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o A mixture is a combination of pure substances in different
ratios; the properties vary
o A mixture can be either heterogeneous or homogeneous
o Properties of heterogeneous mixtures (mechanical mixtures):
you can see the different substances
the different substances can be in different states
(suspension)
some mixtures can be easily separated while others
cannot (colloid)
o Properties of homogeneous mixtures (solutions):
look the same throughout
one substance is dissolved in another
cannot be easily separated
Chemical Reactions
the process that occurs when a substance or substances react to create
a different substance or substances.
o Always involve the production of new substances with their
own physical and chemical properties
o Energy is always absorbed or released and can be indicated by a
change in temperature
o Many reactions cause a phase change
o All chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass.
Food Chemistry
Early people used different methods of food preservation techniques
in order to make their food last longer.
o Heating and Freezing: heating sterilizes the food while freezing
slows the growth of micro organisms
o Salting: dries out the meat along with the bacteria, making the
bacteria harmless
o Fermentation: a biochemical preservation technique that
converts starches and sugars into lactic acid which is a
preservative
o Smoking: introduces chemicals called antioxidants that slow the
rotting process and wood smoke contains a natural preservative
(formaldehyde)
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Metallurgy
The science of producing and using metals
o Copper was one of the first metals to be used in the making of
weapons and was easier to work with once it was heated
(annealing) because this made it less brittle
Smelting is the process of separating a metal from other elements in a
compound by melting.
o Allowed ancient peoples to make stronger tools using bronze
which was produced by smelting tin ore and copper ore.
o The smelting of iron ores also led to more advanced tools and
weapons
o Steel was produced when iron and carbon were combined in the
right way
Aristotle
Believed that all matter was composed of combinations of the
elements fire, earth, water and air
o Thought that these elements were continuous and therefore
could not be separated
Democritus proposed that matter was made up of tiny particles hat
could not be divided into smaller pieces: atomos (indivisible)
Alchemy
A combination of science and magic (not a real science)
Alchemists were secretive about their work so chemistry advanced
slowly because they were unable to share their knowledge or work
together
In the late 1500s the scientific process was developed:
experimentation, observation and formation of conclusions
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All matter is made of small, indivisible particles called
atoms
All the atoms of an element are identical in properties
such as size and mass
Atoms of different elements have different properties
Atoms of different elements can combine in specific
fixed ratios to form new substances
o J.J. Thomson
Discovered the electron after his experiments showed
that different elements produced a beam made of
negative charges
This suggested that atoms of different elements contained
smaller particles that were identical
His model stated that all atoms are made of smaller
subatomic particles put together in different
combinations to make the different elements
Suggested that an atom was sphere of positive charge in
which negative particles were imbedded
o Ernest Rutherford
Performed an experiment at McGill that led to the
discovery of the nucleus of the atom
Suggested that an atom is mainly empty space through
which the positive particles could pass but that each atom
had a tiny, positively charged core called the nucleus that
is about 1/10 000 of the size of the atom
Won the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908
o Neils Bohr
Proposed that electrons surrounded the nucleus in
specific energy levels using the hydrogen emission
spectrum
His experiments partly explained why the negatively
charged electrons do not merge with the positively
charged nucleus: electrons cannot fall below the lowest
energy level; an electron cannot fall into a nucleus under
normal circumstances
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Each electron can be thought of as a “cloud” of negative charge, not a
tiny negative particle
These electron clouds occupy the whole space all at once at different
energy levels
The electron cloud surrounds a nucleus containing two types of
particles known as nucleons: protons ( positive charge) and neutrons
(no charge)
The Elements
There are about 90 naturally occurring elements and 25 synthetic
elements.
Elements are divided into 3 classes:
o Metals:
Biggest class
Most are silver or grey, shiny, good conductors of heat
and electricity, malleable (can be beaten or rolled into
sheets without crumbling), ductile (can be stretched into
long wires) and solids at room temperature.
