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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………… ⅰ

ABSTRACT ……….………………………… ⅳ

LIST OF TABLES…………………………… ⅴ

LIST OF FIGURES …………………………. ⅵ

LIST OF GRAPHS…………………………… ⅷ

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………… 1

1.1. PRESENT SCENARIO……………………… 2

1.2. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT…………………. 3

2. CONSTRUCTION………………………………………. 4

2.1. REQUIRED DEVICES CONNECTED………… 5

2.2. PLATFORM REQUIRED…………………… 6

3. CIRCUITS&TOPOLOGY……………………….. 7

3.1. TRADITONAL MARX GENERATOR…….. 8

3.2. MODERN MARX GENERATOR………….. 10

3.2.1. CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY ……………… 11

3.2.2. CIRCUIT DESIGN……………………. 12

i
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE DEVICES USED…………... 15

4.1. DC SUPPLY…………………………………. 16

4.1.1. WHAT IS POWER SUPPLY? … 16

4.1.2. WHAT IS DC POWER SUPPLY?.. 16

4.2. PULSE GENERATOR…………………………… 20

4.2.1. BASICS OF PULSE GENERATOR … 20

4.2.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM………………… 24

4.2.3. APPLICATIONS OF PULSE GENERATOR…… 26

4.3. CAPACITORS……………………………………….. 27

4.3.1 CAPACITANCE UNITS …………….. 27

4.3.2 CAPACITOR THEORY ……………… 27

4.4. DIODES……………………………………………… 31

4.4.1. VOLTAGE&CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC... 31

4.5. RESISTORS………..………………………………… 34

4.5.1 BASICS OF RESISTORS ………… 34

4.5.2 UNITS OF RESISTOR …………… 34

4.5.3 TYPES OF RESISTOR …………… 35

4.5.4 DECODING RESISTOR MARKINGS… 36

4.6. SPARK GAP SWITCHES ………………………………… 37

4.6.1 SPARK VISIBILITY ………...………… 37

4.6.2 APPLICATIONS……………………… 38

4.7. SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES……………………… 39

4.7.1 MOSFET……….………...……………. 39

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4.7.2 IGBT………………………………….. 45

5. WORKING OF MARXGENERATOR………………………… 49

6. RESULTS ....……………………… 51

6.1.1. 2-STAGE MARX GENERATOR……………….. 52

6.1.2. 8-STAGE MARX GENERATOR………………… 54

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………….. 58

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ABSTRACT:

Impulse generators were used to generate high voltage pulses. Marx generator is a

multistage impulse generator. Its purpose is to generate high pulse using low dc voltage.

Conventional Marx generator used capacitors, spark gap switches and resistors. Spark

gaps are huge mechanical switches which were to be triggered through an external circuit

and those switches have short life time. The charging current flows through the resistors

results in long charging time and few output voltage will appear during this charging

period.

This project is a modern Marx generator where these spark gap switches are

replaced with semiconductor switches and resistors are replaced by diodes. In modern

Marx Generator these switches are the main part because they provide the flexibility to

the output pulse. The bipolar Marx generator is able to produce positive, negative and

bipolar pulses. Pulse generators are used to trigger the semiconductor switches.

The circuit generates a high-voltage pulse by charging a number of capacitors in

parallel and then by discharging those capacitors in series across the load by triggering

the switches in a proper manner. Diodes are used in modern Marx generator to maintain

the discharge path correctly. In semiconductor switches, when compared to MOSFET’S,

IGBT’S are better because of low on-state losses and high switching frequency.

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

2.1.1. DEVICES USED FOR MARX GENERATOR…………... 5

4.7.2. IGBT COMPARISION TABLE………………………….. 48

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig Title Page

3.1 BASIC CIRCUIT OF TRADITIONAL MARX GENERATOR…… 8

3.2 BASIC CIRCIUT OF MODERN MARX GENERATOR OF ‘N’ STAGES …10

4.1.1 SCHEMATIC OF BASIC AC TO DC POWER SUPPLY……………… 18

4.1.2 BASIC SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY BLOCK DIAGRAM….. 19

4.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PULSE GENERATOR……………………….. 24

4.2.2 BASIC GENERATING LOOP………………………………………….. 25

4.3.1 A DI-ELECTRIC SANDWHICHED CAPACITOR…………………… 28

4.5.1 ARRAY OF FIVE RESISTORS, ALL TIED TOGETHER AT ONE END.. 35

4.5.2 VARIABLE RESISTORS………………………………………………… 36

4.7.1.1 BASIC MOSFET STRUCTURE……………………………………… 40

4.7.1.2 DEPLETION MODE N-CHANNEL MOSFET AMPLIFIER……….. 42

4.7.1.3 ENHANCEMENT-MODE N-CHANNEL MOSFET AMPLIFIER…… 44

4.7.2.1 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR……………………………46

6.1 2-STAGE MARX GENERATOR………………………………………… 52

6.2 8-STAGE MARX GENERATOR………………………………….. 54

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LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH TITLE PAGE

4.3.1 A RECTIFIED SIGNAL………………………………………… 30

4.3.2 RECTIFIED DC SIGNAL……………………………………….. 30

4.4.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS…………………………………… 32

4.7.2. IGBT CHARACTERISTICS…………………………………… 46

6.1 2-STAGE BIPOLAR OUTPUT VOLTAGE………………….. 53

6.2 8-STAGE BIPOLAR OUTPUT VOLTAGE………………… 55

6.3 POSITIVE PULSE OF 8-STAGE…………………………. 56

6.4 NEGATIVE PULSE OF 8-STAGE……………………….. 57

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1
INTRODUCTION

1
1.1. PRESENT SCENARIO

Protection of power system is an important aspect for the continued service of the

electrical power system. Mostly the protection of electrical power depends on the

performance of insulation systems under transient over voltage conditions arises due to

lightening and switching applications. Transient over voltages in addition to the abrupt

changes in the state of power systems, e.g. switching operations or faults are known as

switching impulse voltages and that due to lightening are known as lightening impulse

voltages.

