AC Circuit Analysis

• Introduction
• Production of Alternating Voltage
• Commonly used Terms
Due to change in applied voltage if
the magnitude of current changes
but flows in the same direction then
it is called pulsating current & when
the current flowing in the circuits
varies in magnitude as well as
direction periodically it is called
alternating current.
 Introduction …contd.
• All the electrical energy we use for domestic,
commercial and industrial applications is
generated as alternating current.
• Alternating means cyclic in nature .A current (or
voltage) is called alternating if it periodically
changes its direction and magnitude .Each cycle of
alternating current consists of two half cycles.
During first half cycle , the current is positive
and during the second half cycle the current is in
negative direction . The circuits in which
alternating current flow , are called alternating
current circuits.
 Introduction …contd
• In order to produce an alternating current
through an electric circuit , an a.c. generator is
required . Electrical energy is genrated in a.c.
form in generating station ( Power Station). The
site of the power station depends upon the type
of power station .Different power are
hydroelectric powerstation , Thermal power
station and Nuclear power station.
Introduction ....contd.

Large amount of power is generated

at the generating stations . It is then
transmitted over a large distances to
load centres with the help of conductors
known as transmission lines. Finally it is
distributed to a large number of small
and big consumers through a distribution
network.
 Geneartion of Alternating Voltage & Current
Alternating voltage may be genrated by rotating a
coil in magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field with
in a stationary coil . Rotating field method is generally
used to produce alternating voltages and the electrical
machines are called alternators. Commercial Alternators
produce sinusoidal voltage
 IMPORTANT TERM IN AC

Wave form: the shape of the curve of the current/voltage

along y-axis when plotted against time along x-axis is called wave
form.

Instantaneous value: the value of alternating quantity at any

instant is called instantaneous value.

Cycle: One complte set of positive and negative values of an

alternating quantity is known as cycle .One cycle corresspond to
360 electrical degrees.

Alternation : One half cycle of an alternating quantity is called

alternation . An alternation spans 180 ed . The +ve or – ve half
cycle of alternating voltage is the alternation.
Important terms …contd.

Time Period: The time taken in seconds to

complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is
called time period. It is reresented by ‘T’ .
Frequency: The no. cycle that occurs in one
second is called frequency. It is measured in
cycles/sec. or Hertz(Hz) .
Amplitude : The maximum value ( + ve or – ve)
attained by an alternating quantity is called its
amplitude of peak value . It is designated by Im or
Vm.
Some relations

• Time period and frequency

• Angular Velocity and frequency

• Frequency and speed.

 Values of Alternating Voltage and current
• Average Value : The arithmatical average of all
the values of an alternating quantity over one
cycle is called its average value i.e
Average value = Area under the curve
Base length
In case of symmetrical wave (e.g sinusoidal voltage or
current),the average value over one cycle is zero because it
has equal +ve and –ve half ,so net area is zero.
However average value for + ve half or – ve half is not
zero , therefore average value for symmetrical wave is
measured over one alternation.
For Sinusoidal waves Iav = 0.637 Im
• R.M.S. Value of Effective Value
The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating
current is that steady current (d.c.) which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given
time produces the same amount of heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing
through the same resistance for the same time.

For Sinusoidal current :

Irms = 0.707 Im
• Form factor : the ratio of rms value
to the average value of an alternating
quantity is known as form factor.
For sinusoidal wave
F.F = rms value /avg. value (1.11)
• Peak factor: the peak factor of an
alternating quantity is the ratio of
its maximum value to the rms value
Pf = max. value/rms value ( 1.414)
 Phase,Phase
difference,Phasors
PHASE: Phase of a particular value of an alternating
quantity is the fractional part of time through
which the quantity has advanced from the selected
zero position of reference.
PHASE DIFFERECE: When two alternating
quantities of the same frequency have different
zero points,they are said to have a phase
difference
PHASORS DIAGRAM: A fig. or diagram which
gives the information i.e. magnitude and phase angle
of alternating quantities is known as phasor
diagram.
 POWER
There are three types of power in AC circuits

• TRUE or ACTIVE POWER:

