Preschoolfoundationsvol 3

California
Preschool
Learning
Foundations
Volume 3
CALIFORNIA DEPAR TMENT OF EDUCATION • SACRAMENTO, 2012

California
Preschool
Learning
Foundations
Volume 3
History–Social Science
Science
Publishing Information
The California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 3) was

developed by the Child Development Division, California Department
of Education. This publication was edited by Faye Ong, working in
cooperation with Laura Bridges, Consultant, Child Development
Division. It was designed and prepared for printing by the staff
of CDE Press, with the cover and interior design created by
Cheryl McDonald. It was published by the Department of Education,
1430 N Street, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901. It was distributed
under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act and Government
Code Section 11096.
© 2012 by the California Department of Education

All rights reserved
ISBN 978-8011-1727-5
Ordering Information
Copies of this publication are available for sale from the Califor-
nia Department of Education. For prices and ordering information,
please visit the Department Web site at http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn
or call the CDE Press Sales Office at 1-800-995-4099.
Notice
The guidance in the California Preschool Learning Foundations
(Volume 3) is not binding on local educational agencies or other
entities. Except for the statutes, regulations, and court decisions that
are referenced herein, the documents is exemplary, and compliance
with it is not mandatory. (See Education Code Section 33308.5.)
Contents
v
A Message from the State Superintendent