Some are highly reactive and others are unreactive (inert)
o Non-Metals:
Only 17 elements in this class
Grouped together because of the lack of resemblance to
metals not because they share similarities
Vary in state (at room temperature 11 are gases, 5 are
solids and 1 is a liquid)
Vary greatly in colour
Same non-metal can have different forms Ex. Carbon
Vary in reactivity
About half of non-metals exist in groups of connected
atoms known as molecules
o Metalloids:
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Have properties that are between metals and non-metals
Some conduct electricity but not very well
The Periodic Table
Organizes all the elements according to their chemical properties
o Metals are on the left side and center
o Non-metals are on the far right
o Metalloids are in between
o Exception: Hydrogen- non-metal but on left because it behaves
like a metal in chemical reactions
Organized into rows (horizontal) and columns (vertical)
o 7 Periods (rows)
o 18 Groups or Families (columns)
Chemical families: groups of elements that have similar
chemical and physical properties
Group 1: Alkali metals – soft, shiny, silver, very
reactive with water, compounds are white solids
that are water soluble
Group 2: Alkaline-earth metals – shiny, silver, not
as soft, compounds are white but less water soluble
Group 17: Halogens – non-metals, poisonous, react
readily with alkali metals to form salts
Group 18: Noble gases – very unreactive
States of matter:
o Indicated by a subscript on the left of the element or compound
o Solid (s), Liquid (l), Gas (g), Aqueous (aq) – dissolved in water
Atomic Theory
Atom: smallest part of an element that still has the properties of the
element
o Very, very, very small!
Three kinds of subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons
o Protons and neutrons account for almost all of the mass of an
atom but almost no volume
o Electrons account for almost all of the volume of an atom but
almost no mass
o Electrons and protons are attracted to each other because they
have opposite charges
o Electrons are found in specific energy levels around the nucleus
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Energy levels: a region of space near a nucleus that may be empty or
may contain electrons to be filled or partially filled; similar to spheres
that add new layers to the outside of the atom
o Electrons in the lowest energy levels (closest to the nucleus) are
the most tightly held because they are closest to the positively
charged nucleus
o Different energy levels have different electron capacities (how
many electrons they can hold)
o The lowest energy level can only hold 2 electrons
o The next 2 energy levels can each hold 8 electrons
Atomic Number
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons
o Element can have different numbers of neutrons and electrons
Atomic number: indicates the number of protons an element has
o In the periodic table elements in a period are arranged
according to increasing atomic number
Formation of Ions
Ionization: formation of charged particles
o The atoms of most elements will either gain or lose one or more
of their electrons from their outermost energy level (valence
electrons) under some circumstances
o Results in the formation of an ion: electrically charged atom or
group of atoms that can form compounds
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o Cations: positively charged ions formed when a metal has lost
an electron (has extra proton(s)) (ca+ions – positive symbol is
like a ‘t’)
When cations are formed the lost electrons usually move
to another atom
o Anions: negatively charged ions formed when a non-metal
gains electrons (has extra electron(s))
o To name an element’s anion you use the first part of the
element’s name and change the last part to “ide”.
o Most ion formation takes place when metals and non-metals
form ionic compounds
o Metal atoms form cations by losing electrons to non-metals
which form anions.
o Atoms gain or lose electrons so that they have the same number
of electrons as the nearest noble gas which makes them more
stable (less reactive)
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It is difficult for atoms to lose more than 3 electrons because every
time an electron is lost the remaining electrons are held more tightly
by the nucleus
Elements can have different charges depending on how many
electrons the atom has lost; one element can have ions with different
charges making it a multivalent element.
The first charge given in the periodic table is the most common
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the body
responsible for naming compounds. It ensures the use of a consistent and
practical way of naming compounds.
Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds form when electrons transfer from one atom to
another.
o Example: A sodium cation loses an electron to a chloride anion
to form sodium chloride (table salt).
