to be corrected as per IS 2131 – 1981. The corrections are:
1. Dilatancy Correction
2. Overburden Pressure Correction
1. Dilatancy Correction
Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore water pressure which is not
easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration
number (N).
Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommend the following correction in the case of silty fine sands
when the observed value is N exceeds 15.
The corrected penetration number,
NC = 15 + 0.5 (NR -15)
Where NR is the recorded value and NC is the corrected value.
If NR less than or equal to 15, then Nc = NR
2. Overburden Pressure Correction
From several investigations, it is proven that the penetration resistance or the value of N is
dependent on the overburden pressure. If there are two granular soils with relative density same,
higher ‘N’ value will be shown by the soil with higher confining pressure.
With the increase in the depth of the soil, the confining pressure also increases. So the value of
‘N’ at shallow depth and larger depths are underestimated and overestimated respectively.
Hence, to account this the value of ‘N’ obtained from the test are corrected to a standard effective
overburden pressure.
The corrected value of ‘N’ is
Nc = CN N
Here CN is the correction factor for the overburden pressure.
Precautions taken for Standard Penetration Test
1. Split spoon sampler must be in good condition.
2. The cutting shoe must be free from wear and tear
3. The height of fall must be 750mm. Any change from this will affect the ‘N’ value.
4. The drill rods used must be in standard condition. Bent drill rods are not used.
5. Before conducting the test, the bottom of the borehole must be cleaned.
Advantages of Standard Penetration Test
The advantages of standard penetration test are:
1. The test is simple and economical
2. The test provides representative samples for visual inspection, classification tests and for
moisture content.
3. Actual soil behaviour is obtained through SPT values The method helps to penetrate
dense layers and fills
4. Test can be applied for variety of soil conditions
Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test
The limitations of standard penetration tests are:
1. The results will vary due to any mechanical or operator variability or drilling
disturbances.
2. Test is costly and time consuming.
3. The samples retrieved for testing is disturbed.
4. The test results from SPT cannot be reproduced
5. The application of SPT in gravels, cobbles and cohesive soils are limited

Plate Load Test

Plate load test is done at site to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and settlement of
foundation under the loads for clayey and sandy soils. So, plate load test is helpful for the
selection and design the foundation. To calculate safe bearing capacity suitable factor of safety is
applied.
A Pit is excavated in the ground at which foundation is to be laid. The size of pit is generally 5
times the size of the plate. The depth excavated should be equal to proposed foundation depth.
The plate used is made of mild steel. It may be square (0.3m x 0.3m) or circular (0.3m diameter)
with 25mm thickness.
After excavation of pit, at center of excavated pit steel plate sized hole with “Dp” thickness is
excavated and arrange the plate in it.
The Thickness of plate Dp is calculated by below formula

After arranging the plate in central hole hydraulic jack is arranged on top of plate to apply load.
Reaction beam or reaction trusses is provided for the hydraulic jack to take up the reaction.
Otherwise a loaded platform is created (using sand bags etc.) on the top of hydraulic jack and
provided the reaction.
After that seating load of 7kN/m2 is applied to set the plate and released after some time. Now
load is applied with an increment of 20% of safe load.
Dial gauges are arranged at bottom to record the settlement values. At 1min, 5min, 10min,
20min, 40min, and 60min and after that for every one-hour interval the settlement is observed
and noted. The observations are made until the total settlement of 25mm has occurred.
In case of reaction truss loading, a truss is arranged on jack and both sides of truss are anchored
to the ground with strong support. Two ends of truss are loaded uniformly, then truss transforms
the load into the plate and settlement occurs.
Load is applied with an increment of 2kN at every interval. Settlement is observed at different
intervals as said in above method. For clayey soils, the observations are made until the rate of
settlement is to be 0.2mm per hour.
Calculation of Bearing Capacity from Plate Load Test
From the results obtained in plate load test, a logarithmic graph is drawn between loads applied
to the corresponding settlement. Load is taken on x-axis and settlement is on y-axis.
From the graph, we can find out the value of ultimate load for the plate, which is equal to the
corresponding settlement of 1/5th of plate width.

the curve breaks at one point, the load corresponding to that break point is considered as ultimate
load for plate. From this ultimate load for plate we can determine the value of ultimate bearing
capacity and safe bearing capacity of soil for foundation.
Bearing Capacity Calculation for Clayey Soils
Ultimate bearing capacity = ultimate load for plate
qu(f) = qu(p)
Bearing Capacity Calculation for Sandy Soils
Ultimate bearing capacity = ultimate load for plate x {Width of pit (Bf) / Size of Plate (Bp)}
qu(f) = qu(p) x Bf / Bp
Finally, safe bearing capacity = ultimate bearing capacity / factor of safety
The factor of safety ranges from 2 to 3.
We can also calculate settlement for given load from plate load test as follows
Foundation Settlement Calculation on Clayey Soils
Settlement of foundation (sf) = sp x Bf/Bp
Foundation Settlement Calculation on Sandy Soils
Settlement of foundation (sf) = sp [{Bf(Bp + 0.3)}/{Bp(Bf + 0.3)}]2
Where Bf and Bp are widths of foundation and plate.
Cone penetration test
The static cone penetration test is also known as cone penetration test (CPT) since the cone is
used to penetrate through the ground surface. The penetro-meter used in this process consists of a
600 cone with a base area of 10 cm2 and a friction jacket to avoid skin friction.
Operation procedure of Static Cone Penetration Test
1. In position l, the cone and friction jacket assembly is in collapse position. This is the
initial position of the penetro-meter.
2. In position 2, the cone is shown to have been pushed down by inner sounding rods to
such a depth till a collar engages the cone while the friction jacket attains the same
position. The reading shown by the gauge in this position is the cone resistance.
3. In position 3, both the cone and friction jacket are pushed together. This operation
provides the sum of cone and frictional resistance together. Additional resistance is
provided by the jacket.
4. In position 4, the outside mantle tube is pushed down and this operation brings the cone
assembly in position 1. The total frictional resistance of the jacket is obtained by
subtracting the value obtained in position 2 from the value recorded in position 3. One
should note the fact that this method is suitable in the strata of fine grained soil only. The
process mentioned above is repeated continuously till the desired depth is reached. The
cone is pushed at a standard rate of 20 mm per second.
Foundation settlement
Soils deform under the load of foundation structures. The total vertical displacement that occurs
at foundation level is termed as settlement. The cause of foundation settlement is the reduction of
volume air void ratio in the soil.
Moreover, the magnitude of foundation settlement is controlled by many factors type of soil and
foundation structure. Foundations on bedrock settle a negligible amount. In contrary,
Foundations in other types of soil such as clay may settle much more.
An example of this is Mexico City palace of fine arts has settled more than 15 feet (4.5m) into
the clay soil on which it is founded since it was constructed in the early 1930s.
However, building foundation settlement is normally limited to amounts measured in millimeter
or fractions of an inch.
Structures will suffer damages due to settlement of its foundation specifically when the
settlement occur in quick manner.
Types of foundation settlement
 Differential foundation settlement
 Uniform foundation settlement
Differential foundation settlement
Settlement that occurs at differing rates between different portions of a building is termed
differential settlement.
 Differential settlement occurs if there is difference in soils, loads, or structural systems
between parts of a building. in this case, different parts of the building structure could
settle by substantially different amounts.
 Consequently, the frame of the building may become distorted, floors may slope, walls
and glass may crack, and doors and windows may not work properly.
 Uneven foundation settlement may force buildings to shift out of plumb which lead to
crack initiation in foundation, structure, or finish.
 Majority of foundation failures are attributable to severe differential settlement.
 Lastly, for conventional buildings with isolated foundations, 20mm differential settlement
is acceptable. And 50mm total settlement is tolerable for the same structures.
Uniform foundation settlement
when foundation settlement occurs at nealy the same rate throughout all portions of a
building, it is called uniform settlement.
 If all parts of a building rest on the same kind of soil, then uniform settlement the most
probable type to take place.
 Similarly, when loads on the building and the design of its structural system are uniform
throughout, the anticipated settlement would be uniform type.
 Commonly, uniform settlement has small detrimental influence on the building safety.
  However, it influences utility of the building for example damaging sewer; water supply;
and mains and jamming doors and windows.
Foundation settlement causes
Direct causes
The direct cause of foundation settlement is the weight of building including dead load and live
load.
Indirect causes
 Failure of collapsible soil underground infiltration
 Yielding of excavation done adjacent to foundation
 Failure of underground tunnels and mines
 Collapse of cavities of limestones
 Undermining of foundation while flood
 Earthquake induced settlement
 Finally, due to extraction of ground water and oil.
Components of total settlement of foundations
Immediate settlement
 It is also called short term settlement.
 Immediate settlement takes place mostly in coarse grained soils of high permeability and
in unsaturated fine-grained soils of low permeability.
 Lastly, it occurs over short period of time which about 7 days. So, it ends during
construction time.
Primary settlement
 It also termed as primary consolidation
 Take place over long period of time that ranges from 1 to 5 years or more
 Primary settlement frequently occurs in saturated inorganic fine grain soil.
 Expulsion of water from pores of saturated fine grain soil is the cause of primary
settlement.
Secondary settlement
 Secondary settlement is the consolidation of soil under constant effective stress.
 Frequently, it occurs in organic fine grain soil.
 It continues over the life span of foundation structure similar to creep in concrete.
Review Questions
MCQs
1) ___________ footing is used in load bearing masonry construction. (L1)
a) Isolated
b) Strap
c) Strip
d) Pile
2) Foundations can be broadly classified under __________. (L1)
a) Shallow foundation and Deep foundation
b) Pile foundation
c) None of the mentioned
d) All of the mentioned
3) . A foundation is said to be shallow if its depth is ________ than its width. . (L1)
a) Equal to and Less than
b) Greater than
c) None of the mentioned
d) All of the mentioned
4) which of the following, is a type of shallow footing? . (L2)
a) Spread footing
b) Pile foundation
c) Pier foundation
d) Well foundation
5) The pressure intensity beneath the footing depends upon ___________. (L2)
a) Rigidity of the footing
b) Soil type
c) Condition of soil
d) All of the mentioned
6) In conventional design, allowable bearing capacity should be taken smaller than which of
the following value? . (L1)
a) Safe bearing capacity and Allowable bearing pressure
b) The pressure intensities beneath the footing
 c) None of the mentioned
d) All of the mentioned
7) In SPT, The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter. (L1)
A 45 mm B 50 mm C 55 mm D 53 mm
8) The permissible settlement of a shallow foundation on a rock evaluation of safe bearing
pressure from a plate load test is taken as ………………. (L1)
A 12mm B 25mm C 40mm D 50mm
9) A plate (0.3 x 0.3 m plate size) load test performed on clayey soil gives ultimate
settlement of 2.2 mm. The ultimate settlement of 2 x 2 m isolated footing will be: . (L2)
A 18.65 mm B 12.50 mm C 14.67 mm D 16.39 mm
10) In CPT test, the rate at which we push the instrumented con tip into the ground is. (L1)
A 2 centimeters/second
B 4 centimeters/second
C 5 centimeters/second
D 3 centimeters/second
Short Questions
1) What is ultimate bearing capacity? (L1)
2) List the factors affecting bearing capacity of soil. (L1)
3) Differentiate Total and Differential settlements (L2)
4) Differentiate safe bearing capacity and allowable bearing capacity of soil. (L2)
5) What are the limitations of plate load test? (L1)
6) Write the types of footing failures. (L1)
7) Explain the types of settlements? (L1)
8) What are the assumptions for terzaghi bearing capacity? (L1)
9) A footing is constructed on sand. Will its bearing capacity remain the same forever or can
it change during the life of the footing? (L2)
10) In case of sands, will the bearing capacity reduced to zero if the ground water level rises
from deep below the foundation to ground level(Y/N). (L2)
Long Questions
1) Explain standard penetration test in detail with neat sketch and write the correction for N
value. (L2)
2) Draw failure surfaces under footings and respective load settlement curves for typical
General shear failure, local shear failure and punching shear failure. Also mention your
opinions on relative heaving experienced respectively. (L1)
3) What are the two major criteria in defining allowable bearing pressure? (L2)
4) In a situation where soil profile at shallow depths have distinct thin layers of soil
underlain, explain the suitability of a plate bearing test with neat sketches if required. (L2)
5) Draw failure surfaces under footings and respective load settlement curves for typical
General shear failure, local shear failure and punching shear failure. Also mention your
opinions on relative heaving experienced respectively. (L2)
6) Explain how do you plan and organize a SPT test in a rectangular area of 0.4hectares (L2)
7) Explain with reasons of necessity ,types of corrections applied to recorded N value on
field in SPT test. (L1)
Problems
1) Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 1.5m wide with its base at 1m
depth resting on dry sand stratum. Take C’= 0 kPa ,Φ’=370,γd=19 kN/m3. Use Terzaghi’s
theory. (L3) Nc = 57.8 Nq = 41.4 Nγ = 42.4
2) A footing of width 2m founded at 5m below ground level. Determine ultimate bearing
capacities assuming ground water levels for different cases shown in diagram as 1-1, 2-2,
3-3, 4-4, 5-5. Take backfill C’=20 kPa ,Φ’=400,γd=18 kN/m3, γsat=20 kN/m3

(L3)

3) A continuous foundation is as shown in figure. Using Terzharghi bearing capacity factor,

determine the Gross allowable load per unit area (q) that the foundation can carry.
(Assume it General shear failure) (L3)
 for  =350, Nc=25.18, Nq=12.75, N  =8.35.