Very short pulse high-voltage or high-current surges can be produced by an

electrical apparatus known as impulse generator. High impulse voltages are used to test

the durability of electric power equipment against lightning and switching surges. The

Marx Impulse generator is used to generate such high impulse voltages.

2
1.2 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

A medical linac is used for the cancer treatment and consists of an accelerating

column, waveguide components, a magnetron, an electron-gun, a pulse modulator, and an

irradiation system. The pulse modulator based on hydrogen thyratron-switched pulse-

forming network is commonly used in linac. As the improvement of the high power

semiconductors in switching speed, voltage rating, and current rating, an insulated gate

bipolar transistor has become the more popular device used for pulsed power systems.

We propose a solid-state pulse modulator to generator high voltage by multi-stacked

storage-switch stages based on the Marx generator. The advantage of our modulator

comes from the use of semiconductors to control charging and discharging of the storage

capacitor at each stage and it allows to generate the pulse with various amplitudes,

widths, and shapes.

3
2
CONSTRUCTION

4
2.1 REQUIRED DEVICES CONNECTED

To develop the required model of the project we connect some electronic

devices in simulation. The devices required to construct the model are tabulated as per

the requirements as under.

S. No Devices Type and Requirement

1 DC Supply 100 Volts

2 Pulse Generator

3 Diodes P-N Junction

4 IGBT

5 Resistors 100 Ω

6 Capacitors 30 µf,60,90,120,150

7 Power gui Discrete

8 Voltage Measurement

9 Scope

TABLE.2.1.1.DEVICES USED FOR MARX GENERATOR

5
2.2 PLATFORM REQUIRED
By using the required devices a Simulink model is developed from which the required

operation is taken place. The simulation model is run through MATLAB 2018 which is

developed to simulate the devices instead of hardware to satisfy our requirement.

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment

and proprietory programming language developed by Math Works.This is simple and user

friendly, the required action that has to be taken is in this form.

At supply end :

The voltage which we want to develop and to generate impulse is given to

the supply end. The supply voltage is of DC type. At the supply end, we trigger pulses in

order to charge the capacitors in series. IGBT’s which are acting as a switches are used to

charge those capacitors in a proper time interval. Pulse generators are connected to those

IGBT’s.

At load end :

The high voltage or the impulse voltage which is generated is appeared

across the resistive load connected at the end. The high voltage at the end can be obtained

by discharging all the capacitors connected in the circuit in a series manner. The

inductive load is also connected where its application is needed. Diodes used in this

circuit are used for discharging the capacitors in particular order.

At the load side, the number of stages can be increased to get the high

voltage based on our requirement. The output voltage obtained is number of times the

stages connected in the circuit to its supply voltage.

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3
CIRCUITS&TOPOLOGY

7
3.1 TRADITIONAL MARX GENERATOR

FIG.3.1 BASIC CIRCUIT OF TRADITIONAL MARX GENERATOR

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TRADITIONAL MARX GENERATOR :

In traditional Marx Generator, we use resistors and spark gap switches as

shown in fig.3.1. Spark gap switches are huge mechanical switches which were to be

triggered through an external circuit. Resistors used in the circuit may also have losses.

The capacitors connected in the circuit are fully charged in parallel sequence. The high

output can be obtained from discharging of capacitors by connecting them in series.

MODERN MARX GENERATOR :

In modern Marx Generator, we replace resistors with diodes and spark gap

switches with semiconductor switches like MOSFET’s or IGBT’s as shown in fig.3.2.

Pulse generators are used to trigger the semi-conductor switches. We can generate

positive impulses or negative impulses or bi-polar impulses by choosing the correct

discharge path. Based on the application, the characteristics of the generator are different.

The different characteristics can be recognized based on the rise time, fall time, pulse

width, pulse repetitive frequency (PRF) and magnitude of the output pulse.

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3.2 MODERN MARX GENERATOR

FIG.3.2 BASIC CIRCIUT OF MODERN MARX GENERATOR OF ‘N’ STAGES

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3.2.1 CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY :
A circuit topology having six switches which can be used to generate repetitive high

voltage bipolar pulses is shown fig.3.2

• In this circuit Udc is the source voltage, rdc is the equivalent internal resistance of

thesource. Ddc and Tdc are input diode and a switch respectively which are useful

for isolating the source during pulse process.

• This topology can have of several stages. Each stage is independent of the other

stages.

• Even during fault conditions, the stages remains unaffected as the fault current

can pass through the anti-parallel diode of the IGBTs.

• A single stage contains six solid state switches denoted as Tai, Tbi, Tci, Tdi, Tei

and Tgi, two diodes namely Dfi and Dhi and one capacitor Ci.