The two kinds of ions group together in an organized array called a
crystal lattice.
o Example: The lattice is made up of one sodium ion for every
chloride ion to make a neutral unit that is called a formula unit.
Ionic bonds form between atoms of metals and non-metals.
Common properties of Ionic Compounds:
o Solids at room temperature
o High melting points
o Dissolve in water, some better than others
o Their solutions conduct electricity
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Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Ionic compound formulas contain element symbols that identify
each type of ion present.
In some formulas the symbols are followed by subscript numbers
that indicate the ratio of ions in the compound.
Example: BaF2
The formula consists of the smallest whole-number ratio that
results in a neutral unit.
If there are no subscripts, assume that that the compound is made
of one of each ion.
All ionic compounds are composed of equal number of positive
and negative charges so that the total charge of the cations is equal
to the total charge of the anions.
Example: The barium cation has a charge of 2+ and the fluorine
anion has a charge of 1- so to make a neutral unit you need 2
fluorine anions for every single barium cation
Method of Lowest Common Multiple (Alternate method)
1. Find the lowest common multiple of the charges for the 2
ions.
2. Divide the LCM by the charge on the cation to get how
many cations will be in the formula.
3. Repeat for the anion
Polyatomic Ions
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Definition: ions that are made up of several non-metallic atoms joined
together
Suffixes: two most common are “-ate” and “-ite”
o Used to differentiate between pairs of similar ions but do not
tell you how many atoms are in each.
To name and write formulas for compounds with polyatomic ions:
o Look at the formula, name the cation then the anion without
changing the name of the polyatomic ion
o To write formulas, follow the same rules but use brackets
around the polyatomic ion to indicate the ratios.
The subscript outside the brackets applies to all of the
elements inside the brackets.
Molecular Compounds
Molecule: two or more non-metallic atoms bonded together
o Can be made up of atoms of different elements or of atoms of
all the same element.
o Independent units made up of fixed numbers of atoms bonded
together
o Can be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature (unlike ionic
compounds)
o Usually poor conductors of electricity and do not dissolve in
water very well.
Molecular Elements
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Definition: elements that form molecules made up of only 1 type of
atom
Possibilities:
o Monatomic: atoms can exist on their own
o Diatomic: composed of 2 atoms (known as the “gens”)
o Polyatomic: more than 2 atoms joined together
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lattice so that a high amount of energy must be added in the
form of heat to enable the ions to move past each other into the
liquid state
Retention of crystal shape:
o The ions form an alternating positive and negative alignment
which results in perfectly flat surfaces even after being broken
down
Solubility in water:
o Both cations and anions are attracted to water molecules
because each water molecule is polar because one end of the
water molecule has a slightly positive charge while the other
has a slightly negative charge
Conductivity in a solution:
o When dissolved in water the ions become separated from each
other and it is these ions that conduct electricity.
The more concentrated the ions, the more conductive the
solution is
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o low melting points
o crystals that crumble easily and do not hold their shape
o molecules are electrically neutral so they do not form ions that
can conduct electricity
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3. Pepsin is deactivated which stops it from digesting the
digestive tract
4. Sodium hydrogen-carbonate now goes into the blood stream,
making it slightly basic.
Sodium hydrogen-carbonate is known as a buffer because it has the
ability to neutralize both acids and bases and keep the pH of a solution
constant even when small amounts of acid or base are added.
The pH Scale
Neutral substances have a pH of 7
Every change of 1 unit on the scale indicates an increase of 10 in how
basic or acidic the substance is
Naming Acids
Look for “H” on the left side of the formula or “-COOH” on the right
The IUPAC recommends putting aqueous in the name at the
beginning.
Acids that contain oxygen follow a different system that is based on
the name of the anion.
o If the anion ends in “-ate” the name of the acid will end in “-ic”.
If it does not end in “-ate” other naming systems are used.
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Acids and Bases in the Home
Common acids: lemon juice, vinegar, coffee, teas, pop and some toilet
bowl cleaners
Common bases: most soaps and cleaners because bases are excellent
at dissolving and dislodging oil and grease.