4) A square footing 3m X 3m is subjected to load of 900kN. It rests on a clayey soil whose

young’s modulus under undrained condition is 21Mpa and poisson’s ratio is 0.45.
Compute immediate settlement in the clay layer. (L3)
5) Determine the width of the square footing if it has to carry a gross allowable load of
300kN. The depth of the footing is 2m in stiff saturated clay. The bulk unit weight of 20
kN/m3. The load is inclined at 200 to the vertical. Use Meyerhof’s theory. Take factor of
safety of 2.5. (L3)
6) Complete the settlement of a rigid footing 2.6m x2.6m carrying a load of 1800kN,
supported on a sandy soil, if a plate load test gives a settlement of 8mm under a load of
320 kN/m2. Size of plate 30cm x30cm. (L3)
7) On a cohesive friction soil, a square foundation of 2mx 2m is founded at 1 m depth. The
soil has the following properties, Cu = 15.5 kPa, γsat = 18 kN/m3, φu = 350. Determine
the net safe load on the footing by Meyerhof’s method, if the F.S with respect to shear
failure is 23.0.The water table is at a depth of 1.5 m below the ground level. Take
Nc=46.13 (L3)
8) A shallow square footing of size 1.5x1.5m rests at a depth of 1m in the soil.It has a bulk
unit weight of 18kN/m3 and saturated unit weight of 20.2kN/m3. The soil has a cohesion
of 15 kN/m2 and =200. Determine the safe load on footing assuming local shear failure
conditions for the following water table positions. (L3)
i) Water table at surface of Ground
ii) 0.5m below the Ground surface
iii) At base level of footing
iv) 1m below the base level of footing
 v) 2m below the base level of footing
Take factor of safety of ‘3’ and bearing capacity factor values as 17.7, 7.4 1.7.
 UNIT II
Shallow Foundations
UNIT WISE PLAN
UNIT-II: Shallow Foundations Planned Hours:
Blooms
S. No. TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES COs
Levels
1 Explain the types of shallow foundation CO2 L2
2 Identify the types of rafts CO2 L1
3 Design a shallow foundation for the present stratified soil CO2 L3
deposits

Shallow foundations are constructed where soil layer at shallow depth (upto 1.5m) is able
to support the structural loads. The depth of shallow foundations are generally less than its width.
Different Types of Shallow Foundations
The different types of shallow foundation are:
1. Strip footing
2. Spread or isolated footing
3. Combined footing Strap or cantilever footing
4. Mat or raft Foundation
1. Strip Footing
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided for a row of
columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each
other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of
spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.
2. Spread or Isolated Footing or Individual Footing
A spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad footing and individual footing is provided to
support an individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform
thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

3. Combined Footing
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to each
other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the
property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is
evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

4. Strap or Cantilever Footing

A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap
or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is
designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of
action passes through the resultant of the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a
combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between
the columns is large.
5. Mat or Raft Foundations
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the
entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure
is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or
nearly touch each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils or
where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.
Factors affecting the depth of foundation
Many factors affect the depth of foundation. such as type of soil, ground water table, loads from
structure, bearing capacity and density of soil and other factors. The minimum depth of
foundation is calculated by Rankine’s formula when the bearing capacity of soil is known by soil
investigation report.
General factors to be considered for determining depth of foundation are:
1. Load applied from structure to the foundation
2. Bearing capacity of soil
3. Depth of water level below the ground surface
4. Types of soil and depth of layers in case of layered soil
5. Depth of adjacent foundation
The minimum depth of foundation should be considered to ensure that the soil is having the
required safe bearing capacity as assumed in the design. However, it is advised to carry out soil
investigation before deciding on depth of foundation.
Soil investigation report will suggest the foundation depth based on the type of structure, soil
properties, depth of water table, and all other variable that should be considered. Soil
investigation report provides bearing capacity of soil at different levels and at different locations.
When the soil investigation report is not available, the depth of foundation should be selected
such that it is not affected by swelling and shrinking of soil due to seasonal changes. Depth of
foundation should also consider the depth of water table to prevent and scour below the ground.
For foundation near existing foundation, It must be ensured that pressure bulbs of foundations do not
coincide if the depth of new foundation has to be taken below the depth of existing foundation.
The foundation should not be contracted at shallow depth considering the frost action in cold
countries.
Rankine’s formula provides the guidance on minimum depth of foundation based on bearing
capacity of soil.
Where, h = minimum depth of foundation
p= gross bearing capacity
γ = density of soil
= angle of repose or internal friction of soil.
The above formula does not consider the factors discussed above and just provides the guidance
on minimum foundation depth, assuming that the foundations are not affected by factors such as
water table, frost action, types and properties of soil etc. as discussed above. This formula does
not consider the loads from the structure on the foundation.
In the Rankine’s formula, it can be seen that foundation depth depends on the bearing capacity of
soil, so, if the bearing capacity of soil increases, the depth of foundation also increases.
Foundation on layered soils.
However, in practice, layered soil profiles are often encountered. In such instances, the failure
surface at ultimate load may extend through two or more soil layers. Determination of ultimate
bearing capacity in layered soils can be made in only a limited number of cases. This section
features the procedure for estimating bearing capacity for layered soils proposed by Meyerhof
and Hanna (1978) and Meyerhof (1974).
Figure 3.20 shows a shallow continuous foundation supported by a stronger soil layer underlain
by a weaker soil, which extends to a great depth. For the two soil layers, the physical parameters
are as follows:

At ultimate load per unit area (�u ), the failure surface in soil will be as shown in figure 3.20. If
the depth H is relatively small compared to the foundation width B, a punching shear failure will
occur in the top soil layer followed by a general shear failure in the bottom soil layer. This is
shown in figure 3.20a. However, if the depth H is relatively layer, then the failure surface will be
completely located in the top soil layer, which is the upper limit for the ultimate bearing capacity.
This is shown in figure 3.20b.
 Figure 3.20 Bearing capacity of a continuous foundation on layered soil

The ultimate bearing capacity, �� , for this problem as shown in figure 3.20a can be given as

Where � = width of the foundation

𝐶� = adhesive force
𝑃� = passive force per unit length of the faces ��′ �nd bb′
�� = bearing capacity of the bottom soil layer
� = inclination of the passive force 𝑃� with the horizontal

The punching shear coefficient, 𝐾�, is a function of �2/�1 and �1,

Note that �1 and �2 are the ultimate bearing capacities of a continuous foundation of width B
under vertical load on the surfaces of homogeneous thick beds of upper and lower soil, or

And
Where (1), 𝑁�(1) = bearing capacity factors for friction angle �1
(2), 𝑁�(2) = bearing capacity factors for friction angle �2
�� = �� = �1(1) + �𝑁�(1) + 1/2�N�(1)
Where (1) = beairng capacity factor for � = �1 and � = �1�

For rectangular foundations, the preceding equation can be extended to the form

Where

Where

Combined footings are constructed for two or more columns when they are close to each other
and their foundations overlap The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load
form the structure to the underlying soil. The choice of suitable type of footing depends on the
depth at which the bearing strata lies, the soil condition and the type of superstructure.
Combined Footings
Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread footing, it is
called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the economical.
Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as
1. When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
2. Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
3. Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building column.
 Locate the point of application of the column loads on the footing.
 Proportion the footing such that the resultant of loads passes through the center of footing.
 Compute the area of footing such that the allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.
 Calculate the shear forces and bending moments at the salient points and hence draw SFD
and BMD.
 Fix the depth of footing from the maximum bending moment.
 Calculate the transverse bending moment and design the transverse section for depth and
reinforcement. Check for anchorage and shear.
 Check the footing for longitudinal shear and hence design the longitudinal steel
 Design the reinforcement for the longitudinal moment and place them in the appropriate
positions.
 Check the development length for longitudinal steel
 Curtail the longitudinal bars for economy
 Draw and detail the reinforcement
 Prepare the bar bending schedule

Review Questions (Levels I, II, III)

MCQs
1. __________ footing is used in load bearing masonry construction.
a) Isolated
b) Strap
c) Strip
d) Pile
2. How many types of combined footing are possible?
a) 2
b) 3
 c) 4
d) 5
3. which of the following, is a type of shallow footing?
a) Spread footing
b) Pile foundation
c) Pier foundation
d) Well foundation
4. The pressure intensity beneath the footing depends upon ___________
a) Rigidity of the footing
b) Soil type
c) Condition of soil
d) All of the mentioned
5. In cohesive soil, the pressure distribution beneath the footing is ___________
a) Linear
b) Non linear
c) Zero
d) None of the mentioned
6. When do strap footings are used in foundation?
a) To transfer load of an isolated column
b) Distance between the columns are long
c) Two column loads are unequal
d) All of the mentioned
7. When two column loads are unequal, which of the possible footing can be provided?
a) Strap footing
b) Raft footing
c) Trapezoidal combined footing
d) Mat footing
8. Usually, rafts are designed as _________
a) Reinforced slabs
b) Reinforced concrete flat slabs
 c) Ordinary concrete slab
d) Inverted flat slabs
9. If a maximum settlement of 50 mm is permitted for a raft, the differential settlement must
not exceed ___________
a) 30 mm
b) 10 mm
c) 20 mm
d) 25 mm
10. When the allowable soil is low or the building loads are heavy, the footing used is
___________
a) Raft footing
b) Strap footing
c) Trapezoidal combined footing
d) Rectangular combined footing

Short Questions
1. What is the consideration for deciding location and depth of footings at different levels
for granular soil and clay soil
2. Write a note on selection of foundation based on soil stratification and load carried.
3. Which settlement is significantly undesirable Total or Differential?
4. List types of combined footings.
5. Explain the terms;
6. How they will effect the foundation of a structure.
a) Shrinking of soil. B) Heaving of soil..
7. In what conditions do you prefer Trapezoidal footing
8. List types of shallow foundations
9. In what conditions do you prefer Trapezoidal footing

Long Questions

1) Enlist the various types of shallow foundations with neat sketch.

2) Factors affecting the location of depth of shallow foundation.

3) Design procedure for combined footing.

