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Unit A: Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

Chapter 1 – The understanding that particles make up


the underlying structure of matter has led to
advancements in technology

Topic A 1.2 Properties and Classification of Matter

Properties used to Classify Substances


 Scientists use both physical and chemical properties to distinguish
different substances
o Physical properties: describe the physical appearance and
composition of a substance Ex. Colour
 Measured without changing the identity or composition
of the substance
o Chemical properties: describe the reactivity of a substance Ex.
Reaction with acids
 To observe these, you must see a chemical change

 Substances can undergo a physical or chemical change


o Physical change: chemical components remain the same and no
new substances are formed
o Chemical change: always results in the formation of new
substances with different chemical components

Pure Substances and Mixtures


 Matter can be classified as either a pure substance or a mixture.
o In pure substances, all of the particles are identical as are the
properties.
 Pure substances can be either elements or compounds
 An element is a pure substance that cannot be
broken down into other substances; it is made up
of only 1 type of atom
 A compound is a chemical combination of two or
more elements in a specific ratio

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o A mixture is a combination of pure substances in different
ratios; the properties vary
o A mixture can be either heterogeneous or homogeneous
o Properties of heterogeneous mixtures (mechanical mixtures):
 you can see the different substances
 the different substances can be in different states
(suspension)
 some mixtures can be easily separated while others
cannot (colloid)
o Properties of homogeneous mixtures (solutions):
 look the same throughout
 one substance is dissolved in another
 cannot be easily separated
Chemical Reactions
 the process that occurs when a substance or substances react to create
a different substance or substances.
o Always involve the production of new substances with their
own physical and chemical properties
o Energy is always absorbed or released and can be indicated by a
change in temperature
o Many reactions cause a phase change
o All chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass.

Topic A 1.3 Developing Ideas about Matter

Food Chemistry
 Early people used different methods of food preservation techniques
in order to make their food last longer.
o Heating and Freezing: heating sterilizes the food while freezing
slows the growth of micro organisms
o Salting: dries out the meat along with the bacteria, making the
bacteria harmless
o Fermentation: a biochemical preservation technique that
converts starches and sugars into lactic acid which is a
preservative
o Smoking: introduces chemicals called antioxidants that slow the
rotting process and wood smoke contains a natural preservative
(formaldehyde)

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Metallurgy
 The science of producing and using metals
o Copper was one of the first metals to be used in the making of
weapons and was easier to work with once it was heated
(annealing) because this made it less brittle
 Smelting is the process of separating a metal from other elements in a
compound by melting.
o Allowed ancient peoples to make stronger tools using bronze
which was produced by smelting tin ore and copper ore.
o The smelting of iron ores also led to more advanced tools and
weapons
o Steel was produced when iron and carbon were combined in the
right way
Aristotle
 Believed that all matter was composed of combinations of the
elements fire, earth, water and air
o Thought that these elements were continuous and therefore
could not be separated
 Democritus proposed that matter was made up of tiny particles hat
could not be divided into smaller pieces: atomos (indivisible)

Alchemy
 A combination of science and magic (not a real science)
 Alchemists were secretive about their work so chemistry advanced
slowly because they were unable to share their knowledge or work
together
 In the late 1500s the scientific process was developed:
experimentation, observation and formation of conclusions

Developing Hypotheses about Matter


 Robert Boyle: measured relationships between volume and gases and
concluded that gases are made up of tiny particles that group together
to make different substances
 Antoine Lavoisier: discovered that mass is neither lost nor produced
during chemical reactions – the law of conservation of mass
 Four scientists developed four models of atoms based on experiments:
o John Dalton:

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 All matter is made of small, indivisible particles called
atoms
 All the atoms of an element are identical in properties
such as size and mass
 Atoms of different elements have different properties
 Atoms of different elements can combine in specific
fixed ratios to form new substances
o J.J. Thomson
 Discovered the electron after his experiments showed
that different elements produced a beam made of
negative charges
 This suggested that atoms of different elements contained
smaller particles that were identical
 His model stated that all atoms are made of smaller
subatomic particles put together in different
combinations to make the different elements
 Suggested that an atom was sphere of positive charge in
which negative particles were imbedded
o Ernest Rutherford
 Performed an experiment at McGill that led to the
discovery of the nucleus of the atom
 Suggested that an atom is mainly empty space through
which the positive particles could pass but that each atom
had a tiny, positively charged core called the nucleus that
is about 1/10 000 of the size of the atom
 Won the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908
o Neils Bohr
 Proposed that electrons surrounded the nucleus in
specific energy levels using the hydrogen emission
spectrum
 His experiments partly explained why the negatively
charged electrons do not merge with the positively
charged nucleus: electrons cannot fall below the lowest
energy level; an electron cannot fall into a nucleus under
normal circumstances

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom


 Theory used today, based on quantum mechanics

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 Each electron can be thought of as a “cloud” of negative charge, not a
tiny negative particle
 These electron clouds occupy the whole space all at once at different
energy levels
 The electron cloud surrounds a nucleus containing two types of
particles known as nucleons: protons ( positive charge) and neutrons
(no charge)

Chapter 2 – Elements combine to form many


substances, each with its own set of properties

Topic A 2.1 The Periodic Table and Atomic Structure

The Elements
 There are about 90 naturally occurring elements and 25 synthetic
elements.
 Elements are divided into 3 classes:
o Metals:
 Biggest class
 Most are silver or grey, shiny, good conductors of heat
and electricity, malleable (can be beaten or rolled into
sheets without crumbling), ductile (can be stretched into
long wires) and solids at room temperature.
 Some are highly reactive and others are unreactive (inert)
o Non-Metals:
 Only 17 elements in this class
 Grouped together because of the lack of resemblance to
metals not because they share similarities
 Vary in state (at room temperature 11 are gases, 5 are
solids and 1 is a liquid)
 Vary greatly in colour
 Same non-metal can have different forms Ex. Carbon
 Vary in reactivity
 About half of non-metals exist in groups of connected
atoms known as molecules
o Metalloids:

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 Have properties that are between metals and non-metals
 Some conduct electricity but not very well
The Periodic Table
 Organizes all the elements according to their chemical properties
o Metals are on the left side and center
o Non-metals are on the far right
o Metalloids are in between
o Exception: Hydrogen- non-metal but on left because it behaves
like a metal in chemical reactions
 Organized into rows (horizontal) and columns (vertical)
o 7 Periods (rows)
o 18 Groups or Families (columns)
 Chemical families: groups of elements that have similar
chemical and physical properties
 Group 1: Alkali metals – soft, shiny, silver, very
reactive with water, compounds are white solids
that are water soluble
 Group 2: Alkaline-earth metals – shiny, silver, not
as soft, compounds are white but less water soluble
 Group 17: Halogens – non-metals, poisonous, react
readily with alkali metals to form salts
 Group 18: Noble gases – very unreactive
 States of matter:
o Indicated by a subscript on the left of the element or compound
o Solid (s), Liquid (l), Gas (g), Aqueous (aq) – dissolved in water

Atomic Theory
 Atom: smallest part of an element that still has the properties of the
element
o Very, very, very small!
 Three kinds of subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons
o Protons and neutrons account for almost all of the mass of an
atom but almost no volume
o Electrons account for almost all of the volume of an atom but
almost no mass
o Electrons and protons are attracted to each other because they
have opposite charges
o Electrons are found in specific energy levels around the nucleus

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 Energy levels: a region of space near a nucleus that may be empty or
may contain electrons to be filled or partially filled; similar to spheres
that add new layers to the outside of the atom
o Electrons in the lowest energy levels (closest to the nucleus) are
the most tightly held because they are closest to the positively
charged nucleus
o Different energy levels have different electron capacities (how
many electrons they can hold)
o The lowest energy level can only hold 2 electrons
o The next 2 energy levels can each hold 8 electrons

Atomic Number
 All atoms of an element have the same number of protons
o Element can have different numbers of neutrons and electrons
 Atomic number: indicates the number of protons an element has
o In the periodic table elements in a period are arranged
according to increasing atomic number

