0 V 4 Main

The Mathematics Handbook
Alexander Spartalis
http://mathscheats.weebly.com/
V4.1: 2nd of June, 2019

Contents
1 Elementary 2D Geometry 4
1.1 Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 General Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Equilateral Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Isosceles Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9 Cyclic Quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.10 Rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.11 Rhomboid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.12 Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.13 Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.14 Kite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.15 Trapezium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.16 Pentagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.17 Hexagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.18 Heptagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.19 Octagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.20 Nonagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.21 Decagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.22 Dodecagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.23 Regular n-gons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.24 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.25 Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.26 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Elementary 3D Geometry 38
2.1 Platonic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 Euler Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5 Octahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6 Dodecahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.7 Icosahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.8 Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.9 Triangular Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.10 Rectangular Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.11 Pentagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.12 Hexagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.13 Heptagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.14 Octagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.15 Nonagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1
The Mathematics Handbook CONTENTS
2.16 Decagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2.17 Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.18 Triangular Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.19 Rectangular Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.20 Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.21 Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.22 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.23 Spherical Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.24 Spherical Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.25 Spherical Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.26 Spherical Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.27 Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.28 Ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 Trigonometry 69
3.1 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Elementary Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Simplification Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6 Basic Inverse Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.7 Simplification Inverse Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.8 Machin-like formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4 Pi 90
4.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2 Formula for π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5 Functions 96
5.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2 Function Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3 Even and Odd Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.4 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.5 Horizontal Constant Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.6 Vertical Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.7 Linear Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.8 Simultaneous Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.9 Quadratic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.10 Polylogarithm Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.11 Spence’s Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2
Geometries
3
Chapter 1
Elementary 2D Geometry
Geometry is the study of shape, size and space. It was one of the first areas of mathematics to be formalised, by the
ancient Greek Euclid.
1.1 Euclidean Geometry

A geometry based on the definitions and axioms set out in Euclid’s Elements.
1.1.1 Definitions:
The definitions that Euclid gave are common in many areas of mathematics.
1. A point is that which has no part.
2. A line is breadthless length.
3. The ends of a line are points.
4. A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.
5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only.
6. The edges of a surface are lines.
7. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
8. A plane angle is the inclination to one another of two lines in a plane which meet one another and do not lie in a
straight line.
9. And when the lines containing the angle are straight, the angle is called rectilinear.
10. When a straight line standing on a straight line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of the equal
angles is right, and the straight line standing on the other is called a perpendicular to that on which it stands.
11. An obtuse angle is an angle greater than a right angle.
12. An acute angle is an angle less than a right angle.
13. A boundary is that which is an extremity of anything.
14. A figure is that which is contained by any boundary or boundaries.
15. A circle is a plane figure contained by one line such that all the straight lines falling upon it from one point among
those lying within the figure equal one another.
16. And the point is called the center of the circle.
17. A diameter of the circle is any straight line drawn through the center and terminated in both directions by the
circumference of the circle, and such a straight line also bisects the circle.
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The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 1 – Elementary 2D Geometry
18. A semicircle is the figure contained by the diameter and the circumference cut off by it. And the center of the
semicircle is the same as that of the circle.
19. Rectilinear figures are those which are contained by straight lines, trilateral figures being those contained by three,
quadrilateral those contained by four, and multilateral those contained by more than four straight lines.
20. Of trilateral figures, an equilateral triangle is that which has its three sides equal, an isosceles triangle that which
has two of its sides alone equal, and a scalene triangle that which has its three sides unequal.
21. Further, of trilateral figures, a right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle, an obtuse-angled triangle that
which has an obtuse angle, and an acute-angled triangle that which has its three angles acute.
22. Of quadrilateral figures, a square is that which is both equilateral and right-angled; an oblong that which is right-
angled but not equilateral; a rhombus that which is equilateral but not right-angled; and a rhomboid that which has
its opposite sides and angles equal to one another but is neither equilateral nor right-angled. And let quadrilaterals
other than these be called trapezia.
23. Parallel straight lines are straight lines which, being in the same plane and being produced indefinitely in both
directions, do not meet one another in either direction.
1.1.2 Axioms:
There are 5 common notions.
1. Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
4. Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another.
5. The whole is greater than the part.
Euclid’s 5 postulates formed the backbone from which all his proofs were derived from.
1. A straight line can be drawn from any point to any other point.
2. A straight line can be extended indefinitely in any direction.
3. It is possible to describe a circle with any centre and radius.
4. All right angles are equal.
5. That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right
angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two
right angles.
1.2 Angles
In geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called
the vertex of the angle.
1.2.1 Classification of angles:

1. Acute Angle: Angle smaller than a right angle.
1
2. Right Angle: An angle equal to 4 turn. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or
perpendicular.
3. Obtuse Angle: Angle larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle.
5
1
4. Straight Angle: An angle equal to 2 turn.
5. Reflex Angle: Angle larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn.
6. Complete Angle, revolution, full turn, perigon: An angle equal to 1 turn.
7. Oblique Angle: An angle that is not a right angle.
8. Congruent Angles: Angles that have the same measure. An angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent
upon the lengths of the sides of the angle.
9. Coterminal Angles: Two angles which share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn.
10. Complementary Angles: Angle pairs whose measures sum to one right angle.
AngleComplementary.png
11. Supplementary Angles: Angle pairs whose measures sum to one straight angle.
AngleSupplementary.png
12. Explementary Angles: Angle pairs whose measures sum to one revolution.
Name Acute Right Obtuse Straight Reflex Revolution
Units Interval

1 1 1 1 1 1
Turns 0, , ,1 1
4 4 4 2 2 2
π π π
Radian 0<θ< θ= <θ<π θ=π π < θ < 2π θ = 2π
2 2 2
Degrees 0◦ < θ < 90◦ θ = 90◦ 90◦ < θ < 180◦ θ = 180◦ 180◦ < θ < 360◦ θ = 360◦
AngleObtuse.png
AngleAcute.pngAngleRight.png AngleStraight.png
AngleReflex.png
1.2.2 Special Properties with Parallel Lines

1. Alternate: Alternate angles are equal in magnitude.
6
AngleAlternate.png
2. Corresponding: Corresponding angles are equal in magnitude.
AngleCorresponding.png
3. Vertically Opposite: Vertically opposite angles are equal in magnitude.
AngleVerticallyOpposite.png
4. Co-interior: The sum of two co-interior angles is 180◦ .
AngleCointerior.png
7
1.3 General Polygons

In geometry, a polygon is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to
form a closed chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges, and the points where two edges meet are the polygon’s
vertices. A polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions.
1.3.1 Classification of polygons:

1. Convex: Any line drawn through the polygon (and not tangent to an edge or vertex) meets its boundary exactly
twice. As a consequence, all its interior angles are less than 180◦ . Equivalently, any line segment with endpoints on
the boundary passes through only interior points between its endpoints.
2. Non-convex: A line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice. Equivalently, there exists a line
segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon.
3. Simple: The boundary of the polygon does not cross itself. All convex polygons are simple.
4. Concave: Non-convex and simple. There is an interior angle greater than 180◦ .
5. Star-shaped: The whole interior is visible from a single point, without crossing any edge. The polygon must be
simple, and may be convex or concave.
6. Self-intersecting: The boundary of the polygon crosses itself.
7. Star polygon: A polygon which self-intersects in a regular way.
8. Equiangular: All its corner angles are equal.
9. Cyclic: All corners lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle.
10. Isogonal: All corners lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is also cyclic and equiangular.
11. Equilateral: All edges are of the same length.
12. Tangential: All edges are tangent to an inscribed circle.
13. Isotoxal: All edges lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is also equilateral and tangential.
14. Regular: The polygon is both cyclic and equilateral. Equivalently, it is both equilateral and equiangular. A
non-convex regular polygon is called a regular star polygon.
15. Rectilinear: A polygon whose sides meet at right angles.
16. Monotone with respect to a given line L: If every line orthogonal to L intersects the polygon not more than twice.
1.3.2 Naming:
Name Edges Alternatives

henagon 1 monogon
digon 2
triangle 3 trigon
quadrilateral 4 quadrangle, tetragon
pentagon 5
hexagon 6 sexagon
heptagon 7 septagon
octagon 8
nonagon 9 enneagon
8
decagon 10
hendecagon 11 undecagon
dodecagon 12 duodecagon
tridecagon 13 triskaidecagon
tetradecagon 14 tetrakaidecagon
pentadecagon 15 pentakaidecagon, quindecagon
hexadecagon 16 hexakaidecagon, sexdecagon
heptadecagon 17 heptakaidecagon, septdecagon
octadecagon 18 octakaidecagon
enneadecagon 19 enneakaidecagon , nonadecagon
icosagon 20
triacontagon 30
hectogon 100 centagon
chiliagon 1000
myriagon 10000
megagon 1000000
apeirogon ∞
1.3.3 Perimeter:
n
X
1. P = ak where ak are the side lengths and n is the number of sides of the polygon.
k=1
1.3.4 Semiperimeter:
P
1. s = where P is the perimeter.
2
1.3.5 Area:
n−1
1 X
1. T = (xk yk+1 − xk+1 yk ) where (xk , yk ) are the Cartesian coordinates, ordered clockwise, of the verticies of the

2
k=1
polygon and n the number of sides of the polygon.
B
2. T = I + − 1 where I is the number of interior points and B is the number of boundary points. This formula is
2
valid for a simple polygon that is constructed on a grid of equal-distanced points, or points with integer coordinates,
such that all the polygon’s vertices are grid points. This is Pick’s Theorem.
1.3.6 Longest Diagonal:

a
1. d = where a is the side length of a regular even sided polygon.
180
sin
n
a
2. d = where a is the side length of a regular odd sided polygon.
90
2 sin
n
1.3.7 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a n sided polygon is (n − 2)180◦ . The polygon could be
thought of as having (n − 2) interior triangles, each with 180◦ .
9
1.3.8 Exterior Angles: The sum of the exterior angles of a n sided polygon is always 360◦ .
1.4 Triangles
A triangle is one of the basic shapes in geometry, a polygon with three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which
are line segments. While the following section is about triangles in general, there are some formula for specific types of
triangles that can be found in the sections that follow.
1.4.1 Classification of triangles:

1. Equilateral Triangle: All sides have the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles
measuring 60◦ .
TriangleEquilateral2.png
2. Isosceles Triangle: Two sides are equal in length.The angles opposite to the two sides of the same length are
congruent.
TriangleIsoceles.png
3. Scalene Triangle: All sides are unequal,and thus all angles are unequal. Right triangles are scalene if and only if
not isosceles.
TriangleScalene.png
4. Right Triangle: One interior angles measures 90◦ (a right angle). The side opposite to the right angle is the
hypotenuse and it is the longest side of the right triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti of the
triangle.
TriangleRight.png
5. Oblique Triangle: A Triangle that does not have an angle measuring 90◦ . Thus, all triangles that are not right
triangles.
10
TriangleObtuse.png
TriangleAcute.png
6. Acute Triangle: All angles are less than 90◦ .
TriangleAcute.png
7. Obtuse Triangle: An angle is greater than 90◦ .
TriangleObtuse.png
1.4.2 Similarity: Two triangles are called similar if they both have the same shape. The following theorems establish
similarity between two triangles.
1. If every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle.
2. If two corresponding internal angles of two triangles have the same measure.
3. If the corresponding sides of the triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion
4. If two corresponding sides of two triangles are in proportion, and the angles between them have the same measure.
1.4.3 Congruence: Two triangles are called congruent if they both have the same size shape. The following theorems
establish congruence between two triangles.
1. SSS: Each side of a triangle has the same length as a corresponding side of the other triangle.
2. SAS: Two sides in a triangle have the same length as two sides in the other triangle, and the angle between them
have the same measure.
3. ASA: Two angles in a triangle have the same measure as the corresponding angles in the other triangle, and the
sides between them have the same length.
4. ASA: Two angles in a triangle have the same measure as the corresponding angles in the other triangle, and a
corresponding side has the same length.
5. RHS: The hypotenuse and a leg in a right triangle have the same length as those in another right triangle.
11
1.4.4 Centers: There are many types of centers within a triangle, found by different definitions and methods. These
centers have special properties.
1. Orthocenter: The intersection of the altitudes.
TriangleOrthocenter.png
2. Centroid: The intersection of the medians.
TriangleCentroid.png
3. Circumcenter: The intersection of the the perpendicular bisectors. This is the center of the circumscribed circle.
TriangleCircumcenter.png
4. Incircle: The intersection of the angle bisectors. This is the center of the inscribed circle.
TriangleIncircle.png
5. Nine Point Circle: The midpoints of the three sides, the feet of the three altitudes and the midpoints of the portion
of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter all lie on a circle. The radius of the nine-point circle is half
that of the circumscribed circle.
TriangleNinePointCircle.png
12
6. Euler’s Line: The centroid (orange), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and center of the nine-point circle
(red) all lie on a straight line.
TriangleEulerLine.png
1.4.5 Perimeter: where a, b, c are the side lengths.

1. P = a + b + c
1.4.6 Area:
1
1. T = bh, where b is the base length and h the perpendicular height from the base.
2
1
2. T = ab sin(C), where a, b are the side lengths, and C is the angle between them.
2
1
3. T = ab sin(A + B), where a, b are the side lengths, A, B are the angles opposite the sides a, b respectively.
2
a2 sin(B) sin(C)
4. T = , where a is a side length, A is the angle opposite the side a, and B, C are the other two angles.
2 sin(A)
p
5. T = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where a, b, c are the side lengths, and s is the semiperimeter.
1p 2
6. T = (a + b2 + c2 )2 − 2(a4 + b4 + c4 ), where a, b, c are the side lengths.
4
1p 2 2
7. T = 2(a b + a2 c2 + b2 c2 ) − (a4 + b4 + c4 ), where a, b, c are the side lengths.
4
1p
8. T = (a + b − c)(a − b + c)(−a + b + c)(a + b + c), where a, b, c are the side lengths.
4
1.4.7 Interior Angles The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180◦ .
1.5 Equilateral Triangles

In geometry, an equilateral triangle (or regular triangle) is a triangle in which all three sides are equal. All interior angles
are congruent to each other and are 60◦ .
TriangleEquilateral2.png
13
1.5.1 Perimeter: where a is the side length.

1. P = 3a
1.5.2 Area: where a is the side length.

√
3 2
1. T = a
4
1.5.3 Radius of Circumscribed Circle: where a is the side length.

√
3
1. R = a, centered at the geometric center of the triangle.
3
1.5.4 Radius of Inscribed Circle: where a is the side length.

√
3
1. r = a, centered at the geometric center of the triangle.
6
1.5.5 Properties: Where a, b, c are the side length, A, B, C are the angles opposite sides a, b, c respectively, T the
area, R the radius of the circumscribed circle, r the radius of the inscribed circle and s the semiperimeter. The following
statements are true, if and only if the triangle is an equilateral triangle.
1. a2 + b2 + c2 = ab + bc + ac
2. abc = (a + b − c)(a − b + c)(−a + b + c)

√
1 1 1 25Rr − 2r2
3. + + =
a b c 4Rr
√
4. s = 2R + (3 3 − 4)r
5. s2 = 3r2 + 12Rr
√
6. s2 = 3 3T
√
7. s = 3 3r
√
3 3
8. s = R
2
9. A = B = C
3
10. cos(A) + cos(B) + cos(C) =
2

A B C 1
11. sin + sin + sin =
2 2 2 8
a2 + b2 + c2
12. T = √
4 3
√
3 2
13. T = (abc) 3
4
14. R = 2r
15. 9R2 = a2 + b2 + c2
16. The three altitudes have equal lengths.
17. The three medians have equal lengths.
18. The three angle bisectors have equal lengths.
14
1.6 Isosceles Triangles

In geometry, an isosceles triangle is a triangle in which only two sides are equal. The two base angles are congruent to
each other.
1.6.1 Perimeter: where a is the side length that is repeated twice, and b is the third side.
1. P = 2a + b
1.6.2 Area: where a is the side length that is repeated twice, and b is the third side.
b√ 2
1. T = 4a − b2
4
1.7 Right Triangles

In geometry, a right triangle is a triangle in which one angle is a right angle. The relation between the sides and angles
of a right triangle is the basis for trigonometry.
TriangleRight2.png
1.7.1 Perimeter: where a, b, c are the side lengths.

1. P = a + b + c,
1.7.2 Area:
1
1. T = ab, where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths.
2
2. T = (s − a)(s − b), where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths, and s is the semiperimeter.
1.7.3 Altitudes: If an altitude is drawn from the vertex with the right angle to the hypotenuse then the triangle is
divided into two smaller triangles which are both similar to the original and therefore similar to each other.
TriangleRightAltitudes.png
1. The altitude to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean of the two segments of the hypotenuse.
2. Each leg of the triangle is the mean proportional of the hypotenuse and the segment of the hypotenuse that is
adjacent to the leg.
3. The right triangle’s orthocenter coincides with the right-angled vertex.
4. f 2 = de
15
5. b2 = ce
6. a2 = cd
ab
7. f =
c
1 1 1
8. 2 + 2 = 2
a b f
1.7.4 Radius of Circumscribed Circle: where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths and c the hypotenuse.
c
1. R = , centered at the right-angled vertex.
2
1.7.5 Radius of Inscribed Circle: where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths and c the hypotenuse.
a+b−c
1. r =
2
ab
2. r =
a+b+c
2r(b − r)
3. a =
b − 2r
1.7.6 Properties: Where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths, c the hypotenuse, A, B, C are the angles opposite
sides a, b, c respectively, T the area, R the radius of the circumscribed circle, r the radius of the inscribed circle and s the
semiperimeter. The following statements are true, if and only if the triangle is a right triangle.
1. a2 + b2 = c2
2. (s − a)(s − b) = s(s − c)
3. s = 2R + r
4. a2 + b2 + c2 = 8R2
5. A + B = 90◦
6. cos(A) cos(B) cos(C) = 0
7. sin2 (A) + sin2 (B) + sin2 (C) = 2
8. cos2 (A) + cos2 (B) + cos2 (C) = 1
9. sin(2A) = sin(2B) = 2 sin(A) sin(B)
ab
10. T =
2
11. T = r(2R + r)
12. r = s − c
13. The length of one median is equal to the circumradius.
14. The shortest altitude is the geometric mean of the line segments it divides the opposite side into.
15. The triangle can be inscribed in a semicircle, with one side coinciding with the entirety of the diameter.
16. The circumcenter is the midpoint of the longest side.
17. The longest side is a diameter of the circumscribed circle (c = 2R).
18. The circumscribed circle is tangent to the nine-point circle.
19. The orthocenter lies on the circumscribed circle.
√
20. The distance between the incenter and the orthocenter is equal to 2r.
16
1.7.7 Pythagorean Theorem: The Pythagorean theorem is a relation in Euclidean geometry among the three
sides of a right triangle.
1. a2 + b2 = c2 where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths and c the hypotenuse.
1.7.8 Pythagorean Triple: Three positive integers, a, b, c such that the Pythagorean theorem is satisfied. The
numbers in a Pythagorean triple are the lengths of sides of a Right triangle with integer sides. If (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean
triple, then for positive integer k, (ka, kb, kc) is also a Pythagorean triple.
Generating a Pythagorean triple can be determined by finding m, n such that they are coprime such that m > n, and
m − n is odd. a = m2 − n2 , b = 2mn and c = m2 + n2 . A list of the first few Pythagorean triples are below.
1. (3, 4, 5)
2. (5, 12, 13)
3. (7, 24, 25)
4. (9, 40, 41)
5. (11, 60, 61)
6. (12, 35, 37)
7. (13, 84, 85)
8. (20, 21, 29)
9. (28, 45, 53)
10. (33, 56, 65)
11. (36, 77, 85)
12. (39, 80, 89)
13. (48, 55, 73)
14. (65, 72, 97)
Pythagorean triples have some special and unique properties, where a < b < c:
(c − a)(c − b)
1. is a perfect square.
2
2. At most one of a, b, c is a square.
ab
3. The area T = is an even congruent number.
2
4. The area of a Pythagorean triangle cannot be the square or twice the square of a natural number.
5. Exactly one of a, b is odd. c is odd.
6. Exactly one of a, b is divisible by 3.
7. Exactly one of a, b is divisible by 4.
8. Exactly one of a, b, c is divisible by 5.
9. The largest number that always divides abc is 60.
10. All prime factors of c are primes of the form 4n + 1.
11. Every integer greater than 2 is part of a primitive or non-primitive Pythagorean triple.
17
12. There exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the longer of the two legs
differ by exactly one.
13. For every odd integer j, there exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the
even leg differ by j 2 .
14. There exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the longer of the two legs
differ by exactly two.
15. For every integer j > 0, there exist infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the
odd leg differ by 2k 2 .
16. There exist infinitely many Pythagorean triples in which the two legs differ by exactly one.
17. For each natural number n, there exist n Pythagorean triples with different hypotenuses and the same area.
18. For each natural number n, there exist at least n different Pythagorean triples with the same leg a, where a is some
natural number.
19. For each natural number n, there exist at least n different Pythagorean triples with the same hypotenuse.
20. In every Pythagorean triple, the radius of the incircle and the radii of the three excircles are natural numbers.
Specifically, for a primitive triple the radius of the incircle is r = n(m − n) , and the radii of the excircles opposite
the sides m2 –n2 , 2mn, and the hypotenuse m2 + n2 are m(m − n), n(m + n), and m(m + n) respectively.
21. As for any right triangle, the converse of Thales’ theorem says that the diameter of the circumscribed circle equals
the hypotenuse.
22. There are no Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and one leg are the legs of another Pythagorean triple.
23. There exist infinitely many Pythagorean triples with square numbers for both the hypotenuse c and the sum of the
legs a + b.
1.8 Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral, or tetragon, is one of the basic shapes in geometry, a polygon with four corners or vertices and four sides
or edges which are line segments. While the following section is about quadrilaterals in general, there are some formula
for specific types of quadrilaterals that can be found in the sections that follow.
1.8.1 Classification of quadrilaterals:

1. Parallelogram: A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. Equivalent conditions are that opposite sides are of
equal length, that opposite angles are equal, and that the diagonals bisect each other. Parallelograms also include
the square, rectangle, rhombus and rhomboid.
2. Rhombus: All four sides are of equal length, and thus the diagonals perpendicularly bisect each other.
QuadrilateralRhombus.png
3. Rhomboid: A parallelogram in which adjacent sides are of unequal lengths and angles are oblique.
QuadrilateralRhomboid.png
18
4. Rectangle: All four angles are right angles, and thus the diagonals bisect each other and are equal in length.
QuadrilateralRectangle.png
5. Square: All four sides are of equal length, and all four angles are right angles. Thus, the opposite sides are parallel,
the diagonals perpendicularly bisect each other, and are of equal length. A quadrilateral is a square if and only if
it is both a rhombus and a rectangle.
QuadrilateralSquare.png
6. Oblong: A rectangle which has unequal adjacent sides.
7. Kite: Two pairs of adjacent sides are of equal length. Thus, the diagonals are perpendicular and it is also implied
that one diagonal divides the kite into congruent triangles, and so the angles between the two pairs of equal sides
are equal in measure.
QuadrilateralKite.png
8. Right Kite: A kite with two opposite right angles.
QuadrilateralRightKite.png
9. Trapezium: At least one pair of opposite sides are parallel.
QuadrilateralTrapizum.png
10. Tangential Trapezium: A trapezium where the four sides are tangents to an inscribed circle.
19
QuadrilateralTangen.png
11. Ex-tangential quadrilateral: the four extensions of the sides are tangent to an excircle.
QuadrilateralExtan.png
12. Cyclic Quadrilateral: Where the circumscribed circle goes through all four vertices.
13. Orthodiagonal Quadrilateral: The diagonals cross at right angles.
14. Equidiagonal Quadrilateral: The diagonals are of equal length.
15. Irregular Quadrilateral: No sides are parallel.
QuadrilateralIrregular.png
1.8.2 Perimeter: where a, b, c, d are the side lengths.

1. P = a + b + c + d
1.8.3 Area: for a Convex Quadrilateral, where the sides a, b, c, d are labeled consecutively.
d1 d2 sin(Q)
1. T = , where d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths, and Q the interior angle between them.
2
s
2
A+C
2. T = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos , where a, b, c, d are the side lengths, s is the semiperimeter,
2
and A, C are two opposite angles.
1 1
3. T = ad sin(A) + bc sin(C), where a, b, c, d are the side lengths, A is the angle between a and d and C is the angle
2 2
between b and c.
|tan(Q)| 2
a + c2 − b2 − d2 where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and Q the interior angle between the diagonals.

4. T =
4
r
1
5. T = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − (ac + bd + d1 d2 )(ac + bd − d1 d2 ), where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and d1 d2
4
are the diagonal lengths.
1
q
6. T = 4d21 d22 − (a2 + c2 − b2 − d2 ), where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
4
20
1
7. T ≤ (a + c)(b + d) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths, Equality only for a rectangle.
4
1p 2
8. T ≤ (a + c2 )(b2 + d2 ) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths. Equality only for a rectangle.
2
1
9. T ≤ (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths. Equality only for a square.
4
1
10. T ≤ (d21 + d22 ) where d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths. Equality only if the diagonals are perpendicular and equal.
4
p
11. T ≤ (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and s is the semiperimeter. Equality if and
only if the quadrilateral is cyclic or degenerate.
1p
12. T ≤ 3 (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths.
2
1.8.4 Diagonals: for a Convex Quadrilateral, where the sides a, b, c, d are labeled consecutively and A, B, C, D are
the interior angles adjacent to a, b, c, d respectively.
p
1. d1 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(B)
p
2. d1 = c2 + d2 − 2cd cos(D)
r
(ac + bd)(ad + bc) − 2abcd (cos(B) + cos(D))
3. d1 =
ab + cd
p
4. d2 = a2 + d2 − 2ad cos(A)
p
5. d2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(C)
r
(ab + cd)(ac + bd) − 2abcd (cos(A) + cos(C))
6. d2 =
ad + bc
1.8.5 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360◦ .
1.8.6 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a quadrilateral is 90◦ .
1.9 Cyclic Quadrilateral

In geometry, a cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose vertices all lie on the circumscribed circle.
1.9.1 Perimeter: where a, b, c, d are the side lengths

1. P = a + b + c + d
1.9.2 Area:
1
1. T = (ad + bc) sin(A) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently and A is the angle between a and d.
2
1
2. T = (a2 − b2 − c2 + d2 ) tan(A) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently and A is the angle between
4
a and d.
1
3. T = (ac + bd) sin(Q) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently and Q is the angle between the
2
diagonals.
p
4. T = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and s the semiperimeter.
1 p
5. T = (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc) where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and R the radius of the circumscribed
4R
circle.
21
1.9.3 Diagonals: where a, b, c, d are the side lengths named consequently.

r
(ac + bd)(ad + bc)
1. d1 = where d1 = AC
ad + cd
r
(ac + bd)(ab + cd)
2. d2 = where d2 = BD
ad + bc
d1 ad + bc
3. =
d2 ab + cd
1.9.4 Radius of Circumscribed Circle: where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and s the semiperimeter.
1p
1. R = (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc)(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d), centered at the intersection of the two diagonals.
4
1.9.5 Properties: The quadrilateral is cyclic, if and only if it falls into at least one of the following the categories.
1. Any square.
2. Any rectangle.
3. Any isosceles trapezoid.
4. Any antiparallelogram.
5. A kite is if and only if it has two right angles.
6. A bicentric quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral that is also tangential.
7. An ex-bicentric quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral that is also ex-tangential.
8. The four perpendicular bisectors to the sides are concurrent. The intersection is the centre of the circumscribed
circle.
9. The opposite interior angles are supplementary. A + C = B + D = 180◦ where A, B, C, D are consequently named
interior angles.

A C B D
10. tan tan = tan tan = 1 where A, B, C, D are consequently named interior angles.
2 2 2 2
1.10 Rhombus
In geometry, a rhombus (equilateral quadrilateral) is a simple quadrilateral whose four sides all have the same length.
Every rhombus is a parallelogram, and a rhombus with right angles is a square.
QuadrilateralRhombus.png

1. P = 4a
22
1.10.2 Area:
1. T = ah where a is the side length and h is the perpendicular distance between any two non-adjacent sides.
2. T = a2 sin(A) where a is the side length and A is any interior angle.

d1 d2
3. T = where d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
2
4. T = 2ar where a is the side length and r the radius of the inscribed circle.
1.10.3 Radius of Inscribed Circle: where d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.

d1 d2
1. r = p 2 , centered at the intersection of the two diagonals.
2 d1 + d22
1.10.4 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a rhombus.
1. A quadrilateral with four sides of equal length.
2. A quadrilateral in which the diagonals are perpendicular and bisect each other.
3. A quadrilateral in which each diagonal bisects two opposite interior angles.
4. A parallelogram in which at least two consecutive sides are equal in length
5. A parallelogram in which the diagonals are perpendicular
6. A parallelogram in which a diagonal bisects an interior angle

Other properties, that do not hold under the if and only if.
1. Opposite angles of a rhombus have equal measure.
2. The two diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
3. 4a2 = d21 + d22 where a is the side length and d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
1.11 Rhomboid
Commonly referred to as a parallelogram, the formal name in geometry is a rhomboid. It is a simple quadrilateral with two
pairs of parallel sides. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are of equal length and the opposite angles of a parallelogram
are of equal measure.
QuadrilateralRhomboid.png
1.11.1 Perimeter: where a, b are the side lengths.

1. P = 2(a + b)
1.11.2 Area:
1. T = bh where b is the base length and h is the perpendicular distance from the base to the non-adjacent side.
2. T = ab sin(A) where a, b are the side lengths and A is any interior angle.
|tan(Q)| 2
a − b2 where a, b are the side lengths and Q the interior angle between the diagonals.

3. T =
2
23
1.11.3 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a rhomboid.
1. Two pairs of opposite sides are equal in length.
2. Two pairs of opposite angles are equal in measure.
3. The diagonals bisect each other.
4. One pair of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length.
5. Adjacent angles are supplementary.
6. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles.
7. a2 + b2 = d21 + d22 where a, b are the side lengths and d1 d2 are the diagonal lengths.
8. It has rotational symmetry of order 2.
1. Diagonals of a rhomboid bisect each other.
2. Opposite sides of a rhomboid are parallel.
3. The area of a rhomboid is twice the area of a triangle created by one of its diagonals.
4. The area of a rhomboid is also equal to the magnitude of the vector cross product of two adjacent sides.
5. Any line through the midpoint of a rhomboid bisects the area.
6. Any non-degenerate affine transformation takes a rhomboid to another rhomboid.
7. A rhomboid has rotational symmetry of order 2. If it also has two lines of reflectional symmetry then it must be a
rhombus or an oblong.
1.12 Rectangle
In geometry, a rectangle is any quadrilateral with four right angles. A rectangle with four sides of equal length is a square.
QuadrilateralRectangle.png

1. P = 2(a + b)
1.12.2 Area:
1. T = ab where a, b are the side lengths.
1.12.3 Diagonals: where a, b are the side lengths.

p
1. d1,2 = a2 + b2
24
1.12.4 Properties: where the sides a, b, c, d are labeled consecutively and A, B, C, D are the interior angles adjacent
to a, b, c, d respectively. The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
1
1. T = (a + c)(b + d)
4
1p 2
2. T = (a + c2 )(b2 + d2 )
2
3. Equiangular.
4. A parallelogram where triangles ABD and DCA are congruent.
5. A parallelogram with at least one right angle.
6. A parallelogram with diagonals of equal length.
7. A quadrilateral with four right angles.
1. A rectangle is cyclic.
2. The two diagonals are equal in length and bisect each other.
1.13 Square
In geometry, a square is any quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right angles.
QuadrilateralSquare.png

1. P = 4a
1.13.2 Area:
1. T = a2 where a is the side length.
d21
2. T = where d1 is the diagonal length.
2
3. T = 2R2 where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
4. T = 4r2 where R is the radius of the inscribed circle.
1.13.3 Diagonals: where a is the side length.

√
1. d1,2 = 2a2
√
2. d1,2 = 2a

a
1. R = √ , centered at the intersection of the two diagonals.
2
25

a
1. r = , centered at the intersection of the two diagonals.
2
1.13.6 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a square.
1. A rectangle with two adjacent equal sides.
2. A quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right angles.
3. A parallelogram with one right angle and two adjacent equal sides.
4. A rhombus with a right angle.
5. A rhombus with all angles equal.
6. A quadrilateral where the diagonals are equal and are the perpendicular bisectors of each other.
1. The diagonals of a square bisect each other and meet at 90◦
2. The diagonals of a square bisect its angles.
3. The diagonals of a square are perpendicular.
4. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length.
5. All four angles of a square are equal.
6. All four sides of a square are equal.
7. The diagonals of a square are equal.
8. A square can be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles.
9. If a figure is both a rectangle and a rhombus, then it is a square.
10. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π/2 times the area of the square.
11. If a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π/4 times the area of the square.
12. A square has a larger area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter.
13. A square tiling is one of three regular tilings of the plane.
1.14 Kite
In geometry, a kite is a quadrilateral whose four sides can be grouped into two pairs of equal-length sides that are adjacent
to each other.
QuadrilateralKite.png
26

1. P = 2(a + b)
1.14.2 Area:
d1 d2
1. T = where d1 , d2 are the diagonal lengths.
2
2. T = ab sin(C) where a, b are the side lengths and C the angle between unequal sides.
1.14.3 Diagonals:
p
1. d1 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C) where a, b are the side lengths and C the angle between unequal sides.
p
2. d2 = 2a2 (1 − cos(A)) where a is a side lengths and A the angle between the two a sides.
p
3. d2 = 2b2 (1 − cos(B)) where b is a side lengths and B the angle between the two b sides.
1.14.4 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a kite.
1. Two disjoint pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
2. One diagonal is the perpendicular bisector of the other diagonal.
3. One diagonal is a line of symmetry.
4. One diagonal bisects a pair of opposite angles.
1.15 Trapezium
In geometry, a quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel sides is referred to as a trapezium. The parallel sides are
called the bases of the trapezium and the other two sides are called the legs. A scalene trapezium is a trapezium with no
sides of equal measure.
QuadrilateralTrapizum.png
1.15.1 Perimeter: where a, b, c, d are the side lengths.

1. P = a + b + c + d
1.15.2 Area:
a+b
1. T = h where a, b are the base lengths and h the perpendicular distance between them.
2
a+b p
2. T = (−a + b + c + d)(a − b + c + d)(a − b + c − d)(a − b − c + d) where a, b are the base lengths and c, d
4 |b − a|
the side lengths.
a+b p
3. T = (s − b)(s − a)(s − b − c)(s − b − d) where a, b are the base lengths and c, d the side lengths and s the
|b − a|
semiperimeter.
s 2
(ab2 − a2 b − ad2 + bc2 )(ab2 − a2 b − ac2 + bd2 )
2
b + d2 − a2 − c2
4. T = − where a, b are the base lengths and
(2(b − a))2 4
c, d the side lengths.
27
1.15.3 Diagonals:
s
ab2 − a2 b − ac2 + bd2
1. d1 = where a, b are the base lengths and c, d the side lengths.
b−a
s
ab2 − a2 b − ad2 + bc2
2. d2 = where a, b are the base lengths and c, d the side lengths.
b−a
1.15.4 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the quadrilateral is a kite.
1. It has two adjacent angles that are supplementary, that is, they add up 180 degrees.
2. The angle between a side and a diagonal is equal to the angle between the opposite side and the same diagonal.
3. The diagonals cut each other in mutually the same ratio.
4. The diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one opposite pair are similar.
5. The diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one opposite pair have equal areas.
6. The product of the areas of the two triangles formed by one diagonal equals the product of the areas of the two
triangles formed by the other diagonal.[
7. The midpoints of two opposite sides and the intersection of the diagonals are collinear.
8. d21 + d22 = c2 + d2 + 2ab where a, b are the base lengths, c, d the side lengths and d1 , 2 are the diagonal lengths.
p
(−a + b + c + d)(a − b + c + d)(a − b + c − d)(a − b − c + d)
9. h = where a, b are the base lengths, h the perpen-
2 |b − a|
dicular distance between them and c, d the side lengths
1.16 Pentagons
In geometry, a pentagon is any five-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular pentagons.
PentagonRegular.png

1. P = 5a
1.16.2 Area:
√
5 2a2
1. T = p √ √ where a is the side length.
2 5+ 5 3− 5
p √
a2 25 + 10 5
2. T = where a is the side length.
4
28

2a
1. d = √ where a is the side length.
5−1

2a
1. R = p √
10 − 2 5
1.16.5 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a pentagon is 540◦ .
1.16.6 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a pentagon is 72◦ .
1.17 Hexagons
In geometry, a hexagon is any six-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular hexagons.
HexagonRegular.png

1. P = 6a

√
3 3a2
1. T =
2
p √
a2 25 + 10 5
2. T =
4

1. d = 2a where a is the side length.
1.17.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a hexagon is 720◦ .
1.17.5 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a hexagon is 60◦ .
29
1.18 Heptagons
In geometry, a heptagon is any seven-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular heptagons.
HeptagonRegular.png

1. P = 7a

7a2
1. T =
180
4 tan
7
1.18.3 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a heptagon is 900◦ .
◦
1.18.4 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a heptagon is 51 73 .
1.19 Octagons
In geometry, an octagon is any eight-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular octagons.
OctagonRegular.png

1. P = 8a
30
1.19.2 Area:
2a2
1. T = √ where a is the side length.
2−1
√
2. T = 2 2R2 where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
√
3. T = 8 2 − 1 r2 where r is the radius of the inscribed circle.
4. T = d22 − a2 where a is the side length and d2 the length of the second longest diagonal.
5. T = 2ad where a is the side length and d the distance between parallel sides.
1.19.3 Diagonals: where d1 , d2 , d3 are the diagonals in increasing size.