Problems
1) A foundation 1.5m x 1.5m is located at a depth of 1m in a stronger clay. A softer caly layer is
located at a depth of 3ft, measured from the bottom of the foundation .
For top clay layer
Undrained shear strength= 120kpa
Unit weight = 16.8kN/m3
For bottom clay layer
Undrained shear strength= 48kpa
Unit weight =16.2 kN/m3
Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of layered soil
 UNIT -III
Deep Foundations

UNIT WISE PLAN

UNIT-III: Deep Foundations Planned Hours:
Blooms
S. No. Topic Learning Outcomes COs
Levels
1. Describe the components of well foundation CO2,CO3 L1
2. Analyze the bearing capacity of group piles CO2 L3
3. Select appropriate type of deep foundation for the field CO2,CO3 L4
condition

Deep foundations are required when the soil at shallow depth is not capable of supporting
structural loads. Deep foundation will be adopted if a firm stratum having desired bearing
capacity cannot be reached by open excavation. The purpose of pile foundations is to transmit a
super structure load to deeper load bearing strata, to withstand lateral, vertical, uplift load and to
minimize the settlement. A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its
base does not have adequate bearing capacity to withstand the desired structural loads. If the
results of site investigation show that the soil at shallow depth is unstable or if the estimated
settlement is beyond acceptable limits, a pile foundation will be adopted.

Classification of Pile foundations:

The pile foundations are classified based on load carrying characteristic of piles, material of pile
construction and type of soil.
Classification based on load transmission:
End bearing piles (Point bearing)
These transmit most of their loads to the load bearing layer (which can be dense sand or rock).
Most of the pile capacity is inferred from the end bearing point.

End-bearing pile
Friction piles :
These transmit their load through the layers through which the piles pass which is mostly
through the surface friction (skin friction) with the surrounding soils. Here the piles are driven to
such a depth that the frictional resistance which is developed at the side of the piles equals to the
load coming on the piles.

Friction pile
Classification based on Material of Piles Construction:
Timber piles:
Timber can be used for manufacture of temporary piles and also for permanent ones in regions
where timber is readily and economically available. It’s most suitable for long cohesion piling
and piling under embankments.
Steel piles:
Steel can be used for both temporary and permanent works. They are suitable for handling and
driving for piles with prolonged lengths. Their relatively small cross sectional area along with the
high strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. If it’s driven in to a soil with low Ph value,
there may occur a risk of corrosion which can be eliminated by tar coating or cathodic
protection.
Concrete piles:
Concrete is used to manufacture of precast concrete piles, cast in place and pre-stressed concrete
piles. Pre-stressed concrete piles are becoming more approved than the ordinary pre-cast as less
reinforcement is required.
Composite piles:
When a pile consists of a combination of different materials in the same pile, it’s called as
Composite pile. For example, part of timber pile which is installed above ground water could be
endangered to insect attack and decay. So to avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above
ground water level whilst timber is installed under the ground water level.
Compaction piles:
These piles are used to compact loose granular soil to increase its bearing capacity. Compaction
piles do not carry load and hence they can be of weaker material. Sand piles can be used as
compaction piles.

Anchor piles:
These piles are generally used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling.

Fender piles and dolphins:

Fender piles and dolphins are used to protect water front structure from impact of any floating object or
ships.
Classification based on the effect of soil:
Driven piles:
In this process of driving of pile into the ground, soil is moved radially when the pile shaft enters
the ground. There may exist a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
Hence driven piles are considered as displacement piles.

Bored piles:
In this process, a void is formed by boring or excavation before pile is introduced into the
ground. Piles can be produced by casting concrete in the void. Boring piles are considered as
non-displacement piles.
Load Carrying Capacity of Piles
The load carrying capacity of a single pile can be estimated using
1. Static formulae
2. Dynamic formulae
Static Formulae
The static formulae for ultimate load carrying capacity of pile based on soil propertiesand pile
geometry are as given in Eq 1 and Eq 2 for piles in granular soils and cohesive soils respectively.
Piles in granular soils: The ultimate load Qu is given by
�U = End bearing resistance �P+ Skin resistance �s
�U = �p(0.5��𝑁 � )+�p(σ 𝑁q) + ∑ 𝑘�si(�i ��𝑛�)
where
Ap = Cross section area of pile.
D = Stem diameter of pile.
Nγ = Bearing capacity factor taken for general shear.
Nq = Bearing capacity factor.
� ᇱ = Effective overburden pressure (Critical depth taken as 15D for ø ≤30◦ and 20D for Ø
≥40◦ )
k= Co-efficient of earth pressure.
�i = Effective over burden pressure at middle of corresponding layer.
δ = Angle of wall friction usually taken as ¾ ø of soil.
Asi = Surface area of pile.

Piles in cohesive soils

The ultimate bearing Qu of piles in cohesive soils is given by the following formula
Qu = End bearing resistance Qp + Skin resistance QS
Qu = �p 𝑁𝐶 Cp + ∑ � �si 𝐶si
where
NC = Bearing capacity factor in clays which is taken as 9 (See Skempton’s curve)
CP = Average cohesion at pile toe.
άi = Adhesion factor.
Ci = Average cohesion of the ith layer on the side of the pile.
Asi = Surface area of pile stem in the ith layer.
άi ci = Adhesion between shaft of pile and clay.

Dynamic Formulae
For Piles driven in soils there are a set of formulae based on the so-called Engineering News
(1888) formula.
Qu=WHŋ / (s+c)
where,
Qu= Ultimate load capacity of the driven pile.
W= Hammer weight (tons)
H= Height of fall of hammer (cm)
S= Final set (cm/blow)
C= a constant depending on type of hammer (2.54 for drop hammer, 0.254 for steam hammer)
 h = efficiency of hammer(0.65 for steam hammer, 1.0 for drop hammer)
For double-acting steam hammer
The hammer weight W is replaced by W+ap,
where ‘a’ is the area of the piston (cm2 ) and p is the steam pressure (kg/cm2 ).
Qa Q u / F
where
Qa= allowable load
F is taken as 6.

Hiley’s Modification of Wellington’s formula

where,the terms W, H,  h andS are the same as before.

 b is the efficiency of the hammer blow

Here P is the pile weight and e is the co-efficient of restitution, whose value is 0.4 for concrete and 0.5 for
steel.
The quantity C in Hiley’s formula is total elastic compression given by
C  C1 C2 C3
where, C1, C2, C3 are the compression of pile cap, pile shaft and soil respectively
Dynamic formulae are generally found to be less reliable than static formulae
Load Tests on Piles
Before finalizing the design, load tests are carried out on piles installed for the purpose on the
site. These are called initial load tests. They are useful in determining the general suitability of
the proposed pile foundation, comparing the load capacity obtained from formulae, and for a
general check on the piling equipment to be used as well as on soil properties.
Pile load test
The pile head is chipped off to natural horizontal plane till sound concrete is met. The projecting
reinforcement is cut off suitably and the top is finished smooth & level with plaster of Paris.
Loading platform of 6.2m x 6.2m is constructed by using 2nos. of ISMB 500 as main girders and
21nos of ISMB 300 as secondary girders.

The CG of platform is made to coincide with centre of pile. Platform thus constructed is loaded
with sand bags for required weight. A 20mm thick mild steel plate is placed on the top of pile
head, Hydraulic jack of 250T Capacity is placed centrally on top of the plate. The gap between
the top of jack and bottom of main girders is filled with steel packing materials. The Hydraulic
pump is connected to jack by flexible pressure hose. Calibrated pressure gauge is connected to
hydraulic pump. Datum bars of heavy sections were placed very near to pile head and are
supported on ends at a distance of 2m on either side from face of the pile. Two numbers of
settlement gauges are placed on pile head at diametrical opposite locations with the help of
magnetic bases fixed on datum bars.
The pump is operated till the ram of jack touches the bottom of main girders. At this stage the
pressure gauge reading is zero and dial gauge reading are adjusted for zero loading. The loads are
then applied in increments of 20% of safe load. For each increment of load the dial gauge
reading are taken at intervals of 15 minutes, till the rate of settlement is less than 0.1 mm in the
first half hour or 0.2 mm in one hour of for a maximum period of 2hrs. Then the next increment
of load is applied and the procedure repeated till the test load is reached. This load is maintained
for 24 hours and hourly settlement readings are noted. At the end of 24 hours, unloading is done
gradually till the entire load is released. Allowable load from single pile load test data There are
different methods for determining the allowable loads on a single pile which can be determined
by making use of load test data. If the ultimate load can be determined from load-settlement
curves, allowable loads are found by dividing the ultimate load carried by a pile by suitable
factor of safety which varies from 2 to 3. Normally a factor safety is 2.5 is recommended

1. The ultimate load, Qu can be determined as the abscissa of the point where the curved part of
the load-settlement curve changes to falling straight line, Fig. 7.5(a)
2. Qu is the abscissa of the point of intersection of the initial and final tangents of the
loadsettlement curve, Fig.7.5(b)
3. The allowable load Qa is 50 percent of the ultimate load at which the total settlement amounts
to one-tenth of the diameter of the pile.
4. The allowable load Qa is sometimes taken as equal to two-thirds of the load which causes a
total settlement of 12mm.
5. The allowable load Qa is sometimes taken as equal to two-thirds of the load which causes a
net settlement of 6mm.
Negative Skin Friction
When a weak, compressible soil layer is sandwiched between hard layers, a pile passing through
such a stratum may be subjected to an additional load due to compression of the weak layer. This
compression may be caused by consolidation, fill placing, remolding during driving, or lowering
of the water table. The portion of the pile within this layer is subjected to drawdown force in
addition to the structural loads. This force should be taken into account when designing the pile
foundation.

Fig: Negative skin friction

Under-Reamed Piles

These are bored, cast in-situ, concrete piles with one or more bulbs formed by enlarging the pile
stem. They are suitable for loose and filled up sites, or where soils are weak or expansive like
black cotton soil. The bulbs are located at depths where good bearing strata are available but they
should not be placed too near the ground level. Bulb size is usually 2 to 3 times the pile stem
diameter. The bulb provides a large bearing area, increasing the pile load capacity. They are also
effective in resisting the downward drag due to the negative skin friction that arises in loose or
expansive soils. Bulb spacing should not exceed 1.5 times the bulb diameter
 Fig: Under reamed pile

Group Action
Piles are generally used in groups with a common pile cap. A group may consist of two or three,
or as many as ten to twelve piles depending on the design requirement. The load carrying
capacity of a group of piles is given by

where, (�u)= Load carrying capacity of pile group

N = number of piles
�u= allowable load per pile
n = group efficiency
Its value for bearing or friction piles at sites where the soil strength increases with depth is found
to be 1. For friction piles in soft clays the value on n is less than 1. The actual value of n depends
on soil type, method of pile installation, and pile spacing. When piles are driven in loose, sandy
soils, the soil is densified during driving, and n >1 in such cases. It has been observed that if the
spacing between piles is more than 2.5 times the pile diameter, the group efficiency is not
reduced.
The large pile to pile spacing will increase the overall cost of construction. The reduction in load
capacity due to the group effect can be estimated empirically. The use of Feld’s rule is probably
the simplest. It states that the load capacity of each pile in a group is reduced by 1/16 on account
of the nearest pile in each diagonal or straight row.
Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity for the Pile Group
The ultimate load carrying capacity for the pile group taken as a block is given by

Where
Apand Ab are the area of the base and the surface area of the block
And L and B are the dimensions of the PILE CAP
Ap is the perimeter of the block times the embedded length of the pile

Efficiency of the pile group

the efficiency of the pile group is defined as

Where n is the no of piles in the group

Settlement of the pile group

Due to group action, both immediate and consolidation settlement values of a pile group are
greater than those for a single pile.
For bearing piles the total foundation load is assumed to act at the base of the piles on an
imaginary foundation of the same size as the plan of the pile group as show in Fig 7.9 (b) For
friction piles it is virtually impossible to determine the level at which the structural load is
effectively transferred to the soil. The level used in design is at a depth of two-thirds the
penetration depth.

Well Foundations:

Well foundations are one of the types of deep foundations that provide a solid and massive
foundation typically for bridges and heavy structures. Well foundations are also useful for
transmission line towers, where uplift loads are large. In earlier practice, well foundations were
constructed with stone or brick, but today they are mostly of reinforced concrete. The advantages
of well foundations are that they are monolithic and rigid, being a massive substructure. They
have better lateral load resistance than pile foundations. Well foundations can also be
conveniently installed in a boulder stratum as well.