• Since this topology gives bipolar pulse, an additional capacitor is required at the

end. This additional capacitor will be useful in generation of negative pulse.

• Thus, for n stage topology, the number of capacitors required is (n+1).

• A certain dead time has been provided between turning ON of the switches on the

same leg to avoid shoot-through problem i.e. two switches on the same leg getting

switched ON at the same time. This may create a direct short across the source.

While charging, the switches can be triggered in three different manners

which will give us three different paths of charging. They are as follows.

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• Tdc- Ddc- Dhi- Tgi- Dfi- Tei

• Tdc- Ddc- Tai - anti parallel diode of Tbi - Dfi- Tei

• Tdc- Ddc- Dhi- Tgi- anti parallel diode of Tdi - Tci

In above three paths i = 1, 2, 3,…n. These various paths have been

provided so that the switches are relieved from the over stress which may in turn increase

the required power ratings of the switches.

• Once all the capacitors are charged, they are discharged by triggering the required

switches. For negative pulse, the switch Tbi and switch Tci are to be triggered. As

said earlier, in negative pulse process last capacitor C(n+1) is involved.

3.2.2 CIRCUIT DESIGN


A two stage, 200V six switch solid state Marx Generator has been designed and

simulated. The name six switch topology is based on the number of switches per

stage. An extra switch next to the voltage source is placed in order to isolate the

source from the stages during the pulse process.

The specifications decided for the output pulse of the Marx

Generator is 200 V, maximum pulse width of 300μs, pulse repetitive frequency

(PRF) of 200 Hz and 5-10% droop in voltage.

• Selection of Switches:

The IGBT switches are selected instead of MOSFETs for high power

low frequency operation. Its selection is based on the load current and the current

through the switches during the pulse process.


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Thus number of stages considered is two.

Hence,No. of switches required = n × 6 + 1

Selection of switches depends upon load current and current through

switches.

• Selection of Capacitor:

The value of the capacitor is selected based on the discharge time

constant.

𝐶𝑒= ( ×𝑉𝑜 ) / ( Δ𝑉×𝑍 )

𝐶𝑒=( 300μ×200 ) / ( 20×100 )

𝐶𝑒= 30μF

Ce is the equivalent value of the capacitances. 𝑉𝑜 is the output


voltage, Δ𝑉 is the voltage drop in the output voltage. Here we have considered it
as 10% of 𝑉𝑜, 𝜏 is the maximum pulse width, Z is the load considered.

In simulation, a resistive load of 100 ohms has been considered.


The value of individual capacitor can be calculated is

𝐶𝑖=𝐶𝑒×𝑛

𝐶𝑖=30 μ𝐹×2

𝐶𝑖=60 μ𝐹

• Selection of Diodes:

The peak inverse voltage or VRRM of diode should be more than the maximum

input DC voltage. The peak current rating or forward current (IF) of diode is

greater than the maximum source current which is input DC voltage divided by

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the input resistance (Rin). Main purpose of the diodes is to prevent discharge of

capacitors through wrong paths.For obtaining the bipolar output pulses, triggering

of switches is the most important part.

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4
DESCRIPTION OF THE
DEVICES USED

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4.1. DC POWER SUPPLY

4.1.1. WHAT IS POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical

load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source

to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. As a result, power

supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters.

Some power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while

others are built into the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter include

power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronic devices. Other

functions that power supplies may perform include limiting the current drawn by the load

to safe levels, shutting off the current in the event of an electrical fault, power

conditioning to prevent electronic noise or voltage surges on the input from reaching the

load, power-factor correction, and storing energy so it can continue to power the load in

the event of a temporary interruption in the source power.

4.1.2. WHAT IS DC POWER SUPPLY

A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.

Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or from

an AC source such as the power mains.

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4.1.2.1. TYPES OF DC POWER SUPPLY

a) AC-to-DC SUPPLY

b) SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY

c) LINEAR REGULATOR

a. AC –to- DC SUPPLY

DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power supplies

will employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage.

A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying DC voltage,

which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to convert it to an unregulated DC

voltage.

The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC

voltage is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum

amount of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high

ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery

charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with

nothing more than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with

the output to limit charging current.

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FIG.4.1.1 Schematic of basic AC to DC power supply

b. SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY

In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly

rectified and then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then

switched on and off at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing

an AC current that will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching

occurs at a very high frequency (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use

of transformers and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive

than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains frequency. After the

inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered to

produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-frequency

transformer, the output will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often

essential for safety.

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FIG.4.1.2.BASIC SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY BLOCK DIAGRAM

c. LINEAR REGULATOR :

The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a

constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current

limiting function to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive,

potentially destructive current).

A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the

voltage provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance.

Furthermore, when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy source, its output

voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power

supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value,

independent of fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can

also reduce the magnitude of ripple and noise on the output voltage.

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4.2 PULSE GENERATOR
A pulse generator is either an electronic circuit or a piece of electronic test

equipment used to generate rectangular pulses. Pulse generators are used primarily for

working with digital circuits, related function generators are used primarily for analog

circuits.

4.2.1 BASICS OF PULSE GENERATOR

Pulse generators are used to provide pulses for use in a variety of electronic applications.

Typically pulse generators will provide a number of functions and capabilities:

 Rectangular wave generation : As the name implies a pulse generator is designed

to produce pulses that are rectangular in nature, often capable of driving logic

circuitry, although they are not necessarily confined to just this type of application.

