REFURBISHING OF

MULTI-CYLINDER
PETROL ENGINE
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INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION
2. FOUR STROKE CYCLE
3. WORKING OF ENGINE
4. HYDRAULIC DYNAMOMETER
5. TEMPERATURE SENSOR AND INDICATORS
6. REFERRISHING DETAILS
7. ESTIMATION
8. MORSE TEST
9. PERFORMANCE TEST
10. PROJECT SNAPS
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CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
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1 - THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an
oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This
exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure, which are
permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful
work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement of solid
parts of the engine, by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the
entire engine itself. This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as steam
engines, which use an external combustion chamber to heat a separate working fluid,
which then in turn does work, for example by moving a piston or a turbine. The term
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is almost always used to refer specifically to
reciprocating piston engines, Wankel engines and similar designs in which combustion is
intermittent. However, continuous combustion engines, such as jet engines, most
rockets and many gas turbines are also internal combustion engines
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2 - PETROL ENGINE - HISTORY

The most commonly used source of power for motor vehicles was introduced by the
German engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in 1885. The petrol engine is a complex
piece of machinery made up of about 150 moving parts. It is a reciprocating piston
engine, in which several pistons move up and down in cylinders. A mixture of petrol and
air is introduced into the space above the pistons and ignited. The gases produced force
the pistons down, generating power. The engine-operating cycle is repeated every four
strokes (upward or downward movement) of the piston, this being known as the four-
stroke cycle. The motion of the pistons rotates a crankshaft, at the end of which is a
heavy flywheel. From the flywheel the power is transferred to the car's driving wheels
via the transmission system of clutch, gearbox, and final drive.

The parts of the petrol engine can be subdivided into several systems.

• The fuel system pumps fuel from the petrol tank into the carburetor. There it mixes
with air and is sucked into the engine cylinders. (With electronic fuel injection, it
goes directly from the tank into the cylinders by way of an electronic monitor.)

• The ignition system supplies the sparks to ignite the fuel mixture in the cylinders. By
means of an ignition coil and contact breaker, it boosts the 12-volt battery voltage to
pulses of 18,000 volts or more. These go via a distributor to the spark plugs in the
cylinders, where they create the sparks. (Electronic ignitions replace these parts.)
Ignition of the fuel in the cylinders produces temperatures of 700°C/1,300°F or more,
and the engine must be cooled to prevent overheating.

• Most engines have a water-cooling system, in which water circulates through

channels in the cylinder block, thus extracting the heat. It flows through pipes in a
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radiator, which are cooled by fan-blown air. A few cars and most motorcycles are air-
cooled, the cylinders being surrounded by many fins to present a large surface area
to the air.

• The lubrication system also removes some heat, but its main job is to keep the
moving parts coated with oil, which is pumped under pressure to the camshaft,
crankshaft, and valve-operating gear.

3 - ENGINE & WORKING PRINCIPLES

A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The combustion
of fuel such as coal, petrol, diesel generates heat. This heat is supplied to a working substance at
high temperature. By the expansion of this substance in suitable machines, heat energy is
converted into useful work. Heat engines can be further divided into two types:

(i) External combustion and

(ii) Internal combustion.

In a steam engine the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine and the steam thus,
formed is used to run the engine. Thus, it is known as external combustion engine. In the case of
internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder itself.

The IC engine can be further classified as:

(i) stationary or mobile,
(ii) (ii) horizontal or vertical
(iii) low, medium or high speed.
(iv) injection and
(v) carburetor.
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4 - CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF IC ENGINE:

The cross section of IC engine is shown in Fig. 1. A brief description of these parts is given below.

4.1 - Cylinder:

The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion of the engine power
unit. Its major function is to provide space in which the piston can operate to draw in the fuel
mixture or air (depending upon spark ignition or compression ignition), compress it, allow it to
expand and thus generate power. The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some
cases, to give greater strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and
molybdenum are added to the cast iron. Ref fig 4.1

FIG.4.1 FIG.4.2

4.2 - Piston:

The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power to the
crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the combustion of the fuel. The
piston is closed at one end and open on the other end to permit direct attachment of the
connecting rod and its free action. The materials used for pistons are grey cast iron, cast steel
and aluminum alloy. However, the modern trend is to use only aluminum alloy pistons in the
tractor engine. Ref fig 4.2.
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4.3 - Piston Rings:

These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and elasticity
indefinitely. The primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression and at the same
time reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus reducing friction
losses and excessive wear. The other important functions of piston rings are the control of the
lubricating oil, cylinder lubrication, and transmission of heat away from the piston and from the
cylinder walls. Piston rings are classed as compression rings and oil rings depending on their
function and location on the piston. Compression rings are usually plain one-piece rings and are
always placed in the grooves nearest the piston head. Oil rings are grooved or slotted and are
located either in the lowest groove above the piston pin or in a groove near the piston skirt. Their
function is to control the distribution of the lubricating oil to the cylinder and piston surface to
prevent unnecessary or excessive oil consumption.