√
q
1. d1 = 2 + 2a where a is the side length.
√
2. d2 = (1 + 2)a where a is the side length.
1.19.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of an octagon is 1080◦ .
1.19.5 Internal Angle: The internal angle of an octagon is 45◦ .
1.20 Nonagon
In geometry, a nonagon is any nine-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular nonagons.
NonagonRegular.png

1. P = 9a

9a2
1. T =
180
4 tan
9
1.20.3 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a nonagon is 1260◦ .
1.20.4 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a nonagon is 40◦ .
31
1.21 Decagon
In geometry, a decagon is any ten-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this section,
the formula only apply to regular decagons.
DecagonRegular.png

1. P = 10a

√
25 2a2
1. p √ √
5+ 5 2 5−5

√
2 2a
1. d = √ where a is the side length.
3−1
1.21.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a decagon is 1440◦ .
1.21.5 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a decagon is 36◦ .
1.22 Dodecagon
In geometry, a dodecagon is any twelve-sided polygon, whether simple or self-intersecting. For the remainder of this
section, the formula only apply to regular dodecagon.
DodecagonRegular.png
32

1. P = 12a
1.22.2 Area:
√
1. T = 3 2 + 3 a2 where a is the side length.
2. T = 3R2 where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.

√
3. T = 12 2 − 3 r2 where r is the radius of the inscribed circle.
1.22.3 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a decagon is 1800◦ .
1.22.4 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a decagon is 30◦ .
1.23 Regular n-gons

In geometry, a n-gon is a general term to describe a regular n-sided polygon.

1. P = na

180
2. P = 2na sin , where a is the distance between the centre and a vertex.
n
1.23.2 Area:
na2
1. T = where a is the side length.
180
4 tan
n
s2
2. T = where s is the semiperimeter.

180
n tan
n
nR2

360
3. T = sin where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
2 n

2 180
4. T = nr tan where r is the radius of the inscribed circle.
n

a
1. r = 180
a, centered at the geometric center of the n-gon.
cos n
1.23.4 Interior Angles: The sum of the interior angles of a n-gon is (n − 2)180◦ .

2
1.23.5 Internal Angle: The internal angle of a n-gon is 1 − 180◦ .
n
33
1.24 Circles
A circle is a simple shape of Euclidean geometry that is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from
a given point, the centre. It can be thought of as an ∞-gon.
Circle.png
1.24.1 Terminology:
1. Arc: Any connected part of the circle.
2. Centre: The point equidistant from the points on the circle.
3. Chord: A line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
4. Circumference: The length of one circuit along the circle.
5. Diameter: A line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle and which passes through the centre. It is a special case
of a chord, namely the longest chord, and it is twice the radius.
6. Passant: A coplanar straight line that does not touch the circle.
7. Radius: A line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle itself.
8. Secant: An extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points.
9. Sector: A region bounded by two radii and an arc lying between the radii.
10. Segment: A region, not containing the centre, bounded by a chord and an arc lying between the chord’s endpoints.
11. Semicircle: A region bounded by a diameter and an arc lying between the diameter’s endpoints. It is a special case
of a circular segment, namely the largest one.
12. Tangent: A coplanar straight line that touches the circle at a single point.
CircleLines.png CircleSlices.png
1.24.2 Circumference:
1. C = 2πr where r is the radius of the circle.
2. C = πd where d is the diameter of the circle.

Q
3. CA = C where CA is the length of the arc and Q the interior angle at the centre determined by the arc.
360
34
1.24.3 Area:
1. T = πr2 where r is the radius of the circle.
πd2
2. T = where d is the diameter of the circle.
4
Cd
3. T = where C is the circumference of the circle and d is the diameter of the circle.
4
Q
4. TSC = πr2 where TSC is the area of the sector, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior angle at the sector
360
in degrees.
1
5. TSC = r2 Q where TSC is the area of the sector, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior angle at the sector
2
in radians.
r2 π
6. TSG = Q − sin(Q) where TSG is the area of the segment, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior
2 180
angle at the segment in degrees.
r2
7. TSG = (Q − sin(Q)) where TSG is the area of the segment, r is the radius of the circle and Q the interior angle
2
at the segment in radians.
1.24.4 Properties:
1. The circle is the shape with the largest area for a given length of perimeter.
2. The circle is a highly symmetric shape: every line through the centre forms a line of reflection symmetry and it has
rotational symmetry around the centre for every angle.
3. All circles are similar.
4. A circle’s circumference and radius are proportional to 2π.
5. The area enclosed and the square of its radius are proportional to π.
6. The circle which is centred at the origin with radius 1 is called the unit circle.
7. Through any three points, not all on the same line, there lies a unique circle. In Cartesian coordinates, it is possible
to give explicit formulae for the coordinates of the centre of the circle and the radius in terms of the coordinates of
the three given points.
8. Chords are equidistant from the centre of a circle if and only if they are equal in length.
9. The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of a circle.
10. A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle bisects the chord.
11. The line segment through the centre bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
12. If a central angle and an inscribed angle of a circle are subtended by the same chord and on the same side of the
chord, then the central angle is twice the inscribed angle.
13. If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then they are equal.
14. If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on opposite sides of the chord, then they are supplementary.
15. For a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle.
16. An inscribed angle subtended by a diameter is a right angle
17. The diameter is the longest chord of the circle.
35
18. If the intersection of any two chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the other chord into lengths
c and d, then ab = cd
19. If the intersection of any two perpendicular chords divides one chord into lengths a and b and divides the other
chord into lengths c and d, then a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 equals the square of the diameter.
20. The sum of the squared lengths of any two chords intersecting at right angles at a given point is the same as that of
any other two perpendicular chords intersecting at the same point, and is given by 8r2 –4p2 , where r is the circle’s
radius and p is the distance from the center point to the point of intersection.
21. The distance from a point on the circle to a given chord times the diameter of the circle equals the product of the
distances from the point to the ends of the chord.
22. The sagitta is a line segment drawn perpendicular to a chord, between the midpoint of that chord and the arc of
the circle.
23. Given the length y of a chord, and the length x of the sagitta, the Pythagorean theorem can be used to calculate
y2 x
the radius of the unique circle which will fit around the two lines, r = +
8x 2
24. A line drawn perpendicular to a radius through the end point of the radius lying on the circle is a tangent to the
circle.
25. A line drawn perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact with a circle passes through the centre of the
circle.
26. Two tangents can always be drawn to a circle from any point outside the circle, and these tangents are equal in
length.
27. An inscribed angle is half the corresponding central angle.
28. All inscribed angles that subtend the same arc are equal.
29. Every inscribed angle that subtends a diameter is a right angle.
30. In every triangle a unique circle, called the inscribed circle, can be inscribed such that it is tangent to each of the
three sides of the triangle.
31. About every triangle a unique circle, called the circumscribed circle, can be circumscribed such that it goes through
each of the triangle’s three vertices.
32. A tangential polygon, such as a tangential quadrilateral, is any convex polygon within which a circle can be inscribed
that is tangent to each side of the polygon.
33. A cyclic polygon is any convex polygon about which a circle can be circumscribed, passing through each vertex.
1.25 Annulus
In geometry, an annulus is a ring-shaped object, formed by the region bounded by two concentric circles.
CircleAnnulus.png
36
1.25.1 Area:
1. T = π R2 − r2 where R is the radius of the larger circle and r the is the radius of the smaller circle.

2. T = πd2 where d is found by Pythagoras’s Theorem.
1.26 Ellipse
In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve on a plane surrounding two focal points such that a straight line drawn from one of
the focal points to any point on the curve and then back to the other focal point has the same length for every point on
the curve. The semi-major axis, a and the semi-minor axis, b are one half of the major and minor axes, respectively. As
such, for an ellipse centered at the Cartesian origin, the x-roots are ±a and the y-intercepts are ±b.
1.26.1 Focus: The distance from the center to either focus is f .

p
1. f = a2 − b2 where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis.
1.26.2 Eccentricity: The elongation of the ellipse.

s 2
b
1. ε = 1− where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
a
f
2. ε = where a is the semi-major axis and f the focus of the ellipse.
a
p
3. ε = g(2 − g) where g is the flattening factor of the ellipse.
1.26.3 Flattening Factor:

b
1. g = 1 − where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
a
p
2. g = 1 − 1 − ε2 where ε is the eccentricity of the ellipse.
1.26.4 Circumference:
r
a2 + b2
1. P ≈ 2π where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
2
p
2. P ≈ π 3 (a + b) − (3a + b) (a + 3b) where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
∞
!
X (2k)!2 ε2k
3. P = 2aπ 1 − where a is the semi-major axis and ε is the eccentricity of the ellipse.
(2k k)4 (2k − 1)
k=1
!
1 × 3 2 ε4 1 × 3 × 5 ε6

1 2
4. P = 2aπ 1 − ε − − − . . . where a is the semi-major axis and ε is the eccen-
2 2×3 3 2×3×6 5
tricity of the ellipse.
1.26.5 Area:
1. T = πab where a is the semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
37
Chapter 2
Elementary 3D Geometry
2.1 Platonic Solids

In Euclidean geometry, a Platonic solid is a regular, convex polyhedron with congruent faces of regular polygons and
the same number of faces meeting at each vertex. Five solids meet those criteria and it has been proven that this list is
complete.
2.1.1 Schläfli symbol: Each Platonic solid can be denoted by a symbol {p, q} where p = the number of edges of
each face and q = the number of faces meeting at each vertex.
2.1.2 List of Platonic Solids: where E =Edges, V =Verticies and F =Faces.

1. Tetrahedron {p = 3, q = 3}: Constructed from equilateral triangles. V = 4, E = 6, F = 4
Tetrahedron.png
2. Hexahedron (Cube) {p = 4, q = 3}: Constructed from squares. V = 8, E = 12, F = 6
Hexahedron.png
3. Octahedron {p = 3, q = 4}: Constructed from equilateral triangles. V = 6, E = 12, F = 8
38
Octahedron.png
4. Dodecahedron {p = 5, q = 3}: Constructed from regular pentagons. V = 20, E = 30, F = 12
Dodecahedron.png
5. Icosahedron {p = 3, q = 5}: Constructed from equilateral triangles. V = 12, E = 30, F = 20
Icosahedron.png
2.1.3 Verticies
4p
1. V = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
4 − (p − 2)(q − 2)
2.1.4 Edges
2pq
1. E = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
4 − (p − 2)(q − 2)
2.1.5 Faces
4q
1. F = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
4 − (p − 2)(q − 2)
2.1.6 Dihedral Angle: The interior angle in radians between any two face planes.

π
cos
θ q
1. sin = where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
2 π
sin
p
39
2.1.7 Angular Deficiency: The difference in radians between the sum of the face-angles at that vertex and 2π.

2
1. δ = 2π − qπ 1 − where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
p
2.1.8 Surface Area:

a 2
π
1. SA = F p cot where a is the edge length, F the number of faces and {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the
2 p
Platonic solid.
2.1.9 Volume:
1
1. V = rSA where SA is the surface area and r the radius of the inscribed sphere of the Platonic solid.
3
2.1.10 Radius of Circumscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length, θ is the dihedral angle and {p, q} is the
Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
a
π θ
1. R = tan tan , centered at the geometric centre of the Platonic solid.
2 q 2
2.1.11 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length, θ is the dihedral angle and {p, q} is the Schläfli
symbol of the Platonic solid.
a
π θ
1. r = cot tan , centered at the geometric centre of the Platonic solid.
2 p 2
2.1.12 Interior Angle: The solid angle at the vertex of a Platonic solid.
1. Ω = qθ − (q − 2)π where {p, q} is the Schläfli symbol of the Platonic solid.
2.1.13 Properties: The following statements are true, if and only if the convex polygon is a Platonic solid.
1. All its faces are congruent convex regular polygons.
2. Bone of its faces intersect except at their edges.
3. The same number of faces meet at each of its vertices.
2.2 Euler Characteristic

The Euler characteristic was originally defined for polyhedra and used to prove various theorems about them, including
the classification of the Platonic solids. It is used in the more advanced areas of algebraic topology and polyhedral
combinatorics to describe a topological space’s shape or structure regardless of the way it is bent. It is commonly denoted
by χ = V + F − E.
2.2.1 For Convex Polyhedra: The Euler characteristic is constant for any convex polyhedron.
1. χ = V + F − E = 2
40
2.2.2 Convex Forms (3 Faces per Vertex):

1. Tetrahedron: V = 4, E = 6, F = 4, χ = 2
Polyhedra1.png
2. Triangular prism: V = 6, E = 9, F = 5, χ = 2
Polyhedra2.png
3. Truncated tetrahedron: V = 12, E = 18, F = 8, χ = 2
Polyhedra3.png
4. Truncated cube: V = 24, E = 36, F = 14, χ = 2
Polyhedra4.png
5. Truncated dodecahedron: V = 60, E = 90, F = 32, χ = 2
Polyhedra5.png
6. Cube: V = 8, E = 12, F = 6, χ = 2
Polyhedra6.png
7. Pentagonal prism: V = 10, E = 15, F = 7, χ = 2
Polyhedra7.png
41
8. Hexagonal prism: V = 12, E = 18, F = 8, χ = 2
Polyhedra8.png
9. Octagonal prism: V = 16, E = 24, F = 10, χ = 2
Polyhedra9.png
10. Decagonal prism: V = 20, E = 30, F = 12, χ = 2
Polyhedra10.png
11. Dodecagonal prism: V = 24, E = 36, F = 14, χ = 2
Polyhedra11.png
12. Truncated octahedron: V = 24, E = 36, F = 14, χ = 2
Polyhedra12.png
13. Great rhombicuboctahedron: V = 48, E = 72, F = 26, χ = 2
Polyhedra13.png
14. Great rhombicosidodecahedron: V = 120, E = 180, F = 62, χ = 2
Polyhedra14.png
42
15. Dodecahedron: V = 20, E = 30, F = 12, χ = 2
Polyhedra15.png
16. Truncated icosahedron: V = 60, E = 90, F = 12, χ = 2
Polyhedra16.png

1. Octahedron: V = 6, E = 12, F = 8, χ = 2
Polyhedra17.png
2. Square antiprism: V = 8, E = 16, F = 10, χ = 2
Polyhedra18.png
3. Pentagonal antiprism: V = 10, E = 20, F = 12, χ = 2
Polyhedra19.png
4. Hexagonal antiprism: V = 12, E = 24, F = 14, χ = 2
Polyhedra20.png
5. Octagonal antiprism: V = 16, E = 32, F = 18, χ = 2
43
Polyhedra21.png
6. Decagonal antiprism: V = 20, E = 40, F = 22, χ = 2
Polyhedra22.png
7. Dodecagonal antiprism: V = 24, E = 48, F = 26, χ = 2
Polyhedra23.png
8. Cuboctahedron: V = 12, E = 24, F = 14, χ = 2
Polyhedra24.png
9. Small rhombicuboctahedron: V = 24, E = 48, F = 26, χ = 2
Polyhedra25.png
10. Small rhombicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 62, χ = 2
Polyhedra26.png
11. Icosidodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 32, χ = 2
Polyhedra27.png
44

1. Icosahedron: V = 12, E = 30, F = 20, χ = 2
Polyhedra28.png
2. Snub cube: V = 24, E = 60, F = 38, χ = 2
Polyhedra29.png
3. Snub dodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 98, χ = 2
Polyhedra30.png
2.2.5 Nonconvex Forms with Convex Faces:

1. Octahemioctahedron: V = 12, E = 24, F = 12, χ = 0
Polyhedra31.png
2. Tetrahemihexahedron: V = 6, E = 12, F = 7, χ = 1
Polyhedra32.png
3. Cubohemioctahedron V = 12, E = 24, F = 10, χ = −2
Polyhedra33.png
4. Great dodecahedron: V = 12, E = 30, F = 12, χ = −6
45
Polyhedra34.png
5. Great icosahedron: V = 12, E = 30, F = 20, χ = 2
Polyhedra35.png
6. Great ditrigonal icosidodecahedron: V = 20, E = 60, F = 32, χ = −8
Polyhedra36.png
7. Small rhombihexahedron: V = 24, E = 48, F = 18, χ = −6
Polyhedra37.png
8. Small cubicuboctahedron: V = 24, E = 48, F = 20, χ = −4
Polyhedra38.png
9. Nonconvex great rhombicuboctahedron: V = 24, E = 48, F = 26, χ = 2
Polyhedra39.png
10. Small dodecahemidodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 18, χ = −12
Polyhedra40.png
46
11. Great dodecahemicosahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 22, χ = −8
Polyhedra41.png
12. Small icosihemidodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 26, χ = −4
Polyhedra42.png
13. Small dodecicosahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 32, χ = −28
Polyhedra43.png
14. Small rhombidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 42, χ = −18
Polyhedra44.png
15. Small dodecicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 44, χ = −16
Polyhedra45.png
16. Rhombicosahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 50, χ = −10
Polyhedra46.png
17. Great icosicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 52, χ = −8
Polyhedra47.png
47
2.2.6 Nonconvex Prismatic Forms:

1. Pentagrammic prism: V = 10, E = 15, F = 7, χ = 2
Polyhedra48.png
2. Heptagrammic prism (7/3): V = 14, E = 21, F = 9, χ = 2
Polyhedra49.png
3. Heptagrammic prism (7/2): V = 14, E = 21, F = 9, χ = 2
Polyhedra50.png
4. Pentagrammic antiprism: V = 10, E = 20, F = 12, χ = 2
Polyhedra51.png
5. Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism: V = 10, E = 20, F = 12, χ = 2
Polyhedra52.png
2.2.7 Other Nonconvex Forms with Nonconvex Faces:

1. Small stellated dodecahedron: V = 12, E = 30, F = 12, χ = −6
Polyhedra53.png
2. Great stellated dodecahedron: V = 20, E = 30, F = 12, χ = 2
48
Polyhedra54.png
3. Ditrigonal dodecadodecahedron: V = 20, E = 60, F = 24, χ = −16
Polyhedra55.png
4. Small ditrigonal icosidodecahedron: V = 20, E = 60, F = 32, χ = −8
Polyhedra56.png
5. Stellated truncated hexahedron: V = 24, E = 36, F = 14, χ = 2
Polyhedra57.png
6. Great rhombihexahedron: V = 24, E = 48, F = 18, χ = −6
Polyhedra58.png
7. Great cubicuboctahedron: V = 24, E = 48, F = 20, χ = −4
Polyhedra59.png
8. Great dodecahemidodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 18, χ = −12
Polyhedra60.png
49
9. Small dodecahemicosahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 22, χ = −8
Polyhedra61.png
10. Dodecadodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 24, χ = −6
Polyhedra62.png
11. Great icosihemidodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 26, χ = −4
Polyhedra63.png
12. Great icosidodecahedron: V = 30, E = 60, F = 32, χ = 2
Polyhedra64.png
13. Cubitruncated cuboctahedron: V = 48, E = 72, F = 20, χ = −4
Polyhedra65.png
14. Great truncated cuboctahedron: V = 48, E = 72, F = 26, χ = 2
Polyhedra66.png
15. Truncated great dodecahedron: V = 60, E = 90, F = 24, χ = −6
Polyhedra67.png
50
16. Small stellated truncated dodecahedron: V = 60, E = 90, F = 24, χ = −6
Polyhedra68.png
17. Great stellated truncated dodecahedron: V = 60, E = 90, F = 32, χ = 2
Polyhedra69.png
18. Truncated great icosahedron: V = 60, E = 90, F = 32, χ = 2
Polyhedra70.png
19. Great dodecicosahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 32, χ = −28
Polyhedra71.png
20. Great rhombidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 42, χ = −18
Polyhedra72.png
21. Icosidodecadodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 44, χ = −16
Polyhedra73.png
22. Small ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 44, χ = −16
Polyhedra74.png
51
23. Great ditrigonal dodecicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 44, χ = −16
Polyhedra75.png
24. Great dodecicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 44, χ = −16
Polyhedra76.png
25. Small icosicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 52, χ = −8
Polyhedra77.png
26. Rhombidodecadodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 54, χ = −6
Polyhedra78.png
27. Nonconvex great rhombicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 120, F = 62, χ = 2
Polyhedra79.png
28. Snub dodecadodecahedron: V = 60, E = 150, F = 84, χ = −6
Polyhedra80.png
29. Inverted snub dodecadodecahedron: V = 60, E = 150, F = 84, χ = −6
Polyhedra81.png
52
30. Great snub icosidodecahedron : V = 60, E = 150, F = 92, χ = 2
Polyhedra82.png
31. Great inverted snub icosidodecahedron V = 60, E = 150, F = 92, χ = 2
Polyhedra83.png
32. Great retrosnub icosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 150, F = 92, χ = 2
Polyhedra84.png
33. Great snub dodecicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 180, F = 104, χ = −16
Polyhedra85.png
34. Snub icosidodecadodecahedron: V = 60, E = 180, F = 104, χ = −16
Polyhedra86.png
35. Small snub icosicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 180, F = 112, χ = −8
Polyhedra87B.png
36. Small retrosnub icosicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 180, F = 112, χ = −8
Polyhedra87.png
53
37. Great dirhombicosidodecahedron: V = 60, E = 240, F = 124, χ = −56
Polyhedra88.png
38. Icositruncated dodecadodecahedron: V = 120, E = 180, F = 44, χ = −16
Polyhedra89.png
39. Truncated dodecadodecahedron: V = 120, E = 180, F = 54, χ = −6
Polyhedra90.png
40. Great truncated icosidodecahedron: V = 120, E = 180, F = 62, χ = 2
Polyhedra91.png
2.2.8 Special cases:

1. Skilling’s figure: V = 60, E = 240, F = 204, χ = 24
Polyhedra92.png
2.3 Tetrahedron
In geometry, a tetrahedron is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, three of which meet at each corner or
vertex. It has six edges and four vertices. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra and the
only one that has four faces. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the regular polyhedron.
Tetrahedron.png
54
2.3.1 Surface Area: where a is the edge length.