Mass Number and Atomic Molar Mass


 Isotopes: when an atom has different numbers of neutrons
o The number of neutrons affects the mass of the atom
o Mass numbers are used to distinguish between different
isotopes of the same element
o Is an integer equal to the total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom
 The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the atomic
number subtracted from the mass number
 The number of electrons in an atom is usually equal to
the number of protons because atoms are usually neutral
 Atomic molar mass: the average mass of the elements isotopes

Formation of Ions
 Ionization: formation of charged particles
o The atoms of most elements will either gain or lose one or more
of their electrons from their outermost energy level (valence
electrons) under some circumstances
o Results in the formation of an ion: electrically charged atom or
group of atoms that can form compounds

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o Cations: positively charged ions formed when a metal has lost
an electron (has extra proton(s)) (ca+ions – positive symbol is
like a ‘t’)
 When cations are formed the lost electrons usually move
to another atom
o Anions: negatively charged ions formed when a non-metal
gains electrons (has extra electron(s))
o To name an element’s anion you use the first part of the
element’s name and change the last part to “ide”.
o Most ion formation takes place when metals and non-metals
form ionic compounds
o Metal atoms form cations by losing electrons to non-metals
which form anions.
o Atoms gain or lose electrons so that they have the same number
of electrons as the nearest noble gas which makes them more
stable (less reactive)

Elements Combine to Form Compounds


 An element’s reactivity is related to the number of electrons in its
outer energy level because elements are most stable why they have
filled outer energy levels
o Example: noble gases are the most stable because their outer
energy levels are filled
 Other elements become more stable when they have the same number
of electrons in he outer energy level as the nearest noble gas
 Valence electrons: electrons in the outer energy level
 Valence number: the number of electrons an element can gain or lose
to combine with other elements
 Elements in the same family have the same number of valence
electrons which results in similar chemical properties
 The period number indicates the number of occupied energy levels

The Octet Rule


 Atoms gain or lose electrons so that they end up with completely full
energy levels
 Octet Rule: atoms bond in such a way as to have eight electrons in
their valence energy level

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 It is difficult for atoms to lose more than 3 electrons because every
time an electron is lost the remaining electrons are held more tightly
by the nucleus
 Elements can have different charges depending on how many
electrons the atom has lost; one element can have ions with different
charges making it a multivalent element.
 The first charge given in the periodic table is the most common

Topic A 2.2 Naming Ionic and Molecular Compounds

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the body
responsible for naming compounds. It ensures the use of a consistent and
practical way of naming compounds.

Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds form when electrons transfer from one atom to
another.
o Example: A sodium cation loses an electron to a chloride anion
to form sodium chloride (table salt).
 The two kinds of ions group together in an organized array called a
crystal lattice.
o Example: The lattice is made up of one sodium ion for every
chloride ion to make a neutral unit that is called a formula unit.
 Ionic bonds form between atoms of metals and non-metals.
 Common properties of Ionic Compounds:
o Solids at room temperature
o High melting points
o Dissolve in water, some better than others
o Their solutions conduct electricity

Naming Ionic Compounds


 All names have two parts, the names of the cation and the anion
 Naming Rules:
1. Name the cation first by using the element’s name (usually the
metal ion)
2. Name the anion second by using the first part of the element’s
name and changing the last part to “ide” (usually a non-metal ion)

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Formulas for Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compound formulas contain element symbols that identify
each type of ion present.
 In some formulas the symbols are followed by subscript numbers
that indicate the ratio of ions in the compound.
 Example: BaF2
 The formula consists of the smallest whole-number ratio that
results in a neutral unit.
 If there are no subscripts, assume that that the compound is made
of one of each ion.
 All ionic compounds are composed of equal number of positive
and negative charges so that the total charge of the cations is equal
to the total charge of the anions.
 Example: The barium cation has a charge of 2+ and the fluorine
anion has a charge of 1- so to make a neutral unit you need 2
fluorine anions for every single barium cation
 Method of Lowest Common Multiple (Alternate method)
1. Find the lowest common multiple of the charges for the 2
ions.
2. Divide the LCM by the charge on the cation to get how
many cations will be in the formula.
3. Repeat for the anion

Compounds with Multivalent Elements


 Some metals have more than one stable ion (multivalent elements).
 Ionic compounds containing multivalent elements must have Roman
numerals in their names to indicate which ion is forming that
compound.
o The Roman numeral is written in brackets after the elements to
indicate the charge.
 Roman numerals are not used in formulas because you can figure out
the charge on the ion by looking at the formula.
o Use the anion’s charge to find the cation’s charge when the
cation is multivalent.
 You only need to use Roman numerals when the metal is multivalent.