of Public Instruction
Acknowledgments
vii
Introduction
xi
Foundations in
1
Foundations in
Science
48
Appendixes
A. The Foundations
103
B. An Overview of the Alignment of the California Preschool
Learning Foundations with Key Early Education Resources
113
iii
A Message from the
State Superintendent of Public
Instruction
I
am delighted to present the California schools in California offer high-quality
Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume programs, the California Department of
3). This publication is part of a three- Education collaborated with leading early
volume series designed to improve early childhood educators, researchers, advo-
learning and development for California’s cates, and parents to develop Volume 3 of
preschool children. the preschool learning foundations.
Young children are naturally eager to The foundations outline key knowledge
learn. We encounter their amazing curi- and skills that most children can acquire
osity at every turn. Their wonder about when provided with the kinds of inter-
the world extends to understanding of actions, instruction, and environments
human traditions and activity. They also shown by research to promote early learn-
ask about how the physical world works. ing and development. Volume 3 focuses on
However, even with their great curios- two domains: history–social science and
ity about the world of people and things, science. These domains have received less
not all young children enter kindergar- attention than some other domains, but
ten ready for school. All too often, some their importance has been increasingly
already lag behind their classmates, which recognized by early childhood education
may adversely affect their continued learn- experts.
ing and development in kindergarten and As research that is summarized in this
beyond. High-quality preschool teaching volume indicates, young children are natu-
connects with young children’s strong rally drawn to concepts and processes in
interest in concepts and processes from history–social science and science. They
the history–social science and science look to their families and their teachers to
domains while contributing to long-range help them explore these learning domains.
social and academic success. High-quality teaching builds on children’s
Children who attend high-quality pre- interests and engages them in making
schools benefit from rich opportunities sense of social and physical phenomena.
to learn through play. Their play focuses Efforts to provide children with high-
on the world around them—for example, quality preschool experiences fit into the
social roles rooted in human history and overall mission of both the Department
culture and the life of their community. and the federal Head Start program.
They also playfully experiment with liv- Learning and development that occurs
ing and nonliving things and discover how before a child enters preschool is as
they change. Children thrive when offered important as the learning and develop-
a curriculum that integrates all domains in ment that occurs during the school years.
a way that is culturally and linguistically A continuum of learning and develop-
meaningful and appropriate to their devel- ment begins early in life and continues
opment. through higher education. Understanding
With the goal of ensuring that all pre- the links between the different ages and
v
different early childhood services allows ment and Early Education Framework. An
educators to see how to build on children’s investment in high-quality care and educa-
earlier learning and prepare children for tion programs throughout the early years
the next educational challenge. To foster will promote learning for all children and
greater understanding of children’s learn- ensure school readiness when they enter
ing and development during the first five kindergarten.
years, this volume explains the connec- These foundations will help guide and
tions among the infant/toddler learning support all California preschools in provid-
and development foundations, preschool ing developmentally appropriate instruc-
learning foundations, Common Core State tion and activities that engage young
Standards, kindergarten content stan- hearts and minds. Such learning will
dards, and the Head Start Child Develop- lead to children’s well-being and success
throughout life.
Tom Torlakson
State Superintendent of Public Instruction
vi
Acknowledgments
T
he development of the preschool History–Social Science
learning foundations involved Oscar Barbarin, Tulane University
many groups: project leaders; lead Barbara Bowman, the Erikson Institute
researchers; the expanded research con- and the Chicago Public Schools
sortium; the preschool learning founda- Amy Obegi, Solano Community College
tions research consortium; staff from the Carolyn Pope Edwards, University of
California Department of Education; Nebraska, Lincoln
early childhood education stakeholder Michael Lopez, National Center for Latino
organizations; facilitators of the draft Child and Family Research
review sessions and the participants; and Gayle Mindes, DePaul University
participants in the Web posting process.
Science
Marco Bravo, San Francisco State Univer-
Project Leaders
sity and Santa Clara University
The following staff members are grate- Caroline Carney, Monterey Peninsula
fully acknowledged for their contributions: College
Peter Mangione and Charlotte Tilson, Lucia French, University of Rochester
WestEd. Rochel Gelman, Rutgers University
Karen Lind, Illinois State University
Lead Researchers Art Sussman, WestEd
Special thanks are extended to the lead Sandra Waxman, Northwestern University
researchers for their expertise and contri-
butions as lead writers. Note: The names, Preschool Learning Foundations
titles, and affiliations of the individuals Research Consortium
listed in these acknowledgments were
The following research consortium
correct at the time the publication was
members are recognized for their knowl-
developed.
edge and expertise in guiding the develop-
History–Social Science ment process and for their expert review
Janet Thompson, University of California, of volume 3 to reflect California’s young
Davis learners.
Ross Thompson, University of California, Melinda Brookshire, WestEd
Davis Peter Mangione, WestEd
Science Katie Monahan, WestEd
Osnat Zur, WestEd Caroline Pietrangelo Owens, WestEd
Teresa Ragsdale, WestEd
Expanded Research Consortium Amy Schustz-Alvarez, WestEd
Charlotte Tilson, WestEd
Volume 3 was developed by an expanded
Ann-Marie Wiese, WestEd
research consortium. Domain experts and
Osnat Zur, WestEd
their affiliations are identified below. These
individuals contributed their expertise to English–Language Development and
this project and collaborated with the Cultural Diversity Advisers
preschool learning foundations research Vera Gutierrez-Clellen, San Diego State
consortium. University
vii
Gisela Jia, The City University of New York Network (APIsCAN)
and Lehman College Association of California School
Antonia Lopez, National Council of Administrators
La Raza Baccalaureate Pathways in Early
Alison Wishard Guerra, University of Childhood Education (BPECE)
California, San Diego Black Child Development Institute (BCDI),
Sacramento Affiliate
Universal Design Advisers
Child Care and Development Fund,
Maurine Ballard-Rosa, California State Administration for Children and
University, Sacramento Families Region IX Federal/State/Tribes
Linda Brault, WestEd Collaboration Workgroup
California Alliance of African American
California Department of Educators (CAAAE)
Education (CDE) California Association for Bilingual
Thanks are also extended to the fol- Education (CABE)
lowing CDE staff members: Geno Flores, California Association for the Education of
Chief Deputy Superintendent; Cindy Cun- Young Children (CAEYC)
ningham, Deputy Superintendent, P–16 California Association of Family Child
Policy and Information Branch; Camille Care (CAFCC)
Maben, Director, Child Development Divi- California Association of Latino
sion; Cecelia Fisher-Dahms, Adminis- Superintendents and Administrators
trator, Quality Improvement Office; and (CALSA)
Desiree Soto, Administrator, and Laura California Child Care Coordinators
Bridges, Consultant, Child Development Association
Division, for ongoing revisions and recom- California Child Care Resource and
mendations. During the lengthy develop- Referral Network (CCCRRN)
ment process, many CDE staff members California Child Development
were involved at various levels. Additional Administrators Association (CCDAA)
thanks are extended to Gail Brodie, Sy California Child Development Corps
Dang Nguyen, Luis Rios, Mary Smith- California Commission on Teacher
berger, and Charles Vail, Child Develop- Credentialing
ment Division; Meredith Cathcart; Special California Community College Early
Education Division; and to Gavin Payne, Childhood Educators (CCCECE)
Michael Jett, Gwen Stephens, Anthony California Community Colleges
Monreal, and Rick Miller. Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO)
California County Superintendents
Educational Services Association
Early Childhood Education
(CCSESA)
Stakeholder Organizations California Early Reading First Network
Representatives from many statewide California Federation of Teachers (CFT)
organizations provided perspectives affect- California Head Start Association (CHSA)
ing various aspects of the learning founda- California Kindergarten Association
tions. California Preschool Instructional Network
Action Alliance for Children (CPIN)
Alliance for a Better Community California Professors of Early Childhood
Asian & Pacific Islanders California Action Special Education (CAPECSE)
California School Boards Association
California State Parent Teacher
Note: The names and affiliations of the individuals
Association
were current at the time the document was developed.
viii
California State University Office of the Education Fund (MALDEF)
Chancellor Migrant Education Even Start (MEES)
California Teachers Association Migrant Head Start
Californians Together National Council of La Raza (NCLR)
Campaign for High Quality Early Learning Packard Foundation Children, Families,
Standards in California and Communities Program
Child Development Policy Institute Preschool California
Children Now Professional Association for Childhood
The Children’s Collabrium Education (PACE)
Coalition of Family Literacy in California Special Education Administrators of
Council for Exceptional Children/The Country Offices (SEACO) Committee
California Division for Early Childhood Special Education Local Plan Area (SELPA)
(Cal DEC) Committee
Council of CSU Campus Childcare TeenNOW California
(CCSUCC) University of California Child Care
Curriculum Alignment Project Directors
Curriculum and Instruction Steering University of California Office of the
Committee President (UCOP)
English Language Learners Preschool Voices for African American Students, Inc.
Coalition (ELLPC) (VAAS)
Fight Crime, Invest in Kids California ZERO TO THREE
First 5 Association of California
First 5 California (California Children and Draft Review Sessions
Families Commission) Special thanks are also extended to
Head Start State-Based Training and Nancy Herota, Natalie Woods Andrews
Technical Assistance Office for of the California Preschool Instructional
California Network, and Melinda Brookshire, Jenna
Infant Development Association of
Bilmes, and Jan Davis of WestEd, for their
California (IDA)
contributions in facilitating 54 review ses-
Learning Disabilities Association of
sions on the draft foundations. Thanks
California
also go to the participants in the draft
Los Angeles Universal Preschool (LAUP)
review sessions for their contributions to
Mexican American Legal Defense and
this project.
ix
Introduction
T
he preschool learning foundations from children’s families; and the practical
are critical to the California Depart- experiences of preschool teachers and
ment of Education’s (CDE’s) efforts program directors.
to strengthen preschool education and The support that young children need to
close the school-readiness gap in Califor- attain the competencies varies from child
nia. The foundations describe competen- to child. Many children learn simply by
cies—knowledge and skills—that most participating in high-quality preschool pro-
children can be expected to exhibit in a grams. Such programs offer children envi-
high-quality program as they complete ronments and experiences that encourage
their first or second year of preschool. active, playful exploration and experimen-
In other words, the foundations identify tation. With play as an integral part of the
paths of learning that, with appropriate curriculum, high-quality programs include
support, children typically move along dur- purposeful teaching to help children gain
ing the preschool years. knowledge and skills. As for the history–
The foundations are designed to pro- social science and science foundations,
mote understanding of young children’s children can demonstrate their knowledge
development of knowledge and skills and and skills by using any language and, for
to help teachers, program administra- most of the foundations, nonverbal forms
tors, families, and policymakers consider of expression. Many children effectively
appropriate ways to support children’s apply their advanced ability in their home
learning. In essence, the foundations serve language to understand concepts from
as a cornerstone for informing early child- the history–social science and science
hood educators about children’s learning domains. Other children may have a dis-
and development. The foundations are to ability or special need that requires par-
be used in combination with other sources ticular adaptations.* To serve all children,
of information. These sources include preschool programs must provide appro-
formal educational course work on early priate social interactions, experiences, and
learning and development; information on environments and sensitively assist each
individual differences (especially disabili- child’s learning and development.
ties); knowledge about the contribution All 50 states either have developed pre-
of cultural and linguistic experiences to school standards or are in the process of
early development and English-language doing so. Many states have aligned early
development, including the CDE’s resource learning standards with kindergarten
guide Preschool English Learners: Prin-
ciples and Practices to Promote Language, *Adaptations should be coordinated with the child’s
Literacy, and Learning (2007); insights family and any specialist working with the child.
xi
xii
content standards. In most cases, these considered from the perspective of one
alignment efforts focused on academic domain, such as history–social science or
content areas such as English–language science. Yet when taking an in-depth look
arts or mathematics. In California, priority at a specific domain, one needs to keep in
has been placed on aligning expectations mind that learning is an integrated experi-
for preschool learning with the Common ence for young children. For example, at
Core State Standards for English–language any given moment, a young child may con-
arts and literacy in history/social studies, centrate on a single science concept, but
science, and technical subjects and for the experience may also pertain to learning
mathematics, and with the state’s aca- in the cognitive, social, linguistic, physi-
demic content standards for kindergarten. cal, and health domains. The relationships
Equally important, those content areas between learning domains are particularly
are complemented by attention to social– apparent between the history–social sci-
emotional development and English- ence and social–emotional development
language development. Like the learning domains and between the science and
in domains such as language and literacy mathematics domains. Close inspection of
and mathematics, the concepts in social– the foundations shows that all of the pre-
emotional development and English- school learning domains intersect with one
language development also contribute another and that closely related founda-
significantly to young children’s readiness tions occasionally appear in two or more
for school (Shonkoff and Phillips 2000; domains.
Bowman, Donovan, and Burns 2000;
NAEYC 2002). Because the focus on pre- Overview of the Foundations
school learning in California includes the The strands for each of the domains
full range of developmental domains, the discussed previously are listed in this
term foundations is used rather than stan- section.
dards. This term is intended to convey that
learning and development in every domain History–Social Science Domain
is integrated with all other domains and
The history–social science foundations
affects young children’s readiness for
address an area that is receiving increas-
school.
ing attention in preschool curricula. These
foundations focus on the following five
Content of This Volume strands:
The preschool learning foundations pre- 1. Self and Society, which centers on
sented in this volume cover the following culture and diversity, relationships,
domains: and social roles and occupations
• History–social science 2. Becoming a Preschool Community
• Science Member (Civics), which pertains to
The domains above represent crucial skills for democratic participation,
areas of learning and development for responsible conduct, fairness and
young children. The foundations writ- respect for other people, and conflict
ten for each of the domains are based resolution
on research evidence and are enhanced 3. Sense of Time (History), which in-
with expert practitioners’ suggestions and cludes understanding past events,
examples. The foundations in a particu- anticipating and planning future
lar domain provide a thorough overview events, personal history, and histori-
of development in that domain. Preschool cal changes in people and the world
children’s knowledge and skills can be 4. Sense of Place (Geography and
Ecology), which covers navigating
xiii
familiar locations, caring for the istics of nonliving and living objects and
natural world, and understanding materials, and earth materials and objects.
the physical world through drawings The scientific concepts and methods
and maps addressed by the preschool curriculum
5. Marketplace (Economics), which give children added perspective as they
focuses on the economic concept of build their knowledge and skills in the sci-
exchange ence domain.
The foundations for this domain reflect
the many ways in which young children Organization of the Foundations
learn about basic concepts of history– Each strand consists of substrands, and
social science. Young children explore the foundations are organized under the
concepts related to history–social science substrands. Foundations are presented
that are rooted in the cultural experi- for children at around 48 months of age
ences of their families and communities. and at around 60 months of age. In some
The history–social science foundations, cases, the difference between the founda-
which center on young children’s capacity tions for 48 months and 60 months is
to operate as members of a community, more pronounced than for the other foun-
complement the social–emotional develop- dations. Even so, the foundations focus on
ment foundations, which describe how 48 and 60 months of age because they cor-
young children express and regulate their respond to the end of the first and second
emotions and develop social understand- years of preschool. In all cases, the foun-
ing and skills. dation at around 60 months of age builds
Science Domain on the corresponding foundation at around
48 months of age. In other words, for each
The science domain consists of the foundation the age levels are two points on
following four strands: a continuum of learning. Of course, teach-
1. Scientific Inquiry, which pertains to ers need to know where each child is on
observation and investigation and to a continuum of learning throughout the
documentation and communication child’s time in preschool.
2. Physical Sciences, which focuses on The preschool Desired Results Devel-
the properties and characteristics of opmental Profile (DRDP–PS), which has
nonliving objects and materials and been aligned with the preschool founda-
the changes in nonliving objects and tions, volume 1, and will be aligned with
materials the foundations in volumes 2 and 3, gives
3. Life Sciences, which addresses prop- teachers a means to observe children’s
erties and characteristics of living learning along a continuum. On the con-
things and changes in living things tinuum, children at the earliest level of
4. Earth Sciences, which covers proper- development start to become familiar with
ties and characteristics of earth a new knowledge area and, in a basic way,
materials and objects and changes try out skills they are starting to learn. At
in the earth the next level, children begin to demon-
The competencies covered by the sci- strate basic mastery in a knowledge and
ence domain center on content that con- skill area. That level is followed by one in
nects with the natural curiosity of pre- which children refine and expand their
school children. Early in life, children rely knowledge and skills in an area of learn-
on cultural experiences in their homes ing; at the latest developmental level on
and communities to engage in inquiry and the continuum, they connect the knowl-
understand the properties and character- edge and skills they have mastered in
xiv
one area with those in other areas. The in many different languages. To use the
Desired Results Developmental Profile examples effectively, one must be mindful
access provides a means to observe the of the context of the early learning setting,
knowledge and skills of preschool children community, and the culture or cultures of
with disabilities whose development is best each group of preschool children.
described within a birth-to-age-five range. Note: Appendix A, “The Foundations,”
The examples listed under each foun- contains a summary list of the foundations
dation suggest possible ways in which in each domain, without examples.
children may demonstrate the competency
addressed by a foundation. The examples Universal Design for Learning
illustrate different kinds of contexts in The California preschool learning foun-
which children may show the competen- dations are guides to support preschool
cies reflected in the foundations. Exam- programs in their efforts to foster the
ples highlight that children learn while learning and development of all young
engaging in imaginative play, exploring children in California, including children
the environment and materials, making who have disabilities. It is important for
discoveries, being inventive, or interacting the preschool foundations to provide
with peers, teachers, or other adults. Many opportunities to follow different pathways
examples include children using language to learning, so that the foundations will
to express themselves. Of particular note, be helpful for all of California’s children.
children can demonstrate learning in these To that end, the foundations incorporate
domains in any language and often do so a concept known as universal design for
nonverbally. For instance, children who learning.
are English learners will often understand The Center for Applied Special Technol-
history–social science and science through ogy (CAST) developed the principles for
their home language and culturally mean- universal design for learning based on the
ingful experiences at home and in their understanding that children learn in dif-
community and express such knowledge ferent ways (CAST 2007). In today’s diverse
in their home language. Although the preschool settings and programs, the use
examples often illustrate the diversity of of a curriculum accessible to all learners
young children’s learning experiences, is critical to successful early learning. Uni-
they are not exhaustive. In fact, teachers versal design for learning is not a single
often observe other ways in which young approach that will accommodate everyone;
children demonstrate the competency rather, it provides multiple approaches
addressed by a foundation. to learning in order to meet the needs of
In addition, one needs to be cautious diverse learners. Universal design provides
about how the examples are used. They for multiple means of representation, mul-
are intended to illustrate possible behav- tiple means of engagement, and multiple
iors rather than to function as assessment means of expression (CAST 2007). Multiple
items or to present curricular strategies. means of representation refers to provid-
Using the examples to compare individual ing information in a variety of ways so the
children to a group or to measure indi- learning needs of all children are met.
vidual children’s progress would be inap- Multiple means of engagement refers to
propriate. Young children demonstrate providing choices of activities in the set-
their knowledge and skills in various ting or program that facilitate learning by
ways. Some may act in ways that reflect building on children’s interests. Multiple
the examples. Others may demonstrate means of expression refers to allowing chil-
their competencies through behaviors that dren to use alternative methods to demon-
are quite different from the examples and strate what they know or what they feel.
xv
The examples given in the preschool of development such as cognitive devel-