√
1. SA = 3a2
2.3.2 Volume: where a is the edge length.

√
2a3
1. V =
12
2.3.3 Radius of Circumscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length.

√
6
1. R = a, centered at the geometric center of the tetrahedron.
4
2.3.4 Radius of Midsphere: where a is the edge length.

a
1. ρ = √ , centered at the geometric center of the tetrahedron.
8
2.3.5 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length and R is the radius of the circumscribed sphere.
1
1. r = R, centered at the geometric center of the tetrahedron.
3
a
2. r = √ , centered at the geometric center of the tetrahedron.
24
2.4 Cube
In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid bounded by six square faces with three meeting at each vertex. The cube
is the only regular hexahedron. The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and a right rhombohedron.
It is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations. For the remainder of
this section, the formula only apply to the regular polyhedron.
Hexahedron.png

1. SA = 6a2

1. V = a3

√
3
1. R = a, centered at the geometric center of the cube.
2
55
a
1. r = , centered at the geometric center of the cube.
2
2.5 Octahedron
In geometry, an octahedron is a polyhedron with eight faces. A regular octahedron is a Platonic solid composed of eight
equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the
regular polyhedron.
Octahedron.png

√
1. SA = 2 3a2

√
2 3
1. V = a
3

√
2
1. R = a, centered at the geometric center of the octahedron.
2

a
1. ρ = , centered at the geometric center of the octahedron.
2
a
1. r = √ , centered at the geometric center of the octahedron.
6
2.6 Dodecahedron
In geometry, a dodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. For the remainder of this section, the formula only
apply to the regular polyhedron. It is composed of 12 regular pentagonal faces, with three meeting at each vertex. It has
20 vertices, 30 edges and 160 diagonals.
Dodecahedron.png
56

√
q
1. SA = 3 25 + 10 5a2

1 √
1. V = 15 + 7 5 a3
4
2.6.3 Radius of Circumscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length and.

√
3a √
1. R = 1 + 5 , centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
4
√
3a
2. R = ϕ, centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
4

a √
1. ρ = 3 + 5 , centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
4
ϕ2 a
2. ρ = , centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
2
2.6.5 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length.
5 11 √
r
a
1. r = + 5, centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
2 2 10
ϕ2
2. r = √ a, centered at the geometric center of the dodecahedron.
2 3−ϕ
2.7 Icosahedron
In geometry, an icosahedron is a polyhedron with 20 triangular faces, 30 edges and 12 vertices. For the remainder of this
section, the formula only apply to the regular polyhedron. A regular icosahedron with identical equilateral faces is often
meant because of its geometrical significance as one of the five Platonic solids. It has five triangular faces meeting at each
vertex.
Icosahedron.png

√
1. SA = 5 3a2

5 √
1. V = 3 + 5 a3
12
57
2.7.3 Radius of Circumscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length and.

√
q
a
1. R = 10 + 2 5, centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
4

2π
2. R = a sin , centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
5
q √
a
3. R = ϕ 5, centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
2

a √
1. ρ = 1 + 5 , centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
4
π
2. ρ = a cos , centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
5
ϕa
3. ρ = , centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
2
2.7.5 Radius of Inscribed Sphere: where a is the edge length.

√
3a √
1. r = 3 + 5 , centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
12
ϕ2 a
2. r = √ , centered at the geometric center of the icosahedron.
2 3
2.8 Prisms
In geometry, a prism is a polyhedron with an n-sided polygonal base, a translated copy, and n other faces, necessarily all
parallelograms, joining corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-sections parallel to the base faces are the same.
Prisms are named for their base. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the right prism, where the
joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces.
2.8.1 Verticies
1. V = 2n
2.8.2 Edges
1. E = 3n
2.8.3 Faces
1. F = 2 + n
2.8.4 Surface Area:

1. SA = 2B + p` where B is the area of the base, p the perimeter of the base and ` the length of the prism.
na2 π
2. SA = cot + na` where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism. In this case, the base
2 n
must be a regular polygon.
58
2.8.5 Volume:
1. V = B` where B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
na2 ` π
2. V = cot where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism. In this case, the base must
4 n
be a regular polygon.
2.9 Triangular Prism

In geometry, a triangular prism is a three-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a triangular base, a translated copy,
and 3 faces joining corresponding sides. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the right prism,
where the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces.
2.9.1 Verticies
1. V = 6
2.9.2 Edges
1. E = 9
2.9.3 Faces
1. F = 5
2.9.4 Surface Area:

1. SA = 2B + 3a` where a is the side length of the base, B is the area of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.9.5 Volume:
1
2. V = bh` where a is the side length of the base, h the perpendicular height of the triangular base and ` the length
2
of the prism.
2.10 Rectangular Prism

In geometry, a rectangular prism, or cuboid, is a four-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a rectangular base, a
translated copy, and 4 faces joining corresponding sides. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the
right prism, where the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces.
2.10.1 Verticies
1. V = 8
2.10.2 Edges
1. E = 12
2. Length of the edges= 4(a + b + c) where a, b, c are the side lengths of the prism.
2.10.3 Faces
1. F = 6
59

p
1. d = a2 + b2 + c2 where a, b, c are the side lengths of the prism.
2.10.5 Surface Area:

1. SA = 2ab + 4a` where a, b are the side lengths of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.10.6 Volume:
2. V = ab` where a, b are the side lengths of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.11 Pentagonal Prism

In geometry, a pentagonal prism is a five-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a pentagonal base, a translated copy,
where the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces and a regular base.
2.11.1 Verticies
1. V = 10
2.11.2 Edges
1. E = 15
2.11.3 Faces
1. F = 7

√ q √ 3
a2 2 5 + 5
1. SA = + 5a` where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
8
2.11.5 Volume:
√ q √ 3
a2 ` 2 5 + 5
2. V = where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
16
2.12 Hexagonal Prism

In geometry, a hexagonal prism is a six-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a hexagonal base, a translated copy, and
6 faces joining corresponding sides. For the remainder of this section, the formula only apply to the right prism, where
the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces and a regular base.
2.12.1 Verticies
1. V = 12
2.12.2 Edges
1. E = 18
60
2.12.3 Faces
1. F = 8

√
1. SA = 3 3a2 + 6a` where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.12.5 Volume:
√
3 3a2 `
2
2.13 Heptagonal Prism

In geometry, a heptagonal prism is a seven-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a heptagonal base, a translated copy,
and 7 faces joining corresponding sides.
2.13.1 Verticies
1. V = 14
2.13.2 Edges
1. E = 21
2.13.3 Faces
1. F = 9
2.14 Octagonal Prism

In geometry, an octagonal prism is a seven-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of an octagonal base, a translated copy,
where the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces and a regular base.
2.14.1 Verticies
1. V = 16
2.14.2 Edges
1. E = 24
2.14.3 Faces
1. F = 10

√
1. SA = 4a2 1 + 2 + 8a` where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
61
2.14.5 Volume:
√
2. V = 2a2 ` 1 + 2 where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
2.15 Nonagonal Prism

In geometry, a nonagonal prism is a nine-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a nonagon base, a translated copy, and
2.15.1 Verticies
1. V = 18
2.15.2 Edges
1. E = 27
2.15.3 Faces
1. F = 11
2.16 Decagonal Prism

In geometry, a decagonal prism is a ten-sided prism. It is a polyhedron made of a decagonal base, a translated copy, and
2.16.1 Verticies
1. V = 20
2.16.2 Edges
1. E = 30
2.16.3 Faces
1. F = 12

√ p √ √
5 2 5 + 5 5 + 1 a2

1. SA = + 10a` where a is the side length of the base and ` the length of the prism.
4
2.16.5 Volume:
√ p √ √
5 2 5 + 5 5 + 1 a2 `

8
62
2.17 Pyramids
In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting an n-sided polygonal base and a point, called the apex.
Each base edge and apex form a triangle. Pyramids are named for their base. For the remainder of this section, the base
2.17.1 Verticies
1. V = n + 1
2.17.2 Edges
1. E = 2n
2.17.3 Faces
1. F = n + 1

p`
1. SA = B + where B is the area of the base, p is the perimeter of the base and ` is the slant length of the pyramid.
2
√
p h2 + r2
2. SA = B + where B is the area of the base, p is the perimeter of the base, h is the perpendicular height
2
of the pyramid and r is the radius of the inscribed circle of the base.
2.17.5 Volume:
1
1. V = Bh where B is the area of the base and h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid. This formula is valid
3
for any base.
n π
2. V = hs2 cot where h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and s the semiperimeter of the base.
12 n
2.18 Triangular Pyramid

In geometry, a triangular pyramid is a pyramid having a triangular base. For the remainder of this section, the base must
be a regular polygon. This section is about a general triangular pyramid, not the tetrahedron.
2.18.1 Verticies
1. V = 4
2.18.2 Edges
1. E = 6
2.18.3 Faces
1. F = 4

√
3 2 3a`
1. SA = a + where a is the side length of the base and ` is the slant length of the pyramid.
2 2
√ √
3 2 3a h2 + r2
2. SA = a + where a is the side length of the base, h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and
2 2
r is the radius of the inscribed circle of the base.
63
2.18.5 Volume:
1
3
for any base.
√
3hs2
2. V = where h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and s the semiperimeter of the base.
12
2.19 Rectangular Pyramid

In geometry, a rectangular pyramid is a pyramid having a rectangular base. For the remainder of this section, the base
2.19.1 Verticies
1. V = 5
2.19.2 Edges
1. E = 8
2.19.3 Faces
1. F = 5

4a`
1. SA = a2 + where a is the side length of the base and ` is the slant length of the pyramid.
2
√
2 4a h2 + r2
2. SA = a + where a is the side length of the base, h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and r
2
is the radius of the inscribed circle of the base.
2.19.5 Volume:
1
3
for any base.
hs2
2. V = where h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid and s the semiperimeter of the base.
3
2.20 Cylinder
A cylinder is a solid formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, the axis of the cylinder. It can
be though of as a prism as n → ∞.

1. SA = 2πr(h + r) where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
2.20.2 Volume:
1. SA = πr2 h where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
64
2.21 Cone
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a circular base to the apex.

1. SA = πr(r + `) where r is the radius and ` is the slant length of the cone.
p
2. SA = πr r + r2 + h2 where r is the radius and h is the height of the cone.
2.21.2 Volume:
1
1. V = πr2 h where r is the radius and h is the height of the cone.
3
2.22 Sphere
A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space. A sphere is defined as the set of points that
are all the same distance r, the radius, from a given point, the center, in three-dimensional space.

1. SA = 4πr2 where r is the radius of the sphere.
2.22.2 Volume:
4
1. V = πr3 where r is the radius of the sphere.
3
2.23 Spherical Cap

In geometry, a spherical cap is a portion of a sphere cut off by a plane. If the plane passes through the center of the
sphere, so that the height of the cap is equal to the radius of the sphere, the spherical cap is called a hemisphere.
SphericalCap.png
2.23.1 Conditions:
1. 0 < h < 2r where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
2. r2 = (r − h)2 + a2 where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
a2 + h2
3. r = where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
2h

1. SA = πa2 + 2πrh where a is the radius of the cap, h is the height of the cap and r is the radius of the sphere.
2. SA = π(2a2 + h2 ) where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
65
2.23.3 Volume:
πh
1. V = (3a2 + h2 ) where a is the radius of the cap and h is the height of the cap.
6
πh2
2. V = (3r − h) where h is the height of the cap and r is the radius of the sphere.
r
2.23.4 Hemisphere: When the cap is a hemisphere, the above formula are simplified as a = r.
1. SA = 3πr2 where r is the radius of the sphere
2
2. V = πr2 where r is the radius of the sphere
3
2.24 Spherical Sector

In geometry, a spherical sector is a portion of a sphere defined by a conical boundary with apex at the center of the
sphere. It can be described as the union of a spherical cap and the cone formed by the center of the sphere and the base
of the cap.
SphericalSector.png

1. SA = πr(2h + a) where a is the radius of the spherical cap, h is the height of the spherical cap and r is the radius
of the sphere.
2.24.2 Volume:
2
1. V = πr2 h where h is the height of the spherical cap and r is the radius of the sphere.
3

2 3 Q
2. V = πr 1 − cos where r is the radius of the sphere and Q is the interior angle of the cone.
3 2
2.25 Spherical Segment

In geometry, a spherical segment is the solid defined by cutting a sphere with a pair of parallel planes.
SphericalSegment.png

1. SA = 2πrh + π(r12 + r22 ) where r1 , r2 are the radii of the circle bases of the spherical segment, h is the height of the
spherical segment and r is the radius of the sphere.
66
2.25.2 Volume:
πh 2
1. V = (3r1 + 3r22 + h2 ) where r1 , r2 are the radii of the circle bases of the spherical segment and h is the height of
6
the spherical segment.
2.26 Spherical Wedge

In geometry, a spherical wedge is a portion of a sphere bounded by two plane semidisks and a spherical lune. The angle
between the radii lying within the bounding semidisks is the dihedral angle of the wedge Q, in radians.
SphericalWedge.png

1. SA = 2Qr2 + πr2 where r is the radius of the sphere and Q the angle of the wedge.
2.26.2 Volume:
2
1. V = Qr3 where r is the radius of the sphere and Q the angle of the wedge.
3
2.27 Torus
In geometry, a torus is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three-dimensional space about an axis
coplanar with the circle.
Torus.png

1. SA = 4π 2 rR where r is the radius of the circle and R is the radius of revolution.
2.27.2 Volume:
2
1. V = Qr3 where r is the radius of the circle and R is the radius of revolution.
3
2.28 Ellipsoid
An ellipsoid is a closed surface that is a three-dimensional analogue of an ellipse.
Ellipsoid.png
67

1
ap bp + ap cp + bp cp

p
1. SA ≈ 4π where a, b, c are the radii of the ellipsoid and p ≈ 1.6075.
3
2.28.2 Volume:
4
1. V = πabc where a, b, c are the radii of the ellipsoid.
3
68
Chapter 3
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that studies the relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The
trigonometric functions are first defined from a right triangle, but they have far reaching properties in many other areas
of mathematics. Trigonometry is used in navigation, engineering, and physics. A common use in physics is resolving
a vector into Cartesian coordinates. The sine and cosine functions are also commonly used to model periodic function
phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day
length, and average temperature variations through the year.
3.1 Trigonometric Functions

In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are functions of an angle. They relate the angles of a triangle to the lengths
of its sides.
The most familiar trigonometric functions are the sine, cosine, and tangent. In the context of the standard unit circle
with radius 1 unit, where a triangle is formed by a ray originating at the origin and making some angle with the x-axis,
the sine of the angle gives the length of the y-component of the triangle, the cosine gives the length of the x-component,
and the tangent function gives the slope. Trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right
triangle containing the angle, and can equivalently be defined as the lengths of various line segments from a unit circle.
In modern usage, there are six basic trigonometric functions where the last four are taken as definitions of sin(θ) and
cos(θ) but are also formally defined geometrically.
TrigTriangle.png
3.1.1 Definitions:
opposite
1. Sine: sin(θ) =
hypotenuse
adjacent
2. Cosine: cos(θ) =
hypotenuse
opposite sin(θ)
3. Tangent: tan(θ) = =
adjacent cos(θ)
adjacent cos(θ)
4. Cotangent: cot(θ) = =
opposite sin(θ)
hypotenuse 1
5. Secant: sec(θ) = =
adjacent cos(θ)
69
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 3 – Trigonometry
hypotenuse 1
6. Cosecant: csc(θ) = = . Occasionally, csc(θ) is also written as cosec (() θ).
opposite sin(θ)
3.1.2 Derivation from the Unit Circle: The numerical values for the trigonometric function of θ are found from
the unit circle.
TrigUnitCircle1.png TrigUnitCircle2.png
3.1.3 Period:
1. sin(θ) = sin(θ + 360◦ k) = sin(θ + 2πk) for k ∈ Z
2. cos(θ) = cos(θ + 360◦ k) = cos(θ + 2πk) for k ∈ Z
3. tan(θ) = tan(θ + 180◦ k) = tan(θ + πk) for k ∈ Z
4. cot(θ) = cot(θ + 180◦ k) = cot(θ + πk) for k ∈ Z
5. sec(θ) = sec(θ + 360◦ k) = sec(θ + 2πk) for k ∈ Z
6. csc(θ) = csc(θ + 360◦ k) = csc(θ + 2πk) for k ∈ Z
3.1.4 Domain and Range: These are for the real case, definitions exist in the complex domain and these are
discussed elsewhere.
1. sin(θ) = y where θ ∈ R and y ∈ R such that −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
2. cos(θ) = y where θ ∈ R and y ∈ R such that −1 ≤ y ≤ 1