True power,P = Voltage Х current in phase with voltage =
EI cosФ watts or KW.
• REACTIVE POWER,Q = Voltage Х Current 90º out of
phase with Voltage = EI sinФ VAR or KVAR(Kilo Volt
amperes reactive)
• APPARENT POWER,S = VI VA or KVA(kilo volt ampere)
Classification of AC Circuits

Series RLC circuit Parralel RLC circuit

PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
e=Em sin wt ------(1)
i=(Em sin wt)/R -------(2)
The value of I will be maximum (Im) when sinwt =1. So,
Im = Vm/R
So, equation (2) becomes, i=Im sin wt

➢ Hence we can see that current and voltage are in phase

➢ Impedance = Resistance = R
➢ Power consumed,P = (Vm sin wt)(Im sin wt)
Solving this we get P=VI
Where V is RMS voltage,
I is RMS current
 PURELY INDUCTIVE
CIRCUIT
e = Em sin wt
Em sin wt = L * di/dt
i = Em/L *ʃsin wt dt
= Em/wL*(-cos wt)
I = Em/wL sin(wt-л/2)
Hence
• Current lags behind the voltage by 90º
• Inductive reactance,
• Power consumed=Emsin wt * Im sin(wt-
л/2)=0
 PURELY CAPACITIVE
CIRCUIT
e= Em sin wt
i= dQ/dt=d(CEm sin wt)/dt = wC Em cos wt
i= wC Em sin (wt+л/2)
If sin( wt+л/2)=1,
Im = wCEm
i=Im sin (wt+л/2)
Hence, we can see that
o Current leads the voltage by 90º.
o Capacitive Reactance,
Power consumed = Em sin wt Х Im sin (wt+л/2)=0
 RL Series combination
Circuit current i lags the applied voltage by Фº.
V = √(Vr²+ Vl²) = √((iR)²+(iXl)²) = i√(R²+Xl²)
I = V/√(R²+Xl²) = V/Z
Hence,
• Impedance Z= √(R²+Xl²)
• Phase Difference = tan¹ (Vl/Vr)
= tan¹(Xl/R)
• Power
p=Vi=Vm sin wt Х Im sin (wt-Ф)
Average Power, P = Vi cosФ
 RC Series Combination
Circuit current i leads the applied voltage by Фº
V = √(Vr²+ Vc²) = √((iR)²+(iXc)²) = i√(R²+Xc²)
I = V/√(R²+Xc²) = V/Z
Hence,
• Impedance Z= √(R²+Xc²)
• Phase Difference = tan¹ (-Vc/Vr)
= tan¹(-Xc/R)
• Power
p=Vi=Vm sin wt Х Im sin (wt+Ф)
Average Power, P = Vi cosФ
 i SERIES
R L RLC CIRCUIT
vL
e = Em sin(t + e )
vR
~e v vC C i = I m sin(t + i )
 V
According to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law VC L

v = vR + vL + vC  V = VR + VL + VC V

 I
VR = I R; VL = I xL; VC = I xC

V R
 = V = V 2 + (V − V ) 2 =
V 
R L C V C

= I R 2 + ( xL − xC ) 2 = I z VL − VC xL − xC x x
t an  = = =   = tan − 1( )
VR R R R
z = R 2 + ( x L − xC ) 2 = R 2 + x 2
 1. xL> xC,  > 0 2. xL< xC ,  < 0 3. xL= xC,  = 0
The circuit is inductive The circuit is capacitive The circuit is in
in its effect and the in its effect and the
Voltage (Series)
current I lags behind current leads the voltage Resonance condition
zres = zmin = R 
the voltage V in phase
in phase  Ires = V /Rmin = Imax


V 
V
L L
 V
V 
C L 
V I
R
V   =V
VR
 I
 I
V =0

V 
V
R L 
V

V C

V C
C
PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
A parallel resonant circuit is one in which a coil and a
capacitance are connected in parallel across a
variable frequency A.C. Supply.
I
y
bL

V G bL


G
I
y = G 2 + bL2 =
V
 RESONANT CIRCUITS
The resonance circuits can be classified
in to two categories
1. Series – Resonance Circuits
2. Parallel – Resonance Circuits