learning foundations have been worded to opment. This distinction is important to
incorporate multiple means of receiving keep in mind because if an early childhood
and expressing. This has been accom- educator expects a child who cannot see or
plished by the variety of examples for physically move to demonstrate a level
each foundation and the use of inclusive of understanding, the child’s cognitive
language, as follows: abilities may be underestimated as he or
• When consistent with the content she may be limited in the ability to consis-
being illustrated, the terms com- tently and broadly show the expected level.
municates and responds are used in Even so, without the appropriate special-
examples rather than says. “Commu- ized instruction, materials, and adapta-
nicates” and “responds” are inclusive tions, a child may show cognitive delays.
of any language and any form of com- The preschool years are a time of critical
munication, including speaking, sign cognitive growth and concept develop-
language, pictures, electronic commu- ment, and one cannot assume that this
nication devices, eye-pointing, gestur- development will simply occur in children
ing, and so forth. with disabilities when a sensory or motor
• The terms identifies, indicates, and disability is present. It is essential that
points to are used to represent mul- teachers collaborate with family members
tiple means of indicating objects, and special educators to ensure that all
people, or events in the environment. children with disabilities are provided with
Examples include the use of gestures, effective preschool experiences and appro-
eye-pointing, nodding, or responding priate educational services and supports.
yes or no when another person points
to or touches an object. Alignment of the Preschool
Learning Foundations with Other
When reading each foundation and the
accompanying examples, teachers can Key Resources
consider the means by which a child with The California Preschool Learning Foun-
a disability might best acquire informa- dations, Volumes 1–3, are designed to align
tion and demonstrate competence in those with content standards in key early child-
areas. It is essential to include a child’s hood resources. A comprehensive analysis
special education teacher, parents, or of the alignment of the California Preschool
related service provider when planning Learning Foundations with the California
environments, curriculum, and adapta- Infant/Toddler Learning and Development
tions. In addressing the individual needs of Foundations, the California content stan-
children, early childhood educators need dards for kindergarten, the Common Core
to consider the enormous variation in chil- State Standards (CCSS) for kindergarten,
dren’s growth and development across all and the Head Start Child Development
developmental domains. and Early Learning Framework (Head
For example, when consulting with a Start Learning Framework) may be viewed
special education teacher, family members, at http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/
or related-service provider, one may learn documents/psalignment.pdf. Appendix
that a child with physical disabilities and B presents an overview of this alignment.
visual impairments can understand many It identifies the connections between
concepts without being able to demon- foundations/standards drawn from
strate them in the same way as other chil- different resources and illustrates the
dren. Although the child may show delays developmental progression along a
in one area of development, it does not continuum, from birth to kindergarten,
necessarily indicate delays in other areas in different developmental domains (e.g.,
xvi
Language and Literacy, Mathematics, Professional development is a key com-

Physical Development). For example, the ponent of fostering preschool learning. The
overview summarizes the alignment across foundations can become a unifying element
the infant/toddler learning and develop- for both preservice and in-service profes-
ment foundations in language and literacy, sional development. Preschool program
the preschool learning foundations in lan- directors and teachers are encouraged to
guage and literacy and the kindergarten use the foundations to facilitate curriculum
CCSS in English language arts. The over- planning and implementation. The founda-
view of the alignment also details the links tions are designed to help teachers inten-
between the California Preschool Learning tionally focus their efforts on the knowl-
Foundations and the Head Start Learning edge and skills that all young children need
Framework. These key resources share for success in preschool and early elemen-
the common purpose of supporting young tary school and throughout life.
children’s learning and development, and
the alignment document highlights their References
shared goals and content. Bowman, B. T., M. S. Donovan, and M.S.
Burns, eds. 2000. Eager to Learn:
The Foundations and Preschool Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington,
Learning in California DC: National Academies Press.
California Department of Education. 2007.
The foundations are at the heart of the
Preschool English Learners: Principles
CDE’s approach to promoting preschool
and Practices to Promote Language, Liter-
learning. Teachers use best practices, cur-
acy, and Learning. 2nd ed. Sacramento:
ricular strategies, and instructional tech-
California Department of Education.
niques that assist children in learning the
Center for Applied Special Technology
knowledge and skills described in the pre-
(CAST). 2007. Universal Design for
school learning foundations. The “how-tos”
Learning. http://www.cast.org/udl/
of teaching young children include setting
(accessed June 8, 2007).
up environments, supporting children’s
NAEYC (National Association for the Edu-
self-initiated play, selecting appropriate
cation of Young Children). 2002. Early
materials, and planning and implement-
Learning Standards: Creating the Con-
ing teacher-guided learning activities.
ditions for Success. Washington, DC:
Two major considerations underlie the
NAEYC.
“how-tos” of teaching. First, teachers can
Scott-Little, C., S. L. Kagan, and V. S.
effectively foster early learning by thought-
Firelow. 2006. “Conceptualization of
fully considering the preschool learning
Readiness and the Content of Early
foundations in the planning of environ-
Learning Standards: The Intersection of
ments and activities. And second, during
Policy and Research.” Early Childhood
every step in planning for young children’s
Research Quarterly 21: 153–73.
learning, teachers have an opportunity to
Shonkoff, J. P., and D. A. Phillips, eds.
tap into the prominent role of play. Teach-
2000. From Neurons to Neighborhoods:
ers can best support young children both
The Science of Early Childhood Develop-
by encouraging the rich learning that
ment. National Research Council and
occurs in children’s self-initiated play and
Institute of Medicine, Committee on In-
by introducing purposeful instructional
tegrating the Science of Early Childhood
activities that playfully engage preschool-
Development. Washington, DC: National
ers in learning.
Academies Press.
FOUNDATIONS IN
T
his section describes foun- themselves in a social and human con-
dations for development in text, enabling them to acquire a deep
history–social science by pre- understanding of the responsibilities of
schoolers. The goal of the California members of a democratic society, their
Department of Education (CDE) in place in a complex economy, the legacy
developing these foundations is to of past generations who contributed
describe the knowledge and skills to society, and an appreciation of the
that are typical of preschool chil- richness and diversity of other people.
dren who make progress toward
readiness for kindergarten. Volume Scope of the Foundations
3 describes, based on developmental Social science is a branch of learn-
research, behavior reflecting age- ing that pertains to how people live
appropriate competencies in relevant together in the social world. Young
areas of history and social science children are beginning to think about
for children at around 48 and 60 the social world and their place in it.
months of age. They are interested in the similarities
The development of preschool foun- and differences between people and in
dations for history–social science is how people interact with the natural
based on the assumption that com- world (such as animals and plants).
petencies in a wide variety of areas They are also interested in how social
prepare children for school. Education rules help people to get along and the
prepares children for a broad range of roles and responsibilities that they
adult responsibilities and goals; there- and other people assume. Children
fore children’s appreciation for history, are developing a sense of time—how
culture, geography, economics, civics their current experience is affected by
and citizenship, the global environ- their personal past and relates to their
ment, and individual identity in a cul- future. They are developing a sense of
tural and racial context is essential to belonging to places and locations that
their education, as are basic capaci- are meaningful to them. They are also
ties in language, mathematics, and developing a basic understanding of
the physical sciences. An early start in how the economic world operates and
preschool helps children learn about their role in it. The foundations focus
1
2
on these aspects of their developing ited historical understanding, they do

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE
understanding. have a “sense of time.” It is shown by

The preschool foundations for his- their talk about events of the recent
tory–social science were created in past, a sense of their own development
relation to the History–Social Science over time, an autobiographical mem-
Content Standards for California Public ory, and anticipation of future events
Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade and planning for them. Young children
Twelve (CDE 2005). The content stan- are also active in the marketplace and
dards for kindergarten through grade exhibit a dawning understanding of
twelve emphasize both the develop- the world of goods and money that will
ment of children’s age-appropriate contribute, many years later, to the
knowledge of history and social sci- study of economics.
ence and the growth of analytical and Young children also learn about
reasoning skills to promote their own responsibility and the processes of
inquiry in those domains. The founda- democracy through their participation
tions were also prepared with attention in an early childhood education pro-
to the 10 themes in social studies gram. In preschool, many gain their
identified by the National Council for first experience in the responsibilities
the Social Studies (NCSS): (1) culture; of group membership: they make deci-
(2) time, continuity, and change; sions after discussion, vote, respect
(3) people, places, and environments; majority opinion, participate in the
(4) individual development and iden- creation and enforcement of classroom
tity; (5) individuals, groups, and rules, learn how to treat others fairly
institutions; (6) power, authority, and and respectfully, cooperate with oth-
governance; (7) production, distribu- ers, and develop skills in managing
tion, and consumption; (8) science, conflict with peers and adults.
technology, and society; (9) global More broadly, preschoolers are also
connections; and (10) civic ideals and beginning to understand how they fit
practices (http://www.socialstudies. within broader social systems beyond
org/standards/strands) (accessed the family. They are interested in and
November 16, 2011). The foundations rehearse adult roles and occupations,
are organized according to strands and learn about the mutual obligations of
substrands that generally align with relationships, and encounter cultural,
those of the NCSS but do not follow ethnic, and racial diversity by which
the exact NCSS terminology and order. they learn about themselves and oth-
For example, although it will be many ers. What young children learn in
years before preschoolers are ready to an early childhood education setting
study geography, the early years are builds, of course, on what they learn
when young children acquire a “sense at home about the responsibilities
of place” manifested in their familiar- of family members, the importance
ity with locations and larger terrains of treating others fairly and respect-
where they live and play, a growing fully, and family identity and culture
interest in the natural world and car- (Perez-Granados and Callanan 1997).
ing for it, and their experimentation Because civic participation, culture,
with drawings and mapmaking. conflict resolution, and mutual respect
Although young children have lim- remain important throughout life, the
3
preschool period is a good time to help Becoming a Preschool Community