 Pulse width: In order to produce a variety of waveforms, the pulse width can be

varied.

 Repetition rate : The repetition rate is a key parameter. When used in a "free run"

mode, the repetition rate can be varied.

 Pulse trigger: Using an external waveform, it is possible to trigger the pulse

generator. Pulse triggering can normally occur on either the negative or positive edge

via a selection switch.

 Pulse delay: When a pulse is triggered it is normal to be able to select a delay for the

pulse from the pulse generator. This delay is adjustable.

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 Pulse amplitude: Although the pulse amplitude will normally be required to drive

logic circuits, the amplitude is normally adjustable. If nothing else this is required

because there are many standard logic levels in use today.

 Pulse rise and fall times: For some applications it may be necessary to be able to

adjust the rise and fall times of the logic outputs. This facility is available on many

pulse generators.

Pulse generators may use either digital or analogue techniques, or a

mixture of both. Elements such as triggering and the pulse generation will almost

certainly utilise digital technology, but aspects such as the rise and fall time control on

the pulse generator are likely to use analogue techniques.

A. TTL PULSE GENERATOR :

Often pulse generators are required to produce TTL logic outputs. These

generators may be referred to as TTL pulse generators. Their output levels will conform

to the standard TTL levels of 0 and 5V.

Although TTL levels are widely used and there are many different

families of TTL circuits that have been used including standard TTL, low power, low

power Schottky and many more versions of TTL. However the standard definitions of the

TTL levels have been accepted.

B. MULTI CHANNEL PULSE GENERATORS :

Some of the later pulse generators are what are termed multichannel pulse

generators. These multichannel pulse generators can produce several channels of pulses

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with independent pulse widths and delays with independent outputs and even

independent polarities.

These pulse generators are often used for synchronizing, delaying, gating

and triggering multiple devices often with respect to a single event. This means that even

though the outputs are independent, they are all linked to the same source in one way or

another. This allows for far more sophisticated systems to be linked from a single source,

although having different delays, etc..

It is also possible to multiplex the timing of several channels onto one

channel in order to trigger or gate the same device multiple times.

C. MICROWAVE PULSES:

Pulse generators capable of generating pulses with widths under

approximately 100 picoseconds are often termed as "microwave pulsers" and typically

generate these ultra-short pulses using Step recovery diode (SRD) or Nonlinear

Transmission Line (NLTL) methods. Step Recovery Diode pulse generators are

inexpensive but typically require several volts of input drive level and have a moderately

high level of random jitter (usually undesirable variation in the time at which successive

pulses occur).

D. SQUARE AND PULSE GENERATOR:

Block Diagram are used as measuring devices in combination with a

CRO.They provide both qualitative and quantitative information of the system under

test.They are used in transient response testing of amplifiers.The fundamental difference

between a pulse generator and a square wave generator is in the duty cycle.

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Duty cycle = (pulsewidth) / (pulse period)

A square wave generator has a 50% duty cycle.

Requirements Of Pulse:

 The pulse should have minimum distortion, so that any distortion in the display is

solely due to the circuit under test.

 The basic characteristics of the pulse are risetime, overshoot, ringing, sag and

undershoot.

 The pulse should have sufficient maximum amplitude, if appreciable output

power is required by the test circuit, e.g. for magnetic core At the same time, the

attenuation range should be adequate to produce small amplitude pulses to

prevent over driving of some test circuit.

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4.2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PULSE GENERATOR:

FIG.4.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PULSE GENERATOR

The duty cycle can be varied from 25% to 75%. Two independent outputs are available, a

50Q source that supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 5ns at 5V peak amplitude. The

instrument can be operated as a free-running generator or it can be synchronized with

externals signals.

The basic operating loop consists of the current sources, the ramp

capacitor, the Schmitt trigger and the current switching circuit as shown in fig.4.2.2.

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FIG.4.2.2 BASIC GENERATING LOOP

The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and

the capacitor voltage increases linearly. When the positive slope of the ramp voltage

reaches the upper limit set by the internal circuit components, the Schmitt trigger changes

state. The trigger circuit output becomes negative and reverses the condition of the

current switch. The capacitor discharges linearly, controlled by the lower current source.

When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower level, the Schmitt trigger

switches back to its original state. The entire process is then repeated. The ratio i1/i2

determines the duty cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control. The sum of i1 and i2

determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is selected by the multiplier switch.

The unit is powered by an internal supply that provides regulated voltages for all stages

of the instrument.The unit is powered by an internal supply that provides regulated

voltages for all stages of the instrument.

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4.2.5. APPLICATIONS OF PULSE GENERATOR :

 Pulse generators are used to drive devices such as switches,lasers and optical

components,modulators,intensifiers as well as resistive loads.

 The output of a pulse generator may also be used as the modulation signal for a

signal generator.

 Non-electronic applications such as material science, medical,physics,chemistry.

 It is used for digital communication.

 Digital MP3 players.

 All digital IC pins.

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4.3 CAPACITORS

A capacitor is a two-terminal, electrical component. Along

with resistors and inductors, these are one of the most fundamental passive components

we use. The capacitors are special as they have the ability to store energy they’re like a

fully charged electric battery. Common applications include local energy storage,

voltage spike suppression, and complex signal filtering.