Polyatomic Ions

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 Definition: ions that are made up of several non-metallic atoms joined
together
 Suffixes: two most common are “-ate” and “-ite”
o Used to differentiate between pairs of similar ions but do not
tell you how many atoms are in each.
 To name and write formulas for compounds with polyatomic ions:
o Look at the formula, name the cation then the anion without
changing the name of the polyatomic ion
o To write formulas, follow the same rules but use brackets
around the polyatomic ion to indicate the ratios.
 The subscript outside the brackets applies to all of the
elements inside the brackets.

Molecular Compounds
 Molecule: two or more non-metallic atoms bonded together
o Can be made up of atoms of different elements or of atoms of
all the same element.
o Independent units made up of fixed numbers of atoms bonded
together
o Can be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature (unlike ionic
compounds)
o Usually poor conductors of electricity and do not dissolve in
water very well.

Sharing Electrons – Covalent Bonds


 Atoms in molecules are joined by covalent bonds
 Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons
 Each pair of shared electrons form one covalent bond
 Electrons are not transferred from one atom to another as they are in
ionic bonds
o Example: a molecule of chlorine gas is created when two atoms
of chlorine each share an electron to form a covalent bond
 In covalent bonds, atoms share electrons so that their outer energy
levels become filled
o It is possible for atoms to share more than 2 electrons.

Molecular Elements

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 Definition: elements that form molecules made up of only 1 type of
atom
 Possibilities:
o Monatomic: atoms can exist on their own
o Diatomic: composed of 2 atoms (known as the “gens”)
o Polyatomic: more than 2 atoms joined together

Molecular Compounds That Do Not Contain Hydrogen


 Binary compounds contain two elements, some contain hydrogen and
some do not.
 Rules for naming binary molecules without hydrogen are similar to
those for naming ionic compounds
o Any compound that does not have a metal or an ammonium ion
in its formula is molecular
o Naming format: prefix + first element followed by prefix +
second element ending in “-ide” (see prefixes on pg.48)
o “Mono” is not used when the first element is only one atom and
when “mono” is required before “oxide” the last “o” in “mono”
is dropped

Molecular Compounds That Contain Hydrogen


 Many compounds containing hydrogen have been given names that
need to be memorized or found using a chart (Table A2.12 on pg.49)
 Writing the formulas for molecular compounds is easy because the
prefixes in the names indicate the number of each element.

Topic A 2.3 Properties and Classification of Ionic and


Molecular Compounds

Identifying Ionic Compounds


 Look at the formula to find the presence of a metal ion (cation) or the
NH4 ion.
+

Properties of Ionic Compounds


 High melting point:
o the attractions between the cations and the anions in a solid are
so strong that the ions are held in the tight, organized crystal

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lattice so that a high amount of energy must be added in the
form of heat to enable the ions to move past each other into the
liquid state
 Retention of crystal shape:
o The ions form an alternating positive and negative alignment
which results in perfectly flat surfaces even after being broken
down
 Solubility in water:
o Both cations and anions are attracted to water molecules
because each water molecule is polar because one end of the
water molecule has a slightly positive charge while the other
has a slightly negative charge
 Conductivity in a solution:
o When dissolved in water the ions become separated from each
other and it is these ions that conduct electricity.
 The more concentrated the ions, the more conductive the
solution is

Solubility of Ionic Compounds


 Some ionic compounds dissolve better than others.
o A substance that dissolves well is considered very soluble and
its chemical formula would be followed by (aq) when it is in
solution
 Compounds containing the ions lithium, sodium and
potassium are very soluble
o A substance that does not dissolve well is considered slightly
soluble and it’s chemical formula would be followed by (s)
 Sometimes, why ionic compounds are mixed they form a precipitate
which is a solid with low solubility that forms from a solution in the
process of precipitation.