children learn about living in a diverse Member (Civics)
society. 1.0 Skills for Democratic
During the preschool years, children Participation
grow in their understanding of the 2.0 Responsible Conduct
social world in which they live. The 3.0 Fairness and Respect for
social world includes several areas of Other People
knowledge: 4.0 Conflict Resolution
• Self and Society (beginning to iden-
Sense of Time (History)
tify with how their family does things
and understand that other fami- 1.0 Understanding Past Events
lies and people have ways of doing 2.0 Anticipating and Planning
things that are different or similar to Future Events
what their family does) 3.0 Personal History
• Civics (how to live with others and 4.0 Historical Changes in People
how rules work, such as taking and the World
turns to go down the slide) Sense of Place (Geography and
• History (events that happened in the Ecology)
past, even before they were born,
1.0 Navigating Familiar Locations
such as when their mommy was a
2.0 Caring for the Natural World
little girl)
3.0 Understanding the Physical
• Geography (the location of familiar
World Through Drawings and
places in relation to each other, such
Maps
as knowing the way to preschool or
that the park is across the street from Marketplace (Economics)
the grocery store) and the different 1.0 Exchange
kinds of places where people live
• Ecology (learning to take care of These strands and substrands are
earth and animals [for example, not less familiar in the field of early child-
wasting water]) hood education than those for domains
• Economics (a beginning understand- such as social–emotional development.
ing of money and the exchange of Recent work at the national level by
things and services, such as the NCSS and preschool standards of
groceries purchased at the store) various states reflect a growing interest
in topics such as becoming a
The foundations were developed
preschool community member, sense
to help teachers focus on supporting
of time, and sense of place. Although
young children’s growing understand-
perhaps new for some early childhood
ing in these areas of knowledge.
educators, this terminology makes
The foundations of history–social
visible the learning that often occurs
science consist of the following strands
in the preschool setting. With an
and substrands:
increased awareness of the history–
Self and Society social science domain, early childhood
1.0 Culture and Diversity educators have an opportunity to be
2.0 Relationships intentional in supporting learning in
3.0 Social Roles and Occupations this domain and integrating history–
4
social science learning with learning in a curriculum framework in history–

other domains. social science to provide preschool

The foundations in history–social teachers with specific practices to fos-
science share some similarities with ter developing competencies in these
other foundations, particularly those areas. References and source materials
in social–emotional development. The are included at the end of this chapter.
resemblance is expected. As learning To use this information appropri-
is integrated across different domains ately, it is important to remember two
of understanding, children’s achieve- things. First, the examples for each
ments in different areas naturally foundation are meant to be guidelines
overlap. The development of respon- for understanding children’s learn-
sible conduct, social relationships, ing and development, not assessment
and conflict-resolution skills, which items or a curriculum framework. The
are core features of healthy social– examples clarify these competencies by
emotional growth, are also essential providing concrete illustrations of spe-
components of learning to become a cific behaviors. They are not intended
constructive member of a community. to be yardsticks to measure the behav-
Although these social-science foun- ior of certain children in a teacher’s
dations emphasize the child in the group, nor should they be turned into
context of the group more than do the assessment tools. The reason for this
social–emotional foundations, teachers precaution is that preschoolers may
should be aware that similar develop- demonstrate their competencies in a
mental achievements are relevant to variety of ways. Some may do so con-
each domain. In addition, the history– sistently in the same way as the exam-
social science foundations build on ples provided; others may demonstrate
the foundations in English-language their skills using alternative behaviors
development, especially the following and in many different languages. Chil-
challenges: displaying competencies in dren are different from one another,
a language that is different from the and their behavior may differ from the
home and claiming community mem- examples but still be appropriate for
bership for children who are culturally their age. The examples accompany-
diverse. ing each foundation should be used
in consideration of the context of the
Purpose of the Foundations child’s early learning environment,
For each substrand, behavioral community, and culture. Second, the
descriptions of age-appropriate com- Bibliographic Notes included in this
petencies are provide, together with chapter are meant to be a teaching
examples of the behaviors. Bib- tool for administrators, supervisors,
liographic notes for each substrand instructors, and teachers so they can
provide an expanded description of learn more about the development of
the developmental accomplishments the children in their care. The notes
relevant to the topic, citations to the refer to useful research about young
research literature, further information children.
for teachers and administrators, and Educators, early childhood special-
some suggestions for relevant program ists, developmental scientists, and oth-
practices. The CDE will also create ers involved in efforts to describe the
5
behaviors typical of children at around Understanding the Foundations

48 months compared with children at The foundations were written with
around 60 months will find themselves the assumption that young children
humbled by the realization that the have access to appropriate social inter-
developmental changes apparent over actions, experiences, and environments
the course of a single year may be sub- that normally support healthy develop-
tle. Sometimes individual differences ment. Young children who grow up in
in the characteristics and behavior settings that lack opportunities for
of children at any age may be greater learning, healthy self-expression, and
than the average behavioral changes positive interactions with others can-
they will experience over the course of not be expected to show the kinds of
a year of development in various areas. developmental achievements of chil-
The purpose of these foundations, dren who live in more supportive
therefore, is to highlight the devel- settings. Children in a typical early
opmental differences that are most education setting will vary along the
common between typical children at continuum of support and positive
around 48 and 60 months of age. The learning opportunities available to
differences between children of each them outside the preschool. Sensitive
age may be subtle, but some consis- teachers must provide early learn-
tent themes run throughout these ing experiences that are well suited to
foundations. Although children at 48 each child.
and 60 months of age do not have a In addition, these foundations were
sophisticated sense of time, place, or written to describe typical development
the marketplace, older children dem- rather than to describe aspirations
onstrate a more complex and nuanced for optimal growth. On occasion, the
understanding of each. Older children behavior of young children is described
are more capable of seeing themselves in ways that reflect undesirable but
in a context of time and location and entirely age-appropriate character-
take greater initiative in learning more. istics. For example, young children
Compared with younger children, chil- experience conflict with other children
dren at around 60 months of age also and clash even more with their friends
have an enhanced psychological aware- than they do with other children
ness of themselves and others and a (Hartup 1996; Rubin, Bukowski, and
greater capacity for self-control that Parker 2006; Rubin and others 2005).
permits greater skill in social respon- Young children often are self-interested
sibility, conflict management, and citi- in their negotiations with other people
zenship. and do not act as generously or sym-
Finally, older children in this age pathetically as adults would desire
range are more capable of social rela- (Dunn 1993; Shonkoff and Phillips
tionships that are mutual and recip- 2000; Thompson 1998).
rocal in quality, which contributes to Research shows that young children
greater skill in group participation and tend to prefer the culture, ethnicity,
responsibility. In general, these devel- race, and practices of their families
opmental differences should be appar- and may act critically toward children
ent across the different foundations or adults who are different from them
described in this chapter. (Aboud 1988, 2003, 2008; Barbarin
6
and Odom 2009; Bigler and Liben Although the developmental

2007; Katz 2003; Quintana 1998, research on which these foundations

2007, 2008). Children’s preferences are based is full of studies of English-
are shaped by their effort to under- speaking, middle-class European
stand racial and cultural differences as American children, there are fewer
they observe them and attend to mes- studies focused on children who speak
sages they hear from family members, other languages or come from other
teachers, and others. To refer to pre- family, racial, or cultural backgrounds.
schoolers’ behavior without acknowl- Much more research of this kind is
edging these characteristics and influ- needed. In light of this limitation, the
ences makes it difficult to understand foundations are starting points for
why they occur as part of typical devel- understanding young children’s devel-
opment. Understanding why these opment and should be supplemented
behaviors emerge developmentally is by the teacher’s observations and
also important as families seek ways to understanding of individual children in
encourage young children to be more preschool.
cooperative,empathic, and accepting of Likewise, more research is needed
human diversity. To help young chil- on the developmental advances des-
dren acquire desirable positive charac- cribed in these foundations for chil-
teristics, adults must first understand dren with special needs, such as those
why children develop as they do. The with physical disabilities.
goal of these foundations is to help Taken together, these foundations
cultivate that understanding. The com- describe developmental growth in
panion California Preschool Curriculum understanding history and social sci-
Framework, Volume 3, offers guidance ences that is likely to be true of most
on how teachers can be more effective preschoolers. Early childhood educa-
in helping children learn about others tion program administrators, supervi-
and engage in cooperative and empa- sors, and teachers must interpret them
thetic behavior. in light of their experience and knowl-
Children form a remarkably diverse edge of individual children and families
population. They vary in their temper- in their programs, understanding the
amental qualities, personality, family different strengths that children bring
background, cultural heritage and val- with them given their home experi-
ues, economic resources, family struc- ences and the powerful influences of
ture, and other ways. Children in Cali- society (Banks 2006; Rogoff 1989). At
fornia are especially diverse in their times, it may be desirable to consult
culture of origin. Culture is associated with outside experts for deeper under-
with family values and practices, lan- standing of children’s backgrounds
guage, and other characteristics that and what children bring from those
are directly related to the meaning of experiences to the preschool setting.
these foundations and their applica-
tion to individual children, especially Learning About History–Social
children who are English-language Science
learners or from special populations Finally, how should adults help
(see, for example, Bowman and Moore young children acquire the essential
2006; Edwards and others 2006). lessons of civic participation, democ-
7
racy, historical perspective, geographi- through instruction, but also through

cal awareness, culture, and a sense

guided participation in activities that
of self in a complex social world? The strengthen developing awareness and
foundations are based on the assump- understanding. The activities that
tion that young children develop nurture understanding in those areas
understanding as they are encouraged are those involving extensive conver-
to do so in everyday interactions with sations between children and adults
other children and adults (Mindes and between children and their peers;
2005). The best lessons in democracy, shared projects involving discovery and
time sense, awareness of the natural learning; and abundant play (Edwards
and physical world, the marketplace, and Ramsey 1986).
culture and diversity, responsible The most important purpose of these
conduct, mutual respect, and self- foundations is to help early childhood
understanding are those that are educators create environments and
acquired as young children participate interactions that help young children
in carefully crafted experiences with understand themselves in a wonder-
teachers who encourage them not just fully expanding world.
Summary Table: History–Social Science Strands,

Substrands, and Foundations
Strand Substrand Foundation
1.0 Culture and Diversity 1.1
Self and Society 2.0 Relationships 2.1
3.0 Social Roles and Occupations 3.1
1.0 Skills for Democratic Participation 1.1

Becoming a Preschool 2.0 Responsible Conduct 2.1
Community Member
(Civics) 3.0 Fairness and Respect for Other People 3.1
4.0 Conflict Resolution 4.1
1.0 Understanding Past Events 1.1
2.0 Anticipating and Planning Future Events 2.1

3.0 Personal History 3.1
4.0 Historical Changes in People and the World 4.1
1.0 Navigating Familiar Locations 1.1

Sense of Place (Geography 2.0 Caring for the Natural World 2.1
and Ecology)
3.0 Understanding the Physical World Through 3.1
Drawings and Maps
Marketplace (Economics) 1.0 Exchange 1.1
8
Self and Society