4.3.1 CAPACITANCE UNITS

Not all capacitors are created equal. Each capacitor is built to have a

specific amount of capacitance. The capacitance of a capacitor tells you how much

charge it can store, more capacitance means more capacity to store charge. The standard

unit of capacitance is called the farad, which is abbreviated F.

It turns out that a farad is a lot of capacitance, even 0.001F (1 milifarad –

1mF) is a big capacitor. Usually you’ll see capacitors rated in the pico- (10-12) to

microfarad (10-6) range.

4.3.2 CAPACITOR THEORY

HOW A CAPACITOR IS MADE

The schematic symbol for a capacitor actually closely resembles how it’s

made. A capacitor is created out of two metal plates and an insulating material called

a dielectric. The metal plates are placed very close to each other, in parallel, but the

dielectric sits between them to make sure they don’t touch.

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FIG 4.3.1 A DI-ELECTRIC SANDWHICHED CAPACITOR

The dielectric can be made out of all sorts of insulating materials: paper,

glass, rubber, ceramic, plastic, or anything that will impede the flow of current.

The plates are made of a conductive material aluminium, tantalum, silver,

or other metals. They’re each connected to a terminal wire, which is what eventually

connects to the rest of the circuit.

The capacitance of a capacitor – how many farads it has – depends on how

it’s constructed. More capacitance requires a larger capacitor. Plates with more

overlapping surface area provide more capacitance, while more distance between the

plates means less capacitance. The material of the dielectric even has an effect on how

many farads a cap has. The total capacitance of a capacitor can be calculated with the

equation:

Where εr is the dielectric’s relative permittivity (a constant value determined by the

dielectric material), A is the amount of area the plates overlap each other, and d is the

distance between the plates.

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CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

When positive and negative charges coalesce on the capacitor plates, the

capacitor becomes charged. A capacitor can retain its electric field – hold its charge –

because the positive and negative charges on each of the plates attract each other but

never reach each other.

At some point the capacitor plates will be so full of charges that they just

can’t accept any more. There are enough negative charges on one plate that they can repel

any others that try to join. This is where the capacitance (farads) of a capacitor comes

into play, which tells you the maximum amount of charge the cap can store.

If a path in the circuit is created, which allows the charges to find another

path to each other, they’ll leave the capacitor, and it will discharge.

CAPACITORS AS POWER FILTERS

Diode rectifiers can be used to turn the AC voltage coming out of your

wall into the DC voltage required by most electronics. But diodes alone can’t turn an AC

signal into a clean DC signal, they need the help of capacitors! By adding a parallel

capacitor to a bridge rectifier, a rectified signal like this:

29
GRAPH 4.3.1 A RECTIFIED SIGNAL

Can be turned into a near-level DC signal like this

GRAPH 4.3.2 RECTIFIED DC SIGNAL

Capacitors are stubborn components, they’ll always try to resist sudden

changes in voltage. The filter capacitor will charge up as the rectified voltage increases.

When the rectified voltage coming into the cap starts its rapid decline, the capacitor will

access its bank of stored energy, and it’ll discharge very slowly, supplying energy to the

load.

30
4.4 DIODES
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that

conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally

zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.

A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a

heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from

cathode to plate.

4.4.1VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS :

A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–

voltage characteristic, or I–V graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is

determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion

layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors.

When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-

doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes

(vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile

electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an

immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged

acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted

of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width)

cannot grow without limit. For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively

31
charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant

ion is created in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are

created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow

and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the

depletion zone.

GRAPH 4.4.1 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

A. REVERSE BIAS :

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same

polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an

insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole

pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light;

see photodiode). This is called the reverse bias phenomenon.

32
B. FORWARD BIAS :

However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in

potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric

current through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes

recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is

approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an

external voltage greater than and opposite to the built-in voltage is applied, a

current will flow and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has been given an

external forward bias. The diode is commonly said to have a forward "threshold"

voltage, above which it conducts and below which conduction stops.

33
4.5 RESITORS
Resistors - the most ubiquitous of electronic components. They are a critical piece

in just about every circuit. And they play a major role in our favorite equation, Ohm’s

Law.

4.5.1 BASICS OF RESISTOR

The resistor’s resistance limits the flow of electrons through a circuit.They

are passive components, they only consume power (and can’t generate it). Resistors are

usually added to circuits where they complement active components like op-amps,

microcontrollers, and other integrated circuits. Commonly resistors are used to limit

current, divide voltages, and pull-up I/O lines.

4.5.2 UNITS OF RESISTOR


The electrical resistance of a resistor is measured in ohms. The symbol for an ohm is the

greek capital-omega: Ω. The (somewhat roundabout) definition of 1Ω is the resistance

between two points where 1 volt (1V) of applied potential energy will push 1 ampere

(1A) of current.

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4.5.3 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Resistors come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They might be through-hole or surface-

mount. They might be a standard, static resistor, a pack of resistors, or a special variable

resistor.

SPECIAL RESISTOR PACKAGES

There are variety of other, special-purpose resistors out there. Resistors may come in pre-

wired packs of five-or-so resistor arrays. Resistors in these arrays may share a common

pin, or be set up as voltage dividers.

FIGURE 4.5.1.AN ARRAY OF FIVE 330Ω RESISTORS, ALL TIED TOGETHER


AT ONE END.