4.4 - Piston Pin:

The connecting rod is connected to the piston through the piston pin. It is made of case-hardened
alloy steel with precision finish. There are three different methods to connect the piston to the
connecting rod.

4.5 - Connecting Rod:

This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. The end connecting the piston is
known as small end and the other end is known as big end. The big end has two halves of a bearing
bolted together. The connecting rod is made of drop forged steel and the section is of the I-beam
types.
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4.6 - Crankshaft:

This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear motion of the
piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the crankshaft are supported
on main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel bolted to the
crankshaft help in the smooth running of the engine.

4.7 - Engine Bearings:

The crankshaft and camshaft are supported on anti-friction bearings. These bearings must be
capable of withstanding high speed, heavy load and high temperatures. Normally, cadmium,
silver or copper lead is coated on a steel back to give the above characteristics. For single cylinder
vertical/horizontal engines, the present trend is to use ball bearings in place of main bearings of
the thin shell type.
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4.8 - Valves:

To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to escape from the cylinder, valves
are provided, known as inlet and exhaust valves respectively. The valves are mounted either on
the cylinder head or on the cylinder block.

4. 9 - Camshaft:
The valves are operated by the action of the camshaft, which has separate cams for the inlet, and
exhaust valves. The cam lifts the valve against the pressure of the spring and as soon as it changes
position the spring closes the valve. The cam gets drive through either the gear or sprocket and
chain system from the crankshaft. It rotates at half the speed of the camshaft.

4.10 - Flywheel
This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain uniform engine speed
by carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power from a piston.
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The size of the flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and size of the engine.
It also helps in balancing rotating masses.

4.11 - MATERIALS

Table-1
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5 - PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF IC ENGINES:

5.1 - FOUR-STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

In this gasoline is mixed with air, broken up into a mist and partially vaporized in a carburetor
(Fig. 5). The mixture is then sucked into the cylinder. There it is compressed by the upward
movement of the piston and is ignited by an electric spark. When the mixture is burned, the
resulting heat causes the gases to expand. The expanding gases exert a pressure on the piston
(power stroke). The exhaust gases escape in the next upward movement of the piston. The
strokes are similar to those discussed under four-stroke diesel engines. The various temperatures
and pressures are shown in Fig. 6. The compression ratio varies from 4:1 to 8:1 and the air-fuel
mixture from 10:1 to 20:1.
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5.2 - ENGINE-OPERATING CYCLE OF PETROL ENGINE

Each movement of the cylinder up or down the cylinder is one stroke of the four-
stroke combustion cycle or Otto cycle. Most modern internal combustion engines use the
four-stroke cycle. The four stroke cycle consists of an induction stroke where air and fuel
are taken into the cylinder as the piston moves downwards, a compression stroke where
the air and fuel are compressed by the upstroke of the cylinder, the ignition or power
stroke where the compressed mixture is ignited and the expansion forces the cylinder
downwards, and an exhaust stroke where the waste gases are forced out of the cylinder.
The intake and outlet ports open and close to allow air to be drawn into the cylinder and
exhaust gases to be expelled.

During the intake stroke the inlet valve opens at the top of the cylinder, as the
piston moves down air and fuel are drawn into the cylinder. As the piston reaches its
lowest position the inlet valve closes and the piston travels upwards compressing the air-
fuel mixture. As the piston reaches its highest position at maximum compression a spark
ignites the mixture causing a rapid expansion of gas raising the pressure in the cylinder
and forcing the piston downwards. Once the cylinder has reached its lowest position the
outlet port opens and as the piston rises the cylinder the exhaust gases are forced out.
The valves which open and close the port are sprung to make them naturally close. The
valves are opened by a system of rotating cams and pushrods driven by a camshaft which
in turn is timed and driven from the crankshaft.
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5.2.1 - Intake

The intake stroke of the combustion cycle is when the piston travels down the
cylinder with the intake port/ports open. A mixture of air and explosive fuel are drawn
into the cylinder, the proportions of which are called the air-fuel ratio. Both the air-fuel
ratio and the quality of the mixture (dispersion, droplet size etc.) is important for an
efficient combustion process. There are two methods of mixing air and fuel in a
combustion engine, using a carburetor or fuel injection system.

In a carbureted engine, during the intake stroke of the piston a vacuum is created
in the inlet manifold. With a multi cylinder engine the vacuum is almost constant. The
carburetor is located at the top of the manifold and air is drawn through it by the vacuum
created in the manifold. The carburetor has a small fuel chamber supplied from the fuel
tank by a pump, fuel passes through the carburetor to small fuel jets positioned in the air
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flow. The flow of air past the jets creates a pressure difference causing the fuel to be
drawn out. The fuel vaporizes in the air flow and passes through the manifold and into
cylinders on their intake stroke. The diagram below shows the basic operation of a fixed
jet carburetor.