1.0 Culture and Diversity

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age
1.1 Exhibit developing cultural, ethnic, 1.1 Manifest stronger cultural, ethnic,
and racial identity and understand and racial identity and greater
relevant language and cultural familiarity with relevant language,
practices. Display curiosity about traditions, and other practices.
diversity in human characteristics Show more interest in human
and practices, but prefer those of diversity, but strongly favor
their own group. characteristics of their own group.
Examples Examples
• When parent leaves room during drop-off, child • Proudly shares, “My mom can speak three
seeks a teacher assistant who speaks the child’s languages: Cantonese, Vietnamese, and English!”
home language. • Learns and uses some simple words in a differ-
• Tells a Chinese American friend, “I can speak ent language that is used by other children in the
your language. Ni hao (Hello)!” group.
• Shares with teacher, after a holiday weekend, • Asks a new teacher, “Why do you always wear a
“I helped make the tamales!” scarf on your head?” and shows interest in the
• Describes to a teacher the special foods her teacher’s explanation.
family ate at last night’s Passover Seder. • Tells another girl, “You can’t play if you have short
• Wants to touch Michiko’s wheelchair. hair. Only boys can have short hair.”
• Points to a child’s sushi and asks, “What is that?” • While discussing their families, a child shares,
Shows interest in the response, but does not want “I’m half Mexican and half Salvadoran.” Another
to try it. child adds, “I’m half Japanese and half Jewish.”
• Points to a photo on the group’s Family Board • During a circle-time discussion of the holidays
and says, “Tanisha looks like me.” that families celebrate, suggests counting who
celebrates Christmas, Hanukkah, and Chinese
• While patting play dough, child tells a friend, New Year.
“My abuela makes tortillas.”
• Shares with teacher, “My name at school is Louis,
but at home it is Young-Min Kim.”
• During music time, child tells group, “At the
powwow, my sister did the fancy dance.”
• During lunch, asks another child, “Why don’t
you eat meat?”
Self and Society | 9

2.0 Relationships
2.1 Interact comfortably with many 2.1 Understand the mutual responsibilities
peers and adults; actively contribute of relationships; take initiative in
to creating and maintaining relation developing relationships that are
ships with a few significant adults mutual, cooperative, and exclusive.
and peers.
Examples Examples
• Seeks a special peer to sit with at circle time. • Comes to the defense of a friend who is teased
• When hurt, seeks the assistance of a special by another child.
teacher, even turning away from other adults • Talks to a special teacher about a weekend activ-
who try to help. ity that was exciting or scary. Responds to the
• Plays with a truck on the sand table alongside teacher’s description of her own weekend.
another child, and eventually the two children • Works cooperatively with several friends to cre-
play together. ate a map of the outside play area, but does not
• Goes to a particular teacher for comfort when include others who are not friends.
having trouble separating from a family member • Shows another child who does not understand
during morning drop-off. English what to do when the teacher says it is time
• Plays with the same friend regularly; their play to get ready for snack.
together is more cooperative and complex, but • Asks a teacher for assistance in preparing to paint,
also more conflicted at times. cooperates with the teacher in getting ready, and
• Notices when a friend or special teacher is describes the colors he or she will use.
absent, and asks about that person by name. • Suggests taking turns with another child who also
wants to bounce the large ball.
• Seeks to play regularly with one or two friends,
even to the extent of excluding other children who
want to join in.
10 | Self and Society
3.0 Social Roles and Occupations
3.1 Play familiar adult social roles and 3.1 Exhibit more sophisticated under
occupations (such as parent, teacher, standing of a broader variety of adult
and doctor) consistent with their roles and occupations, but uncertain
developing knowledge of these roles. how work relates to income.
Examples Examples
• Comments to a friend during pretend play, “I want • Shares with an adult that her mom now has to get
to be the nurse and give these babies their flu up “really early” every day to get to her new job
shots like my mommy does.” on time because she makes breakfast for other
• Talks with children playing in the house area about people.
who cooks dinner in his family. • Communicates that Papa has to work “extra
• Tells an adult that her mama “doesn’t have time to hours” for a while, and he sometimes takes his
do anything” because now she has to take care of supper to work in a lunchbox.
the baby twins. • Comments that his mother is going to the bank to
• Watches with curiosity as a crew works from a get some money.
high “bucket truck” to remove dead branches • Watches with interest and asks questions of
from a nearby tree. Debbie, the plumber, while she fixes a sink faucet.
• Indicates, “Daddy’s job is going to school.” • Tells other children in dramatic play area that
mommies can be police officers, too, because
girls can do what boys can do.
11
Becoming a Preschool Community

Member (Civics)
1.0 Skills for Democratic Participation
1.1 Identify as members of a group, 1.1 Become involved as responsible

participate willingly in group participants in group activities,
activities, and begin to understand with growing understanding of the
and accept responsibility as group importance of considering others’
members, although assistance is opinions, group decision making,
required in coordinating personal and respect for majority rules and
interests with those of others. the views of group members who
disagree with the majority.
Examples Examples
• Participates in an informal group vote about • Communicates, “Let’s vote!” when the group is
which song to sing, but sometimes protests or divided about which song to sing.
does not participate when the group’s choice • Anticipates the predictable routines of the day,
differs from hers. such as initiating lunchtime handwashing, with-
• Responds appropriately by putting away materi- out being prompted.
als when the teacher indicates that it is time for • Suggests doing both activities when children are
cleanup, although may need guidance about divided about what to do next.
what to do.
• Organizes or participates with a group of friends
• Shares an idea or opinion, sometimes by to play particular roles during dramatic play in the
responding enthusiastically to others’ ideas, housekeeping area.
and can attend to the comments and ideas of
others for a short while, sometimes with adult • When frustrated with children who are disrupting
prompting. his group’s game, indicates to a teacher that they
are not following the rules.
• Helps create rules that contribute to a safe and
harmonious environment and can usually follow • Follows the different sets of rules at home and
them with adult reminders. at school.
• When a friend wants to touch the goldfish in the • Uses vocabulary for making and discussing rules
fish tank, tells the friend, “No touching the fish. (vote, decide, compromise).
It’s the rule!” • Explains the reasons for some rules (e.g., why
hitting other people is not allowed).
12 | Becoming a Preschool Community Member
2.0 Responsible Conduct

2.1 Strive to cooperate with group 2.1 Exhibit responsible conduct more
expectations to maintain adult reliably as children develop self-
approval and get along with others. esteem (and adult approval) from
Self-control is inconsistent, however, being responsible group members.
especially when children are frustrat- May also manage others’ behavior
ed or upset. to ensure that others also fit in with
group expectations.
Examples Examples
• Contributes to group routines, such as cleanup, • Begins to gather materials for an art project
but can easily be distracted while doing so. without being reminded by the teacher.
• Plays cooperatively with other children but may • Tells another child to put away blocks when
act aggressively when frustrated by another’s snack time is announced, indicating that cleaning
behavior. up before eating is a rule.
• Seeks the teacher’s acknowledgment after acting • Cleans up a spill on her own, without being asked
helpfully. to do so.
• Is pleased to be given a “helper” role, such as • Willingly helps with tasks that he notices need to
feeding a pet or watering the plants. be done (such as getting more paper towels).
• Agrees to share a large tub of building materials • Shares her play dough, without prompting, when
with another child when given time to adjust to the another child wants to join in.
idea. • Tells a teacher when another child is not following
• Seeks help from an adult when a friend is injured a group rule.
while playing outside. • Expresses anger toward another child by using
language instead of physical aggression.
Becoming a Preschool Community Member | 13
3.0 Fairness and Respect for Other People

3.1 Respond to the feelings and needs 3.1 Pay attention to others’ feelings,
of others with simple forms of more likely to provide assistance,
assistance, sharing, and turn-taking. and try to coordinate personal
Understand the importance of rules desires with those of other children in
that protect fairness and maintain mutually satisfactory ways. Actively
order. support rules that protect fairness to
others.
Examples Examples
• With the teacher’s prompting, shares the blocks • Tells a teacher, “Akito is sad because she wanted
she is using with another child who wants to use to play with Emma” and problem-solves with the
them. teacher about how to help.
• Understands the importance of putting toys away • Helps a friend rebuild a sandcastle that has col-
in their proper places to maintain order; appreci- lapsed.
ates that it is even more important to be nice to • Suggests taking turns with several children who
others. want to get on the swing.
• Realizes, after an adult’s explanation of the situ- • While playing in the dramatic play area, agrees to
ation, that his disruption of a table game is the use another child’s ideas about what to cook for
reason another child is angry at him. a family celebration.
• Indicates, “That’s not fair!” when a friend’s inter-
ests are ignored or another child is excluded.
• Notices a new child crying after the child’s mother
has left and offers a favorite toy to help the child
feel better.
14 | Becoming a Preschool Community Member
4.0 Conflict Resolution

4.1 Can use simple bargaining strategies 4.1 More capable of negotiating,
and seek adult assistance when in compromising, and finding
conflict with other children or adults, cooperative means of resolving
although frustration, distress, or conflict with peers or adults,
aggression also occurs. although verbal aggression may
also result.
Examples Examples
• When two children want to use the same tricycle, • Waits for a turn at the swings, indicating with
one indicates to the other, “You can use it after gestures that she is waiting to swing.
I’m done.” • When two children want to use the same tricycle,
• Teacher announces cleanup time; one child one suggests that they take turns.
agrees to put away her puzzle as soon as she fin- • When a teacher cautions a child about running
ishes it. indoors, the child begins to walk fast instead.
• Seeks help from the teacher when another child • Indicates, “We need another one!” to the teacher
takes the trucks he was using in the sandbox. when commenting that children always want to
• Cries when a peer does not let him play with wear the one green shirt in the dramatic play
some of the animal figures, but offers solutions to area.
the problem when a teacher guides both children • Communicates to a peer, “There’s only room for
in discussion. two people in here so you can’t play with us.”
• Reminds another child of the rule about washing
hands before mealtime or shows by example.
15