Cautions: many otherwise-safe household chemicals can become
dangerous when mixed improperly because some chemicals react
strongly when mixed together
Neutralization
When acids and bases react together, both acidic and basic properties
disappear in the process of neutralization.
This reaction produces water and a compound called a salt.
Health Concerns
Alcohol:
o Toxic when used in large amounts
o Considered a drug because it affects the body
o Can cause the destruction of the liver, kidneys and brain
o Addictive both physically and psychologically
Nicotine:
o Smoke is more harmful than badly polluted air
o Smoke damages the respiratory and circulatory system
o Dangerous for both smokers and non-smokers due to second
hand smoke
Benzene – A Regulated Substance
A hazardous chemical that is both toxic and flammable
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Can be used safely if proper procedures are followed
Important in many applications such as: dyes, detergents, medicines
(substances do not have benzene’s toxic properties)
Must be transported and handled according to strict guidelines
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o An explosion occurs when a small amount of solid or liquid
converts quickly to a large volume of gas.
Energy Changes
Exothermic reactions release energy in the form of heat, light or
electricity.
o Example: combustion occurs when oxygen reacts rapidly with a
substance to form a new substance and give off energy.
This also produces carbon dioxide and when
hydrocarbons are burned water is also produced.
Endothermic reactions absorb energy.
When writing formulas, energy is shown on the products (right) side
during exothermic reactions and on the reactants (left) side during
endothermic reactions.
Biochemical Reactions
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Biochemical reactions can be endothermic or exothermic.
They occur at an organism’s internal temperature and are almost
helped by enzymes which act as catalysts to speed up a reaction but
are not used up by it.
o Example: photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because it
uses the sun’s energy to make sugar and oxygen.
Conservation of Mass
The total mass of the reaction system never changes - Lavoisier
When a system of chemicals reacts completely, the total mass of all
the reactants equals the total mass of all the products.
We can then deduce that the total number of atoms present before a
reaction is equal to the total number of atoms present after a reaction
o Allows us to know the mass of the reactants or products
When observations such as this have a wide application and appear to
have no exceptions they are given special status and declared a law
This is the law of conservation of mass
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Writing Balanced Formula Equations
A formula equation uses the chemical formulas of reactants and
products in a chemical equation to represent a chemical reaction.
A skeleton equation shows all of the substances involved in a reaction
but does not show the correct proportions; it is of limited value.
The law of conservation of mass allows us to figure out the correct
proportions; both sides must be equal.
Integers (coefficients) are placed in front of the formulas for the
substances
An equation is properly balanced if the number of each type of atom
on the reactants side is equal to the number of each type of atom on
the products side.
You cannot change the formulas of any of the substances by removing
elements or subscripts from the chemical formulas; you can only add
coefficients in front of the formulas.
Formation Reactions
Two elements combine to form a compound.
Also known as a synthesis reaction.
A + B → AB
Most occur between metals and non-metals to form ionic compounds
More complex types involve compounds that react to form a single
product; the products are hard to predict
Decomposition Reactions
A reversible formation reaction; the products are broken down to
produce the reactants again
This is sometimes difficult and may require special equipment or the
addition of energy
Have only one reactant
AB → A + B
Hydrocarbon Combustion
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Hydrocarbons are substances that contain hydrogen and carbon, their
formulas are written like CxHy where the x and y indicate the number
of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Any reaction that involves oxygen and is fast and exothermic is a
combustion reaction and there are always only 2 products: water and
carbon dioxide.
CxHy + O2 (g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
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Topic A 3.4 The Mole
Molar Mass
Definition: The mass of one mole of a substance
Recorded in the periodic table under the name atomic molar mass
Is equal to the average mass in grams of one mole of atoms of that
element
The number of moles of a substance is related to its molar mass by the
following equation: m = n x M
o m is the quantity of matter (mass ) in grams
o n is the quantity of matter in moles
o M is the molar mass
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