Properties of Molecular Compounds


 Molecules are joined by covalent bonds which are very strong
o Each molecule of a compound always has the same number and
proportions of atoms in it.
 The attraction between individual atoms in a molecule is very strong
but the attraction between neighboring molecules is weak, which
results in molecular compounds having

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o low melting points
o crystals that crumble easily and do not hold their shape
o molecules are electrically neutral so they do not form ions that
can conduct electricity

Special Properties of Water


 Water is polar (positive and negative end) because of it’s bent shape
and because of the unequal sharing of electrons in the bonds holding
the hydrogen and oxygen together.
 This makes the oxygen end slightly negative and the hydrogen end
slightly positive which allows water molecules to attract each other
like magnets do.
 When water is cooled and forming ice the molecules spread out
(expand) which makes it less dense than liquid water.
o This is important because if it was more dense, lakes would
freeze from the bottom up and kill all of the organisms every
winter!

Topic A 2.4 Acids and Bases

 An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to form a solution with


a pH of less than 7. It is written with (aq) as its state. A base is one that
forms a solution with a pH of more than 7.
 pH is a measurement of the number of hydrogen ions in a solution that
indicates how acidic or basic a solution is.

Acids and Bases in Your Body


 Your saliva is slightly basic so that your teeth don’t dissolve when you
eat acidic foods and to protect them against the byproducts that
bacteria in your mouth form.
 Your stomach contains strong hydrochloric acid that aids in the
digestion of food and acts as a chemical switch to turn on an enzyme
called Pepsin which speeds up the digestions of proteins.
 Process of Digestion:
1. Pepsin activated by stomach acid
2. Pancreas produces sodium hydrogen-carbonate along with
other bases to neutralize stomach acid.

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3. Pepsin is deactivated which stops it from digesting the
digestive tract
4. Sodium hydrogen-carbonate now goes into the blood stream,
making it slightly basic.
 Sodium hydrogen-carbonate is known as a buffer because it has the
ability to neutralize both acids and bases and keep the pH of a solution
constant even when small amounts of acid or base are added.

Properties of Acids and Bases


 Bases: Bitter, slippery, do not attack metals
 Acids: Sour, not slippery, react with metals (some more vigorously
than others)
Indicators
 Chemicals that are used to determine if a solution is acidic or basic
 Change colour depending on the pH of the solution
o Example: Red litmus turns blue in a base, and does not change
in an acidic or neutral solution.
 A universal indictor is a mixture of several indicators that change
colour as the acidity changes

The pH Scale
 Neutral substances have a pH of 7
 Every change of 1 unit on the scale indicates an increase of 10 in how
basic or acidic the substance is

Naming Acids
 Look for “H” on the left side of the formula or “-COOH” on the right
 The IUPAC recommends putting aqueous in the name at the
beginning.
 Acids that contain oxygen follow a different system that is based on
the name of the anion.
o If the anion ends in “-ate” the name of the acid will end in “-ic”.
If it does not end in “-ate” other naming systems are used.

Recognizing Bases by Their Formulas


 Bases are more difficult to recognize.
 The presence of the hydroxide ion (OH-) with a metal ion or the
ammonium ion usually indicates that a substance is basic.

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Acids and Bases in the Home
 Common acids: lemon juice, vinegar, coffee, teas, pop and some toilet
bowl cleaners
 Common bases: most soaps and cleaners because bases are excellent
at dissolving and dislodging oil and grease.
 Cautions: many otherwise-safe household chemicals can become
dangerous when mixed improperly because some chemicals react
strongly when mixed together

Neutralization
 When acids and bases react together, both acidic and basic properties
disappear in the process of neutralization.
 This reaction produces water and a compound called a salt.