1.0 Understanding Past Events
1.1 Recall past experiences easily and 1.1 Show improving ability to relate
enjoy hearing stories about the past, past events to other past events
but require adult help to determine and current experiences, although
when past events occurred in relation adult assistance continues to be
to each other and to connect them important.
with current experience.
Examples Examples
• Describes a family trip for the teacher, but is • Is happy and explains that it is because his
unable to describe when the trip occurred. daddy arrived home yesterday from a long trip.
• When a teacher asks what other countries • Two girls recall, with a teacher, that the school
the children have visited, one child answers, garden plants died because they did not receive
“Philippines! I have lots of cousins there.” enough water when the weather became hot.
• Although his birthday was a month ago, he • Asks a teacher if she is feeling better today
describes looking forward to his birthday, which because he missed her when she was sick
he tells an adult “is coming soon.” yesterday.
• While in the yard, looks under bushes for a • Tells a friend that she used to share a bed-
caterpillar seen the day before. room with her sister, but she does not anymore
• Often refers to anything done in the past as because her sister is “all grown up and married
“yesterday.” now.”
• A foster child shares with the teacher, “I used to • When asked about weekend activities, shares
live in a home with lots of kids, and now I live that he and his mom went to the post office to
with a family where I’m the only one.” mail a big package to grandparents in Mexico.
• Announces that her mom had a little baby boy • Shares that she is sad because her cousins just
and that he will be little for a long, long time. moved away and now they will not be together
every day.
• Arranges pictures to indicate the time sequence
in the context of events in a story (e.g., The Little
Red Hen, The Very Hungry Caterpillar).
16 | Sense of Time
2.0 Anticipating and Planning Future Events

2.1 Anticipate events in familiar 2.1 Distinguish when future events will
situations in the near future, with happen, plan for them, and make
adult assistance. choices (with adult assistance) that
anticipate future needs.
Examples Examples
• When the teacher points to the art photo in the • As the group gets ready to go on a trip to the fire
picture schedule, the child begins to prepare station, asks the teacher whether they should
(putting on an apron, moving paper to the easel). bring the firefighter’s hat from the dress-up area.
• When asked what he is going to do tomorrow, • Tells a friend that she has to give away toys to
indicates that he will have breakfast and then make room for her grandparents from India, who
come to school. will be coming to live with her.
• Tells an adult, “When we go outside, I need a • Because of a special event, the day’s schedule is
plastic bag on my cast so it won’t get muddy.” changed. Several children express concern that
• Tells other children that she and her papa go snack time will be skipped.
outside to look at the stars when it gets dark, • Communicates to a friend, “Next time we go to
right after they eat dinner. the zoo, I will have my electric wheelchair, so I
• Knows, with the help of a picture schedule, that can keep up with you.”
snack time at preschool always follows circle • Tells teacher, “I get to visit my cousins on Satur-
time. day. Mommy says that’s after two more sleeps!”
• Excitedly tells the teacher, “We’re going to the • Encourages friend to put on his shoes and jacket
airport to pick up my uncle from Taiwan next fast so they will have more time to dig in the
week!” but has no idea how soon next week sandbox together.
will be. • When the nurse enters, a child tells her friend that
• At planning time, a child who is nonverbal uses it is time for a tube feeding and that she will come
a communication board with pictures to indicate back to play in 10 minutes.
where he will play first. • Knowing that park time is at 10:00 every day,
• When asked for an idea about what the group will brings jacket from cubby and asks, “Is it 10:00
need to bring on a lunchtime picnic, suggests a yet?”
blanket.
Sense of Time | 17
3.0 Personal History

3.1 Proudly display developing skills 3.1 Compare current abilities with skills
to attract adult attention and share at a younger age and share more
simple accounts about recent detailed autobiographical stories
experiences. about recent experiences.
Examples Examples
• Shows a teacher his drawing of a cat and smiles • Tells a teacher that she is now strong enough to
when the teacher says, “Look at your cat’s long help her mom carry bags home from the market
tail and whiskers!” and then recalls some things they brought home
• Tells a teacher how Grandma made rice for break- last night.
fast this morning. • Shares with other children that he was once little
• Exclaims, “Now I can run fast! My brother says he and that soon they will be big like him.
can’t catch me!” • Names all the family members who came to her
• Strives to imitate the actions and skills of older house on Sunday to celebrate her grandpa’s
children. birthday.
• Tells an adult that he helped Papa fix the table leg • After falling and scraping a knee, comments that
last night. it hurts a little, but not as much as last time.
• Communicates at the park, “Look, Ms. Martinez, • Tells a teacher that she is teaching her baby sis-
I can slide all by myself now because I am a big ter how to walk and recounts that when she was
girl.” a baby she only crawled, too, but that now she
can even run and jump.
18 | Sense of Time
4.0 Historical Changes in People and the World

4.1 Easily distinguish older family 4.1 Develop an interest in family history
members from younger ones (and (e.g., when family members were
other people) and events in the children) as well as events of “long
recent past from those that happened ago,” and begin to understand when
“long ago,” although do not readily these events occurred in relation to
sequence historical events on a each other.
timeline.
Examples Examples
• Builds castles with blocks but is not aware of, or • Can identify, with adult assistance, the relative
interested in, when these structures were built ages of family members (e.g., grandparents,
historically. parents, siblings, self).
• Can readily identify people who are very young or • Tells a teacher that when her grandma and
very old. grandpa were little they lived in Mexico, but when
• Thinks of fairy tale characters, as well as science they grew up, they moved here.
fiction superheroes, as being real but simply not • Shares with her teacher, “My baby brother was
here right now. born last week and I was born a long time ago—
almost five years!”
• Says, “My mommy came from Guatemala a long
time ago!” when the teacher asks where chil-
dren’s families came from.
• Understands that dinosaurs lived long ago and
that Grandpa was a boy long ago, but cannot
distinguish how long ago these events occurred.
19
Sense of Place (Geography and Ecology)

1.1 Identify the characteristics of familiar 1.1 Comprehend larger familiar loca-
locations such as home and school, tions, such as the characteristics of
describe objects and activities as- their community and region (including
sociated with each, recognize the hills and streams, weather, common
routes between them, and begin activities) and the distances between
using simple directional language familiar locations (such as between
(with various degrees of accuracy). home and school), and compare
their home community with those
of others.
Examples Examples
• Understands that home is where one sleeps at • Indicates that everybody needs a raincoat where
night and gets dressed in the morning. he lives.
• Demonstrates knowledge that preschool environ- • Tells a teacher, “My grandpa lives where it gets
ments have reading areas with books. real cold in the winter, much colder than here. It
• Asks as mother is driving to preschool, “Are we even snows!”
going to school?” • Knows that her cousins live far away because it
• When asked by an adult, “Where is the sand takes a long time to get to her cousin’s house by
table?” the child replies, “over there” while car.
gesturing in the general direction. • Explains, “On the way to school, we have to walk
• When riding with other people, excitedly shouts, up two gigantic hills” and describes excitedly
“That’s my school!” and talks about the people what that is like.
and activities there. • When the teacher leads children to take a new
• Shares with a teacher, “Sam is my friend. He lives route on the way back from an outdoor trip,
next door.” communicates “No, this way!”
• Directs an adult’s attention to a wildlife poster by • Excitedly tells a teacher that she just saw some
indicating that it is “over” the sink. monarch caterpillars on her way to school (“On
the bushes next to the river”).
20 | Sense of Place

2.1 Show an interest in nature (including 2.1 Show an interest in a wider range of
animals, plants, and weather) natural phenomena, including those
especially as children experience it outside direct experience (such as
directly. Begin to understand human snow for a child living in Southern
interactions with the environment California), and are more concerned
(such as pollution in a lake or stream) about caring for the natural world
and the importance of taking care of and the positive and negative
plants and animals. impacts of people on the natural
world (e.g., recycling, putting trash
in trash cans).
Examples Examples
• Contributes to circle-time discussion of the day’s • Shares with a teacher that it snows where his
weather, readily describing it as hot, cold, rainy, cousins live and no flowers are outside because
and so forth. it is too cold for them to grow.
• Checks the plant pots on the windowsill daily • Finds a broken brown eggshell outdoors and
after watering them to find out whether the seeds communicates that he hopes the bird is okay.
have started to grow. • Communicates to other children that her family
• Turns over big rocks on the playground to see if recycles cans and bottles to care for the natural
there are worms or bugs underneath, but is care- environment.
ful not to squish them. • Tells a teacher that Mommy does not like plastic
• One child’s father brings the family’s pet kitten to bags because they are bad for the environment.
circle time, and the child tells everyone how to • When outside on a walk, picks up litter and
hold and pet the kitten carefully so it will feel safe throws it into a trash can.
and not get hurt.
• After looking at a book about bears, expresses
• On a nature hike, points to litter and asks, “Who interest in polar bears and asks the teacher where
did this?” they live.
Sense of Place | 21
3.0 Understanding the Physical World Through Drawings and Maps

3.1 Can use drawings, globes, and 3.1 Create their own drawings, maps,
maps to refer to the physical world, and models; are more skilled at using
although often unclear on the use globes, maps, and map symbols;
of map symbols. and use maps for basic problem
solving (such as locating objects)
with adult guidance.
Examples Examples
• Finds a crumpled piece of paper with scribbled • Builds a landscape on the sand table and move
lines on it and decides that it is a map to buried cars and trucks on the roads she has created.
treasure. • Draws a map of the outside play area, indicating
• In describing a drawing to an adult, gestures to a to an adult the location of trees, climbing struc-
square that she calls her house and explains that tures, and buildings.
the zigzag lines in front of it are where she rode • After looking at a road map, is surprised that it
her tricycle yesterday. takes so long to drive to the destination because
• Looking at an adult map, can identify lines, with it did not look far away on the map.
an adult’s help, that represent roads and green
areas indicating farmland, but has difficulty inter-
preting other map symbols.
22
Marketplace (Economics)
1.0 Exchange
1.1 Understand ownership, limited 1.1 Understand more complex economic

supply, what stores do, give-and- concepts (e.g., bartering; more
take, and payment of money to money is needed for things of
sellers. Show interest in money and greater value; if more people want
its function, but still figuring out the something, more will be sold).
relative value of coins.
Examples Examples
• Agrees to give another child two plastic oranges • Tells a friend that her family needs a new car, but
if the child will give her two pennies. they need lots of money first.
• Wheels to the grocery store in the dramatic • Makes a sign in the pretend shoe store indicating
play area and asks, “Who wants to buy some that small shoes cost $1 and big shoes cost $2.
tamales?” • Several children create clay animal sculptures
• Cuts a small rectangle out of cardboard at the art and decide to trade them with each other.
table and indicates that it is his credit card. • Explains to a teacher, “We don’t have enough
• Two friends dress up in the house area to go money to just get whatever we want at the store.”
shopping, filling their wallets with play money. • Suggests to a teacher that there is “too much
• Asks another child, “Will you give me a haircut? stuff” in the room and that they should have a
I’ll pay you some money.” sale.
• Reminds another child, “Don’t take Carlo’s jacket • When a peer in the dramatic play area suggests
from his cubby!” making sandwiches to sell, says, “No, let’s make
• Rushes outside to ride favorite tricycle, knowing a pizza store, because everyone wants to buy
that it is a popular toy. pizza!”
• Looks forward to going to a familiar grocery store • While playing with a plastic horse, tells a friend,
to buy things. “Having a real horse of my own costs too much
money.”
23
Bibliographic Notes