Well foundations had their origin in India and have been used for hundreds of years for providing
deep foundations for important buildings and bridges. Many Mughal monuments, including the
famous Taj Mahal and several bridges, were supported on well foundations. The largest well
used in the world in the early part of 20th century is the 73.8-m deep caisson provided for the
San Francisco Oakland Bridge, in California. Well foundations have been used for most of the
bridges in India. The main towers of the Howrah Bridge were provided with 31-m deep well
foundations.

Caissons and Its Types:

Well foundations actually belong to one of the types of caissons. Caissons are box type
foundations used to support bridges and other heavy structures and sunk into the ground under
self-weight with additional weights applied at the top.

Three types of caissons are commonly used, which are as follows:

1. Open caissons.

2. Box caissons.

3. Pneumatic caissons.

These type of caissons are described below:

1. Open Caissons:

Open caissons, also called well foundations, are caissons in which the top and bottom of the
caisson are open during construction. An open caisson may be circular, rectangular, or oblong in
plan. Figure 21.1 shows an open caisson with double rectangular cross section. It has a cutting
edge at the bottom, which is fabricated at the site along with the first segment of the shaft. When
the well sinks by self-weight, the soil inside the shaft is dredged by suitable means, which aids
further sinking into the ground.

The next segment of the shaft is then added to it. The process of sinking by self-weight, as well
as by dredging, is continued till it reaches the required depth. The bottom of the well is then
sealed with concrete, which also forms the base of the well foundation. The hollow shaft is filled
with sand and a concrete seal is provided at the top, known as a top plug. Open caissons can be
constructed up to any depth and the cost of construction is relatively low.

The depth up to which the caisson is to be sunk depends on the loads on the caisson, the bearing
capacity of the soil, skin friction resistance of the sides, and the minimum grip length to be used
below the scour level.

The advantages of open caissons are as follows:

i. The caisson can be constructed to large depths.

ii. The cost of construction is relatively less than other types of caissons.

The disadvantages of open caissons are as follows:

i. Progress of construction in boulder deposits is very slow.

ii. The concrete sealed under water is not very effective.

iii. Inspection of the bottom of the well is not possible.

Box Caissons:

Box caissons are open at the top, but closed at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 21.2. It is first cast on
land and then towed to the site, where it is sunk onto a previously leveled foundation base.
Sinking of the caisson is facilitated by filling with sand, gravel, or concrete blocks inside the
caisson. Box caissons are also called floating caissons, and are used where loads are not very
heavy and a bearing stratum is available at shallow depth.

The advantages of box caissons are as follows:

i. The cost of construction of box caissons is low.

ii. It can be used where other types of caissons cannot be constructed.

The disadvantages of box caissons are as follows:

i. It is difficult to provide the foundation base below the water level, especially for deep
excavations.

ii. Bearing capacity of the foundation base has to be properly assessed. Care has to be taken to
protect the foundation base from scour.

Pneumatic Caissons:

In pneumatic caissons, the internal air pressure of the closed chamber is kept high to prevent
water from entering the chamber (Fig. 21.3). The working chamber is thus kept dry to facilitate
skilled persons to work in the chamber. Air locks are provided at the top. The caisson is sunk
under complete controlled conditions by skilled persons and supervisory staff in the working
chamber. The working chamber is filled with concrete after the final depth is reached and sinking
of the caisson is completed.

The advantages of pneumatic caissons are as follows:

i. There is a complete control over the sinking of the caisson, so that tilts and shifts can be
detected immediately by the staff in the working chamber and corrective measures can be taken
effectively.

ii. The bottom of the chamber can be sealed effectively as it is maintained under dry conditions.
iii. Obstructions to sinking, such as boulders, can be removed easily.

The disadvantages of pneumatic caissons are as follows:

i. Pneumatic caissons are costlier than other types of caissons.

ii. The depth of the caisson below the groundwater table is limited to about 35 m during
construction, as the staff in the working chamber cannot withstand a pressure more than 35 t/m2.

Shapes of Well Foundations:

The following different shapes are used for well foundations, which have their own relative
merits and demerits:

1. Circular.

2. Twin circular.

3. Square/Rectangular.

4. Double D.

5. Hexagonal/Octagonal.

Well foundations with different shapes of cross section are shown in Fig.

These well foundations are discussed below:

1. Circular Wells:
Circular wells are simple in construction, easy to sink, and require minimum steining thickness
due to lower flexural stresses than in other types. A circular well has the minimum surface area
for a given weight, leading to greater sinking effort available. Circular wells possess high
strength and are subject to low bending stresses due to the absence of sharp corners. They require
only one dredger for sinking. As every point on the cutting edge is at a constant distance from the
center of the dredge hole, chances of tilting of wells during sinking are less. Circular wells can
be used for piers of single-line railway or road bridges.

If the length of the pier is long, the use of circular wells will become uneconomical, and also
cause excessive obstruction to the flow. Circular wells offer less resistance to lateral loads. The
maximum diameter of circular wells is generally limited to 9 m.

2. Twin Circular Wells:

Twin circular wells are advantageous when the depth of the foundation is small and the
foundation soil has high bearing capacity. However, the main disadvantage is that there will be a
differential settlement and tilting between the two wells with the loosening of sand between them
or due to unequal sinking, even though the two wells are rigidly connected by a heavy top cap,
unless the soil/rock is uniform.

3. Square/Rectangular Wells:

A Square/rectangular section is used for well foundations of small depth, of up to 8 m. For large-
size piers or abutments, double rectangular wells with two dredge holes are used. The bending
stresses are, however, very high in the steining due to sharp corners. A rectangular section is
more economical than a square section.

4. Double-D Section Wells:

Double-D shape wells are an improvement over twin rectangular and twin circular wells and
have two dredge holes each in the shape of the letter D, as shown in Fig. 21.4(g). The main
advantage of double-D wells is their high lateral stability. When the size of the pier or abutment
is large and cannot be accommodated on a single circular well economically, double-D wells will
become the most economical and commonly used alternative shape.

They are easier to sink than double rectangular or octagonal wells but require larger sinking
effort. The dimensions of the double-D section wells are so determined that the length and width
of the dredge holes are almost equal.

The disadvantage of the double-D wells is that the bending moments are large on the steining,
particularly on the junction wall between the two dredge holes. The well is prone to more tilting
due to unequal width and length of the section.

5. Hexagonal/Octagonal Wells:
Hexagonal/octagonal wells have the advantage that the sharp corners present at the junction wall
between the two dredge holes of a double-D well are eliminated, reducing the bending stresses in
the steining. However, the surface area is more than that in a double-D section well, which
increases the resistance to sinking. Concreting is also more difficult in steining. Double
hexagonal/octagonal sections accommodate the full width of the bridge more economically than
single sections.

Components of well foundation:

The various component parts of a Well Foundation are briefly described in the following.

Well Cap –
The well cap is a RCC slab of sufficient strength to transmit the forces from pier to the body of
well. It is generally kept at low water level. The dimension of the well cap should be sufficient to
accommodate the pier. The recommended minimum thickness is 0.75 m.
Steining –
It is the wall of well & is built over a wedge shaped portion called well curb. The steining is
designed such that it can be sunk under it own weight. The thickness should be sufficient so as to
overcome skin friction developed during sinking by its own weight. The minimum reinforcement
in the well staining should be 5 to 6 kg/m 3 of which 75 % is to be provided as vertical and 25 %
as lateral ties or hoop rings. The minimum thickness is 0.45 m or 1/ 8 of the external dia. of well
for brick masonry and 1/10 for wells with cement concrete. The thickness is increased by 12 cm
per each 3 m depth after sinking the 3 m of steining for brick well and 15 cm for each 6 m depth
after sinking the first 6 m of cement concrete well. The thickness can be computed as
Where D is the diameter of well, qs is the unit skin friction, is the unit weight of concrete or
Brick masonry. The thickness of the steining is a function of the size of the well
The thickness of the steining is also given by,

Where k = 1 for sand, 1.1 for soft clay and 1.25 for hard clay and boulder.
The skin friction, which is developed during sinking a well/caisson, is difficult to estimate by soil
tests. The load at which a well gets stucked during sinking is taken as the skin friction.
Experience has suggested that the skin friction is fairly constant below a depth of 7.5 m. The
following table gives the values that have been obtained for wells ranging in depth from 7.5 m to
37.5 m.
Well Curb –
The well curb supports the steining. The curb should be slightly projected from the steining to
reduce the skin friction during sinking of well. It is made of RCC with steel cutting edge. The
minimum reinforcement to be provided is 72 kg per cubic meter. The inner portion of the
steining should have a slope of 2:1 (V:H).
Cutting Edge –
The cutting edge is either projected below the curb as a sharp edge or can also have flat bottom.
The projected edge is likely to be damaged in strata of gravels and boulders. In such soils the flat
bottom cutting edge is provided.
Bottom Plug –
The bottom plug is made bowled shape in order to have an arch action. The bottom plug
transmits load to soil below. When sunk to its final depth bottom part is concreted to seal the
bottom completely. The thickness varies from ½ to full inside diameter of the well so as to be
able to resist uplift forces. The concreting should be done in one continuous operation. When
wells contain more than one dredge hole all should be plugged to the same height. If the well is
to rest on rock, it should be anchored properly by taking it 25 cm to 30 cm deep into rock The
bottom plug should be of rich concrete (1:2:4) with extra 10 % of cement. The thickness of the
bottom plug is given by:

Sand Filling –
After concreting the bottom plug the sand is filled above the bottom plug and below top plug.
Sand filling provide stability of well, reduce tensile stress produced by bending moment and
distributes the load of super structure on to the bottom plug. Sand filling relieves load to steining
to some extent.
Top Plug –
This is a plug at the top of the well below the well cap. This helps transferring the load through
the granular material into the staining.

Review Questions
MCQs
1. Based on the function, piles can be classified into ___________ types. (L1)
a) 4
b) 6
c) 8
d) 3
2. Which of the following piles is used to compact loose granular soil? (L1)
a) Friction piles
b) End bearing piles
 c) Compaction piles
d) Tension piles
3. The piles that are used for protecting structures from ships and floating object is
____________(L1)
a) Anchor piles
b) Fender piles
c) Compaction piles
d) Batter piles
4. Which of the following piles is a cast-in-situ type of concrete pile? (L1)
a) Under-reamed pile
b) Raymond standard pile
c) Pressure pile
d) Anchor pile
5. The common types of well shape are _________(L1)
a) Rectangular
b) Dumb bell
c) Single circular
d) All of the mentioned
6. __________ forms the most common type of deep foundation for bridges. (L1)
a) Pile foundation
b) Well foundation
c) Shallow foundation
d) Pier foundation
7. A disadvantage in using circular shape of well foundation is ___________(L2)
a) Minimum perimeter
b) Skin friction is maximum
c) Diameter of well is more than required
d) Sinking is more uniform
8. The most economical shape, of a well for the construction of large pier is _________(L2)
a) Twin circular
b) Double-D
 c) Rectangular
d) Single circular
9. When the under-reamed pile has only one bulb, it is called_________(L1)
a) Multi-under reamed pile
b) Single-under reamed pile
c) Unique-under reamed pile
d) All of the mentioned
10. The diameter of the under-reamed pile is kept equal to_______ times the diameter of pile
steam. (L1)
a) 4
b) 5
c) 2.5
d) 2
Short Questions
1. Give a short note on bearing capacity of piles in a group(L1)
2. What is negative skin friction? (L1)
3. In which conditions a deep foundation is desirable? (L2)
4. What do you mean by set value in context of dynamic formulae? (L2)
5. Write the dynamic pile formula? (L1)
6. List any two distinct deep foundations (L1)
Long Questions
1. Explain pile load test in detail with neat sketch(L1)
2. Write a short note on (L1)
a) Negative skin friction
b) Under reamed pile foundation
3. What is well foundation? Draw a section of a well foundation and explain the purpose
of all its components. What are the different criteria for selection of the depth of well
foundation? (L2)
4. Discuss suitability of dynamic pile formulae to determine pile load capacity. (L1)
5. What do you understand by pile group efficiency? (L2)
Problems
1. Calculate the ultimate load capacity of the group pile having 200mm diameter, 8m long
piles are used as foundations for a column in a uniform deposit of medium clay (qu=
100kN/m2) the spacing between the piles is 500mm. There are 9 piles in the ground
arranged in square pattern. Calculate the ultimate load capacity of the group. Assume
adhesion factor = 0.9 (L3)

2. A square pile group of 16 piles penetrate trough a filled up land of 3.5m depth. The pile
diameter is 300mm and pile spacing is 0.75m. The unit cohesion of material is 16kN/m2
and unit weight is 16kN/m3. Draw plan of the pile group and compute the negative skin
friction on the group. (L3)
3. a) A nine pile group arranged in a square pattern is used as foundation for column in sand
(∅=32 degrees).Piles 300mm diameter and 10 m in length, are placed at a spacing of 900
mm in each direction. Calculate Ultimate load capacity and efficiency of the pile group.