Electronic fuel injection systems spray fuel at high pressure either directly into the
combustion chamber or into the intake port of the cylinder during the intake stroke. Using
fuel injection enables improved control over the air-fuel mixture and reduces the power
required to draw fuel from the jets. The diagram below shows a typical electronic fuel
injection system.

Diesel engines typically use direct injection which injects fuel directly into the
combustion chamber during the compression stroke. The intake stroke on a diesel engine
only draws air into the cylinder.

5.2.2 - Compression

The compression stroke is the upwards movement of the piston in the cylinder
with the valves closed following the intake stroke. This upwards motion compresses the
fuel air mixture inside the combustion chamber raising the pressure. The difference
between the initial volume of the cylinder and the final volume at the top of the
compression stroke is known as the compression ratio. Typically, this is approximately 9:1
in spark ignition engines and 15:1 for diesel engines. The compression ratio is particularly
important in compression fired engines such as diesel engines. The fuel-air mix and
compression ratio is critical to avoid pre-ignition which is the abnormal ignition of fuel in
the combustion chamber before the combustion stroke. In diesel engines the fuel is
injected under high pressure towards the top of the compression stroke. The distribution
of fuel before combustion is also of interest because it affects the efficiency of
combustion.
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5.2.3 - Combustion

Spark plugs are used to generate the spark which ignites the compressed fuel and
air mixture in the spark ignition engine. To generate the spark a high voltage of around
20,000 Volts is applied. Low voltage current is fed through the primary winding of an
inductor coil generating a magnetic field. The high voltage is generated when the low
voltage supply is interrupted, and the magnetic field breaks down generating a high
voltage in the secondary winding which has a much larger number of coils. The low
voltage supply to the coil is controlled by the distributor which also controls the spark
plug that the high voltage surge is sent to. The distributor timing is critical and usually is
timed mechanically from the engine. The diagram below shows the typical set-up of an
ignition system for a spark ignition engine.

Compression ignition engines such as the diesel engine do not use spark plugs to
ignite the fuel-air mix. When the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke the
temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber is enough to ignite the mixture.
Controlled ignition in both spark ignition and diesel engines is essential for efficient
combustion and avoid uncontrolled combustion effects such as pre-ignition, auto-ignition
and engine knock.

5.2.4 - Exhaust
Exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder by the upwards motion of the piston
following the ignition stroke. The exhaust gases are passed into the exhaust manifold and
channeled into the exhaust pipe where they are released into the atmosphere. The
exhaust system may contain a smoke box to trap the larger soot particles, it may also be
fitted with a catalytic converter which removes some of the harmful components from
the exhaust gases. On newer cars some of the exhaust gases are recycled back into the
inlet system (typically at the manifold or air filter), this is known as exhaust gas re-
circulation EGR.
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The efficiency of the combustion process and the design of the engine determine
the exhaust constituents. Typically exhaust gases contain oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrous oxides, particulates and unburned
hydrocarbons.
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5.2.5 - Exhaust and Inlet Valve Overlap

Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition between the exhaust and inlet
strokes and is a practical necessity for the efficient running of any internal combustion
engine. Given the constraints imposed by the operation of mechanical valves and the
inertia of the air in the inlet manifold, it is necessary to begin opening the inlet valve
before the piston reaches Top Dead Centre (TDC) on the exhaust stroke. Likewise, in order
to effectively remove all of the combustion gases, the exhaust valve remains open until
after TDC. Thus, there is a point in each full cycle when both exhaust and inlet valves are
open. The number of degrees over which this occurs and the proportional split across TDC
is very much dependent on the engine design and the speed at which it operates.
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6 - ENGINE TYPES

Most engines in motor vehicles today are four-stroke, spark-ignition internal

combustion engines. The exceptions like the diesel and rotary engines will not be covered
in this resource.
There are several engine types which are identified by the number of cylinders
and the way the cylinders are laid out. Motor vehicles will have from 3 to 12 cylinders
which are arranged in the engine block in several configurations. The most popular of
them are shown on the left. In-line engines have their cylinders arranged in a row. 3, 4, 5-
and 6-cylinder engines commonly use this arrangement. The "V" arrangement uses two
banks of cylinders side-by-side and is commonly used in V-6, V-8, V-10 and V-12
configurations. Flat engines use two opposing banks of cylinders and are less common
than the other two designs. They are used in engines from Subaru and Porsche in 4- and
6-cylinders arrangements as well as in the old VW beetles with 4 cylinders. Flat engines
are also used in some Ferraris with 12 cylinders
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7 - COMPARISON OF CI AND SI ENGINES

The CI engine has the following advantages over the SI engine.

1. Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This is because in
case of the failure of the battery, ignition or carburetor system, the SI engine cannot
operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for each cylinder, has less
risk of failure.
2. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a separate
injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is not uniform, owing
to the design of the single carburetor and the intake manifold.
3. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is longer, its
maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.
4. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine; therefore, the
heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that of the SI engine.
Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be of smaller dimensions.
5. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which results in better top
gear performance.
6. The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after starting from
cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
7. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI engine.
8. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimized due to the absence of the ignition system.
9. On part load, the specific fuel consumption of the CI engine is low.
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8 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TWO-STROKE CYCLE

OVER FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

8.1 - Advantages:

1) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft.
Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine speed and cylinder volume is
twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which gives only one working stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft. However, in practice, because of poor scavenging, only 50-60%
extra power is developed.
2) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning moment on the
crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine requires a lighter flywheel.
3) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is much simpler and
their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.
4) The power required to overcome frictional resistance of the suction and exhaust strokes is
saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
5) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve mechanism, the
mechanical efficiency is higher.
6) The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.
7) For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires less space than a
four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for use in small machines and
motorcycles.
8) A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed especially when the
crankcase compression is used.
9) Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.
10) A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less type.
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8.2 - Disadvantages:

1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of the charges
take place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication system and
normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as effective as the lubrication of a
four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the two-stroke engine are subjected to greater wear
and tear.
3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the exhaust. Hence,
the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.
4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat produced. At
the same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at light loads.
5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat generated.
6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual compression starts only
after both the inlet and exhaust ports have been closed. Hence, the compression ratio of this
engine is lower than that of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions. As the efficiency of an
engine is directly proportional to its compression ratio, the efficiency of a two-stroke cycle
engine is lower than that of a four-stroke cycle engine of the same size.
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CHAPTER -2
LITERATURE REVIEW
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PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The basic performance parameters are the following:

1. Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
2. Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
3. Specific Output.
4. Volumetric Efficiency.
5. Fuel-air Ratio.
6. Specific Fuel Consumption.
7. Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
8. Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.

BASIC MEASUREMENTS

The basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine on almost

all tests are the following:
1. Speed
2. Fuel consumption
3. Air consumption
4. Smoke density
5. Brake horse-power
6. Indicated horse power and friction horse power
7. Heat going to cooling water
8. Heat going to exhaust
9. Exhaust gas analysis.
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OBJECTIVES

Laboratory work on engine testing is intended to bring students into contact with running
engines, allowing us
1. to learn the basic procedures of engine testing
2. to verify, measure, and interpret engine performance and how this performance
changes when the test conditions change to “feel” the engine, i.e., to develop sensorial
awareness to how a running engine sounds, smells, vibrates, realizes heat, etc.
3. It is intended that each of us is directly involved in (and responsible for) one of the
following engine tests (and writes the corresponding report), and participates in at least
one of the other tests:
a. influence of load at constant speed in a spark ignition (SI) engine
b. influence of engine speed in a SI engine for constant throttle position
c. influence of ignition timing at constant speed and constant throttle position in a
SI engine
d. influence of air/fuel ratio at constant speed and constant throttle position in a SI
engine
e. influence of compression ratio at constant speed and constant throttle position
in a SI engine.

Objectives of Testing In general, the purposes of testing an internal combustion engine are:
1. to obtain information about the engine which cannot be determined by calculations.
2. to confirm data used in design, the validity of which is in doubt
3. to satisfy the customer as to the rated power output with the guaranteed fuel
consumption.
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The majority of tests on internal combustion engines are carried out for commercial purposes
in order to check the following:
1. rated power (brake power) with the guaranteed fuel consumption (kg/kW-hr.)
2. the quantity of lubricating oil required on brake power basis per kW-hr.
3. the quantity of cooling water required on brake power basis in kg per kW-hr.,
4. the steadiness of the engine when loaded at different loads, and
5. the overload carrying capacity of the engine.

Complete thermodynamic tests are quite different from the commercial tests. They are carried
out for the purpose of comparing actual results with the theoretical or ideal performance. For
such tests it is necessary to measure losses in addition to the useful part of the energy, and also
to draw up a heat balance account. Such trials have been ( the direct cause of, and incentive to,
the improvement in heat engines throughout the period of their development. This interest
created a demand for authentic records of engine performance, which could only be satisfied
by exhaustive trials carefully observed and calculated.
The measurements necessary to determine the mechanical and thermal j efficiencies of the
engine and to draw up the heat balance account are :
1. Indicated power
2. Brake power
3. Morse test for mechanical efficiency in case of multi-cylinder high speed engines
4. Rate of fuel consumption and its calorific value
5. Rate of flow of cooling water and its rise of temperature, for calculating the heat carried
away by jacket cooling water
6. Heat carried away by the exhaust gases
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METHODOLOGY

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its
assigned task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the
useful mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the
following
1. Specific Fuel Consumption.
2. Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
3. Specific Power Output.
4. Specific Weight.
5. Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these
performance parameters.
For Example : For an aircraft engine specific weight is more important whereas for an
industrial engine specific fuel consumption is more important. For the evaluation of an
engine performance few more parameters are chosen and the effect of various operating
conditions, design concepts and modifications on these parameters are studied.