Self and Society interested in people who are different
from them.
Culture and Diversity Preschoolers are quick to compare
As preschoolers develop a sense of and contrast others’ characteristics
self, the cultural, ethnic, and racial with their own, of course, and read-
identity that they share with family ily prefer the characteristics of their
members becomes a more important own group membership (Aboud 1988,
part of their self-awareness (Aboud 2003, 2008; Barbarin and Odom 2009;
1984, 1987; Bennett and Sani 2008; Bigler and Liben 2007; Katz 2003;
Edwards and Ramsey 1986; Katz Quintana 1998, 2007, 2008). Social
2003; Quintana 1998). In the late scientists call this behavior in-group
preschool years, children begin to bias (terms in bold are defined in the
appreciate—and take pride in—the Glossary), which is apparent at age
language, traditions, foods, arts, lit- four and increases as young children
erature, and other practices associated reach ages five and six. There has
with this identity. In a sense, as their been some debate about whether an
understanding of their cultural, eth- in-group bias is as apparent in certain
nic, and racial membership expands, it groups of young children, about which
becomes incorporated into their sense the evidence is mixed (see Quintana
of who they are. 2007, 2008). As young children con-
At the same time, preschoolers solidate their own sense of themselves
become more interested in the beliefs, and the groups (e.g., gender, cultural,
behaviors, and lives of other people racial) that are part of their identity,
who live in “faraway places.” Their they increasingly value characteristics
understanding of the geographical of the groups with which they identify.
vastness of the world expands in the Children who favor their own cultural,
fourth and fifth years, and their inter- ethnic, and racial group may seem to
est in human diversity grows. The be negative toward other groups; how-
result is fascination (and, at times, ever, it primarily means that children
amazement) with the appearance, are more likely to favor people who
practices, languages, traditions, and resemble them, whose characteristics
arts of people around the world. Pre- are more familiar and comfortable to
schoolers take an interest in the lives them (Aboud 2003; Quintana 2008).
of people who live nearby who are dif- This bias strengthens as children enter
ferent from them—such as children the early primary grades and then
who look different from themselves, weakens with increasing age in the pri-
who speak different languages, have mary grades as children become more
different abilities, and come from dif- interested in differences and more
ferent socioeconomic and cultural comfortable with their own identity.
communities. As preschoolers under- These findings have led to an inter-
stand the characteristics of their own est in understanding why preferential
identity better, they become more biases for one’s own culture, ethnicity,
24 | Bibliographic Notes
and race emerge in early childhood for example, Barbarin and Odom 2009;
and how to create more accepting Bigler and Liben 2007). Although their
attitudes in preschoolers. Research in-group bias has many developmental
has focused on how children acquire origins, young children benefit sub-
biases and stereotypes from their fam- stantially from an early childhood edu-
ily members; some studies find that cation setting where diversity is prized
by age five, children are familiar with and other people are appreciated for
basic, concrete racial stereotypes their differences.
(Aboud 1988; Brown and Bigler 2005).
Relationships
In addition, researchers have also
focused on how race and ethnicity are, Developing relationships with other
for young children, based on visible adults and children is one of the most
physical characteristics that naturally important challenges in an early child-
leads to the categorization of people hood education program. In contrast
by race and, in turn, the assignment to family relationships, preschoolers
of positive or negative characteristics must exercise greater social skill to
on the basis of this physical feature develop and maintain relationships
(Hirschfeld 2008; Quintana 2008). with others in the program, which
Young children may thus perceive stretches their capacities for social
race as a core, essential quality of indi- interaction. This is especially true
viduals that leads to many other char- for peer relationships, because other
acteristics and behaviors rather than preschoolers are much less generous
perceiving race as just one of many social partners than are most adults
differences between people (Hirschfeld (Rubin, Bukowski, and Parker 2006;
1996). Moreover, because many young Rubin and others 2005).
children have limited direct exposure During the period from ages three to
to people of different cultures, eth- five, preschoolers make considerable
nicities, and races, lack of familiarity progress in their skills for developing
tends to maintain—if not create— and maintaining satisfying relation-
positive in-group biases. ships with teachers and peers (Ber-
Therefore, a preschool with cul- lin, Cassidy, and Appleyard 2008;
tural, racial, and linguistic diversity Dunn 1993; Hartup 1996; Howes and
is a benefit to young children, espe- Spieker 2008; Parker and Gottman
cially if teachers purposefully draw 1989; Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).
attention to and value this diversity in The majority of older three-year-olds
their practices. Early childhood educa- have developed social skills for doing
tion programs that promote accept- so, including developing abilities to
ing attitudes toward cultural, ethnic, engage in simple conversations, par-
and racial differences among young ticipate in shared activities, cooper-
children have focused on increasing ate with requests or instructions, and
children’s exposure to the diversity of ask (adults) for help when needed.
local cultures, ethnicities, and races in The skills constitute a foundation for
the community; improving perspective developing friendships with one or two
taking and pro-social attitudes; and peers and close relationships with one
changing the messages that children or two special teachers whom the child
receive from teachers and families (see, seeks for shared activity, assistance,
Bibliographic Notes | 25
and acknowledgment of accomplish- ship can be important to strengthening

ments. By the time children are at the self-confidence and negotiating rela-
end of their fourth year, these skills tionships with peers (Thompson and
have expanded because the child has Thompson 2010).
advanced significantly in social under- The quality of young children’s rela-
standing, particularly in the capacity tionships with early childhood educa-
to view relationships as mutual and tion teachers and peers is important
reciprocal rather than one-sided. to school readiness (Thompson 2002;
The cognitive flexibility to appreci- Thompson and Raikes 2007). Several
ate that another person’s needs and studies have reported that the warmth
interests in a relationship must be and security of the preschool child’s
recognized enables five-year-olds to relationship with the teacher are pre-
develop relationships that are more dictive of the child’s subsequent aca-
mutual, cooperative, and helpful. They demic performance, attentional skills,
are more likely to suggest turn-taking and social competence in the kinder-
when more than one child wants to garten and primary-grades classroom
use the same toy, to work together (Bowman, Donovan, and Burns 2001;
with several children on a project, and Lamb 1998; Peisner-Feinberg and oth-
to spontaneously share paints, toys, or ers 2001; Pianta, Nimetz, and Bennett
food with another child or adult. Chil- 1997).
dren of this age are more likely to show Furthermore, the importance of
an interest in the other child’s experi- developing relationship skills is under-
ences or ask a teacher what she did scored by other findings that once chil-
during the weekend (after the teacher dren have entered school, the quality
has inquired about the child’s week- of the teacher–child relationship and
end). They are also more likely to work the amount of conflict in that relation-
cooperatively for an extended period ship are predictive of children’s poorer
with friends and special teachers, academic performance and greater
although they may also seek to make behavior problems in the classroom,
these relationships more exclusive sometimes years later (Birch and Ladd
than do younger children. Exclusive 1997; Hamre and Pianta 2001; La Paro
relationships may mean other children and Pianta 2000; Pianta, Steinberg,
who wish to join in will be rejected. and Rollins 1995; Pianta and Stuhl-
Children who are English learners or man 2004a, 2004b).
who have disabilities may face special Other studies show that friend-
challenges in the development of close ships with peers are important to a
relationships with teachers and peers. child’s transition to school, as suc-
Trusting, secure relationships with cessful peer relationships contribute
teachers—especially when teachers to better school adjustment. Friend-
speak the language of the child’s home ships at school cause kindergarten
environment—can be especially impor- and primary-grades children to look
tant in helping English learners to feel forward to attending school, to have a
comfortable and welcome and to find more positive classroom experience,
their place in the peer social environ- and to achieve more as students (Ladd,
ment. For children who have physical Kochenderfer, and Coleman 1996,
disabilities, the teacher–child relation- 1997; Ladd, Birch, and Buhs 1999).
Relationship skills are important to 1983). Children have a limited under-

both citizenship and school success. standing of the economy and perceive
financial matters primarily in terms of
Social Roles and Occupations
the consumer, not the worker, and it
As their view of themselves and the means that preschoolers are unlikely
social world expands, preschoolers to appreciate the work-related cir-
become fascinated by the adult roles cumstances that can influence family
(e.g., parent, grandparent, neighbor) economic well-being, such as what
and occupations (e.g., teacher, fire- happens when an adult is unable to
fighter, bus driver, doctor) with which work for a period of time, has reduced
they are familiar (Edwards and Ramsey hours, or experiences a furlough.
1986). This greater interest develops
both from their expanding explora- Becoming a Preschool
tion of the world around them and Community Member
their interest in imagining the roles
(Civics)
they might assume when they grow
up. This interest can be observed most Skills for Democratic Participation
readily in young children’s pretend
For most preschoolers, the early
play—when they take on familiar adult
childhood education program is the
social roles (e.g., parent, police officer),
first social setting in which skills of cit-
imagined adult roles (e.g., superhero,
izenship can be learned, understood,
princess), and other roles (e.g., child,
and practiced. This is where teachers
baby) in the context of the pretend-
actively strive to involve children in
play scripts they create (Howes 1992).
citizenship and democratic skills, such
But their interest in adult social roles
as helping to create and support group
and occupations may also be observed
rules and expectations, group deci-
in their delight in taking a trip to the
sion making (such as voting), valuing
fire station, watching a custodian work
the expression of opinions and respect
on the plumbing, seeing the gardener
for others’ opinions, and understand-
plant a shrub, or through other oppor-
ing the importance of recognizing the
tunities to directly observe an adult in
majority’s judgment but also respect-
work-related activity.
ing minority views. These are, of
Their developing understanding of
course, the foundations of democratic
adult social roles and occupations
society in the everyday practices of the
does not yet encompass, however, the
preschool program.
broader significance of these jobs.
For young children, participation as
More specifically, even five-year-olds
a group citizen is challenging because
do not yet understand the connection
it requires several skills that are
between adult work and family income:
emerging during this period: aware-
that adults work in order to earn the
ness of others’ feelings and desires and
income by which the family lives.
the growing ability to coordinate oth-
Instead, preschoolers understand an
ers’ interests with one’s own; emerging
adult’s job as simply what that person
capacities for self-regulation and self-
does, and this is differentiated from
control (especially when participating
how adults get money by going to a
in group activities that are not person-
bank (Berti and Bombi 1988; Burris
ally interesting or desirable); memory own preferences and emerging self-