Topic A 2.5 Our Chemical Society

Issues Related to Chemicals


 All substances are chemicals.
 Some concerns: health of workers exposed to toxic substances during
manufacturing, poisonous substances escaping into the environment,
harmful byproducts of manufacturing, safe disposal of products that
contain chemicals that may become harmful.

Health Concerns
 Alcohol:
o Toxic when used in large amounts
o Considered a drug because it affects the body
o Can cause the destruction of the liver, kidneys and brain
o Addictive both physically and psychologically
 Nicotine:
o Smoke is more harmful than badly polluted air
o Smoke damages the respiratory and circulatory system
o Dangerous for both smokers and non-smokers due to second
hand smoke
Benzene – A Regulated Substance
 A hazardous chemical that is both toxic and flammable

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 Can be used safely if proper procedures are followed
 Important in many applications such as: dyes, detergents, medicines
(substances do not have benzene’s toxic properties)
 Must be transported and handled according to strict guidelines

Chemistry Related Careers


 Food Technologist:
o Use sight, smell, touch and taste to evaluate existing food
products and develop new ones
o Study how ingredients interact with additives
 Cosmetics Formulator:
o Takes raw materials approved for use and combines them to
make new products or improve existing one,
o Must have an excellent understanding of the basic properties of
materials and their effects on different parts of the body and
how they react when they are mixed.
Working with Chemistry
 Some people who use chemistry in their careers: painters,
pharmacists, dentists, hair stylists

Chapter 3 – Chemical change is a process that


involves recombining atoms and energy flows

Topic A 3.1 Important Examples of Chemical Change

 Chemical change occurs when a substance or substances (reactants)


react in a chemical reaction to create a different substance or
substances (products).
 The new products have completely different properties than the
reactants.
 Chemical reactions can be used to either release energy (exothermic)
or absorb energy (endothermic).

Reactions That Form Gases


 Reactions can occur very quickly or very slowly.

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o An explosion occurs when a small amount of solid or liquid
converts quickly to a large volume of gas.

Reactions That Form Solids


 The reactions have practical uses and can occur when two liquids are
mixed or when a liquid and a gas are mixed.
o Example: five minute epoxy glue forms a solid when two
chemicals are mixed together – a resin and a hardener
 Each of the molecules of the resin has several places
where it can join with the molecules in the hardener to
form a solid that will hold its shape.

Showing States in Chemical Formulas


 States are included to give as much information as possible about the
reaction.
 The state subscript refers to the substance’s state at room temperature
(25°C)
 Guidelines:
o Most metals are solid except mercury which is a liquid
o Most diatomic elements are gases except bromine which is a
liquid and iodine is a solid
o Sulfur, phosphorous and carbon are solids
o Ionic compounds are solids
o Molecular compounds are hard to predict

Energy Changes
 Exothermic reactions release energy in the form of heat, light or
electricity.
o Example: combustion occurs when oxygen reacts rapidly with a
substance to form a new substance and give off energy.
 This also produces carbon dioxide and when
hydrocarbons are burned water is also produced.
 Endothermic reactions absorb energy.
 When writing formulas, energy is shown on the products (right) side
during exothermic reactions and on the reactants (left) side during
endothermic reactions.

Biochemical Reactions

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 Biochemical reactions can be endothermic or exothermic.
 They occur at an organism’s internal temperature and are almost
helped by enzymes which act as catalysts to speed up a reaction but
are not used up by it.
o Example: photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because it
uses the sun’s energy to make sugar and oxygen.

Characteristics of Chemical Reactions


 See section A 1.2 or pg.84

Conservation of Mass
 The total mass of the reaction system never changes - Lavoisier
 When a system of chemicals reacts completely, the total mass of all
the reactants equals the total mass of all the products.
 We can then deduce that the total number of atoms present before a
reaction is equal to the total number of atoms present after a reaction
o Allows us to know the mass of the reactants or products
 When observations such as this have a wide application and appear to
have no exceptions they are given special status and declared a law
 This is the law of conservation of mass

Topic A 3.2 Writing Chemical Equations

Symbolizing Chemical Change


 Chemical equations use chemical symbols and formulas to indicate a
chemical reaction.
 Must know what the reactants and products are
 Chemical change is often occupied by visible events such as the
production of a gas, the release of heat, a change in colour or the
appearance of a new substance that is only slightly soluble

Writing Word Equations


 Use the names of the elements or compounds to describe what occurs
 A plus sign (+) groups the reactants together followed by an arrow
(→) that separates the reactants and products which are grouped
together by another plus sign.
 The order of the reactants or products does not matter.