The basic performance parameters are the following:

1. Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
2. Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
3. Specific Output.
4. Volumetric Efficiency.
5. Fuel-air Ratio.
6. Specific Fuel Consumption.
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7. Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.

8. Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
9. Specific Weight. Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.

• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and
linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity.
• Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as
well as speed. The force or torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and
the speed by a tachometer. The power developed by an engine and measured at the
output shaft is called the brake power (bp) and is given by,

where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.

The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is,
however, more than the bp and is called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed
by the engine, i.e. ip, some power is consumed in overcoming the friction between
moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air and removing the products of
combustion from the engine combustion chamber.

It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of
combustion efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.

where, pm = Mean effective pressure,

N/m2 , L = Length of the stroke, m,
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A = Area of the piston, m2 ,

N = Rotational speed of the engine,
rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.

Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of mean
effective pressure. The difference between the ip and bp is the indication of the power
lost in the mechanical components of the engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of
mechanical efficiency; which is defined as follows:

The difference between ip and bp is called friction power (fp)

Mean Effective Pressure and Torque Mean effective pressure is defined as a

hypothetical/average pressure which is assumed to be acting on the piston throughout
the power stroke. Therefore,

where,
Pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2 ,
Ip = Indicated power, Watt,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2 ,
N = Rotational speed of the engine,
rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.
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If the mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called the brake mean effective
pressure (bmep Pmb replace ip by bp and if based on ihp it is called indicated mean
effective pressure (imep).

Similarly, the friction mean effective pressure (fmep) can be defined as,
The torque is related to mean effective pressure by the relation

Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size. A large
engine produces more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this reason,
torque is not the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for
producing power from fuel. It is the mean effective pressure which gives an indication of
engine displacement utilization for this conversion. Higher the mean effective pressure,
higher will be the power developed by the engine for a given displacement. Again we see
that the power of an engine is dependent on its size and speed. Therefore, it is not
possible to compare engines on the basis of either power or torque. Mean effective
pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of different engines.

Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to which

the engine fills its swept volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to the
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swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it

can be defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured
at intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.

The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of
an engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned
and the power output. For supercharged engine the volumetric efficiency has no
meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.
Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A) IC Engine Testing Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to
the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio.
Fuel-air ratio of the mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines
the flame propagation velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the
maximum temperature and the completeness of combustion. Relative fuel-air ratio is
defined as the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio
required to burn the fuel supplied. Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air
is one in which case fuel is completely burned due to minimum quantity of air supplied.

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of
fuel consumed for each unit of brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication
of the efficiency with which the engine develops power from fuel.
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Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the
chemical energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated
output. It is the true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel
(input) is converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for
combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is
not converted into heat energy during combustion.

where, Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and

mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
1. The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms – a part is in the form of brake
output, a part into exhaust, and the rest is taken by cooling water and the lubricating oil.
2. The break-up of the total energy input into these different parts is called the heat balance.
3. The main components in a heat balance are brake output, coolant losses, heat going to
exhaust, radiation and other losses.
4. Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount of energy wasted in
various parts and allows us to think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.

BASIC MEASUREMENTS
The basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine on
almost all tests are the following :
(a) Speed
(b) Fuel consumption
(c) Air consumption
(d) Smoke density
(e) Brake horse-power
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(f) Indicated horse power and friction horse power