3π π π 3π
3. tan(θ) = y where θ ∈ R such that θ 6= · · · , − , − , , , · · · and y ∈ R
2 2 2 2

3π π π 3π
4. cot(θ) = y where θ ∈ R such that θ 6= · · · , − , − , , , · · · and y ∈ R
2 2 2 2
5. sec(θ) = y where θ ∈ R such that θ 6= {· · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · · } and y ∈ R such that −1 6< y 6< 1
6. csc(θ) = y where θ ∈ R such that θ 6= {· · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · · } and y ∈ R such that −1 6< y 6< 1
70
3.1.5 Table for Specific Values:
Degrees 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 120◦ 150◦ 210◦ 240◦ 300◦ 330◦

π π 2π 5π 7π 4π 5π 11π
Radians 0
6 √3 √3 6 6 3
√ 3
√ 6
1 3 3 1 1 3 3 1
sin(θ) 0 − − − −
√2 2 2 2
√ √2 2 2 √2
3 1 1 3 − 3 1 1 3
cos(θ) 1 − − −
√2 2 2 √2 √2 2 2 2
√
3 √ √ 3 3 √ √ 3
tan(θ) 0 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 −
3 3 3 3
Degrees 45◦ 90◦ 135◦ 180◦ 225◦ 270◦ 315◦ 360◦
π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
Radians π 2π
√3 2 √4 4
√ 2 4
√
2 2 2 2
sin(θ) 1 0 − −1 − 0
√2 2
√ √2 √2
2 2 2 2
cos(θ) 0 − −1 − 0 1
2 2 2 2
tan(θ) 1 −1 0 1 −1 0
3.2 Elementary Applications

3.2.1 Law of Sines: In trigonometry, the law of sines or sine rule is an equation relating the lengths of the sides of
an arbitrary triangle to the sines of its angles. The law of sines can be used to compute the remaining sides of a triangle
when two angles and a side are known. It can also be used when two sides and one of the non-enclosed angles are known.
In some such cases, the formula gives two possible values for the enclosed angle, leading to an ambiguous case. According
to the law,
a b c
1. = = = 2R where a, b, c are the side lengths, A, B, C are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c
sin(A) sin(B) sin(C)
respectively and R is the radius of the circumscribed circle of the triangle.
sin(A) sin(B) sin(C) 2T
2. = = = where a, b, c are the side lengths, A, B, C are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c
a b c abc
respectively and T is the area of the triangle.
3.2.2 Law of Cosines: In trigonometry, the law of cosines or cosine rule relates the lengths of the sides of a triangle
to the cosine of one of its angles. The law of cosines generalises the Pythagorean theorem to all triangles. It is useful for
computing the third side of a triangle when two sides and their enclosed angle are known, and in computing the angles
of a triangle if all three sides are known. According to the law,
1. a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(A) where a, b, c are the side lengths and A is the opposite angle to side a.
2. b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(B) where a, b, c are the side lengths and B is the opposite angle to side b.
3. c2 = a2 + b2 − 2av cos(C) where a, b, c are the side lengths and C is the opposite angle to side c.
2
b + c2 − a2

4. A = arccos where a, b, c are the side lengths and A is the opposite angle to side a.
2bc
2
a + c2 − b2

5. B = arccos where a, b, c are the side lengths and B is the opposite angle to side b.
2ac
2
a + b2 − c2

6. C = arccos where a, b, c are the side lengths and C is the opposite angle to side c.
2ab
71
3.2.3 Law of Tangents: In trigonometry, the law of tangents is a statement about the relationship between the
tangents of two angles of a triangle and the lengths of the opposing sides. It can be used in any case where two sides and
the included angle, or two angles and a side, are known.

A−B
tan
2 a−b
1. = where a, b are the side lengths and A, B are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively.
A+B a+b
tan
2

A−C
tan
2 a−c
2. = where a, c are the side lengths and A, C are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively.
A+C a+c
tan
2

B−C
tan
2 b−c
3. = where b, c are the side lengths and B, C are the opposite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively.
B+C b+c
tan
2
3.2.4 Law of Contangents: In trigonometry, the law of cotangents relates the radius of the inscribed circle of a
triangle to its sides and angles.

A B C
cot cot cot
2 2 2 1
1. = = = where a, b, c are the side lengths, A, B, C are the opposite angles to the
s−a s−b s−c r
sides a, b, c respectively, s is the semiperimeter and r is the radius of the inscribed circle of the triangle.

A B C
cot cot cot r
2 2 2 s
2. = = = where a, b, c are the side lengths, A, B, C are the op-
s−a s−b s−c (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
posite angles to the sides a, b, c respectively and s is the semiperimeter of the triangle.
3.2.5 Law of the Auxiliary Angle: The auxiliary angle formula combines the addition of sin(θ) and cos(θ) into
a single trigonometric function.
p
1. a sin(x) + b cos(x) = R sin(x + α) where R = a2 + b2 . α can be found a few different ways.

b

 arctan +π a<0
a


α=
 b
 arctan a≥0


a

b
 arcsin π − R + π a < 0



α=
 b
 arctan a≥0


R
a
α = sgn(b) arccos
R
p
2. a sin(x) + b sin(x + θ) = R sin(x + α) where R = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos (θ) and

 arctan b sin (θ)
 + π a + b cos (θ) < 0
a + b cos (θ)


α= .
 b sin (θ)
 arctan a + b cos (θ) ≥ 0


a + b cos (θ)
72
n
X n X
X n
3. ak sin (x + θk ) = R sin(x + α) where R = ak aj cos (θk − θj ) and
k=1 k=1 j=1
P n 
ak sin (θk )
 k=1 
α = arctan 
P n


ak cos (θk )
k=1
3.3 Basic Identities

3.3.1 Pythagorean Identity: The Pythagorean trigonometric identity is a trigonometric identity expressing the
Pythagorean theorem in terms of trigonometric functions.
1. sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1
2. 1 + tan2 (θ) = sec2 (θ)
3. 1 + cot2 (θ) = csc2 (θ)
3.3.2 Translation Identities:

π
1. sin θ + = cos (θ)
2
π
2. cos θ + = − sin (θ)
2
π
3. tan θ + = − cot (θ)
2
π
4. cot θ + = − tan (θ)
2
π
5. sec θ + = − csc (θ)
2
π
6. csc θ + = − sec (θ)
2
7. sin (θ + π) = − sin (θ)
8. cos (θ + π) = − cos (θ)
9. tan (θ + π) = tan (θ)
10. cot (θ + π) = cot (θ)
11. sec (θ + π) = − sec (θ)
12. csc (θ + π) = − csc (θ)
13. sin (θ + 2π) = sin (θ)
14. cos (θ + 2π) = cos (θ)
15. tan (θ + 2π) = tan (θ)
16. cot (θ + 2π) = cot (θ)
17. sec (θ + 2π) = sec (θ)
18. csc (θ + 2π) = csc (θ)
19. sin (−θ) = − sin (θ)
73
20. cos (−θ) = cos (θ)
21. tan (−θ) = − tan (θ)
22. cot (−θ) = − cot (θ)
23. sec (−θ) = sec (θ)
24. csc (−θ) = − csc (θ)

π
25. sin − θ = cos (θ)
2
π
26. cos − θ = sin (θ)
2
π
27. tan − θ = cot (θ)
2
π
28. cot − θ = tan (θ)
2
π
29. sec − θ = csc (θ)
2
π
30. csc − θ = sec (θ)
2
31. sin (π − θ) = sin (θ)
32. cos (π − θ) = − cos (θ)
33. tan (π − θ) = − tan (θ)
34. cot (π − θ) = − cot (θ)
35. sec (π − θ) = − sec (θ)
36. csc (π − θ) = csc (θ)
3.3.3 Identities Between Relationships:

p
p tan (θ) 1 sec2 (θ) − 1 1
1. sin (θ) = ± 1 − cos2 (θ) = ± p = ±p =± =
2
1 + tan (θ) 1 + cot2 (θ) sec (θ) csc (θ)
p
1 cot (θ) 1 csc2 (θ) − 1
q
2
2. cos (θ) = ± 1 − sin (θ) = ± p = ±p = =±
1 + tan2 (θ) 1 + cot2 (θ) sec (θ) csc (θ)
p
sin (θ) 1 − cos2 (θ) 1 p 1
3. tan (θ) = ± p 2
= ± = = ± sec2 (θ) − 1 = ± p
1 − sin (θ) cos (θ) cot (θ) csc2 (θ) − 1
p
1 − sin2 (θ) cos (θ) 1 1 p
4. cot (θ) = ± = ±p = = ±p = ± csc2 (θ) − 1
sin (θ) 1 − cos2 (θ) tan (θ) sec2 (θ) − 1
p
1 1 1 + cot2 (θ) csc (θ)
q
5. sec (θ) = ± p = = ± 1 + tan 2 (θ) = ± = ± p
1 − sin2 (θ) cos (θ) cot (θ) csc2 (θ) − 1
p
1 1 1 + tan2 (θ) sec (θ)
q
6. csc (θ) = = ±p =± = ± 1 + cot2 (θ) = ± p
sin (θ) 1 − cos2 (θ) tan (θ) sec2 (θ) − 1
74
3.4 Simplification Identities

3.4.1 Product to Sum:
cos (θ − φ) − cos (θ + φ)
1. sin (θ) sin (φ) =
2
cos (θ − φ) + cos (θ + φ)
2. cos (θ) cos (φ) =
2
sin (θ + φ) + cos (θ − φ)
3. sin (θ) cos (φ) =
2
sin (θ + φ) − cos (θ − φ)
4. cos (θ) sin (φ) =
2
3.4.2 Sum to Product:

θ±φ θ∓φ
1. sin (θ) ± sin (φ) = 2 sin cos
2 2

θ+φ θ−φ
2. cos (θ) + cos (φ) = 2 cos cos
2 2

θ+φ θ−φ
3. cos (θ) − cos (φ) = −2 sin sin
2 2
3.4.3 Addition Formulas:

1. sin(θ + φ) = sin(θ) cos(φ) + cos(θ) sin(φ)
2. sin(θ − φ) = sin(θ) cos(φ) − cos(θ) sin(φ)
3. cos(θ + φ) = cos(θ) cos(φ) − sin(θ) sin(φ)
4. cos(θ − φ) = cos(θ) cos(φ) + sin(θ) sin(φ)
tan(φ) + tan(θ)
5. tan(θ + φ) =
1 − tan(φ) tan(θ)
tan(φ) − tan(θ)
6. tan(θ − φ) =
1 + tan(φ) tan(θ)
−1 + cot(φ) cot(θ)
7. cot(θ + φ) =
cot(φ) + cot(θ)
−1 − cot(φ) cot(θ)
8. cot(θ − φ) =
cot(φ) − cot(θ)
sec(θ) csc(θ) sec(φ) csc(φ)
9. sec(θ + φ) =
csc(θ) csc(φ) + sec(θ) sec(φ)
1
10. sec(θ + φ) =
cos(θ) cos(φ) − sin(θ) sin(φ)
1
11. sec(θ − φ) =
cos(θ) cos(φ) + sin(θ) sin(φ)
sec(θ) csc(θ) sec(φ) csc(φ)
12. csc(θ + φ) =
sec(θ) csc(φ) + csc(θ) sec(φ)
1
13. csc(θ + φ) =
sin(θ) cos(φ) + cos(θ) sin(φ)
1
14. csc(θ − φ) =
sin(θ) cos(φ) − cos(θ) sin(φ)
75
3.4.4 Half Angle Formulas:

r
θ 1 − cos (θ)
1. sin =±
2 2
r
θ 1 + cos (θ)
2. cos =±
2 2

θ
3. tan = csc (θ) − cot (θ)
2
s
θ 1 − cos (θ)
4. tan =±
2 1 + cos (θ)

θ sin (θ)
5. tan =
2 1 + cos (θ)

θ 1 − cos (θ)
6. tan =
2 sin (θ)

θ+φ sin (θ) + sin (φ) cos (θ) − cos (φ)
7. tan = =−
2 cos (θ) + cos (φ) sin (θ) − sin (φ)
s
1 − tan 2θ

1 − sin (θ)
8. θ
=
1 + tan 2 1 + sin (θ)

θ
9. cot = csc (θ) + cot (θ)
2
s
θ 1 + cos (θ)
10. cot =±
2 1 − cos (θ)

θ sin (θ)
11. cot =
2 1 − cos (θ)

θ 1 + cos (θ)
12. cot =
2 sin (θ)
3.4.5 Double Angle Formulas:

1. sin(2θ) = 2 sin (θ) cos (θ)
2 tan (θ)
2. sin(2θ) =
1 + tan2 (θ)
3. cos(2θ) = 2 cos2 (θ) − 1
4. cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)
5. cos(2θ) = 1 − 2 sin2 (θ)

1 − tan2 (θ)
6. cos(2θ) =
1 + tan2 (θ)
2 tan (θ)
7. tan(2θ) =
1 − tan2 (θ)
2 sin (θ) cos (θ)
8. tan(2θ) =
2 cos2 (θ) − 1
76
cot2 (θ) − 1
9. cot(2θ) =
2 cot (θ)
1
10. sec(2θ) =
2 cos2 (θ) −1
1
11. csc(2θ) =
2 sin (θ) cos (θ)
3.4.6 Triple and Higher Order Angle Formulas:

1. sin(3θ) = 4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) − sin (θ)
2. sin(4θ) = 8 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) − 4 sin (θ) cos (θ)
3. sin(5θ) = 16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 12 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
4. sin(6θ) = 32 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) + 6 sin (θ) cos (θ)
5. sin(7θ) = 64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) − 80 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) + 24 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) − sin (θ)
6. sin(8θ) = 128 sin (θ) cos7 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) + 80 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) − 8 sin (θ) cos (θ)
7. sin(9θ) = 256 sin (θ) cos8 (θ) − 448 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 240 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 40 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
n
X n n−k k (n − k)π
8. sin(nθ) = sin (θ) cos (θ) sin
k 2
k=0
9. sin(nθ) = 2 cos (θ) sin ((n − 1)θ) − sin ((n − 2)θ)
10. cos(3θ) = 4 cos3 (θ) − 3 cos (θ)
11. cos(4θ) = 8 cos4 (θ) − 8 cos2 (θ) + 1
12. cos(5θ) = 16 cos5 (θ) − 20 cos3 (θ) + 5 cos (θ)
13. cos(7θ) = 32 cos6 (θ) − 48 cos4 (θ) + 18 cos2 (θ) − 1
14. cos(7θ) = 64 cos7 (θ) − 112 cos5 (θ) + 56 cos3 (θ) − 7 cos (θ)
15. cos(8θ) = 128 cos8 (θ) − 256 cos6 (θ) + 160 cos4 (θ) − 32 cos2 (θ) + 1
16. cos(9θ) = 256 cos9 (θ) − 576 cos7 (θ) + 432 cos5 (θ) − 120 cos3 (θ) + 9 cos (θ)
n
X n n−k k (n − k)π
17. cos(nθ) = sin (θ) cos (θ) cos
k 2
k=0
18. cos(nθ) = 2 cos (θ) cos ((n − 1)θ) − cos ((n − 2)θ)
3 tan (θ) − tan3 (θ)
19. tan(3θ) =
1 − 3 tan2 (θ)
4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) sin (θ)
20. tan(3θ) = 3
− 3
4 cos (θ) − 3 cos (θ) 4 cos (θ) − 3 cos (θ)
4 tan (θ) − 4 tan3 (θ)
21. tan(4θ) =
1 − 6 tan2 (θ) + tan4 (θ)
5 tan (θ) − 10 tan3 (θ) + tan5 (θ)
22. tan(5θ) =
1 − 10 tan2 (θ) + 5 tan4 (θ)
6 tan (θ) − 20 tan3 (θ) + 6 tan5 (θ)
23. tan(6θ) =
1 − 15 tan2 (θ) + 15 tan4 (θ) − tan6 (θ)
77
7 tan (θ) − 35 tan3 (θ) + 21 tan5 (θ) − tan7 (θ)

24. tan(7θ) =
1 − 21 tan2 (θ) + 35 tan4 (θ) − 7 tan6 (θ)
8 tan (θ) − 56 tan3 (θ) + 56 tan5 (θ) − 8 tan7 (θ)
25. tan(8θ) =
1 − 28 tan2 (θ) + 70 tan4 (θ) − 28 tan6 (θ) + tan8 (θ)
9 tan (θ) − 84 tan3 (θ) + 126 tan5 (θ) − 36 tan7 (θ) + tan9 (θ)
26. tan(9θ) =
1 − 36 tan2 (θ) + 126 tan4 (θ) − 84 tan6 (θ) + 9 tan8 (θ)
tan ((n − 1)θ) + tan (θ)
27. tan(nθ) =
1 − tan ((n − 1)θ) tan (θ)
cot3 (θ) − 3 cot (θ)
28. cot(3θ) =
−1 + 3 cot2 (θ)
1 + cot4 (θ) − 6 cot2 (θ)
29. cot(4θ) =
4 cot3 (θ) − 4 cot (θ)
cot5 (θ) − 10 cot3 (θ) + 5 cot (θ)
30. cot(5θ) =
1 + 5 cot4 (θ) − 10 cot2 (θ)
−1 + cot6 (θ) − 15 cot4 (θ) + 15 cot2 (θ)
31. cot(6θ) =
6 cot5 (θ) − 20 cot3 (θ) + 6 cot (θ)
cot7 (θ) − 21 cot5 (θ) + 35 cot3 (θ) − 7 cot (θ)
32. cot(7θ) =
−1 + 7 cot6 (θ) − 35 cot4 (θ) + 21 cot2 (θ)
1 + cot8 (θ) − 28 cot6 (θ) + 70 cot4 (θ) − 28 cot2 (θ)
33. cot(8θ) =
8 cot7 (θ) − 56 cot5 (θ) + 56 cot3 (θ) − 8 cot (θ)
cot9 (θ) − 36 cot7 (θ) + 126 cot5 (θ) − 84 cot3 (θ) + 9 cot (θ)
34. cot(9θ) =
1 + 9 cot8 (θ) − 84 cot6 (θ) + 126 cot4 (θ) − 36 cot2 (θ)
cot ((n − 1)θ) cot (θ) − 1
35. cot(nθ) =
cot ((n − 1)θ) + cot (θ)
1
36. sec(3θ) =
4 cos3 (θ) − 3 cos (θ)
1
37. sec(4θ) =
8 cos4 (θ) − 8 cos2 (θ) + 1
1
38. sec(5θ) =
16 cos5 (θ) − 20 cos3 (θ) + 5 cos (θ)
1
39. sec(7θ) =
32 cos6 (θ) − 48 cos4 (θ) + 18 cos2 (θ) − 1
1
40. sec(7θ) =
64 cos7 (θ) − 112 cos5 (θ) + 56 cos3 (θ) − 7 cos (θ)
1
41. sec(8θ) =
128 cos8 (θ) − 256 cos6 (θ) + 160 cos4 (θ) − 32 cos2 (θ) + 1
1
42. sec(9θ) =
256 cos9 (θ) − 576 cos7 (θ) + 432 cos5 (θ) − 120 cos3 (θ) + 9 cos (θ)
1
43. csc(3θ) =
4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) − sin (θ)
1
44. csc(4θ) =
8 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) − 4 sin (θ) cos (θ)
78
1
45. csc(5θ) =
16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 12 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1
46. csc(6θ) =
32 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) + 6 sin (θ) cos (θ)
1
47. csc(7θ) =
64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) − 80 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) + 24 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) − sin (θ)
1
48. csc(8θ) =
128 sin (θ) cos7 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos5 (θ) + 80 sin (θ) cos3 (θ) − 8 sin (θ) cos (θ)
1
49. csc(9θ) =
256 sin (θ) cos8 (θ) − 448 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 240 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 40 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
3.4.7 Power Reduction Formulas:

1. sin2 (θ) = 1 − cos2 (θ)
1 1
2. sin2 (θ) = − cos(2θ)
2 2
3. sin3 (θ) = − sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1 3
4. sin3 (θ) = − sin(3θ) + sin (θ)
4 4
5. sin4 (θ) = 1 + cos4 (θ) − 2 cos2 (θ)
3 1 1
6. sin4 (θ) = + cos(4θ) − cos(2θ)
8 8 2
7. sin5 (θ) = sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 2 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1 5 5
8. sin5 (θ) = sin(5θ) − sin(3θ) + sin (θ)
16 16 8
9. sin6 (θ) = 1 − cos6 (θ) + 3 cos4 (θ) − 3 cos2 (θ)
5 1 3 15
10. sin6 (θ) = − cos(6θ) + cos(4θ) − cos(2θ)
16 32 16 32
11. sin7 (θ) = − sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 3 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 3 (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1 7 21 35
12. sin7 (θ) = − sin(7θ) + sin(5θ) − sin(3θ) + sin (θ)
64 64 64 64
13. sin8 (θ) = 1 + cos8 (θ) − 4 cos6 (θ) + 6 cos4 (θ) − 4 cos2 (θ)
35 1 1 7 7
14. sin8 (θ) = + cos(8θ) − cos(6θ) + cos(4θ) − cos(2θ)
128 128 16 32 16
15. sin9 (θ) = sin (θ) cos8 (θ) − 4 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 6 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + sin (θ)
1 9 9 21 63
16. sin9 (θ) = sin(9θ) − sin(7θ) + sin(5θ) − sin(3θ) + sin (θ)
256 256 64 64 128
 n−1
 2

 2 X
( n−1
−k ) n


n
(−1) 2 sin ((n − 2k)θ) n is odd
 2 k


k=0
17. sinn (θ) =
n

 2
−1

 1 n 2 X ( n2 −k) n cos ((n − 2k)θ) n is even

 2n n
 + (−1)
2n k

2 k=0
1 1
18. cos2 (θ) = cos(2θ) +
2 2
79
1 3
19. cos3 (θ) = cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
4 4
1 1 3
20. cos4 (θ) = cos(4θ) + cos(2θ) +
8 2 8
1 5 5
21. cos5 (θ) = cos(5θ) + cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
16 16 8
1 3 15 5
22. cos6 (θ) = cos(6θ) + cos(4θ) + cos(2θ) +
32 16 32 16
1 7 21 35
23. cos7 (θ) = cos(7θ) + cos(5θ) + cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
64 64 64 64
1 1 7 7 35
24. cos8 (θ) = cos(8θ) + cos(6θ) + cos(4θ) + cos(2θ) +
128 16 32 16 128
1 9 9 21 63
25. cos9 (θ) = cos(9θ) + cos(7θ) + cos(5θ) + cos(3θ) + cos (θ)
256 256 64 64 128
 n−1
 2

 2 X n


n
cos ((n − 2k)θ)) n is odd
 2 k


k=0
26. cosn (θ) =
n

 2
−1

 1 n 2 X n

 2n n
 + n
cos ((n − 2k)θ)) n is even
2 k

2 k=0
27. sin2 (θ) cos2 (θ) = − cos4 (θ) + cos2 (θ)

1 1
28. sin2 (θ) cos2 (θ) = − cos(4θ)
8 8
29. sin3 (θ) cos3 (θ) = − sin (θ) cos5 (θ) + sin (θ) cos3 (θ)
1 3
30. sin3 (θ) cos3 (θ) = − sin(6θ) + sin(2θ)
32 32
31. sin4 (θ) cos4 (θ) = cos4 (θ) + cos8 (θ) − 2 cos6 (θ)
1 1 3
32. sin4 (θ) cos4 (θ) = − cos(4θ) + cos(8θ) +
32 128 128
33. sin5 (θ) cos5 (θ) = sin (θ) cos9 (θ) − 2 sin (θ) cos7 (θ) + sin (θ) cos5 (θ)
1 5 5
34. sin5 (θ) cos5 (θ) = sin(10θ) + sin(2θ) − sin(6θ)
512 256 512
35. sin6 (θ) cos6 (θ) = − cos12 (θ) + 3 cos10 (θ) − 3 cos8 (θ) + cos6 (θ)
15 1 3 5
36. sin6 (θ) cos6 (θ) = − cos(4θ) − cos(12θ) + cos(8θ) +
2048 2048 1024 1024
37. sin7 (θ) cos7 (θ) = −3 sin (θ) cos9 (θ) + sin (θ) cos7 (θ) − sin (θ) cos13 (θ) + 3 sin (θ) cos11 (θ)
21 35 7 1
38. sin7 (θ) cos7 (θ) = − sin(6θ) + sin(2θ) + sin(10θ) − sin(14θ)
8192 8192 8192 8192
39. sin8 (θ) cos8 (θ) = cos8 (θ) − 4 cos10 (θ) + 6 cos12 (θ) − 4 cos14 (θ) + cos16 (θ)
7 7 1 1 35
40. sin8 (θ) cos8 (θ) = − cos(4θ) + cos(8θ) − cos(12θ) + cos(16θ) +
4096 8192 4096 32768 32768
41. sin9 (θ) cos9 (θ) = sin (θ) cos9 (θ) − 4 sin (θ) cos11 (θ) + 6 sin (θ) cos13 (θ) − 4 sin (θ) cos15 (θ) + sin (θ) cos17 (θ)
21 63 9 9 1
42. sin9 (θ) cos9 (θ) = − sin(6θ) + sin(2θ) + sin(10θ) − sin(14θ) + sin(18θ)
32768 65536 32768 131072 131072
80
1
43. tan2 (θ) = −1
cos2 (θ)
1 − cos(2θ)
44. tan2 (θ) =
cos(2θ) + 1
sin (θ) sin (θ)
45. tan3 (θ) = − +
cos (θ) cos3 (θ)
− sin(3θ) + 3 sin (θ)
46. tan3 (θ) =
cos(3θ) + 3 cos(θ)
1 2
47. tan4 (θ) = +1−
cos4 (θ) cos2 (θ)
3 + cos(4θ) − 4 cos(2θ)
48. tan4 (θ) =
cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ) + 3
sin (θ) 2 sin (θ) sin (θ)
49. tan5 (θ) = − 3
+
cos (θ) cos (θ) cos5 (θ)
sin(5θ) − 5 sin(3θ) + 10 sin (θ)
50. tan5 (θ) =
cos(5θ) + 5 cos(3θ) + 10 cos (θ)
1 3 3
51. tan6 (θ) = + − −1
cos6 (θ) cos2 (θ) cos4 (θ)
10 − cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) − 15 cos(2θ)
52. tan6 (θ) =
cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ) + 10
sin (θ) 3 sin (θ) 3 sin (θ) sin (θ)
53. tan7 (θ) = − + 3
− 5
+
cos (θ) cos (θ) cos (θ) cos7 (θ)
− sin(7θ) + 7 sin(5θ) − 21 sin(3θ) + 35 sin (θ)
54. tan7 (θ) =
cos(7θ) + 7 cos(5θ) + 21 cos(3θ) + 35 cos (θ)
1 4 6 4
55. tan8 (θ) = − + − +1
cos8 (θ) cos2 (θ) cos4 (θ) cos6 (θ)
35 + cos(8θ) − 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) − 56 cos(2θ)
56. tan8 (θ) =
35 + cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ)
sin (θ) 4 sin (θ) 6 sin (θ) 4 sin (θ) sin (θ)
57. tan9 (θ) = − + − +
cos (θ) cos3 (θ) cos5 (θ) cos7 (θ) cos9 (θ)
sin(9θ) − 9 sin(7θ) + 36 sin(5θ) − 84 sin(3θ) + 126 sin (θ)
58. tan9 (θ) =
cos(9θ) + 9 cos(7θ) + 36 cos(5θ) + 84 cos(3θ) + 126 cos (θ)
 n−1
−k) n
2 n−1



P
(−1) ( 2 sin ((n − 2k)θ)
k


 k=0


 n−1
n is odd
n

 2
P
cos ((n − 2k)θ))



k=0 k


59. tann (θ) =
n
 −1
1 n 2 2P −k) n
 n
(

+ n (−1) cos ((n − 2k)θ)

 2
2n n2


 2 k=0 k
n is even

 n
−1

1 n 2 2P n


cos ((n − 2k)θ))

n + n


2 n 2 k=0 k
2
2 cos2 (θ)
60. cot2 (θ) = −
−2 + 2 cos2 (θ)
81
cos(2θ) + 1
61. cot2 (θ) =
1 − cos(2θ)
4 cos3 (θ)
62. cot3 (θ) =
−4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 4 sin (θ)
63. cot3 (θ) =
− sin(3θ) + 3 sin (θ)
8 cos4 (θ)
64. cot4 (θ) = −
−8 − 8 cos4 (θ) + 16 cos2 (θ)
cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ) + 3
65. cot4 (θ) =
3 + cos(4θ) − 4 cos(2θ)
16 cos5 (θ)
66. cot5 (θ) =
16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 16 sin (θ)
cos(5θ) + 5 cos(3θ) + 10 cos (θ)
67. cot5 (θ) =
sin(5θ) − 5 sin(3θ) + 10 sin (θ)
32 cos6 (θ)
68. cot6 (θ) = −
−32 + 32 cos6 (θ) − 96 cos4 (θ) + 96 cos2 (θ)
cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ) + 10
69. cot6 (θ) =
10 − cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) − 15 cos(2θ)
64 cos7 (θ)
70. cot7 (θ) =
−64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 192 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 64 sin (θ)
cos(7θ) + 7 cos(5θ) + 21 cos(3θ) + 35 cos (θ)
71. cot7 (θ) =
128 cos8 (θ)
72. cot8 (θ) = −
−128 − 128 cos8 (θ) + 512 cos6 (θ) − 768 cos4 (θ) + 512 cos2 (θ)
35 + cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ)
73. cot8 (θ) =
35 + cos(8θ) − 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) − 56 cos(2θ)
cos(9θ) + 9 cos(7θ) + 36 cos(5θ) + 84 cos(3θ) + 126 cos (θ)
74. cot9 (θ) =
 n−1
 P2 n
cos ((n − 2k)θ))



k=0 k


n is odd



 n−1
n
 2 n−1
(−1)( 2 −k)
 P
sin ((n − 2k)θ)



n

k=0 k
75. cot (θ) = n
−1
1 n 2 2P n


cos ((n − 2k)θ))

n + n



 2 n 2 k=0 k
2
n is even


 n
 −1

 1 n 2 2P
( n
−k ) n
 n n + n

 (−1) 2 cos ((n − 2k)θ)
2 2 2 k=0 k
2
76. sec2 (θ) =
cos(2θ) + 1
4
77. sec3 (θ) =
8
78. sec4 (θ) =
cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ) + 3
82
16
79. sec5 (θ) =
cos(5θ) + 5 cos(3θ) + 10 cos(θ)
32
80. sec6 (θ) =
cos(6θ) + 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ) + 10
64
81. sec7 (θ) =
cos(7θ) + 7 cos(5θ) + 21 cos(3θ) + 35 cos(θ)
128
82. sec8 (θ) =
cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) + 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ) + 35
256
83. sec9 (θ) =
cos(9θ) + 9 cos(7θ) + 36 cos(5θ) + 84 cos(3θ) + 126 cos(θ)
2n



 n−1
n is odd
n

 P2
2 cos ((n − 2k)θ))



 k=0 k

84. secn (θ) =

 2n

 n n is even
 −1
n 2 2P n


 n + n cos ((n − 2k)θ))


2 2 k=0 k
2
85. csc2 (θ) = −
−2 + 2 cos2 (θ)
2
86. csc2 (θ) = −
−1 + cos(2θ)
4
87. csc3 (θ) =
−4 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 4 sin (θ)
4
88. csc3 (θ) =
− sin(3θ) + 3 sin (θ)
8
89. csc4 (θ) = −
−8 − 8 cos4 (θ) + 16 cos2 (θ)
8
90. csc4 (θ) = −
−3 − cos(4θ) + 4 cos(2θ)
16
91. csc5 (θ) =
16 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 32 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 16 sin (θ)
16
92. csc5 (θ) =
sin(5θ) − 5 sin(3θ) + 10 sin (θ)
32
93. csc6 (θ) = −
−32 + 32 cos6 (θ) − 96 cos4 (θ) + 96 cos2 (θ)
32
94. csc6 (θ) = −
−10 + cos(6θ) − 6 cos(4θ) + 15 cos(2θ)
64
95. csc7 (θ) =
−64 sin (θ) cos6 (θ) + 192 sin (θ) cos4 (θ) − 192 sin (θ) cos2 (θ) + 64 sin (θ)
64
96. csc7 (θ) =
128
97. csc8 (θ) = −
−128 − 128 cos8 (θ) + 512 cos6 (θ) − 768 cos4 (θ) + 512 cos2 (θ)
83
128
98. csc8 (θ) = −
−35 − cos(8θ) + 8 cos(6θ) − 28 cos(4θ) + 56 cos(2θ)
256
99. csc9 (θ) =
2n



 n−1 n is odd
n
 2 n−1
(−1)( 2 −k)
 P
2 sin ((n − 2k)θ)




 k=0 k
100. cscn (θ) =

 2n

 n n is even
 −1
n 2 2P −k) n
 n
(

 n + n (−1) cos ((n − 2k)θ)

 2
2 2 k=0 k
Conditional Identities:
1. sin(2x) + sin(2y) + sin(2z) = 4 sin(x) sin(y) sin(z) if x + y + z = 180◦ = π.
2. tan(x) + tan(y) + tan(z) = tan(x) tan(y) tan(z) if x + y + z = 180◦ = π.
3. cot(x) cot(y) + cot(y) cot(z) + cot(z) cot(z) = 1 if x + y + z = 180◦ = π.

π
4. cot(x) + cot(y) + cot(z) = cot(x) cot(y) cot(z) if x + y + z = 90◦ = .
2
5. sin(w + x) sin(x + y) = sin(x + y) sin(y + z) = sin(y + z) sin(z + w) = sin(z + w) sin(w + x)
= sin(w) sin(y) + sin(x) sin(z) if w = x + y + z = 180◦ = π.
3.5 Inverse Functions

In mathematics, the inverse trigonometric functions are the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions. They are
used to obtain an angle from any of the angle’s trigonometric ratios.
3.5.1 Definitions:
1. Arcsine: y = sin (θ) ⇒ θ = arcsin(y)
2. Arccosine: y = cos (θ) ⇒ θ = arccos(y)
3. Arctangent: y = tan (θ) ⇒ θ = arctan(y)
4. Arccotangent: y = cot (θ) ⇒ θ = arccot(y)
5. Arcsecant: y = sec (θ) ⇒ θ = arcsec(y)
6. Arccosecant: y = csc (θ) ⇒ θ = arccsc(y)
3.5.2 Vertical Period: For the inverse function to be a function, only the case when k = 0 is taken when analysing.
However, due to the periods of the trigonometric functions, the inverse trigonometric functions have vertical periods.
1. arcsin(y) = arcsin(y) + 360◦ k = arcsin(y) + 2kπ for k ∈ Z
2. arccos(y) = arccos(y) + 360◦ k = arccos(y) + 2kπ for k ∈ Z
3. arctan(y) = arctan(y) + 180◦ k = arctan(y) + kπ for k ∈ Z
4. arccot(y) = arccot(y) + 180◦ k = arccot(y) + kπ for k ∈ Z
5. arcsec(y) = arcsec(y) + 360◦ k = arcsec(y) + 2kπ for k ∈ Z
6. arccsc(y) = arccsc(y) + 360◦ k = arccsc(y) + 2kπ for k ∈ Z
84
Also,
1. arcsin(y) = (−1)k arcsin(y) + 180◦ k = (−1)k arcsin(y) + kπ for k ∈ Z
2. arccos(y) = ± arccos(y) + 360◦ k = ± arccos(y) + 2kπ for k ∈ Z
3.5.3 Domain and Range: These are for the real case, definitions exist in the complex domain and these are
discussed elsewhere.
1. arcsin(y) = θ where y ∈ R such that −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 and θ ∈ R
2. arccos(y) = θ where y ∈ R such that −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 and θ ∈ R

3π π π 3π
3. arctan(y) = θ where y ∈ R and θ ∈ R such that θ 6= · · · , − , − , , , · · · and
2 2 2 2

3π π π 3π
4. arccot(y) = θ where y ∈ R and θ ∈ R such that θ 6= · · · , − , − , , , · · ·
2 2 2 2
5. arcsec(y) = θ where y ∈ R such that −1 6< y 6< 1 and θ ∈ R such that θ 6= {· · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · · }
6. arccsc(y) = θ where y ∈ R such that −1 6< y 6< 1 and θ ∈ R such that θ 6= {· · · , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, · · · }
3.6 Basic Inverse Identities

3.6.1 Translation Identities:
π
1. arcsin(y) = − arccos(y)
2
π
2. arccos(y) = − arcsin(y)
2
π
3. arctan(y) = − arccot(y)
2
π
4. arccot(y) = − arctan(y)
2
π
5. arcsec(y) = − arccsc(y)
2
π
6. arccsc(y) = − arcsec(y)
2
7. arcsin(−y) = − arcsin(y)
8. arccos(−y) = π − arccos(y)
9. arctan(−y) = − arctan(y)
10. arccot(−y) = π − arccot(y)
11. arcsec(−y) = π − arcsec(y)
12. arccsc(−y) = −arccsc(y)
85
3.6.2 Composition of Functions:

1. sin (arcsin (θ)) = θ
p
2. sin (arccos (θ)) = 1 − θ2
θ
3. sin (arctan (θ)) = √
1 + θ2
1
4. sin (arccot (θ)) = √
1 + θ2
r
1
5. sin (arcsec (θ)) = 1 − 2
θ
1
6. sin (arccsc (θ)) =
θ
p
7. cos (arcsin (θ)) = 1 − θ2
8. cos (arccos (θ)) = θ