1.Series Resonance Circuit

A series resonance circuit is one in which
a coil and a capacitance are connected in
series across an alternating voltage of
varying frequency as shown in figure.
circuit will be under resonance when XL = XC
R L C


V
 EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT
FREQUENCY
• At resonance XL = XC
• ωL = 1/ωC so the frequency at which this
occurs is

• where ωo and fo are the angular and cyclic

frequencies of resonance, respectively. At
resonance, series impedance is a minimum, so the
voltage for a given current is a minimum (or the
current for a given voltage is a maximum)
FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE:
Thus the resonance curve will be as
shown in figure. I

Ir
X > X
X c > l c

Xl

fr f
QUALITY FACTOR or Q- FACTOR
If V is the applied voltage across a series resonance circuit at
resonance,
Ir =V
R
The voltage across the inductance ‘L’ V L = I r XL
V L = V ω rL
R
V L = Q V where Q = ω r L is the Q factor
R
From the above equation it is seen that the voltage across the
inductive coil is Q times the applied voltage (V) The response
of the series resonant circuit is largely dependent on Q of the
coil.
 BAND WIDTH
Consider the frequency response characterestic of a series
resonant circuit as shown in figure
I r

0.707
I r
In the figure it is seen that there are
two frequencies where the out put
power is half of the maximum power.
These frequencies are called as half f f f freq
power points f1 and f2 1 r 2
The band of frequencies between f2 and f1 are said to be useful band of
frequencies since during these frequencies of operation the out put
power in the circuit is more than half of the maximum power. Thus
as Bandwidth.i.e
their band of frequencies is called
Band width = B W = f2 - f1
 2. Parallel – Resonance
Circuits
Consider the parallel circuit shown. Let ZL be the impedance of
the coil given by
ZL =R +j ω L
Then YL= 1 = 1 = R-j ω L
ZL R +j ω L R2+ ω2L2

Similarly let ZC = -j / ωC
YC = 1 = j ω C
ZC

Total admittance of the circuit = Y=YL + YC

Y = R-j ω L + j ω C
R2+ ω2L2
= R + j (ωC - ωL )
R2+ ω2L2 R2+ ω2L2
At resonance the impedance ( or admittance) of the circuit is
purely resistive( or conductive) .For this to be true the j part of
equation (1) should be zero.
ωo C - ωo L =0
R2+ ω02 L2
ω0 C = ω0 L
R2 + ω02 L2
R2 +ω02 L2 = L
C
ω02 = L/C - R2 = 1 - R2
L2 LC L2
f0 = 1/ 2 √ (1/LC – R2 / L2 )
Impedance at resonance
At resonance the susceptive part of the admittance is zero.
Hence Y0 = R
R2 +ω02 L2
But R2 + ω02 L2 = L/C

So Y0 = RC/L or Zo = L/RC

where Zo is called the dynamic resistance.

When coil resistance R is small, dynamic resistance of the

parallel circuit becomes high. Hence the current at
resonance is minimum. Hence this type of circuit is called
rejector circuit.
 Frequency-response
characterisitics
The frequency response curve of a parallel resonant
circuit is as shown in the figure.
We find that current is
minimum at resonance.
The half-power points are
given by the points at which
the current is √2 Ir.
From the above
characteristic it is clear
that the characteristic is
exactly opposite to that of
series resonant
 Quality factor ( Q-factor)

The quality factor of a parallel resonant circuit is

defined as the current magnification
Q = Current through capacitance at resonance
Total Current at resonance
= IC0 / I0
= V / ( 1/ 0C ) V / Z0
= Z00C = (L / RC) 0C
= 0L / R
Hence the expression for the Q- factor for both
series and parallel resonant circuit are the same
 Comparison between series
resonance and parallel
Particular resonance
Series circuit Parallel circuit

Impedance Minimum(Zr = R) Maximum(Zr =

L/CR)
Current Maximum(Ir = V/R) Minimum(Ir = V/Zr)

Power factor Unity Unity

Resonant frequency fr=1/2л√(LC) fr=1/2л√((1/LC)-

(R²/L²))
When f<fr Circuit is capacitive Circuit is inductive

When f>fr Circuit is inductive Circuit is capacitive

Q-factor Xl/R Xl/R

It magnifies Voltage Current