(g) Heat going to cooling water
(h) Heat going to exhaust
(i) Exhaust gas analysis.
In addition to above a large number of other measurements may be necessary depending
upon the aim of the test. 7.3.1 Measurement of Speed One of the basic measurements
is that of speed. A wide variety of speed measuring devices are available in the market.
They range from a mechanical tachometer to digital and triggered electrical
tachometers. The best method of measuring speed is to count the number of revolutions
in a given time. This gives an accurate measurement of speed. Many engines are fitted
with such revolution counters. A mechanical tachometer or an electrical tachometer can
also be used for measuring the speed. The electrical tachometer has a three-phase
permanent-magnet alternator to which a voltmeter is attached. The output of the
alternator is a linear function of the speed and is directly indicated on the voltmeter dial.
Both electrical and mechanical types of tachometers are affected by the temperature
variations and are not very accurate. For accurate and continuous measurement of speed
a magnetic pick-up placed near a toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft can be used.
The magnetic pick-up will produce a pulse for every revolution and a pulse counter will
accurately measure the speed. 7.3.2 Fuel Consumption Measurement Fuel consumption
is measured in two ways :
(a) The fuel consumption of an engine is measured by determining the volume flow in a
given time interval and multiplying it by the specific gravity of the fuel which should be
measured occasionally to get an accurate value.
(b) Another method is to measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of
fuel.
Accurate measurement of fuel consumption is very important in engine testing work. IC
Engine Testing As already mentioned two basic types of fuel measurement methods are
• Volumetric type
• Gravimetric type.
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Volumetric type flowmeter includes Burette method, Automatic Burrette flowmeter and
Turbine flowmeter. Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement The efficiency of an engine is
related to the kilograms of fuel which are consumed and not the number of litres. The
method of measuring volume flow and then correcting it for specific gravity variations is
quite inconvenient and inherently limited in accuracy. Instead if the weight of the fuel
consumed is directly measured a great improvement in accuracy and cost can be
obtained. There are three types of gravimetric type systems which are commercially
available include Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Four Orifice Flowmeter, etc. 7.3.3
Measurement of Air Consumption One can say the mixture of air and fuel is the food for
an engine. For finding out the performance of the engine accurate measurement of both
is essential. In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite
difficult because the flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because
the air a compressible fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the
induction pipe is not satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and unreliable. All
kinetic flow-inferring systems such as nozzles, orifices and venturies have a square law
relationship between flow rate and differential pressure which gives rise to severe errors
on unsteady flow. Pulsation produced errors are roughly inversely proportional to the
pressure across the orifice for a given set of flow conditions. The various methods and
meters used for air flow measurement include (a) Air box method, and (b) Viscous-flow
air meter. 7.3.4 Measurement of Exhaust Smoke All the three widely used smokemeters,
namely, Bosch, Hartridge, and PHS are basically soot density (g/m3 ) measuring devices,
that is, the meter readings are a function of the mass of carbon in a given volume of
exhaust gas. Hartridge smokemeter works on the light extinction principle. The basic
principles of the Bosch smokemeter is one in which a fixed quantity of exhaust gas is
passed through a fixed filter paper and the density of the smoke stains on the paper are
evaluated optically. In a recent modification of this type of smokemeter units are used
for the measurement of the intensity of smoke stain on filter paper. In Von Brand
smokemeter which can give a continuous reading a filter tape is continuously moved at
a uniform rate to which the exhaust from the engine is fed. The smoke stains developed
 P a g e | 34

on the filter paper are sensed by a recording head. The single obtained from the
recording head is calibrated to give smoke density.

MEASUREMENT OF BRAKE POWER

The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular
speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.
Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption
dynamometers and transmission dynamometer. Figure 7.3 shows the basic principle of
a dynamometer. A rotor driven by the engine under test is electrically, hydraulically or
magnetically coupled to a stator. For every revolution of the shaft, the rotor periphery
moves through a distance 2πr against the coupling force F. Hence, the work done per
revolution is .

Hydraulic Dynamometer Hydraulic dynamometer shown in Figure 7.6 works on the

principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction rather than in dry friction. • In principle
its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel. • It consists of an inner rotating
member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine. • This impeller rotates in
a casing filled with fluid. • This outer casing, due to the centrifugal force developed, tends
to revolve with the impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm supporting the balance
weight. • The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are measured by the
spring-balance fitted on the casing. • The heat developed due to dissipation of power is
carried away by a continuous supply of the working fluid, usually water. • The output can
be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved in and out to partially
or wholly obstruct the flow of water between impeller, and the casing.
P a g e | 35
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Hydraulic Dynamometer Hydraulic dynamometer shown in Figure 7.6 works on

the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction rather than in dry friction.
 P a g e | 37

•
In principle its construction is like that of a fluid flywheel.
• It consists of an inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the
engine.
• This impeller rotates in a casing filled with fluid.
• This outer casing, due to the centrifugal force developed, tends to revolve with the
impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm supporting the balance weight.
• The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are measured by the spring-
balance fitted on the casing.
• The heat developed due to dissipation of power is carried away by a continuous
supply of the working fluid, usually water.
• The output can be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved in
and out to partially or wholly obstruct the flow of water between impeller, and the
casing.
P a g e | 38
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Temperature sensor & Indicators

TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS

1. Thermistor
2. Resistive Temperature Device (RTD)
3. Thermocouple
4. Integrated Silicon Linear Sensor

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DEVICE (RTD)

1. Very Accurate and stable
2. Reasonably wide temperature range
3. More expensive
4. Positive Temperature Constant and rather constant
5. Requires current excitation
6. Smaller Resistance range
 P a g e | 40

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF

MULTI CYLINDER PETROL

ENGINE
 P a g e | 41

ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS:

* TYPE: 4-Stroke, 4-Cylinder, Petrol Engine (Water cooled)

* MAKE: Isuzu 1.8L
* RATED POWER OUTPUT: 75HP (56 KW) at 5000rpm.
* BORE DIAMETER ‘D’ : 84mm
* STROKE LENGTH ‘L’ : 82mm
* COMPRESSION RATIO: 8.5:1
* STARTING: Ignition
* COOLING SYSTEM: Water cooled.

REFURBISHING
INITIAL CONDITION OF MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE MORSE TEST-RIG

As per lab instructor and mechanic engine has not run since 4 to 5 years. engine
oil has not been changed. Temperature sensor is not in working condition. RPM sensor
not in working condition.

Hydraulic dynamometer was jammed due to idle for long period. Fuel tank pipes
and overflow pipes are not in good condition. Cooling water piping connection was
damaged. Internal engine parts were jammed due to insufficient lubrication. Air filter has
 P a g e | 42

not been changed since purchase. Battery has not been purchased. Ignition key was lost.
Calorimeter was filled with dirt. Cooling water pipes was damaged.