Take (L3)

4. A group of 16 piles capped at top laid in a square pattern. Each pile is of diameter 200mm
spaced at 500mm c/c and extends to a length of 7m below the ground level. The system
of foundation is found in a Normally consolidated clay(NCC) extending for 12 m below
ground level and the clay layer is underlain by a hard strata. Calculate settlement of a pile

group. . Assume clay is saturated and

load on group is 1500kN. (L3)

5. A 12m long, 300mm dia pile is driven in a uniform deposit of sand. The water table is at
great depth and is not likely to rise. The average  d = 18 kN/m3. Using Nq=137,
calculate safe load capacity of pile with a factor of safety of 2.5. (L3)
6. In a two layered cohesive soil, bored piles of 300mm are installed. The top layer has a
thickness of 5m and the bottom one is of considerable depth. The “C” value of top layer
is 40kN/m2 and that of the bottom is 100kN/m2 determine the length of the pile required
to carry a safe load of 400kN. Assume FOS of 3. Take α=0.5, Nc=9. (L3)
7. Compute the settlement of pile group (9 no.) at the center of the clay layer 1 and 2 (at
Positions A and B) as shown in Figure. Consider D p = 0.6 m, c/c spacing (d) = 1.6 m,
length of pile (Lp) = 15 m, Load dispersion starts at 2/3 of pile length measured from top
of the surface. (L3)
 UNIT IV
Lateral Earth Pressures Theories
UNIT WISE PLAN

UNIT-III: Lateral Earth Pressures Theories Planned Hours:

Blooms
S. No. Topic Learning Outcomes COs
Levels
1. Explain the different types of earth pressures CO4 L2
2. Analyze the earth pressure for the given retaining wall CO3 L3
3. Identify the tension cracks for the unsupported soil CO3 L2

When a soil mass is retained at a higher level by a retaining wall, the retained mass of the
soil tends to slide and assume a flat slope for equilibrium, which is resisted by the retaining wall.
This exerts pressure on the retaining wall, which is known as lateral earth pressure. Usually, the
retaining wall is constructed first and then the soil behind the wall is backfilled; hence, the
retained soil is often called backfill. The back of the wall is either vertical or slightly inclined to
the vertical and the lateral earth pressure is slightly inclined to the horizontal due to wall friction
and inclination of the back of the wall.
The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends on the following factors:
i. Type and extent of the movement of the wall and the resulting horizontal strain in the backfill.
ii. Properties of the backfill material, including the density (γ), cohesion (c), and angle of
shearing resistance (ɸ).
iii. Groundwater conditions in the backfill such as depth of water table and provision for
drainage.
iv. Degree of roughness of the surface of the back of the retaining wall.
v. Slope of the back of the retaining wall.
vi. Depth of the retaining wall, that is, the height of the backfill to be retained.
vii. Inclination of the backfill surface with the horizontal.
viii. Additional loads on the backfill surface such as traffic loads or additional constructions, if
any.
Types of Lateral Earth Pressure:
There are three basic types of lateral earth pressure.
1. Active earth pressure.
2. Passive earth pressure.
3. Earth pressure at rest.
These three basic types of lateral earth pressures are discussed below:
1. Active Earth Pressure:
Figure 15.1(a) shows a retaining wall of height H with a backfill having a horizontal surface. If
the retaining wall were not there, the backfill would assume a stable flat slope. We know that
cohesionless soils assume a stable slope equal to the angle of internal friction without any lateral
support. Hence, when a backfill is retained, the wedge of soil above a certain slope tends to slide
and move away from the rest of the backfill for equilibrium. This tends to push or rotate the wall
away from the backfill if the wall is free to move or rotate.
The movement of the wall away from the backfill causes expansion of the backfill, resulting in
stress release, thereby reducing the lateral earth pressure. Thus, the more is the movement of the
wall away from the backfill, the more is the horizontal strain in the backfill, in the form of
expansion, and the less is the lateral earth pressure. Initially when the wall is in a state of rest, a
typical element of backfill at any depth is subjected to vertical stress due to self-weight of soil
above the element and lateral earth pressure in the horizontal direction. The state of stress for the
soil element is represented by Mohr’s circle (I) in Fig. 15.1(b), where OB is the vertical stress
and OA1 is the lateral earth pressure at rest.

When the lateral earth pressure tends to push or rotate the wall away from the backfill, the
movement of the wall away from the backfill causes expansion of the backfill, resulting in stress
release, thereby reducing the lateral earth pressure. Thus, the more is the movement of the wall
away from the backfill, the more is the horizontal strain in the backfill, in the form of expansion,
and the less is the lateral earth pressure.
This is shown in Fig. by Mohr’s circle (II), in which σh = σ3 = OA2 is the reduced lateral earth
pressure while the vertical stress, equal to σv = σ1 = OB, remains constant. The decrease in the
lateral earth pressure thus causes increase in the diameter of Mohr’s circle, causing it to approach
the Coulomb’s failure envelope.
The decrease in the lateral earth pressure due to movement of wall away from the backfill and
consequent expansion and stress release continues until Mohr’s circle touches the Coulomb’s
failure envelope of the backfill material. When Mohr’s circle touches the failure envelope, as
shown by Mohr’s circle (III) in Fig. the backfill material is on the verge of failure (limiting equi-
librium) and no further decrease in the lateral earth pressure can take place. The minimum lateral
earth pressure exerted on the retaining wall, when the wall moves away from the backfill, and the
backfill material is in the limiting equilibrium, is known as active earth pressure.
When the wall moves away from the backfill, the backfill is said to be in the active state and the
minimum lateral earth pressure exerted by the backfill in the active state in its limiting
equilibrium condition is known as active earth pressure. Active earth pressure occurs when
Mohr’s circle of stresses at any point in the backfill touches the Coulomb’s failure envelope.
Active earth pressure is denoted by the symbol pa, and its units are kN/m 2, t/m2, or kgf/cm2. All
retaining walls, which are free to move or rotate, are by default subjected to active earth pressure
and are designed to resist the same.
2. Passive Earth Pressure:
All retaining walls are usually not placed on the ground surface on the front side but are laid at
some depth. Hence, the retaining wall has soil to some depth on its front side. When the wall
moves away from the backfill due to active earth pressure, it actually moves towards the soil on
the front side.
The movement of the wall is resisted by the front soil and exerts a lateral pressure on the wall, in
a direction opposite to that of active earth pressure, as shown in Fig. 15.2. Also, the movement of
the wall towards the front soil causes compression of the soil, which, in turn, increases the lateral
pressure from the front soil.
Thus, the more is the movement of the wall toward the front soil, the more is the horizontal strain
in the front soil, in the form of compression, and the more is the lateral earth pressure from the
front soil opposite to that of active earth pressure. This is shown in Fig. 15.3, by Mohr’s circle
(II), in which σh = σ3 = OA2 is the increased lateral earth pressure while the vertical stress, equal
to σv = σ1 = OB, remains constant. The increase in the lateral earth pressure causes decrease in
the diameter of Mohr’s circle as shown by Mohr’s circles (II) and (III), and Mohr’s circle
reduces to a point, as represented by points A4 and B, which become concurrent.

Further increase of the lateral earth pressure from the front soil makes it higher than the vertical
stress. At this stage, the lateral earth pressure becomes the major principal stress and the vertical
stress becomes the minor principal stress. This is shown by Mohr’s circles (IV), (V), (VI), etc.,
causing again an increase in the diameter of Mohr’s circle.
The increase in the diameter of Mohr’s circle leads it to approach the Coulomb’s failure
envelope. The increase in the lateral earth pressure due to the movement of wall towards the
front soil and the consequent compression continues until Mohr’s circle touches the Coulomb’s
failure envelope of the front soil.
When Mohr’s circle touches the failure envelope, as shown by Mohr’s circle (VIII) in Figure
15.3, the front soil is on the verge of failure (limiting equilibrium) and no further increase in the
lateral earth pressure can take place. The maximum lateral earth pressure exerted on the retaining
wall, when the wall moves towards the front soil, while it reaches it’s limiting equilibrium, is
known as passive earth pressure.
When the wall moves towards the front soil, the front soil is said to be in the passive state and
the maximum lateral earth pressure exerted by the front soil in the passive state in its limiting
equilibrium condition is known as passive earth pressure. Passive earth pressure occurs when
Mohr’s circle of stresses at any point in the front soil touches the Coulomb’s failure envelope.
Another practical example of passive earth pressure is the case of shear key provided below the
base of a retaining wall. A shear key shown in Fig. 15.3 is provided to improve the stability of
the wall against sliding. When the retaining wall moves away from the backfill due to active
pressure, the shear key also moves in the same direction but toward the soil below the base of the
wall on the front side.
This generates passive earth pressure on the shear key. It is denoted by the symbol p P, and its
units are kN/m2, t/m2, or kgf/cm2. Passive earth pressure is actually a stabilizing force improving
the stability of the retaining wall, unlike active earth pressure.
3. Earth Pressure at Rest:
Figure 15.4 shows a basement retaining wall in which the wall is rigidly fixed to the basement
slab. The basement retaining wall is therefore fixed in position and cannot move away from the
backfill when subjected to lateral earth pressure. The lateral earth pressure exerted by the backfill
on a retaining wall which is fixed in position and cannot move is known as earth pressure at rest.

It is denoted by the symbol p 0, and its units are kN/m2, t/m2, or kgf/cm2. As the wall does not
move, the earth pressure exerted does not cause any lateral strain, and hence, there is no
expansion of the backfill and no stress release. Earth pressure at rest is therefore always more
than active earth pressure for the same depth of soil.
The abutment of a bridge is rigidly attached to the deck slab of the bridge and is also similarly
fixed in position and hence subjected to earth pressure at rest.
Thus, lateral earth pressure exerted on a retaining wall depends on the direction and extent of the
movement of the wall. Figure shows the variation in lateral earth pressure on the y-axis as a
function of the wall movement. When the wall moves away from the backfill, lateral pressure
decreases with the increase in the movement of the wall; the minimum lateral earth pressure
exerted on the wall is known as active earth pressure.
When the wall moves toward the soil, the lateral earth pressure generated increases with the
increase in the movement of the wall; the maximum lateral earth pressure generated on the wall
is known as passive earth pressure. The lateral earth pressure exerted on the wall when the wall
is fixed in position is known as earth pressure at rest.