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Writing Balanced Formula Equations
 A formula equation uses the chemical formulas of reactants and
products in a chemical equation to represent a chemical reaction.
 A skeleton equation shows all of the substances involved in a reaction
but does not show the correct proportions; it is of limited value.
 The law of conservation of mass allows us to figure out the correct
proportions; both sides must be equal.
 Integers (coefficients) are placed in front of the formulas for the
substances
 An equation is properly balanced if the number of each type of atom
on the reactants side is equal to the number of each type of atom on
the products side.
 You cannot change the formulas of any of the substances by removing
elements or subscripts from the chemical formulas; you can only add
coefficients in front of the formulas.

Topic A 3.3 Five Common Types of Chemical Reactions

Formation Reactions
 Two elements combine to form a compound.
 Also known as a synthesis reaction.
 A + B → AB
 Most occur between metals and non-metals to form ionic compounds
 More complex types involve compounds that react to form a single
product; the products are hard to predict

Decomposition Reactions
 A reversible formation reaction; the products are broken down to
produce the reactants again
 This is sometimes difficult and may require special equipment or the
addition of energy
 Have only one reactant
 AB → A + B

Hydrocarbon Combustion

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 Hydrocarbons are substances that contain hydrogen and carbon, their
formulas are written like CxHy where the x and y indicate the number
of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
 Any reaction that involves oxygen and is fast and exothermic is a
combustion reaction and there are always only 2 products: water and
carbon dioxide.
 CxHy + O2 (g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Single Replacement Reactions


 A reactive element reacts with an ion compound which results in the
element forming a compound and one of the elements in the reactant
compound ends up by itself as an element.
 Often takes place in solution
 A + BC → B + AC
 Any element on its own is present as atoms in the solution and any
metal element is a compound is present as an ion.
 The ionic charge of the ion determines how the formula for the new
compound is written.
 Another type is when non-metals trade places: D + BC → C + BD

Double Replacement Reactions


 Commonly occur between two ionic compounds to form two new
ionic compounds (double)
 Occur in solutions where the ions have the opportunity to mix
 Often results in the formation of at least one precipitate.
 AB + CD → AD + CB
 Remember:
o A and C are both positive ions so they will never pair up
o A and C will always appear first in formulas because they are
the cations

Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions


 An examination of the reactants usually makes it possible to predict
the identity of the products
 First step is to classify the reaction and then follow it’s pattern
 There are many kinds of reactions that do not fit into the 5 categories
and there are even variations among these categories.

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Topic A 3.4 The Mole

Chemists cannot measure materials by counting individual atoms or


molecules, they are too small.
Instead they place large numbers of them into groups of a convenient size
and then count the numbers of groups; this group is the mole.

Avogadro ’s number and the Mole



1 mole (symbol: mol) is called Avogadro’s number

The mole can be used to measure any kind of particle – atoms, ions,
molecules and formula units

It is equal to 6.02 x 1023

Molar Mass
 Definition: The mass of one mole of a substance
 Recorded in the periodic table under the name atomic molar mass
 Is equal to the average mass in grams of one mole of atoms of that
element
 The number of moles of a substance is related to its molar mass by the
following equation: m = n x M
o m is the quantity of matter (mass ) in grams
o n is the quantity of matter in moles
o M is the molar mass

The Factor-Label Method of Converting between Quantities


 A simple technique for converting between number of moles of a
substance and its mass
 Change the numerator and denominator depending on what quantity
you want your answer in (moles or grams)

The Mole Concept and the Law of Conservation of Mass
 You can read equations and replace atoms or molecules with moles to
make it easier to calculate and understand.
 The coefficients can indicate moles instead of atoms
 A chemical equation is like a recipe where quantities are measured in
moles

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