1
9. cos (arctan (θ)) = √
1 + θ2
θ
10. cos (arccot (θ)) = √
1 + θ2
1
11. cos (arcsec (θ)) =
θ
r
1
12. cos (arccsc (θ)) = 1−
θ2
θ
13. tan (arcsin (θ)) = √
1 − θ2
√
1 − θ2
14. tan (arccos (θ)) =
θ
15. tan (arctan (θ)) = θ
1
16. tan (arccot (θ)) =
θ
r
1
17. tan (arcsec (θ)) = θ 1−
θ2
1
18. tan (arccsc (θ)) = r
1
θ 1− 2
θ
√
1 − θ2
19. cot (arcsin (θ)) =
θ
θ
20. cot (arccos (θ)) = √
1 − θ2
1
21. cot (arctan (θ)) =
θ
22. cot (arccot (θ)) = θ
86
1
23. cot (arcsec (θ)) = r
1
θ 1− 2
θ
r
1
24. cot (arccsc (θ)) = θ 1 − 2
θ
1
25. sec (arcsin (θ)) = √
1 − θ2
1
26. sec (arccos (θ)) =
θ
p
27. sec (arctan (θ)) = 1 + θ2
√
1 + θ2
28. sec (arccot (θ)) =
θ
29. sec (arcsec (θ)) = θ
1
30. sec (arccsc (θ)) = r
1
1− 2
θ
1
31. csc (arcsin (θ)) =
θ
1
32. csc (arccos (θ)) = √
1 − θ2
√
1 + θ2
33. csc (arctan (θ)) =
θ
p
34. csc (arccot (θ)) = 1 + θ2
1
35. csc (arcsec (θ)) = r
1
1− 2
θ
36. csc (arccsc (θ)) = θ
3.7 Simplification Inverse Identities

3.7.1 Addition Formulas:
p p
1. arcsin (θ) ± arcsin (φ) = arcsin θ 1 − φ2 ± φ 1 − θ2
π
2. arcsin (θ) + arccos (θ) =
2
p
3. arccos (θ) ± arccos (φ) = arccos θφ ∓ (1 − θ2 )(1 − φ2 )

θ±φ
4. arctan (θ) ± arctan (φ) = arctan
1 ∓ θφ
 π

1  − θ<0
2
5. arctan (θ) + arctan =
θ  π
 θ>0
2

1 k 1
6. arctan + arctan = arctan where k ∈ C
θ+k θ2 + kθ + 1 θ
87
π
7. arctan (θ) + arccot (θ) =
2

θ+φ
8. arctan (θ) + arctan (φ) = arctan where θφ < 1
1 − θφ

θ−φ
9. arctan (θ) − arctan (φ) = arctan where θφ > −1
1 + θφ
a c
ad + bc
10. arctan + arctan = arctan where ac < bd
b d bd − ac

a c ad − bc
11. arctan − arctan = arctan where ac > −bd
b d bd + ac
3.7.2 Between Relations Formulas:

θ
1. arcsin (θ) = 2 arctan √
1 + 1 − θ2
p
2. arccos (θ) = arcsin 1 − θ2 where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1
√ !
1 − θ2
3. arccos (θ) = 2 arctan where −1 < θ ≤ 1
1+θ

θ
4. arctan (θ) = arcsin √
θ2 + 1

θ
5. arctan (θ) = 2 arctan √
1 + 1 + θ2
3.8 Machin-like formula

In mathematics, Machin-like formulas are a popular technique for computing π to a large number of digits using the
arctan (θ) function. arctan (θ) is to be taken in radians.
3.8.1 Form:
N
π X ak
1. c0 = ck arctan where an , bn are positive integers such that an < bn , cn is a signed non-zero integer and
4 bk
k=1
c0 is a positive integer.
3.8.2 List of Formula Where ak = 1:

π 1 1
1. = 4 arctan − arctan
4 5 239

π 1 1
2. = arctan + arctan
4 2 3

π 1 1
4 2 7

π 1 1
4. = 2 arctan + arctan
4 3 7
88
3.8.3 List of Formula Without ak Restrictions:

π 24478 685601
1. = 22 arctan + 17 arctan
4 873121 69049993

π 1 1 1 1
2. = 12 arctan + 32 arctan − 5 arctan + 12 arctan
4 49 57 239 110443

π 1 1 1 1
4 57 239 682 12943

π 1 1 1 1
4 239 1023 5832 110443

1 1
’ −12 arctan − 100 arctan
4841182 6826318

π 1 1 1 1
4 239 1023 5832 113021

1 1 1
’ −100 arctan − 12 arctan + 12 arctan
6826318 33366019650 43599522992503626068

π 1 1 1 1
6. = 83 arctan + 17 arctan − 22 arctan − 24 arctan
4 107 1710 103697 2513489

1 1
’ −44 arctan + 12 arctan
18280007883 7939642926390344818

1
’ +22 arctan
3054211727257704725384731479018
89
Chapter 4
Pi
The number π is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter. Being an irrational
number, π cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of any two integers. Consequently, its decimal representation never
ends and never settles into a permanent repeating pattern. The digits appear to be randomly distributed, although no
proof of this has yet been discovered. Also, π is a transcendental number – a number that is not the root of any nonzero
polynomial having rational coefficients. The transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge
of squaring the circle with a compass and straight-edge. Scientific applications generally require no more than 40 digits
of π, but computing power has determined over 10 trillion.
4.1 Fundamentals
4.1.1 Definition: π is the ratio of a circle’s circumference, C, to its diameter, d.
4.1.2 π to 1000 decimal places:

1. π ≈ 3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751058209749445923078164062862089
986280348253421170679821480865132823066470938446095505822317253594081284811174502
841027019385211055596446229489549303819644288109756659334461284756482337867831652
712019091456485669234603486104543266482133936072602491412737245870066063155881748
815209209628292540917153643678925903600113305305488204665213841469519415116094330
572703657595919530921861173819326117931051185480744623799627495673518857527248912
2793818301194912983367336244065664308602139494639522473719070217986094370277053921
7176293176752384674818467669405132000568127145263560827785771342757789609173637178
7214684409012249534301465495853710507922796892589235420199561121290219608640344181
5981362977477130996051870721134999999837297804995105973173281609631859502445945534
6908302642522308253344685035261931188171010003137838752886587533208381420617177669
1473035982534904287554687311595628638823537875937519577818577805321712268066130019
27876611195909216420199
4.2 Formula for π

4.2.1 Exact Formula: As π is transcendental, there is no explicit formula.
C
1. π = where C is a circle’s circumference and d its diameter.
d
90
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 4 – Pi
1
2. π = 3 +
1
7+
1
15 +
1
1+
1
292 +
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
..
.
4
3. π =
12
1+
32
2+
52
2+
62
2+
92
2+
112
2+
..
.
12
4. π = 3 +
32
6+
52
6+
6+
72
6+
92
6+
112
6+
..
.
4
5. π =
12
1+
22
3+
32
5+
42
7+
52
9+
62
11 +
..
.
∞ k
√ − 13 √

X 1 1 1
6. π = 12 = 12 1 − 2 + − + ···
2k + 1 3 5 × 32 7 × 33
k=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7. π = 1 + + + − + + + + − + + − + · · · where the sign of the fraction is determined
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
by the denominator. If the denominator is a prime of the form 4m − 1, the sign is positive. If the denominator is
2 or a prime of the form 4m + 1, the sign is negative. For composite numbers, the sign is equal the product of the
signs of its factors.
∞
X 1 4 2 1 1
8. π = − − −
16k 8k + 1 8k + 4 8k + 5 8k + 6
k=0
91
√ ∞
3 X ((4k)!)2 (6k)!

127169 1070 131 2
9. π = 5 − − +
6 9k+1 (12k)!(2k)! 12k + 1 12k + 5 12k + 7 12k + 11
k=0
∞
1 X (−1)k 25 28 26

1 4 4 1
10. π = 6 − − + − − − +
2 210k 4k + 1 4k + 3 10k + 1 10k + 3 10k + 5 10k + 7 10k + 9
k=0
∞
Y 4k 2 2 2 4 4 6 6 8
11. π = 2
= × × × × × × × ···
2k − 1 1 3 3 5 5 7 7
k=1
√ √ √
p q p
1 1 2 2+ 2 2+ 2+ 2
12. = × × × × ···
π 2 2 2 2
√k
√ !
4k 1+i− k1−i
13. π = lim
k→∞ i
k
!
4 Xp 2
14. π = lim k − j2
k→∞ k 2 j=1
!
24k
15. π = lim
2k 2
k→∞

k k
∞
π X k!
16. =
2 (2k + 1)!!
k=0
∞
π X 2k k!2
17. =
2 (2k + 1)!
k=0
π 1 1 1 1 1
18. =1− + − + − + ···
4 3 5 7 9 11

π 1 1
4 5 239
π 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
20. = × × × × × × · · · where the numerators are the odd primes and each denominator is the
4 4 4 8 13 12 16 20
multiple of four nearest to the numerator.

π 1 1 1 1×3 1 1×3×5 1
21. = + + + + ···
6 2 2 3 × 23 2 × 4 5 × 25 2 × 4 × 6 7 × 27
√ ∞
1 2 2 X (4k)!(1103 + 26390k)
22. =
π 9801 (k!)4 3964k
k=0
∞
X (−1)k (6k)!(13591409 + 545140134k)
1
23. = 12 3k+3
π (3k)!(k!)3 640320 2
k=0
∞
1 X ((2k)!)3 (42k + 5)
24. =
π (k!)6 163k+1
k=0
∞
1 1 X (−1)k (4k)!(21460k + 1123)
25. =
π 4 (k!)4 4412k+1 210k+1
k=0
∞ 1 3

1 1 X (6k + 1) 2 k
26. =
π 4 4k (k!)3
k=0
92
∞ √ !8k √ √ 1 3

1 1 X 5−1 42k 5 + 30k + 5 5 − 1 2 k
27. =
π 32 2 64k (k!)3
k=0
∞ k 1
1
2

(15k + 2)

1 4 X 2 2 k 3 k 3 k
28. =
π 27 27 (n!)3
k=0
∞ 1 1 2
4 k (33k + 4) 2 k

1 2 X 3 k 3 k
29. = √
π 15 3 k=0 125 (k!)3
√ ∞ 1 1 5
18 3 X 4 k (133k + 8) 2 k

1 6 k 6 k
30. = √
π 85 85 k=0 85 (k!)3
√ ∞ 1 1 5
4 k (11k + 1) 2 k

1 2 3X 6 k 6 k
31. = √
π 5 5 k=0 125 (k!)3
∞ 1
1 3

1 1 X (8k + 1) 2 k 4 k 4 k
32. = √
π 2 3 k=0 (k!)3 9k
∞ 1
1 3

1 9 X (40k + 3) 2 k 4 k 4 k
33. =√
π 3 k=0 (k!)3 492k+1
∞ 1
1 3

1 11 X (280k + 19) 2 k 4 k 4 k
34. = √
π 2 11 k=0 (k!)3 992k+1
∞ 1
1 3

1 4 X (10k + 1) 2 k 4 k 4 k
35. =√
π 2 k=0 (k!)3 92k+1
√ ∞ 1
1 3

1 5 X (644k + 41) 2 k 4 k 4 k
36. =
π 4 (k!)3 5k 722k+1
k=0
√∞ 1 1 3
3 X (−1)k (28k + 3) 2 k

1 4 k 4 k
37. =
π 4 (k!)3 3k 4k+1
k=0
∞ 1 1 3
1 X (−1)k (20k + 3) 2 k

1 4 k 4 k
38. =
π 4 (k!)3 22k+1
k=0
∞
1 1 X (−1)k (4k)!(260k + 23)
39. =
π 72 (k!)4 44k 182k
k=0
∞
1 1 X (−1)k (4k)!(21460k + 1123)
40. =
π 3528 (k!)4 44k 8822k
k=0
41. π 2 = − (ln (−1))2

∞
π2 X 1 1 1 1 1
42. = 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
6 k 1 2 3 4
k=1
π2 Y 1
43. = r where the product is taken over all the prime numbers p.
6 1
p=1 1− 2
p
93
eπ − 1 π
44. =
eπ + 1 π2
2+
π2
6+
π2
10 +
π2
14 +
..
.
4.2.2 Approximate Formula:

223 22
1. <π<
71 7
8 29 44
2. π ≈3+ + + ≈ 3.14159259
60 602 603
√ √
3. π ≈ 2 + 3 ≈ 3.146
√ √
4. π ≈ 15 − 3 + 1 ≈ 3.140
√
3
5. π ≈ 31 ≈ 3.1413
r
√
q
6. π ≈ 7 + 6 + 5 ≈ 3.1416
r
9 9
7. π≈ + ≈ 3.1416
5 5
77
8. π ≈ ≈ 3.14156
49
355
9. π ≈ ≈ 3.1415929
113
r
4 2143
10. π ≈ ≈ 3.141592652
22
√
63 17 + 15 5
11. π ≈ × √ ≈ 3.1415926538
25 7 + 15 5
r
193 10100
12. π ≈ = 3.1415926536
11222.11122
√ √ 3
80 15(54 + 53 89) 2
13. π ≈ √ √
3308(54 + 53 89) − 3 89
ln(6403203 + 744)
14. π ≈ √ ≈ 3.141592653589793238462643383279
163
√
ln(52803 (236674 + 30303 61)3 + 744)
15. π ≈ √
427
ln (2u)6 + 24 √ √ √ √

16. π ≈ √ where u = (a + a2 − 1)2 (b + b2 − 1)2 (c + c2 − 1)(d + d2 − 1) and
3502
√ √ √ √ √
a = 12 (23 + 4 34), b = 12 (19 2 + 7 17) c = (429 + 304 2), d = 12 (627 + 442 2)
v v
u u v
u u u v v
u u u u u s
u u u r
√
u u u u u q
u u t
17. π ≈ 768t2 − t2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 = 3.141590463236763
t t
94
Functions
95
Chapter 5
Functions
A mathematical function is a relation between a variable input x and variable output y. The definition can be extended
to multiple variable inputs into the function. Essentially, a function is a mapping of the input to one and only one output.
This property is what defines a function from an arbitrary relation between variable inputs and outputs and has special
properties.
5.1 Terminology
5.1.1 Vertical Line Test: The vertical line test is used to determine if a graph or relation is a function. In plotting
the relation, if for every of x in the domain, there is a correspondence to one and only one output y, then the relation
is a function. This is easily accomplished by moving a ruler vertically across the page and ensuring that the function
and ruler intersect at one and only one point for every x in the domain. If for any value of x in the domain, the graph
intersects the ruler (or vertical line) at more than one point, then the relation is not a function.
5.1.2 Horizontal Line Test: The horizontal line test is used in conjunction with the vertical line test to determine
if a function has a one-to-one relation. For a function (which implies the vertical line test is passed) move a horizontal
ruler upwards across the page. If the function intersects the ruler at one and only one point for every x in the domain,
then there is one to one correspondence. As such, every input x corresponds to one output y and also every output y
corresponds to one unique input x.
5.1.3 One-to-one Functions: If the function is one-to-one, that is, that both the vertical and horizontal line test
have been satisfied, then it is said to be and injective function. This function will always be increasing or decreasing, and
not have a point of local maximum or minimum.
5.1.4 Analytic Functions: An analytic function has the property of infinite differentiability about a given point
x0 . As such, it must also be continuous around that point and a Taylor Series exists in the neighborhood of x0 . This
Taylor series is convergent to x0 .
1. f (x) ± g(x) = h(x) where f, g, h are analytic functions.
2. f (x)g(x) = h(x) where f, g, h are analytic functions.

f (x)
3. = h(x) where f, g, h are analytic functions.
g(x)
4. (f (x))−1 = g(x) where f, g are analytic functions such that f (x) 6= 0 for all x.
5.1.5 Continuity of a Function:

1. f (x) is said to be continuous at x0 if lim (f (x)) = lim (f (x)) = f (x0 ) = L where L ∈ R
x→x+
0 x→x−
0
2. f (x) is said to be left continuous at x0 if lim (f (x)) = f (x0 ) = L where L ∈ R

x→x−
0
96
The Mathematics Handbook Chapter 5 – Functions
3. f (x) is said to be right continuous at x0 if lim (f (x)) = f (x0 ) = L where L ∈ R

x→x+
0
5.1.6 Differentiability of a Function:

1. f (x) is
said to be differentiable
atx0 if it is continuous
at x0 and
f (x + h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
lim = lim exists.
h→0− h h→0+ h

f (x + h) − f (x)
2. f (x) is said to be left differentiable at x0 if it is continuous at x0 and lim exists.
h→0− h

f (x + h) − f (x)
3. f (x) is said to be right differentiable at x0 if it is continuous at x0 and lim exists.
h→0+ h
5.2 Function Transformations

A function transformation is a direct mapping of the function to another mapping. Examples include linear transfor-
mations and affine transformations, rotations, reflections and translations. These can be carried out in Euclidean space,
particularly in dimensions 2 and 3. They are also operations that can be performed using linear algebra, and described
explicitly using matrices.
5.2.1 Types of Transformations: for a real function f (x), plotted in the Cartesian plane.
1
1. f (kx) for k > 0 represents a horizontal dilation of factor
k
2. kf (x) for k > 0 represents a vertical dilation of factor k
3. f (x + k) for k ∈ R represents a horizontal translation k units left.
4. f (x) + k for k ∈ R represents a vertical translation k units up.
5. f (−x) represents a horizontal flip across the y−axis.
6. −f (x) represents a vertical flip across the x−axis.
5.3 Even and Odd Functions:

Even functions and odd functions are functions which satisfy particular symmetry relations, with respect to taking additive
inverses. They are important in many areas of mathematical analysis, especially the theory of power series and Fourier
series.
5.3.1 Fundamental Theory:

1. Odd Functions: If f (x) is a real function. Then f is said to be an odd function if f (x) = −f (−x) for all x in the
domain of f . Geometrically, the graph has rotational symmetry about the origin.
2. Even Functions: If f (x) is a real function. Then f is said to be an even function if f (x) = f (−x) for all x in the
domain of f . Geometrically, the graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
3. Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function.
97
5.3.2 Composite Functions:

1. An odd function ± another odd function = an odd function.
2. An odd function ± an even function = neither an odd or even function.
3. An even function ± another even function = an even function.
4. An odd function × another odd function = an even function.
5. An odd function ÷ another odd function = an even function.
6. An even function × another even function = an even function.
7. An even function ÷ another even function = an even function.
8. An odd function × an even function = an odd function.
9. An even function ÷ an odd function = an odd function.
10. An odd function ÷ an even function = an odd function.
11. The composite function of an even function of an odd function is = an even function.
12. The composite function of an even function of an even function is = an even function.
13. The composite function of an odd function of an odd function is = an odd function.
14. The composite function of an odd function of an even function is = an even function.
5.3.3 Series:
1. The Maclaurin series of an even function includes only even powers.
2. The Maclaurin series of an odd function includes only odd powers.
3. The Fourier series of a periodic even function includes only cosine terms.
4. The Fourier series of a periodic odd function includes only sine terms.
5.3.4 Integration:
Zk
1. Odd Functions: If f (x) is an odd function, then f (x)dx = 0 where k ∈ R
−k
Zk Zk
2. Even Functions: If f (x) is an even function, then f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx where k ∈ R
−k 0
5.3.5 List of Even Functions:

1. f (x) = kxn where n ∈ N0 is even and k ∈ R.
2. f (x) = kx−n where n ∈ N0 is even and k ∈ R.
3. f (x) = |kx| where k ∈ R
4. f (x) = cos (kx) where k ∈ R
5. f (x) = sec (kx) where k ∈ R
6. f (x) = cosh (kx) where k ∈ R
7. f (x) = sech (kx) where k ∈ R
8. Any linear combination of the above functions.
98
5.3.6 List of Odd Functions:

1. f (x) = kxn where n ∈ N1 is odd and k ∈ R.
2. f (x) = kx−n where n ∈ N1 is odd and k ∈ R.
3. f (x) = sin (kx) where k ∈ R
4. f (x) = tan (kx) where k ∈ R
5. f (x) = cot (kx) where k ∈ R
6. f (x) = cosec (kx) where k ∈ R
7. f (x) = sinh (kx) where k ∈ R
8. f (x) = tanh (kx) where k ∈ R
9. f (x) = coth (kx) where k ∈ R
10. f (x) = cosech (kx) where k ∈ R
11. Any linear combination of the above functions.
5.4 Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression consisting of variables, called indeterminates, and coefficients that involves only the opera-
tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents. Polynomials appear in a wide variety
of areas of mathematics and science. For example, they are used to form polynomial equations, which encode a wide
range of problems, from elementary word problems to complicated problems in the sciences. They are used to define
polynomial functions, which appear in settings ranging from basic chemistry and physics to economics and social science.
They are used in calculus and numerical analysis to approximate other functions. In advanced mathematics, polynomials
are used to construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, central concepts in algebra and algebraic geometry.

n
X
1. f (x) = ak xk where ak ∈ C and n ∈ N0 is the degree of the polynomial.
k=0
2. f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 where ak ∈ C and n ∈ N0 is the degree of the polynomial.