Derivation of Expression for Earth Pressure at Rest:

When a material is subjected to three-dimensional (3D) stresses, σ x, σy and σz, along the three
coordinate axes, x, y, and z, respectively, the strain along the x-axis can be computed from the
principles of mechanics of materials as –
ex = 1/E[σx – μ( σy + σz )] …(1)
where ex is the horizontal strain (in the X-direction), E is the modulus of elasticity of soil, and μ
is the Poisson’s ratio. In the case of earth pressure at rest –
ex = 0 …(2)
σx = σy = P0 …(3)
Substituting these values in Eq. (15.1), we have –
ex = 1/E [(p0 – μ(p0 + σz)]= 0
or p0 – μ(p0 + σz)= 0 ⇒ p0 – μp0 – μσz= 0 ⇒ p0 – (1 + μ) = μσz
p0 = [μ/(1 – μ)]σz …(4)
p0 = K0σz …(5)
where K0 is the coefficient of the earth pressure at rest and σ z is the vertical stress due to the self-
weight of the soil at depth z, where the earth pressure at rest is to be computed –
K0 = μ/(1 – μ) …(6)
Equation (6) is valid for elastic materials but not for soils, since soils are not elastic. Table 1
gives typical values of K0 for different types of backfills, as obtained from actual measurement of
earth pressure at rest.
Rankine’s Theory of Active Earth Pressure Soil
Rankine (1857) considered the equilibrium of a soil element at any depth (h) in the backfill
behind a retaining wall and determined the active earth pressure.
The assumptions made in Rankine’s theory of earth pressure may be summarized as
follows:
i. The backfill is homogeneous and semi-infinite.
ii. The backfill is dry and cohesionless.
iii. The surface of the backfill is plane and horizontal.
iv. The back of the retaining wall is vertical and smooth so that there is no friction between the
wall and the backfill when the wall moves away from the backfill.
v. The shear strength of the backfill is governed by Coulomb’s equation.
vi. The wall moves sufficiently away from the backfill so that the Mohr’s circle touches the
failure envelope and the backfill attains a state of plastic equilibrium so that lateral earth pressure
becomes minimum equal to active earth pressure.
vii. The position and direction of the resultant or total active earth pressure are known. The
resultant active pressure acts parallel to the surface of the backfill through the centroid of the
pressure diagram.
Dry Cohesionless Backfill:
Assuming the back of the wall as smooth and vertical, Rankine considered that the active earth
pressure (pa) acts horizontally for a backfill with a horizontal surface [Fig. 15.7(a)]. In the active
case, the vertical stress is more than the horizontal stress. Since both the stresses are considered
as principal stresses –
Major principal stress, σ1 = σz = γh and minor principal stress, σ3 = pa
Figure 15.6 shows the Mohr’s circle of stresses and the failure envelope for the active case.
When the soil element reaches the state of plastic equilibrium with sufficient movement of the
wall away from the backfill, the Mohr’s circle of stresses touches the Coulomb’s failure
envelope, as shown in Fig..
It is known that the principal stresses are related to the shear parameters of the backfill material
by the Bell’s equation as follows –
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2c tan α …(15.7)
Considering a dry cohesionless backfill, we have c = 0, hence –
σ1 = σz = γh (in active case) and σ3 = pa
Substituting these values in Eq. (15.7), we have –

where Ka is the Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure and is given by –

α = 45+ ɸ/2
Equation (15.8) indicates that the active earth pressure is zero at the top surface of the backfill (h
= 0) and increases linearly with depth below the surface. The distribution of active earth pressure
is shown in Fig. 15.7(b).
The total or resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is obtained by computing the area
of the pressure diagram.
Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram
that is,

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the pressure diagram.
Vertical distance of total active earth pressure above the base of the wall = yy.
For a triangular pressure distribution, we know that yy = (H/3) above the base of the wall. The
failure plane makes an angle of α = 45 + (ɸ/2) with the major principal plane. As the major
principal stress in the active case is vertical, the major principal plane is horizontal and the
failure plane makes an angle of α = 45 + (ɸ/2) with the horizontal.
Cohesionless Backfill with Surcharge:
Figure 15.9(a) shows a retaining wall with a horizontal backfill subjected to additional pressure
(surcharge) of intensity q (kN/m2) on the backfill surface. The surcharge applied at the top may
be assumed to be uniform throughout the depth of the wall. The simple principle for the
determination of active earth pressure at any level in Rankine’s theory is to multiply the vertical
stress at that depth with the Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure. Vertical stress at any
depth below the top of the backfill –

σv = γh + q …(15.12)
Hence, active earth pressure at any depth is given by –
pa = Ka σv = Ka(γh + q) ⇒ pa = Kaγh + Kaq …(15.13)
When h = 0, active earth pressure at the top of the backfill is given by –
pa0 = Ka × γ × 0 + Kaq = Kaq
When h = H, active earth pressure at the bottom of the wall is given by –
PaH = Ka × γ × H + Kaq = KaγH + Kaq
Thus, for a backfill subjected to a surcharge q at the top, the active earth pressure distribution is
trapezoidal, as shown in Fig. 15.9(b), with intensity pa0 at top and paH at bottom.
Total active earth pressure is obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram –
Pa = (Kaq) × H + 1/2 × (KaγH) × H ⇒ Pa = KaqH + KayH2/2 …(15.14)
Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the pressure diagram. From
the principles of mechanics, the distance of the centroid above the base of the wall is given by –
yy = ΣAiyi/ΣAi …(15.15)
where Ai is the area of each part of the pressure diagram, that is, A 1 and A2 and yi the distance of
the centroid of each part of the pressure diagram above the base of the wall, that is, y1 and y2.
The above principle of determination of active earth pressure when the backfill is subjected to a
surcharge of intensity q may be similarly applied for determination of active or passive earth
pressure under any backfill condition when the backfill is subjected to a surcharge. For example,
passive earth pressure due to surcharge will be equal to Kpq.
Fully Submerged Cohesionless Backfill:
Figure (a) shows a retaining wall with a fully submerged backfill, with the groundwater table at
the surface of the backfill. The principle of determination of active earth pressure is to multiply
the effective vertical stress with the lateral pressure coefficient (K a) and then add the hydrostatic
pressure due to water table, if any. This is because the hydrostatic pressure is equal in all
directions as per Pascal’s law, and hence, the lateral pressure coefficient (K a) should not be
applied to the hydrostatic pressure.
The active earth pressure at any depth h below the surface of the backfill, as per Rankine’s
theory, is given by –
pa = Ka γ’h + γw h …(16)
where Ka, the Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure, is –
K = (1 – sin ɸ)/(1 + sin ɸ)
Here γ’ is the submerged density of backfill material and γ w the density of water is 9.81 kN/m3 =
1 t/m3= 1 g/cc. The active earth pressure at the base of the wall is –
PaH = Ka γ’H + γwH
Figure (b) shows the active earth pressure distribution program. Total or resultant active earth
pressure exerted on the wall is obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram. That is –
Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram

Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the pressure diagram. The
vertical distance of total active earth pressure above the base of the wall = yy.
For a triangular pressure distribution, we know that yy = H/3 above the base of the wall.
Partially Submerged Cohesionless Backfill:
Figure (a) shows a retaining wall of height H, with a partially submerged backfill, with the
groundwater table at a depth h1 below the surface of the backfill. The soil above the water table
may be either partially or fully saturated. The bulk density of the soil is to be used for
computation of vertical stress for soil above the water table.

The active earth pressure at depth h1 below the surface of the backfill is given by –
pa1 = Ka γh1 …(18)
where
Ka = (1 – sin ɸ)/(1 + sin ɸ)
where γ is the bulk density of the backfill material above the water table, γ’ the submerged
density of the backfill material, and γw the density of water is 9.81 kN/m3 = 1 t/m3= 1 g/cc.
The active earth pressure at the base of the wall is given by –
Pa2 = Kaγh1+Kaγ’h2 + γwh2 …(19)
Figure (b) shows the active earth pressure diagram. Due to the use of submerged density, the
slope of the pressure diagram (Kaγ’) decreases below the water table (dotted line) as compared
with that (Kaγ) above the water table. As the water pressure is added, the slope of the active
pressure diagram (Kaγ’ + γw) is more than that above the water table (solid line). The total or
resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is obtained by computing the area of the
pressure diagram. That is –

Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram

Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the pressure diagram.
Vertical distance of total active earth pressure above the base of the wall is yy. The distance of the
centroid can be computed from the principles of mechanics using –

where yy is the distance of line of action of Pa above the base of the wall, A1, A2, A3 are the areas
of segments 1, 2, and 3 of the pressure diagram as shown in Fig. (b), and y 1, y2, y3 the distances
of the centroid of segments 1, 2, and 3 from the base of the wall.
Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure for Cohesive Backfill:
Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) extended Rankine’s theory of earth pressure for cohesive soils. We
know that the principal stresses are related to soil properties by Bell’s equation, which is as
follows –
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2c tan α
Consider a soil element at any depth h below the surface of the backfill, as shown in Fig. (a). In
the active case, major principal stress –
σ1 = σv = γh
Minor principal stress –
σ3 = Pa
Substituting these in Eq. (15.35), we have –
σv = pa tan2 α + 2c tan α = γh ⇒ pa tan2 α = γh – 2c tan α

Thus, active earth pressure is negative at the top of the wall and increases linearly with the
increase in depth. As the soil is weak in tension, tension cracks will develop in the negative
active earth pressure zone of the backfill. The depth of a tension crack can be obtained by
substituting pa = 0 in Eq.–
If the soil is able to withstand the negative active earth pressure, the negative pressure over the
depth htc is balanced by a positive pressure over the same depth below. Hence, the resultant
active earth pressure is zero over the depth H c = 2htc, known as critical height. Thus, excavations
in cohesive soils can stand with vertical sides without any lateral support over the critical height,
provided no tension crack is developed in the negative pressure zone. Critical height –

The total active earth pressure can be obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram.
The magnitude of total active earth pressure depends on whether a tension crack is
developed in the negative pressure zone as shown below:
Case 1 – Active Earth Pressure When Tension Crack Is Developed:
Figure (a) shows a retaining wall of height H with a cohesive backfill. Figure (b) shows the
active earth pressure diagram when a tension crack is formed. If a tension crack is developed, it
indicates that the soil has failed in the negative pressure zone and hence the negative pressure
will no longer be acting on the wall. The total active earth pressure is obtained by computing the
area of the positive pressure diagram, ignoring the negative active earth pressure as shown in
Fig. 15.24(b). That is –
Total active earth pressure = Area of the positive pressure diagram

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the resultant pressure
diagram. The height of the total active earth pressure above the base of the wall –
yy = (H – htc)/3
Case 2 – Active Earth Pressure When Tension Crack is not developed:
If a tension crack is not developed, the negative pressure over the depth h tc is balanced by a
positive pressure over the same depth below. The wall will be therefore subjected to the net
active earth pressure (shown hatched in Fig. (c)) below the critical height H c. The depth of the
wall, over which the net pressure acts, is (H – Hc).
The total active earth pressure is obtained by computing the area of the resultant pressure
diagram over this depth, as shown hatched in Fig. 15.24(c). That is –
Total active earth pressure = Area of the resultant pressure diagram

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the centroid of the resultant pressure
diagram. The height of the total active earth pressure above the base of the wall –
yy = (H – Hc)/3
Culmann’s graphical method
In this method a retaining Wall is drawn to a suitable scale as shown in the Fig.1 below.

The Various steps in the procedure are:

 Draw -line AE at an angle with the horizontal.

 Lay off on AE distances AV, A1, A2, A3 etc to a suitable scale to represent the weight of wedges
ABV, AB1, AB2, AB3, and so on.
 Lay off AD at an angle equal to to the line AE. The line AD is called pressure line.
 Draw lines parallel to AD from points V, 1, 2, 3 to intersect the assumed lines AV, A 1, A2, A3 at
points V’, l’, 2′, 3′ etc respectively.
 Join points V’, l’, 2′, 3′ etc by a smooth curve which is the pressure locus.
 Select the point C’ on pressure locus such that the tangent to the curve is parallel to the -line
AE.
 Draw CC’ parallel to the pressure line AD. The magnitude of CC’ in its natural units gives the
active pressure Pa.
 Join AC’ and produce to meet the surface of the backfill at C. AC is the rupture line.
Culmann Graphical Method for Passive Case
In this method a retaining wall is drawn to a suitable scale as shown in the Fig.