Resistors don’t have to be static either. Variable resistors, known as rheostats, are

resistors which can be adjusted between specific ranges of values. Similar to the rheostat

is the potentiometer. Pots connect two resistors internally, in series, and adjust a centre

tap between them creating an adjustable voltage divider. These variable resistors are

often used for inputs, like volume knobs, which need to be adjustable.

35
FIGURE 4.5.2.VARIABLE RESISTORS

4.5.4 DECODING RESISTOR MARKINGS

Though they may not display their value outright, most resistors are marked to

show what their resistance is. PTH (Plated Through Hole) resistors use a color-coding

system (which really adds some flair to circuits), and SMD (Surface Mounted Device)

resistors have their own value-marking system.

36
4.6. SPARK GAP SWITCHES :

A spark gap consists of an arrangement of

two conducting electrodes separated by a gap usually filled with a gas such as air,

designed to allow an electric spark to pass between the conductors. When the potential

difference between the conductors exceeds the breakdown voltage of the gas within the

gap, a spark forms, ionizing the gas and drastically reducing its electrical resistance. An

electric current then flows until the path of ionized gas is broken or the current reduces

below a minimum value called the "holding current". This usually happens when

the voltage drops, but in some cases occurs when the heated gas rises, stretching out and

then breaking the filament of ionized gas. Usually, the action of ionizing the gas is

violent and disruptive, often leading to sound (ranging from a snap for a spark

plug to thunder for a lightning discharge), light and heat.

Spark gaps were used historically in early electrical equipment, such

as spark gap radio transmitters, electrostatic machines, and X-ray machines. Their most

widespread use today is in spark plugs to ignite the fuel in internal combustion engines,

but they are also used in lightning arresters and other devices to protect electrical

equipment from high-voltage transients.

4.6.1 SPARK VISIBILITY :

The light emitted by a spark does not come from the current

of electrons itself, but from the material medium fluorescing in response to collisions

from the electrons. When electrons collide with molecules of air in the gap, they excite

their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. When these excited electrons fall back to

37
their original energy levels, they emit energy as light. It is impossible for a visible spark

to form in a vacuum. Without intervening matter capable of electromagnetic transitions,

the spark will be invisible (see vacuum arc).

4.6.2 APPLICATIONS :

Spark gaps are essential to the functioning of a number of electronic devices.

a) Ignition Devices

A spark plug uses a spark gap to initiate combustion. The heat of the ionization

trail, but more importantly, UV radiation and hot free electrons (both cause the

formation of reactive free radicals) ignite a fuel-air mixture inside an internal

combustion engine, or a burner in a furnace, oven, or stove. The more UV

radiation is produced and successfully spread into the combustion chamber, the

further the combustion process proceeds.

b) Protective Devices

Spark gaps are frequently used to prevent voltage surges from

damaging equipment. Spark gaps are used in high-voltage switches, large

power transformers, in power plants and electrical substations. Such switches are

constructed with a large, remote-operated switching blade with a hinge as one

contact and two leaf springs holding the other end as second contact. If the blade

is opened, a spark may keep the connection between blade and spring conducting.

The spark ionizes the air, which becomes conductive and allows an arc to form,

which sustains ionization and hence conduction.

38
4.7. SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES :

A power semiconductor device is a semiconductor device used as

a switch or rectifier in power electronics (for example in a switch-mode power supply).

Such a device is also called a power device or, when used in an integrated circuit,

a power IC.

A power semiconductor device is usually used in "commutation mode" (i.e., it is either

on or off), and therefore has a design optimized for such usage; it should usually not be

used in linear operation. Linear power circuits are widespread as voltage regulators, audio

amplifiers, and radio frequency amplifiers.

4.7.1. MOSFET:

The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-

FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated

by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate, whose voltage determines

the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of

applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The main

advantage of a MOSFET is that it requires almost no input current to control the load

current, when compared with bipolar transistors (bipolar junction transistors/BJTs). In

an enhancement mode MOSFET, voltage applied to the gate terminal increases the

conductivity of the device. In depletion mode transistors, voltage applied at the gate

reduces the conductivity.

39
4.7.1.1 TYPES OF MOSFET :

MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a Gate, Drainand Source and both

P-channel (PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS) MOSFETs are available. The main

difference this time is that MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:

 Depletion Type – the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to

switch the device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a

“Normally Closed” switch.

 Enhancement Type – the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to

switch the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a

“Normally Open” switch. The symbols and basic construction for both configurations

of MOSFETs are show

4.7.1.3 BASIC MOSFET STRUCTURE AND SYMBOL:

FIG 4.7.1.1.BASIC MOSFET STRUCTURE

40
The construction of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET is very different to that of the

Junction FET. Both the Depletion and Enhancement type MOSFETs use an electrical

field produced by a gate voltage to alter the flow of charge carriers, electrons for n-

channel or holes for P-channel, through the semiconductive drain-source channel. The

gate electrode is placed on top of a very thin insulating layer and there are a pair of small

n-type regions just under the drain and source electrodes.

The gate of a junction field effect transistor, JFET must be biased in such a way as to

reverse-bias the pn-junction. With a insulated gate MOSFET device no such limitations

apply so it is possible to bias the gate of a MOSFET in either polarity, positive (+ve) or

negative (-ve).

This makes the MOSFET device especially valuable as electronic switches or to make

logic gates because with no bias they are normally non-conducting and this high gate

input resistance means that very little or no control current is needed as MOSFETs are

voltage controlled devices. Both the p-channel and the n-channel MOSFETs are available

in two basic forms, the Enhancement type and the Depletion type.