FINAL CONDITION OF MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE MORSE TEST-RIG

1. Calorimeter refurbishing – servicing of calorimeter, removing of dirt particles

and replacing of connecting pipes.

2. Water manometer refurbishing – servicing of monometer, removing of foreign particles

and replacing of connecting pipes.

3. Temperature sensor rectification – servicing and connecting of sensors to the engine, due

to non-availability of some rare sensor same has been adjusted.

4. Ignition switch - complete ignition switch was replaced dur to loss of first key.

5. Carburetor service – carburetor was filled with dirt and its one of the oldest types of

carburetor. Complete service by replacing internal minor parts.

6. Cooling water pipe fitting-complete fixing of water-cooling pipes with new ball valves and

fitting which was damaged.

7. New battery 12v was purchased with cables and battery clamps.

8. RPM indicators was replaced with new one.

9. Air filter complete service.

10. Hydraulic dynamometer service due to non-run for long period.

11. Complete engine service due to non-run for long period.

12. Replaced full engine oil.

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MORSE TEST ON MULTI

CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

AIM:

To find the indicated power (IP) on Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine by Morse test.

APPARATUS WITH SPECIFICATION:

• Multi cylinder water cooled petrol engine.

a. Make: Hindustan Motors Ambassador Classic 1800 ISZ MPFI
b. Rated Horsepower:
c. No. of Cylinders: MPFI with 4 Cylinder OHC
d. Cylinder Bore: 84 mm
e. Stroke: 82 mm
• Dynamometer:
a. Type: Hydraulic dynamometer
• Tachometer.
 P a g e | 45

THEORY:

The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate Indicated Power of a Multi-cylinder
Engine. It consists of running the engine against a dynamometer at a speed, cutting out the firing
of each cylinder in turn and noting the fall in BP each time while maintaining the speed constant.
When one cylinder is cut off, power developed is reduced and speed of engine falls.
Accordingly, the load on the dynamometer is adjusted to restore the engine speed. This is done
to maintain FP constant, which is independent of the load and proportional to the engine speed.
The observed difference in BP between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut off is the IP
of the cut off cylinder. Summation of IP of all the cylinders would then give the total IP of the
engine under test.

Definitions:

Break power: (BP)

The useful power available at the crank shaft of the engine is called brake power of the engine.
The brake power of the engine is determined by

B.P = (W*N)/C (Hydraulic dynamometer)

W = Load , N = Speed in RPM C = Dynamometer constant

Indicated power: (I P)
The power developed inside the engine cylinder due to the combustion of the fuel are called
indicated power.
IP1 = (BPT - BP2,3,4 ) KW
IP2 = (BPT - BP1,3,4 ) KW
IP3 = (BPT - BP1,2,4 ) KW
IP4 = (BPT - BP1,2,3 ) KW
Total IP of the Engine, IPT = ( IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) KW
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Frictional power (FP):

The power loss due to friction between the moving parts are called as frictional power.

Mechanical efficiency:
Mechanical efficiency= (BP / IP) x 100

Procedure:

• Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability
of cooling water.
• Set the dynamometer to zero load.
• Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition.
Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Record this engine
speed and dynamometer reading for the BP calculation.
• Now cut off one cylinder. Short-circuiting its spark plug can do this.
• Reduce the dynamometer load so as to restore the engine speed as at step 3. Record
the dynamometer reading for BP calculation.
• Connect the cut off cylinder and run the engine on all cylinders for a short time. This
is necessary for the steady state conditions.
• Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 for other remaining cylinders turn by turn and record
the dynamometer readings for each cylinder.
• Bring the dynamometer load to zero, disengage the dynamometer and stop the
engine.
• Do the necessary calculations.
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SHORTED
SL. NO SPPED IN RPM LOAD
CYLINDER

INITIAL LOAD
(ALL CYLINDER IN
ACTING
CONDITION)

WITH NO.1
CYLINDER
SHORTED

WITH NO.2
CYLINDER
SHORTED

WITH NO.3
CYLINDER
SHORTED

WITH NO.4
CYLINDER
SHORTED

CYLINDER
SL. NO BRAKEOWER BP IN KW IP OF CUTOFF CYLINDER IN KW
WORKING

1 1-2-3-4 BPT=

2 2, 3 ,4 BP234= IP1=

3 1, 3, 4 BP134= IP2=

4 1, 2, 4 BP124= IP3=

5 1, 2, 3 BP123= 1P4=
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FOUR CYLINDER, 4-
STROKE, PETROL ENGINE

TEST RIG
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AIM: To Conduct performance test on three cylinder, 4-stroke, petrol engine test rig

DESCRIPTION:

The test Rig consists of Four-Stroke, Four Cylinder Petrol Engine to be tested for performance is
connected to Dynamometer (Hydraulic dynamometer). The arrangement is made for the
following measurements of the set-up:
1. The engine is provided with self-starter arrangement consisting of a battery, dynamo and
switch.
2. Exhaust gas calorimeter is fitted to draw the Heat Balance Sheet.
3. The water flow rate for cooling the engine is kept constant
4. The water flow rate for exhaust gas calorimeter is measured separately by measuring jar and
stop clock.
5. The different Hydraulic loadings are achieved by operating the hand wheel of Hydraulic
Dynamometer.
6. The mechanical energy is measured by Torque arm of the Hydraulic dynamometer.
7. The engine speed (RPM) is measured by electronic digital meter.
8. Temperature at different points is measured by electronic digital temperature indicator with
thermocouple. The whole instrumentation is mounted on a self-contained unit ready for
operation.
OPERATION:

1. Check the petrol in the petrol tank.

2. Allow water to flow through the engine and calorimeter.
 P a g e | 50

3. Allow petrol, start the engine by key provided without engaging the clutch.
4. Engage the clutch, set the engine speed, by adjusting the speed regulator provided at the
control panel.
5. Apply load by rotating the Hand Wheel on the Hydraulic dynamometer.
6. Now adjust the speed using speed regulator.
7. Now take down the Hydraulic dynamometer load readings from in the control panel.
8. Note down the temperatures, speed, and fuel consumption meter reading and Air flow
across orifice is measured by manometer.
9. Repeat the procedure (5) to (8) for different loads.
10. Tabulate the readings as shown in the enclosed sheet.
11. After the experiment is over, keep the petrol control valve at off position.
12. Stop the water flow by operating the valve.

RUNNING THE ENGINE:

The fuel level, cooling arrangement and lubricating system are checked. The engine is started by
the key provided. For this, the key is turned so that heating of the engine takes place after this
key is further turned so that engine is started. If air is blocked in the fuel line then remove it by
removing the pipe. The water flowing in the engine cooling system and exhaust gas calorimeter
is adjusted so that sufficient water is flowing in the system. The engine is allowed to run idle for
5 minutes to achieve steady state.

READINGS TO BE TAKEN:
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1. To determine the Fuel Consumption Rate: The fuel consumption can be determined
through manometer for specific time.
2. To determine Brake Power: The load can be adjusted by rotating Hand Wheel of the
Hydraulic dynamometer. The speed of the engine ‘N’ RPM and the effective Torque
controller Loading is noted down.
3. To determine the Heat Carried away by Cooling Water: The mass flow rate of water ‘mc’
kg/min is noted down. The temperature of inlet water and the temperature of outlet
water of the engine cooling jacket are also noted.
4. To determine the Heat Carried away by Exhaust Gas: i) Exhaust gas temperature inlet
and outlet to the calorimeter are noted. ii) Inlet and Outlet temperatures of water
flowing in the exhaust gas calorimeter are noted.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not run the engine without water supply.

2. Do not shut down the engine when maximum load applied to dynamometer.
3. After completion of experiments turn off the fuel supply valve.
4. Do not turn off water supply immediately when experiments complete wait for 15 to 30
minutes to maintain the engine temperature cool.
5. Change engine oil when oil turns to black colour (approx. once in 6 months).
6. Engage clutch after engine maintains speed.
7. Frequently at least once in three months, grease all visual moving parts.
8. At least every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent any clogging of the
moving parts.

Calculation:

1. BRAKE POWER (BP):

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2. MASS OF FUEL CONSUMED PER MINUTE (mf):

3. TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION (TFC):
4. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC):
5. HEAT INPUT (HI):
6. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (Btherm):
7. MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY: (mech)
1.Break power: (BP)

The useful power available at the crank shaft of the engine is called brake power of the
engine. The brake power of the engine is determined by

B.P = (W*N)/C (Hydraulic dynamometer)

W = Load , N = Speed in RPM C = Dynamometer constant
 P a g e | 53

Temperature in °C Water
Air
Fuel flow
Consumption Water flow
Speed Consumption rate in
Dynamometer of water rate in lpm
in Read on lpm
Load in Kg read on T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 from
RPM meter in from
manometer colorimeter
kg/h engine
in mm
head
 P a g e | 54

ESTIMATION
SL.NO PARTS COST

1 Colorimeter rectification 500

2 Water manometer rectification 500

3 Temperature sensor rectification 1200

4 Ignition switch replacement 2200

5 Carburetor repair 2000

6 Indicator bulb replacement 30

7 Petrol tube replacement 200

8 Carburetor over flow replacement 100

9 Two ball valves 1200

10 Pipe fitting 200

11 Battery 12v 4400

12 Battery clamps and cables 1200

13 RPM indicator replacement 3000

14 Sensors service 800

15 Air filter service 500

16 Hydraulic Dynamometer service 2000

17 Engine service 3000

18 Engine oil 5L 3400

19 Fuel 3000

20 Labor charges 5000

TOTAL 34430
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PROJECT PHOTOS
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