The various steps in the procedure are:

 Draw -line AE at an angle below the horizontal.
 Lay off on AE distances A2, A3, A4 etc to a suitable scale to represent the weight of
wedges AB2, AB3, AB4, and so on.

 Lay off AD at an angle equal to to the line AE. The line AD is called pressure
line.
 Draw lines parallel to AD from points, 2, 3, 4 etc to intersect the weight vectors A 2, A3,
A4 at points 2′, 3′, 4′ etc respectively.
 Join points, 2′, 3′, 4′ etc by a smooth curve which is the pressure locus.
 Select the point C’ on pressure locus curve such that the line tangent to the curve is
parallel to -line AE.
 Draw CC’ parallel to the pressure line AD. The magnitude of CC’ in its natural units
gives the passive pressure Pp.
 Join AC’. The line cuts the surface of the backfill at C. The line AC is the rupture line.

Review Questions (Levels I, II, III)

MCQs
 1. The lateral earth pressure coefficient of a soil, ka for active state, kp for passive state and
ko for at rest condition compare as (L2)
a. ko< ka< kp
b. ka< ko< kp
c. ka< kp< ko
d. kp< ko< ka
2. In passive case, the wall moves (L1)
a. Towards the back fill
b. Away from the backfill
c. No movement at all
d. Downwards
3. Based on the assumptions of Rankine’s theory, the soil mass is __________(L1)
a) Stratified
b) Submerged
c) Homogeneous
d) All of the mentioned
4. Which of the following cases for cohesion less backfill in Rankine’s theory is considered
(L1)
a) Submerged backfill
b) Moist backfill with no surcharge
c) Backfill with sloping surface
d) All of the mentioned

5. The value of K0(coefficient of earth pressure at rest) for loose sand is __________(L1)
a) 0.6
b) 0.5
c) 0.4
d) 0.8
Short Questions
1. What is earth pressure diagram? Mention its use(L2)
2. In case of active earth pressure condition major principle stress will be _____.(L2)
3. Draw representational plot between wall strain and lateral pressure exerted and label
active, passive and at rest pressures(L1)
4. What are different types of earth pressure? (L1)
5. Draw the earth pressure diagram for clayey soil. (L2)

Long Questions
 1. Write the assumptions of Rankine’s earth pressure theory and derive expressions for
coefficient of earth pressure in cases of active and passive earth pressures ,depicting the
representations on a well sketched Mohr’circle diagram. (L2)
2. What do you mean by depth of unsupported cut, derive relationship for depth of tension
crack. (L2)
3. Explain Rankine‟s theory for the cases of cohesion less backfill. (L1)
Problems
1. An anchored sheet pile is to support a mass of cohesion less soil up to a height of 6m
above ground level with horizontal anchor ties spaced at 1m intervals and located at 1m
below ground surface. If the unit weight of soil is 21kN/m3 and its angle of internal
friction is 30 degrees. Determine minimum depth of embedment of the sheet pile for
stability. (L3)
2. A retaining wall with smooth vertical back retains sand backfill for a depth of 7m. The
backfill has horizontal surface and has following properties C’=0 kPa , γ=17kN/m3,
γsat=20kN/m3. Calculate magnitude of total thrust for conditions given below
a) Top of wall is restrained against yielding
b) Top of wall is free to yielding
Wall free to yield, water table at 3.5m depth and there is no drainage. Also determine
point of application of total thrust for this case (L3)
3. A retaining wall of 7.5m height retains a cohesionless soil the top 3m has a unit weight of
18KN/m3 and φ = 300 the rest has unit weight 24KN/m3 and φ = 200. Determine the
pressure distribution on the wall. Assume water table is at 3m and also determine total
active force (L3)
4. A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back retains sand backfill for a depth of 6 m. The
backfill has a horizontal surface and has the following properties: Cohesion (c’) = 0,
Angle of Internal friction (φ’) = 28˚; Bulk Unit Weight (γ) = 19 kN/m 3; Saturated Unit
Weight (γsat) = 20 kN/m3. (L3)
Calculate the magnitude of the total thrust against the wall for the condition of
i) Backfill fully drained but the top of the wall is restrained against yielding; and
ii) Backfill fully drained and the wall is free to yield.
 UNIT V
Soil Exploration
UNIT WISE PLAN
UNIT-V: SIGNAL PROCESSING AND CONDITIONING Planned Hours:
Blooms
S. No. Topic Learning Outcomes COs
Levels
1. Describe different soil samples CO5 L1
2. Analyze the bore log report CO5 L3
3. Select appropriate samplers for collecting undisturbed soil CO5 L2
samples

A sub-surface exploration programme depends upon the type of the structure to be built
and upon the type of structure to be built and upon the variability of the strata at the proposed
site. The extent of sub-surface exploration is closely related to the relative cost of the
investigations and that of the entire project for which it is undertaken. In general, the more
detailed the investigations are done, the more is known about the sub-surface conditions. As a
result, the greater economy can be achieved in the construction of the project because the
element of uncertainty is considerably reduced. However, a limit is reached when the cost of
investigations outweighs any saving in the cost of the project, and it increases the overall cost. It
would not be economical to have investigations beyond that limit.

The extent of investigations would also depend upon the location of the project. A small house in
an already built-up area would not require much exploration. On the other hand, if the house is to
be built in a newly developed area, a detailed investigation would be required to ascertain the
location of different soil strata and their physical characteristics. If a multi-storeyed building is to
be constructed, extensive sub-surface explorations would be necessary. These buildings impose
very heavy loads and the zone of influence is also very deep. It would, therefore, be more
desirable to invest some amount on sub-surface exploration than to overdesign the building and
make it costlier. Planning of a sub-surface exploration programme is a difficult task. Besides a
thorough knowledge of soil engineering, it requires experience and engineering judgment.
Sometimes, the exploration programme has to be changed as the investigations progress. As the
variability of the soil strata is found to increase, the cost of investigations is also increased. On
the other hand, if the site is found to be underlain by uniform deposit the extent of investigations
is decreased.

In general, the aim of the investigations should be to get the maximum information that is useful
in the design and construction of the project at a minimum cost. The cost between 0.05 to 0.2%
of the total cost of the entire structure. In some unusual conditions, the cost may be even upto
1%.
The main characterstics of site investigation are:

 Determination of Nature of Soil deposit

 Depth and Thickness of soil strata
 Horizontal extent of soil deposit
 Depth of GWT and its fluctuations
 Engineering properties of soil
 Insitu soil properties
 Collection of soil and rock sample

The depth of exploration required at a particular site depends upon the degree of variation of the
subsurface data in the horizontal and vertical directions. It is not possible to fix the number,
disposition and depth of borings without making a few preliminary borings or soundings at the
site. The geotechnical engineer having a long experience and good engineering judgment may
give some guidelines.

The depth of exploration is governed by the depth of the influence zone. The depth of the
influence zone depends upon the type of the structure, intensity of loading, shape and disposition
of the loaded area, the soil profile, and the physical characteristics of the soil. The depth up to
which the stress increment due to superimposed loads can produce significant settlement and
shear stresses is known as the significant depth The depth of exploration should be at least equal
to the significant depth.

The significant depth is generally taken as the depth at which the vertical stress is 20% of the
load intensity. According to the above criterion, the depth of exploration should be-about 1.5
times the width of the square footing and 3.0 times the width of the strip footing. However, if the
footings are closely spaced, the whole of the loaded area acts as a raft foundation. In that case,
the depth of boring should be at least 1.5 times the width of the entire loaded. In the case of pile
foundation, the depth of exploration below the tip of bearing piles is kept at least 1.5 times the
width of the pile group. However, in the case of friction piles, the depth of exploration is taken
1.5 times the width of the pile group measured from the lower third point.

For explorations of deep excavations, the depth of exploration below the proposed excavation
level should be at least 1.5 times the depth of excavation: In case of road cuts, it is taken at least
equal to the width of the cut.

In case of road fills, the minimum depth of boring is 2m below the ground surface or equal to the
height of the fill, whichever is greater. In case of gravity dams, the minimum depth of boring is
twice the height of the dam
Tests Pits:
Trial pits are a simple and economical method of soil exploration to shallow depths. In this
method of exploration, a square pit is excavated and soil samples are collected at required
depths.Pits can be excavated manually with crowbars by local labor. Small tractor-mounted
mechanical excavators can also be used, if locally available, which makes the exploration faster
and economical.

Fig: test pit for soil exploration

Size of Pits:
The size of the excavation depends primarily on the space required for efficient excavation and
sample collection and on economic limits. Test pits normally are square or circular in plan, of
size 1.2-3 m. Test trenches usually are 1-2 m wide and may be extended to any length, as
required, to reveal soil conditions along a specific line.
In general, test trenches are relatively shallow, whereas test pits may be deep. It is common to
limit even test pit depths to a minimum, as the cost increases with depth. Deeper excavations are
justified in countries where labor is inexpensive.

Stabilizing Side Walls:

Excavations to depths of approximately 1.5 m often do not require lateral support to side walls.
Shallow test pits can be stabilized more economically by sloping the side walls. Deeper
excavations are generally more economical if sheeted.

Excavation for test pits below GWT requires proper dewatering arrangements to ensure stability
of the side-walls, to prevent the bottom of the pit from heaving, and to keep the test pit dry to
facilitate collection of undisturbed soil sample.

Collection of Soil Samples:

After excavating the test pit up to the required depth, the soil sample can be collected from the
bottom of the test pit. An undisturbed soil sample is collected by driving the thin-wall soil
sampler into the bottom of the test pit. This is done by placing the sampling tube vertically on the
bottom of the test pit, after making the surface level and horizontal.

A flat metal plate is placed on the top of the sampler and the sampler is driven by smooth blows
of a hammer on the flat plate up to the required depth. The soil surrounding the sampler outside
is removed and then the sampling tube, along with the soil inside, is carefully lifted from the
ground.

Any loose soil on both ends of the sampling tube is removed and the surfaces are made level.
Molten wax is poured on the surface of the soil in the sampling tube on either ends to prevent
evaporation of water from the soil sample. The sampling tube is properly labeled with sample
number, depth, test pit number, and project or site number. The sample is then carefully
transported to the laboratory for testing.

After collecting the undisturbed soil sample, the loose soil at the bottom of the pit is taken in
sufficient quantity and collected into a bag. The bag is properly labeled and transported to the
laboratory along with other samples.

Advantages of Test Pits:

Following are the advantages of test pits:

i. The method is simple and fast.

ii. Test pits are one of the most economical means of soil exploration to shallow depths.

iii. Undisturbed samples can be collected with minimum disturbance.

iv. It is possible to directly observe the soil profile and its variation in the vertical or lateral
direction by observing the walls of the test pit.

v. The presence of any lenses or pockets of weaker material can be readily identified.

vi. Test pits are particularly valuable in investigating the nature of fill material, where voids,
loosely deposited layers, or deleterious material can be readily recognized.

vii. Test pits or trenches are the only reliable means of obtaining adequate information on a filled
ground or very variable natural deposits.

When the depth of exploration is large, borings are used for exploration Depending upon the type
of soil and the purpose of boring, the following methods are used for drilling the holds.

Auger Boring
This method is fast and economical, using simple, light, flexible and inexpensive instruments for
large to small holes. It is very suitable for soft to stiff cohesive soils and also can be used to
determine ground water table. Soil removed by this is disturbed but it is better than wash boring,
percussion or rotary drilling.

This method of boring is not suitable for very hard or cemented soils, very soft soils, as then the
flow into the hole can occur. This method is also not suitable for fully saturated cohesionless soil.

Fig: Hand operated augur

Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling method of boring is useful in case of highly resistant strata. It is related to finding
out the rock strata and also to access the quality of rocks from cracks, fissures and joints. It can
conveniently be used in sands and silts also. Here, the bore holes are advanced in depth by rotary
percussion method which is similar to wash boring technique. A heavy string of the drill rod is
used for choking action. The broken rock or soil fragments are removed by circulating water or
drilling mud pumped through the drill rods and bit up through
the bore hole from which it is collected in a settling tank for
recirculation. If the depth is small and the soil stable, water
alone can be used. However, drilling fluids are useful as they
serve to stabilize the bore hole.