4.7.1.4 DEPLETION MODE MOSFET

The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the enhancement mode

types is normally switched “ON” (conducting) without the application of a gate bias

voltage. That is the channel conducts when VGS = 0 making it a “normally-closed”

device. The circuit symbol shown above for a depletion MOS transistor uses a solid

channel line to signify a normally closed conductive channel.

41
For the n-channel depletion MOS transistor, a negative gate-source voltage, -VGS will

deplete (hence its name) the conductive channel of its free electrons switching the

transistor “OFF”. Likewise for a p-channel depletion MOS transistor a positive gate-

source voltage, +VGS will deplete the channel of its free holes turning it “OFF”.

In other words, for an n-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +VGS means more electrons

and more current. While a -VGS means less electrons and less current. The opposite is

also true for the p-channel types. Then the depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a

“normally-closed” switch.

The depletion-mode MOSFET is constructed in a similar way to their JFET transistor

counterparts were the drain-source channel is inherently conductive with the electrons

and holes already present within the n-type or p-type channel. This doping of the channel

produces a conducting path of low resistance between the Drain and Source with

zero Gate bias.

GRAPH. 4.7.1.2. DEPLETION-MODE N-CHANNEL MOSFET AND CIRCUIT


SYMBOLS

42
4.7.1.5 ENHANCEMENT-MODE MOSFET

The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET or eMOSFET, is the reverse of the

depletion-mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly doped or even undoped

making it non-conductive. This results in the device being normally “OFF” (non-

conducting) when the gate bias voltage, VGS is equal to zero. The circuit symbol shown

above for an enhancement MOS transistor uses a broken channel line to signify a

normally open non-conducting channel.

For the n-channel enhancement MOS transistor a drain current will only flow when a gate

voltage ( VGS ) is applied to the gate terminal greater than the threshold voltage ( VTH )

level in which conductance takes place making it a transconductance device.

The application of a positive (+ve) gate voltage to a n-type eMOSFET attracts more

electrons towards the oxide layer around the gate thereby increasing or enhancing (hence

its name) the thickness of the channel allowing more current to flow. This is why this

kind of transistor is called an enhancement mode device as the application of a gate

voltage enhances the channel.

Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to decrease further

causing an increase in the drain current, ID through the channel. In other words, for an n-

channel enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “ON”, while a zero or -

VGSturns the transistor “OFF”. Thus the enhancement-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a

“normally-open” switch.

The reverse is true for the p-channel enhancement MOS transistor. When VGS = 0 the

device is “OFF” and the channel is open. The application of a negative (-ve) gate voltage

43
to the p-type eMOSFET enhances the channels conductivity turning it “ON”. Then for an

p-channel enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “OFF”, while -

VGS turns the transistor “ON”

4.7.1.3.ENHANCEMENT-MODE N-CHANNEL MOSFET AND CIRCUIT


SYMBOLS

Enhancement-mode MOSFETs make excellent electronics switches due to their low

“ON” resistance and extremely high “OFF” resistance as well as their infinitely high

input resistance due to their isolated gate. Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are used in

integrated circuits to produce CMOS type Logic Gates and power switching circuits in

the form of as PMOS (P-channel) and NMOS (N-channel) gates. CMOS actually stands

for Complementary MOS meaning that the logic device has both PMOS and NMOS

within its design.

44
4.7.2. IGBT(INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR) :

The IGBT is a power switching transistor which combines the advantages of

MOSFETs and BJTs for use in power supply and motor control circuits. The Insulated

Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross between

a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor,

(MOSFET) making it ideal as a semiconductor switching device.

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) combines the insulated gate (hence the

first part of its name) technology of the MOSFET with the output performance

characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, (hence the second part of its name).

The result of this hybrid combination is that the “IGBT Transistor” has the output

switching and conduction characteristics of a bipolar transistor but is voltage-controlled

like a MOSFET.

The advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a BJT or

MOSFET is that it offers greater power gain than the standard bipolar type transistor

combined with the higher voltage operation and lower input losses of the MOSFET. In

effect it is an FET integrated with a bipolar transistor in a form of Darlington type

configuration as shown.

45
FIG 4.7.2.1 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance

device that combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar

transistor output connected in a type of Darlington configuration.

4.7.2.1 IGBT CHARACTERISTICS

GRAPH 4.7.2. IGBT CHARACTERISTICS

Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the

Gate to maintain conduction through the device unlike BJT’s which require that the Base

current is continuously supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation.

46
Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the

“forward direction”, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFET’s which have bi-

directional current switching capabilities (controlled in the forward direction and

uncontrolled in the reverse direction).

The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar transistor

are very similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic difference is that the

resistance offered by the main conducting channel when current flows through the device

in its “ON” state is very much smaller in the IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings

are much higher when compared with an equivalent power MOSFET.

The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over other types

of transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance.