3. f (x) = (((· · · ((an x + an−1 )x + an−2 )x + · · · + a3 )x + a2 )x + a1 )x + a0 where ak ∈ C and n ∈ N0 is the degree of
the polynomial.
5.4.2 Properties: Where Pm (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + am xm is a polynomial of degree m, Qn (x) = b0 + b1 x +

b2 x2 + · · · + bn xn is a polynomial of degree n and a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , am , b0 , b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ∈ R.
1. Pm (x) ± Qn (x) is a polynomial.
2. Pm (x) × Qn (x) is a polynomial.
Pm (x)
3. is a polynomial.
Qn (x)
4. Pm (Qn (x)) is a polynomial.
5. Qn (Pm (x)) is a polynomial.
6. The derivative of a polynomial is a polynomial.
7. The integral of a polynomial is a polynomial.
5.4.3 Degree The degree of a polynomial is determined by the highest power of x within the function.
99
Degree Name Example

Zero 0
0 Constant k where k ∈ C
1 Linear x + k where k ∈ C
2 Quadratic x2 + k where k ∈ C
3 Cubic x3 + k where k ∈ C
4 Quartic x4 + k where k ∈ C
5 Quintic x5 + k where k ∈ C
6 Sextic x6 + k where k ∈ C
7 Heptic x7 + k where k ∈ C
8 Octic x8 + k where k ∈ C
9 Nonic x9 + k where k ∈ C
10 Decic x10 + k where k ∈ C
100 Hectic x100 + k where k ∈ C
xP 0 (x)

1. deg (P (x)) = lim
x→∞ P (x)
2. deg (kP (X)) = deg (P (x)) where P is a polynomial function and k 6= 0
3. deg (P (x) ± Q(x)) ≤ max (deg (P (x)) , deg (Q(x))) where P, Q are polynomial functions.
4. deg (P (x) × Q(x)) = deg (P (x)) + deg (Q(x)) where P, Q are non-zero polynomial functions.
5. deg (P (Q(x))) = deg (P (x)) deg (Q(x)) where P, Q are non-zero polynomial functions.
6. deg (Q (P (x))) = deg (P (x)) deg (Q(x)) where P, Q are non-zero polynomial functions.
5.5 Horizontal Constant Function

A constant function is a function whose output value is the same for every input value.
5.5.1 Form:
1. y = c where c ∈ R
5.5.2 Roots:
1. Unless c = 0, in which case every x is a root, there are no roots.
5.5.3 y-intercept:
1. yIN T = c
5.5.4 Properties:
1. This is an even function.
100
5.5.5 Graph:
1. The graph of y is a horizontal line in the plane passing through (0, c).
p1.jpg
5.6 Vertical Constant

Although this is not a function, it is included here for completeness. It is the inverse of the horizontal constant function
whose input value is mapped to every output value.
5.6.1 Form:
1. x = c where c ∈ R
5.6.2 Roots:
1. x = c
5.6.3 Graph:
1. The graph of x = c is a vertical line in the plane passing through (c, 0).
101
p2.jpg
5.7 Linear Function

For the purposes of graphing, only the real case is considered here but the definitions extend to the complex domain.
5.7.1 Form:
1. y = mx + c where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept.
2. y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) where m is the gradient and (x1 , y1 ) is a point.

y2 − y1
3. y − y1 = (x − x1 ) where (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are two points such that x1 < x2 .
x2 − x1
4. (y − y1 )(x2 − x1 ) = (x − x1 )(y2 − y1 ) where (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are two points such that x1 < x2 .
x y
5. + = 1 where the b is the x-intercept and c is the y-intercept.
b c
6. cx + by = bc where the b is the x-intercept and c is the y-intercept.
5.7.2 Roots:
c
1. x = −
m
5.7.3 y-intercept:
1. yIN T = c
5.7.4 Properties:
1. The gradient is a property defining the steepness of the line, denoted by m found between any two points (x1 , y1 )
rise y2 − y1
and x2 , y2 . m = = ∈ R where x1 < x2 .
run x2 − x1
102
5.7.5 Graph:
1. A positive gradient indicates an upwards graph.
p3.jpg
2. A negative gradient indicates a downwards graph.
p4.jpg
103
3. A large gradient indicates a steep graph.
p5.jpg
4. A small gradient indicates a shallow graph.
p6.jpg
104
5.8 Simultaneous Linear Equations

In all sections below, the simulateous solution to the two equations is represented by (x0 , y0 ).
5.8.1 Elimination Method With Respect To x:

a1 x + b1 y = c1
1. where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a2 x + b2 y = c2
a1 b2 x + b1 b2 y = b2 c1
2. − a2 b1 x + b1 b2 y = b1 c2 .
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )x = b2 c1 − b1 c2
b2 c1 − b1 c2
3. x0 = .
a1 b2 − a2 b1

b2 c1 − b1 c2
c1 − a1
c1 − a1 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
4. y0 = = = .
b1 b1 a1 b2 − a2 b1

b2 c1 − b1 c2
c2 − a2
c2 − a2 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
5. y0 = = = .
b2 b2 a1 b2 − a2 b1
5.8.2 Elimination Method With Respect To y:

a1 x + b1 y = c1
1. where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a2 x + b2 y = c2
a1 a2 x + a2 b1 y = a2 c1
2. − a1 a2 x + a1 b2 y = a1 c2 .
(a2 b1 − a1 b2 )y = a2 c1 − a1 c2
a2 c1 − a1 c2
3. y0 = .
a2 b1 − a1 b2

a2 c1 − a1 c2
c1 − b1
c1 − b1 y0 a2 b1 − a1 b2 b1 c2 − b2 c1
4. x0 = = = .
a1 a1 a2 b1 − a1 b2

a2 c1 − a1 c2
c2 − b2
c2 − b2 y0 a2 b1 − a1 b2 b1 c2 − b2 c1
5. x0 = = = .
a2 a2 a2 b1 − a1 b2
5.8.3 Substitution Method:

a1 x + b1 y = c1
1. where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a2 x + b2 y = c2
c2 − a2 x
2. y = from the second equation.
b2

c2 − a2 x
3. a1 x + b1 y = c1 =⇒ a1 x + b1 = c1 by substituting into the first equation.
b2
b1 c2
c1 −
b2 b2 c1 − b1 c2
4. x0 = = .
b1 a2 a1 b2 − a2 b1
a1 −
b2
105

b2 c1 − b1 c2
c1 − a1
c1 − a1 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
5. y0 = = = .
b1 b1 a1 b2 − a2 b1

b2 c1 − b1 c2
c2 − a2
c2 − a2 x0 a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 c2 − a2 c1
6. y0 = = = .
b2 b2 a1 b2 − a2 b1
5.8.4 Comparison Method:

y = m1 x + c1
1. where c1 , c2 , m1 , m2 , x, y ∈ C.
y = m2 x + c2
2. m1 x + c1 = m2 x + c2 by equating both equations.
c2 − c1
3. x0 = .
m1 − m2

c2 − c1
4. y0 = m1 x0 + c1 = m1 + c1 .
m1 − m2

c2 − c1
5. y0 = m2 x0 + c2 = m2 + c2 .
m1 − m2
5.8.5 Unsolvable Systems: Not all linear equations are solvable.

1. When any of the equations are not valid. Eg: 0x + 0y = c1 .
2. When
the lines are parallel to each other, there are no solutions.
a1 x + b1 y = c1 b1 b2
=⇒ = , c1 6= c2 where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a x + b2 y = c2 a1 a2
2
y = m1 x + c1
=⇒ m1 = m2 , c1 6= c2 where c1 , c2 , m1 , m2 , x, y ∈ C.
y = m2 x + c2
3. When
the lines are the same to each other, there are no unique solutions as this is not a linear system.
a1 x + b1 y = c1 a1 b1 c1
=⇒ = = where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , x, y ∈ C.
a x + b2 y = c2 a2 b2 c2
2
y = m1 x + c1
=⇒ m1 = m2 , c1 = c2 where c1 , c2 , m1 , m2 , x, y ∈ C.
y = m2 x + c2
5.9 Quadratic Function

A quadratic function, in mathematics, is a polynomial function of the form y = ax2 + bx + c. The graph of a quadratic
function is a parabola whose axis of symmetry is parallel to the y-axis. If the quadratic function is set equal to zero, then
the result is a quadratic equation. The solutions to the equation are called the roots of the equation.
5.9.1 Form:
b
1. y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ C. The axis of symmetry is across x = − and the y-intercept is c. The graph is
2a
a parabola that opens upwards if a > 0 or downwards if a < 0
2. y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) where a is the shape parameter and x1 , x2 are the roots of the function.
3. y = a x2 − (x1 + x2 )x + x1 x2 where a is the skewness parameter and x1 , x2 are the roots of the function.

4. y = a(x − h)2 + k where a > 0 is the skewness parameter and (h, k) is a minimum turning point.
5. y = −a(x − h)2 + k where a > 0 is the skewness parameter and (h, k) is a maximum turning point.
106
5.9.2 Roots:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
1. x =
2a
5.9.3 y-intercept:
1. yIN T = c
5.9.4 Properties:
b2 − 4ac

2 b
1. When the function is represented in the from y = ax + bx + c, the turning point occurs at the point − , −
2a 4a
The nature is determined by a. If a > 0, then the turning point is a minimum, otherwise if a < 0, then the turning
point is a maximum.

x1 + x2
2. When the function is represented in the from y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ), the turning point occurs at the point ,a
2
The nature is determined by a. If a > 0, then the turning point is a minimum, otherwise if a < 0, then the turning
point is a maximum.
b
3. The axis of symmetry of the parabola is where x = −
2a
5.9.5 Graph:
1. a is the skewness parameter.
p7.png
2. b changes the location of the turning point, while keeping the y-intercept constant
107
p8.png
p9.png
108
5.10 Polylogarithm Function

1. Lis (z) is of order s and argument z where s, z ∈ C.
∞
X zk z2 z3
2. Lis (z) = =z+ + s + . . . where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
ks 2s 3
k=1
5.10.2 Derivative Representation:

∂
1. z Lis (z) = Lis−1 (z) where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
∂z
5.10.3 Integral Representation:

Zz
Lis (t)
1. Lis+1 (z) = dt where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
t
0
5.10.4 Identities:
1. Lis (−z) + Lis (z) = 21−s Lis (z 2 ) where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
2. Lis (1) = ζ(s) where ζ is the Zeta function, s ∈ C and Re (s) > 1 .
5.10.5 Limit Identities:

1. lim (Lis (z)) = z where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
|z|→0
2. lim (Lis (eα )) = Γ(1 − s)(−α)s−1 where Γ is the Gamma function, α, s, z ∈ C, Re (s) < 1 and |z| < 1.
|α|→0
3. lim (Lis (z)) = z where s, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.

Re(s)→∞
−αs
4. lim (Lis (−eα )) = where Γ is the Gamma function, α, s, z ∈ C, s 6= −1, −2, −3, . . . and |z| < 1.
Re(α)→∞ Γ(s + 1)
5. lim (Li−n (eα )) = (−1)n+1 e−α where n ∈ N1 , α, z ∈ C and |z| < 1.

Re(α)→∞
6. lim (Lis (−eα )) = Γ(1 − s)(−α)s−1 where Γ is the Gamma function, α, s, z ∈ C, −π < Im (α) < π and |z| < 1.
Re(s)→−∞
7.
5.10.6 Particular Values:

1. Li1 (z) = −ln (1 − z) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
z
2. Li0 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
1−z
z
3. Li−1 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
(1 − z)2
z (1 + z)
4. Li−2 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
(1 − z)3
z 1 + 4z + z 2

5. Li−3 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
(1 − z)4
109
z, (1 + z) 1 + 10z + z 2

6. Li−4 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
(1 − z)5
n
∂ n z
k+1
X z
7. Li−n (z) = z = k!S(n + 1, k + 1) where S(n,k) are the Stirling numbers of the second
∂z 1−z 1−z
k=0
kind, n ∈ N0 , z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
n
−1 k+1
X
n+1
8. Li−n (z) = (−1) k!S(n + 1, k + 1) where S(n,k) are the Stirling numbers of the second kind, n ∈
1−z
k=0
N1 , z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
5.11 Spence’s Function

Spence’s function, or dilogarithm, Li2 (z), is a particular case of the polylogarithm.

∞
X zk
1. Li2 (z) = where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
k2
k=1
Zz
ln (1 − u)
2. Li2 (z) = − du where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
u
0
5.11.2 Identities:
1
Li2 z 2 where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.

1. Li2 (z) + Li2 (−z) =
2
ln2 (z)

1
2. Li2 (1 − z) + Li2 1 − =− where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
z 2
π2
3. Li2 (z) + Li2 (1 − z) = − ln (z) ln (1 − z) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
6
1 π2
Li2 1 − z 2 = − − ln (z) ln (z + 1) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.

4. Li2 (−z) − Li2 (1 − z) +
2 12
π2 1

1
5. Li2 (z) + Li2 = − − ln2 (−z) where z ∈ C and |z| < 1.
z 6 2
5.11.3 Particular Values:

1. Li2 (0) = 0
π2
2. Li2 (1) =
6
π2
3. Li2 (2) = − iπln (2)
4
π 2 ln2 (2)

1
4. Li2 = −
2 12 2

1 1 1 1
5. 36 Li2 − 36 Li2 − 12 Li2 + 6 Li2 = π2
2 4 8 64
π2 ln2 (2) ln2 (3)

1 1 1
6. Li2 − + Li2 = − + ln (2) ln (3) − −
2 6 9 18 2 3
110
π 2 ln2 (3)

1 1 1
7. Li2 − Li2 = −
3 6 9 18 6
π2 1

1 1 1
8. Li2 − − Li2 = − + ln2 (3)
3 3 9 18 6
π2

1 1 1 2
9. Li2 + Li2 = + 2ln (2) ln (3) − 2ln2 (2) − ln2 (3)
4 3 9 18 3

1 1 1 9
10. Li2 − + Li2 = − ln2
8 9 2 8
√ ! √ !
5−1 π2 1 2 5−1 π2 1
11. Li2 − = − + ln = − + arcsech2 (2)
2 15 2 2 15 2
√ ! √ !
5+1 π2 5+1 π2
12. Li2 − = − − ln2 =− − arcsech2 (2)
2 10 2 10
√ ! √ !
3− 5 π2 5−1 π2
13. Li2 = − ln2 = − arcsech2 (2)
2 15 2 15
√ ! √ !
5−1 π2 5−1 π2
14. Li2 = − ln2 = − arcsech2 (2)
2 10 2 10
111
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The Mathematics Handbook

V4.1: 2nd of June, 2019

2.16 Decagonal Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

1.1 Euclidean Geometry

1. A point is that which has no part.

2. A line is breadthless length.

3. The ends of a line are points.

5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only.

6. The edges of a surface are lines.

11. An obtuse angle is an angle greater than a right angle.

12. An acute angle is an angle less than a right angle.

13. A boundary is that which is an extremity of anything.

14. A figure is that which is contained by any boundary or boundaries.

16. And the point is called the center of the circle.

2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.

3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.

5. The whole is greater than the part.

2. A straight line can be extended indefinitely in any direction.

3. It is possible to describe a circle with any centre and radius.

4. All right angles are equal.

1.2.1 Classification of angles:

6. Complete Angle, revolution, full turn, perigon: An angle equal to 1 turn.

7. Oblique Angle: An angle that is not a right angle.

Name Acute Right Obtuse Straight Reflex Revolution

1.2.2 Special Properties with Parallel Lines

2. Corresponding: Corresponding angles are equal in magnitude.

3. Vertically Opposite: Vertically opposite angles are equal in magnitude.

4. Co-interior: The sum of two co-interior angles is 180◦ .

1.3 General Polygons

1.3.1 Classification of polygons:

6. Self-intersecting: The boundary of the polygon crosses itself.

7. Star polygon: A polygon which self-intersects in a regular way.

8. Equiangular: All its corner angles are equal.

9. Cyclic: All corners lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle.

11. Equilateral: All edges are of the same length.

12. Tangential: All edges are tangent to an inscribed circle.

15. Rectilinear: A polygon whose sides meet at right angles.

Name Edges Alternatives

1.3.6 Longest Diagonal:

1.4.1 Classification of triangles:

6. Acute Triangle: All angles are less than 90◦ .

7. Obtuse Triangle: An angle is greater than 90◦ .

2. Centroid: The intersection of the medians.

1.4.5 Perimeter: where a, b, c are the side lengths.

1.5 Equilateral Triangles

1.5.1 Perimeter: where a is the side length.

1.5.2 Area: where a is the side length.

1.5.3 Radius of Circumscribed Circle: where a is the side length.

1.5.4 Radius of Inscribed Circle: where a is the side length.

2. abc = (a + b − c)(a − b + c)(−a + b + c)

16. The three altitudes have equal lengths.

17. The three medians have equal lengths.

18. The three angle bisectors have equal lengths.

1.6 Isosceles Triangles

1.7 Right Triangles

1.7.1 Perimeter: where a, b, c are the side lengths.

3. The right triangle’s orthocenter coincides with the right-angled vertex.

1. a2 + b2 = c2 where a, b are the non-hypotenuse side lengths and c the hypotenuse.

2. (5, 12, 13)

3. (7, 24, 25)

4. (9, 40, 41)

5. (11, 60, 61)

6. (12, 35, 37)