Drilling mud is slurry of bentonite in water. The drilling fluid

causes stabilizing effect to the bore hole partly due to higher
specific gravity as compared with water and partly due to
formation of mud cake on the sides of the hole. As the
stabilizing effect is imparted by these drilling fluids no casing is
required if drilling fluid is used.

This method is suitable for boring holes of diameter 10cm, or

more preferably 15 to20cm in most of the rocks. It is
uneconomical for holes less than 10cm diameter. The depth of
various strata can be detected by inspection of cuttings.

Percussion drilling
In case of hard soils or soft rock, auger boring or wash boring cannot be employed. For such
strata, percussion drilling is usually adopted. Here advancement
of hole is done by alternatively lifting and dropping a heavy
drilling bit which is attached to the lower end of the drilling bit
which is attached to the cable.Addition of sand increases the
cutting action of the drilling bit in clays. Whereas, when coarse
cohesionless soil is encountered, clay might have to be added to
increase the carrying capacity of slurry.After the carrying
capacity of the soil is reached, churn bit is removed and the
slurry is removed using bailers and sand pumps. Change in soil
character is identified by the composition of the outgoing
slurry.The stroke of bit varies according to the ground condition.
Generally, it is 45-100cm in depth with rate of 35-60
drops/min.It is not economical for hole of diameter less than
10cm. It can be used in most of the soils and rocks and can drill
any material.

One main disadvantage of this process is that the material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed
by heavy blows of the chisel and hence it is not possible to get good quality undisturbed samples.
It cannot detect thin strata as well.
Wash boring
It is a popular method due to the use of limited equipments. The advantage of this is the use of
inexpensive and easily portable handling and drilling equipments. Here first an open hole is
formed on the ground so that the soil sampling or rock drilling operation can be done below the
hole. The hole is advanced by chopping and twisting action of the light bit. Cutting is done by
forced water and water jet under pressure through the rods operated inside the hole.In India the
“Dheki” operation is used, i.e., a pipe of 5cm diameter is held vertically and filled with water
using horizontal lever arrangement and by the process of
suction and application of pressure, soil slurry comes out of
the tube and pipe goes down. This can be done upto a depth
of 8m –10m (excluding the depth of hole already formed
beforehand).

Just by noting the change of colour of soil coming out with

the change of soil character can be identified by any
experienced person. It gives completely disturbed sample and
is not suitable for very soft soil, fine to medium grained
cohesionless soil and in cemented soil.

Soil samples and sampling for Boring Method of

Soil Exploration

1. Disturbed sample
In disturbed sampling, the natural structures of soils gets partly or fully modified or destroyed,
although with suitable precaution the natural water content may be preserved. Disturbed sample
can be obtained by direct excavations by auger and thick wall samplers.

2. Undisturbed sample
In undisturbed sample, the natural structure and properties remain preserved. These samples are
used to tests for shear, consolidation and permeability.

3. Non-representative sample
It consists of a mixture of soil from different soil strata. Size of the soil grains as well as the
mineral constituents, might thus, have changed in such samples. Soil samples obtained from
auger cuttings and settling in some well of wash borings, can be classified in this category. Such
samples may help in determining the depths at which major changes may be occurring in
subsurface soil strata.

Sample Disturbance
This depends on the design of samplers and methods of samplings.

Design factors governing the degree of disturbances:

i. Cutting edge: A typical cutting edge of a sampler is shown in the figure

The important design features of the cutting edge are

a) Area ratio

Where D1 and D2 are internal and external diameters of the cutting edge respectively.

The area ratio should not exceed 25%. For soft sensitive soils, it should not exceed 10%.

b) Inside clearance The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a tendency to
laterally expand. The inside clearance should be large enough to allow a part of lateral expansion
to take place, but it should not be so large that it permits excessive deformations and causes
disturbances of the sample. For good sampling process, the inside clearance ratio should be
within 0.5 to 3 %. For sands silts and clays, the ratio should be

0.5 % and for stiff and hard clays (below water table), it should be 1.5 %. For stiff expansive
type of clays, it should be 3.0 %.

Where D3= inside diameter of the sample tube.

The inside clearance must lie between 1 to 10%, for undisturbed

sample it should be between 0.5 and 3%.

c) Outside clearance: It should not be much greater than the

inside clearance. Normally it lies between 0 and 2 percent. It helps
in reducing the force required to withdraw the tube.

Where D4 is the external diameter of the sample tube.

ii. Inside wall friction: The walls of the sampler should be smooth and kept properly oiled.

iii. Non-return valve: The non-return valve should permit easy and quick escape of water and
air when the sample is driven
 Borelog Report

.
 Subsoil Profile

Review Questions (Levels I, II, III)

MCQs
1. Auger boring is used in __________ type of soil. (L1)
a) Cohesion less soil
b) Cohesive soil
c) Coarse-grained soil
d) Pervious soil
2. Which of the following method is adopted for fast boring? (L2)
a) Cylindrical augers
b) Percussion boring
c) Rotary boring
d) Wash boring
 3. Hand auger can be used for depths up to ________(L1)
a) 7 m
b) 6 m
c) 2 m
d) 10 m
Short Questions
1. Does inside clearance in a sampler has some technical significance, if yes give brief. (L2)
2. What is recovery ration? What will be your interpretation of the ratio is >1. (L2)
3. Does Area ratio in a sampler has some technical significance, if yes give brief. (L2)

Long Questions
1. Interpret and design a detailed site investigation for which the following details were
available from preliminary studies(L2)
i)Soil is informed to be a highly dense soil at shallow depth
ii)Rock is deep
iii)Foundation width is approximated as 2.5m
iv)Building is proposed to have 3 levels of basement below Ground level of 3m each
Discuss in details about methods of exploration, boring, sampling, field and lab tests
adopted along with reasons.
2. Write general principles of site investigation and write a brief about the selection of
depth of exploration required(L2)
3. What is un-disturbed sampling, elaborate on methods of undisturbed sampling(L1)
PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS
Code No.: CE128

IV B.TECH. I SEM. (RA15) SUPPLEMENTARY EXAMINATIONS, APRIL – 2019

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
(CE)

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks:

70

PART – A

Answer ALL questions

All questions carry equal marks

10 x 2

1. In case of sands, will the bearing capacity reduced to zero if the ground water level rises
from deep below the foundation to ground level(Y/N).
2. Which settlement is significantly undesirable Total or Differential?
3. Explain negative skin friction.
4. List types of combined footings.
5. In which conditions a deep foundation is desirable?
6. What do you mean by set value in context of dynamic formulae?
7. In case of active earth pressure condition major principle stress will be _____.
8. Draw representational plot between wall strain and lateral pressure exerted and label
active, passive and at rest pressures.
9. Does inside clearance in a sampler has some technical significance, if yes give brief.
10. What is recovery ration? What will be your interpretation of the ratio is >1.
PART – B

Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry equal marks

5 x 10
1. A footing of width 2m founded at 5m below ground level. Determine ultimate bearing
capacities assuming ground water levels for different cases shown in diagram as 1-1, 2-2,
3-3, 4-4, 5-5. Take backfill C’=20 kPa ,Φ’=400,γd=18 kN/m3, γsat=20 kN/m3

2. a) In a situation where soil profile at shallow depths have distinct thin layers of soil
underlain, explain the suitability of a plate bearing test with neat sketches if required.
b) What are the two major criteria in defining allowable bearing pressure?
3. Explain standard penetration test in detail with neat sketch and write the correction for N
value.
4. a) A nine pile group arranged in a square pattern is used as foundation for column in sand
(∅=32 degrees).Piles 300mm diameter and 10 m in length, are placed at a spacing of 900
mm in each direction. Calculate Ultimate load capacity and efficiency of the pile group.

Take
b) Discuss suitability of dynamic pile formulae to determine pile load capacity.
5. a) A group of 16 piles capped at top laid in a square pattern. Each pile is of diameter
200mm spaced at 500mm c/c and extends to a length of 7m below the ground level. The
system of foundation is found in a Normally consolidated clay(NCC) extending for 12 m
below ground level and the clay layer is underlain by a hard strata. Calculate settlement of

a pile group. . Assume clay is saturated and

load on group is 1500kN.
b) What do you understand by pile group efficiency?
6. A retaining wall with smooth vertical back retains sand backfill for a depth of 7m. The
backfill has horizontal surface and has following properties C’=0 kPa , γ=17kN/m 3,
γsat=20kN/m3. Calculate magnitude of total thrust for conditions given below
a) Top of wall is restrained against yielding
b) Top of wall is free to yielding
Wall free to yield, water table at 3.5m depth and there is no drainage. Also determine point
of application of total thrust for this case
7. Write the assumptions of Rankine’s earth pressure theory and derive expressions for
coefficient of earth pressure in cases of active and passive earth pressures ,depicting the
representations on a well sketched Mohr’circle diagram.

8. Interpret and design a detailed site investigation for which the following details were
available from preliminary studies

i)Soil is informed to be a highly dense soil at shallow depth

ii)Rock is deep iii)Foundation width is approximated as 2.5m

iv)Building is proposed to have 3 levels of basement below Ground level of 3m each

Discuss in details about methods of exploration, boring, sampling, field and lab tests
adopted along with reasons.
 Code No.: CE128

IV B.Tech. I Sem. (RA15) Regular Examinations, Oct/Nov – 2018

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(CE)

Time: 3 Hours Max.

Marks: 70

PART – A

Answer ALL questions

All questions carry equal marks

10 x 2

1. Define ultimate bearing capacity of soil.

2. Differentiate Total and Differential settlements
3. In what conditions do you prefer Trapezoidal footing
4. List types of foundations
5. List any two distinct deep foundations
6. Write the dynamic pile formula for modified Hiley formula.
7. Define recovery ratio?
8. In case of active earth pressure condition major principle stress will be _____
9. Does Area ratio in a sampler has some technical significance, if yes give brief.
10. Define undereamed pile.
PART – B

Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry equal marks

5 x 10
1. a) Draw failure surfaces under footings and respective load settlement curves for typical
General shear failure, local shear failure and punching shear failure. Also mention your
opinions on relative heaving experienced respectively.
 b) Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 1.5m wide with its base at 1m
depth resting on dry sand stratum. Take C’= 0 kPa ,Φ’=37 0,γd=19 kN/m3. Use Terzaghi’s
theory.
Nc = 57.8 Nq = 41.4 Nγ = 42.4
2. a) Explain how do you plan and organize a SPT test in a rectangular area of 0.4hectares.
b) Explain with reasons of necessity ,types of corrections applied to recorded N value on
field in SPT test.
3. Explain plate load test in detail with neat sketch and write down the corrections.

4. a) List the criteria based on which different piles can be classified into different groups and
elaborate on details of classification.
[7]
b) Explain the phenomenon of developing negative skin friction and also write its
disadvantage.
[3]
5. A nine pile group arranged in a square pattern is used as foundation for column in sand
(∅=280).Piles 250mm diameter and 12 m in length, are placed at a spacing of 800 mm in
each direction. Calculate Ultimate load bearing capacity. Also calculate pile group
settlement if settlement of single pile having same average load as pile in a group is 2 mm.

Take

6. A retaining wall of 7.5m height retains a cohesionless soil the top 3m has a unit weight of
18KN/m3 and φ = 300 the rest has unit weight 24KN/m 3 and φ = 200. Determine the
pressure distribution on the wall. Assume water table is at 3m and also determine total
active force.
7. a) What do you mean by plastic equilibrium condition, write the equation representing
such stress condition and derive relations for active and passive cases in a cohesive soil.
[6]

b) What do you mean by depth of unsupported cut, derive relationship for depth of tension
crack.
[4]

8. a) Write general principles of site investigation and write a brief about the selection of
depth of exploration required

b) What is un-disturbed sampling, elaborate on methods of undisturbed sampling?

 *