4.7.2.3 IGBT COMPARISON TABLE

Device Power Power


IGBT
Characteristic Bipolar MOSFET

Voltage Rating High <1kV High <1kV Very High >1kV

Current Rating High <500A Low <200A High >500A

Current, hFE Voltage, VGS Voltage, VGE


Input Drive
20-200 3-10V 4-8V

47
Input Impedance Low High High

Output Impedance Low Medium Low

Switching Speed Slow (uS) Fast (nS) Medium

Cost Low Medium High

TABLE 4.7.1. IGBT COMPARISION TABLE

48
5
WORKING

49
5.1. WORKING OF MARX GENERATOR

Marx Generator is based on parallel charging of the capacitors of all the stages to

the input voltage and then discharging them in series to generate high voltage pulse

across the load by triggering the spark gaps in conventional Marx Generator. The pulse

width and amplitude both can be controlled by controlling the gate pulses to the switches.

A two stage, six switch solid state Marx Generator has been designed and simulated. The

name six switch topology is based on the number of switches per stage. An extra switch

next to the voltage source is placed in order to isolate the source from the stages during

the pulse process. As this topology is applicable for all types of load, the discharge of

loadis mandatory especially for capacitive and inductive load. For the discharge of load

capacitances, the switch Tdiis triggered. Now, the load capacitance can discharge through

anti parallel diode of Tciand the switch Tdi as shown in fig.3.2. For inductive load, the

load inductances can freewheel through the anti-parallel diodes of switches Tbi and

Tcirespectively for negative pulse in fig.3.2. After obtaining the negative pulse, a dead

band is provided within which the capacitors are charged which are again to be

discharged to produce positive pulse. For this purpose switches Tai and Tdi are triggered

in fig.3.2.

The output voltage obtained can be varied with the change in number of

stages connected in the circuit. For positive pulses,the capacitor connected at the end

doesn’t involved and discharging takes place with the front connected capacitor.For

negative pulses,voltage is obtained with the discharge of capacitor connected at the end.

50
6
RESULTS

51
6.1. 2-STAGE MARX GENERATOR

SIMULATION CIRCUIT

FIG.6.1. 2-STAGE MARX GENERATOR

52
RESULTS OF 2-STAGE MARX GENERATOR

GRAPH.6.1. 2-STAGE BIPOLAR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The output obtained from the 2-stage Marx Generator is 200v as shown in graph.6.1.We

can observe that the voltage gets doubled because the number of stages connected is two.

53
6.2. 8-STAGE MARX GENERATOR

SIMULATION CIRCUIT

FIG 6.2. 8-STAGE MARX GENERATOR

54
RESULT OF 8-STAGE MARX GENERATOR

GRAPH.6.2. 8-STAGE BIPOLAR VOLTAGE

The output obtained from 8-stage bipolar Marx Generator is shown in graph.6.2.We can

observe that the output voltage is 800v which is 8 times the input voltage because the

number of stages connected is eight.

55
POSITIVE PULSE

GRAPH.6.3.POSITIVE PULSE OF 8-STAGE

In positive pulse process first capacitor participates but the n+1 capacitor do not
contribute for this process. The voltage applied across the load is given by,
Vo= nUdc

56
NEGATIVE PULSE

GRAPH6.4. NEGATIVE PULSE OF 8-STAGE

For negative pulse process last capacitor C(n+1) is involved. But the first capacitor does
not contribute for the negative pulse. The voltage available across the load is given by,
Vo= - nUdc

57
BIBILIOGRAPHY
[1] Seung-Bok Ok, Hong-Je Ryoo, Sung-Roc Jang, Suk-Ho Ahn, and
GennadiGoussev, “Design of a High-Efficiency 40-kV, 150-A, 3-kHz Solid-State
Pulsed Power Modulator”, IEEE Trans. on Plasma Sci. vol. 40, no. 10, Oct. 2012,
pp.2569-2577.
[2] H. Akiyama, T. Sakugawa, T. Namihira, K. Takaki, Y. Minamitani, and N.
Shimomura, “Industrial applications of pulsed power technology”, IEEE Trans.
Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1051–1064, Oct. 2007.
[3] C.L. Wadhawa, Prof. and head of department of Electrical Engineering Delhi
Coe; Delhi-110006, India. New Age International (P) ltd. 2012.
[4] Richard Cassel, “The Evolution of Pulsed Modulators from the Marx Generator to
the Solid State Marx Modulator and Beyond”, IEEE, June 3-7 2012,San Diego,
CA, pp. 9-13.
[5] "Solid State Pulsed Power Systems", Dr. Stephan Roche Physique & industrie, 17
rue de la rente Logerot, 21160 Marsannay la cote, France. [6] R. Cassel and S.
Hitchcock, ―A new type high voltage fast rise/fall time solid state Marx pulse
modulator‖, IEEE Particle Accelerator Conf., New Mexico, USA, pp. 865-867,
2007.
[6] Yifan Wu, Kefu Liu, Jian Qiu , XiaoXu Liu and Houxiu Xiao, " Repetitive and
High Voltage Marx Generator Using Solid-state Devices", IEEE Trans. on
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 14, No. 4; August 2007.
[7] Jian Qiu, Kefu Liu and Liuxia Li, " Stray Parameters in a Novel Solid State
Pulsed Power Modulator", IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
Vol. 20, No. 4; August 2013.
[8] Ju Won Baek, Dong Wook Yoo, Geun Hie Rim and Jih-Sheng (Jason) Lai, "Solid
State Marx Generator Using Series- Connected IGBTs", IEEE Trans. on Plasma
Science, Vol. 33, No. 4, August 2005.
[9] L.M.Redondo, J.Fernando Silva, P.Tavares and E.Margato, "Solid-state Marx
generator design with an energy recovery reset circuit for output transformer
association".

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