skills for recalling group rules and regulatory capacities may make it
expectations and spontaneously apply- difficult for them to attend carefully
ing them to one’s own conduct; and to contrary viewpoints and accept a
developing self-awareness that contrib- majority decision that runs against
utes to the young child’s self-identifi- personal preferences. Teachers can
cation as a group member and not just support these developing citizenship
as an individual. Fortunately, many skills by modeling these practices (e.g.,
of these core capacities are develop- acknowledging the value of an opinion
ing significantly during the preschool that is contrary to the teacher’s own),
years (see Bronson 2000; Calkins and enlisting children’s identification as a
Williford 2009; Harris 2006; Harter group (e.g., describing the preschool
1999, 2006; Thompson 2006; Thomp- setting as “our” place), enlisting the
son and Goodman 2009). By the end group in brainstorming and collective
of the fourth year and early in the fifth problem solving, and acknowledging
year, young children understand oth- the disappointment of not getting
ers’ views and group expectations well one’s way (Edwards and Ramsey 1986;
enough to be cooperative participants Thompson and Twibell 2009). These
as group members. By the end of the are important practices because for
fifth year, they are also capable of young children, emerging citizenship
being active contributors to democratic skills are learned through their guided
processes. enactment rather than through
Emerging “citizenship” involves par- verbal instruction alone. In other
ticipation in democratic processes, words, young children learn about a
which for preschoolers involves group democratic society by participating in
discussion, expressing and listening to a democracy.
opinions, group decision making, and
Responsible Conduct
abiding by the majority view while also
respecting minority interests. Citizen- Research on the development of
ship skills are particularly challeng- early responsible conduct in young
ing for young children who are still children has shown that preschool-
learning the dominant language and ers are motivated to act responsibly
cultural practices of the preschool set- for several reasons (Kochanska and
ting and may be at a disadvantage as Thompson 1997; Thompson, Meyer,
a result of language and a more lim- and McGinley 2006). First, they
ited sense of participation. Sometimes act cooperatively to earn an adult’s
lack of participation in the group is approval, which is an early and strong
due to linguistic and cultural barriers incentive for responsible conduct.
more than disinterest, and teachers Striving for an adult’s praise and com-
can support emerging citizenship by mendation is one reason that young
purposefully ensuring that each child’s children seek an adult’s attention for
cultural and linguistic background is their good behavior. Second, they act
valued. cooperatively because it contributes
The skills of group membership are to self-esteem and the sense of being
challenging for all young children, a “good” boy or girl and responsible
whose emotional devotion to their group member. Third, they act coop-
eratively out of concern for others’ feel- children’s emerging capacities for
ings and needs. This can be seen espe- self-control can be enlisted to support
cially when young children act help- responsible conduct when teachers are
fully to someone who has been hurt or careful to ensure that their expecta-
needs assistance. Fourth, young chil- tions for children are developmentally
dren act cooperatively to avoid negative appropriate; the program environment
consequences, such as disapproval is organized to reduce conflict (e.g.,
or failure to comply with an adult’s there are sufficient play materials for
instructions or rules. children); and teachers help children
Although cooperating to avoid dis- understand and remember group
approval and punishment has tra- expectations, put into words their
ditionally been emphasized in moral angry feelings, and help them devise
development theories, new research appropriate ways of resolving conflict
shows that the other incentives dis- when they are frustrated (Edwards and
cussed above may influence young Ramsey 1986; Thompson and Twibell
children even more than commonly 2009). Children can also be helped by
believed. For example, two studies external cues, such as pictures, draw-
have shown that early responsible con- ings, and other means of prompting
duct is more strongly influenced by a desired behavior (Carta and others
mother’s comments about others’ feel- 2000).
ings and needs than by the frequency Teachers should be especially sen-
with which she warns about rules and sitive to the frustration and impedi-
the consequences of breaking them ments to self-regulation encountered
(Laible and Thompson 2000, 2002; by children from culturally or linguis-
see also Kochanska and Thompson tically diverse backgrounds, children
1997; Thompson, Meyer, and McGin- who have disabilities or other special
ley 2006). The same is likely to be true needs, or those who may not be able
of the early childhood education pro- to fully participate in the group for
gram. When a teacher emphasizes the other reasons. Difficult behavior may
impact of inappropriate conduct on be manifested because of these feelings
others and others’ feelings more than of being excluded more than from an
the negative consequences of breaking unwillingness to cooperate. Teachers
a rule, it provides a stronger founda- can be helpful by ensuring that these
tion for helpful, constructive behavior children receive the support necessary
in the future. to be competent, participating mem-
The major obstacle to responsible bers of the community.
conduct in preschoolers is not egocen-
Fairness and Respect
trism but limitations in their capaci-
for Other People
ties for self-regulation, especially when
they are frustrated or upset. Fortu- By the age of three, children can
nately, young children acquire greater accurately interpret the feelings of
skills in managing their impulses, feel- other people and can distinguish them
ings, and behavior from three to five from their own feelings. Moreover, chil-
years of age (see Calkins and Williford dren of this age already have a basic
2009; Thompson 1990, 1994). Young understanding of why others might
feel as they do (Denham 1998, 2006; stand that moral rules are more seri-

Harris 1989, 2006; Thompson 2006; ous because they are based on human
Thompson, Goodvin, and Meyer 2006; welfare (Thompson, Meyer, and McGin-
Thompson and Lagattuta 2006). In ley 2006; Smetana 1981, 1985).
the years that follow, young children For children near their fourth birth-
build on this nonegocentric awareness day, an adult’s assistance is espe-
by learning how to respond appropri- cially important in helping to clarify
ately to the feelings and needs of other another person’s feelings and needs
people. This can be challenging for and determine how to respond appro-
young children for two reasons. First, priately. In doing so, teachers can put
they must figure out how to respond the other person’s feelings and desires
in a way that is appropriate to what into words and suggest how the child
another child feels or wants (e.g., might respond. Children nearer their
“What will make Maria feel better right fifth birthday have greater knowledge
now?”). Second, when another child’s of people’s feelings. For this reason,
desires conflict with the child’s own— they are also more capable of providing
such as when they both want to play help and thinking of ways in which the
with the same train—they must fig- needs and interests of different people
ure out how to cooperate in a manner can be cooperatively coordinated.
that can satisfy both children. Each
Conflict Resolution
of these skills is important to develop-
ing a sense of fairness and respect for Conflict with a peer or a teacher’s
other people, and they are central to request is a common preschool experi-
developing social competence, espe- ence, but it also presents opportunities
cially with peers (Howes 1987, 1988). for the development of social under-
Young children also begin to con- standing. Nothing focuses a young
struct an understanding of standards child’s mind on what another person
of conduct. Researchers have shown is thinking or feeling more than the
that as young as age three, children realization that conflict with that per-
distinguish between two kinds of stan- son must be resolved. The period of
dards (Smetana 1981, 1985; Smetana three to five years of age is one of sig-
and Braeges 1990). The first are moral nificant growth in conflict resolution
standards that are based on young because preschoolers are advancing in
children’s awareness of other people’s their understanding of others’ feelings,
feelings and needs. Moral standards intentions, and desires. Preschoolers
include simple prohibitions such as are developing the cognitive flexibility
that it is wrong to hurt others or steal to balance an awareness of another
from another person. The second are person’s intentions with their own
social conventional standards that desires (Fabes and Eisenberg 1992).
are intended to maintain social order. For three-year-olds, peer conflict is
Examples include expectations about likely to result in distress, physi-
putting away toys in their proper cal aggression, or adult mediation or
places, sitting in the right place for cir- assistance. By the fourth birthday,
cle time, and cleaning up after meals. these remain likely outcomes but are
By age four, young children under- supplemented by the young child’s
developing capacity to bargain in sim- Sense of Time (History)

ple ways, such as offering to comply

with a teacher’s request after the child Understanding Past Events
has finished a desired activity or to let The preschool years are a period
another child have a turn with a toy of major advance in young chil-
after a few minutes. These bargaining dren’s understanding of past, pres-
strategies reflect a dawning recogni- ent, and future and the association
tion of the other person’s desires or between these events in time. As for
needs and an effort to find a solution past events, children in their fourth
that satisfies both the child and the year can readily describe events in
other person. This reflects a significant the recent and distant past (such
advance in psychological understand- as what they did yesterday or their
ing as well as growth in the capacity to birthday party several weeks ago),
work cooperatively with other people. but this ability may cause adults to
By the end of the fifth year, the overestimate children’s understand-
child’s ability to understand anoth- ing of time sequences. For example,
er’s point of view has advanced fur- children around 48 months have dif-
ther, enabling more sophisticated ficulty locating past events in relation
approaches to conflict resolution that to one another, such as understanding
result in satisfactory solutions for both whether their last birthday preceded
children. With peers and teachers, the Fourth of July celebration or fol-
these include negotiation and compro- lowed it if the two were close in time
mise in ways that recognize the other or occurred long ago (Friedman 1991,
person’s needs as well as the child’s 1992; Friedman, Gardner, and Zubin
own. To be sure, older four- and five- 1995; Friedman and Kemp 1998).
year-olds are not likely to suggest good Young children’s memory of events is
solutions consistently (their proposals not the continuous timeline that it is
for compromise are likely to be driven for adults; instead, it consists of recol-
by self-interest), and further negotia- lections of particular events that are
tion is likely to be needed. Additionally, isolated “islands in time” that may not
a five-year-old’s conflict-resolution be well connected to other past events
skills do not mean that distress, physi- (Friedman 2005). Furthermore, young
cal aggression, verbal aggression, and children may also confuse events in
taunting may not also arise, especially the recent past and the near future,
during conflict with peers. But the such as describing a Valentine’s Day
capacity for negotiated conflict resolu- that has just passed as an event to
tion means that children of this age come (Friedman 2003). They also
have a foundation of social under- have difficulty connecting past events
standing that teachers can rely on to to present experience without adult
help children use compromise more assistance.
frequently in their encounters with Older preschoolers are somewhat
others. Children who have difficulty more skilled in locating past events in
expressing themselves in English may relation to each other and in distin-
need special teacher support in these guishing how far in the past certain
situations. events took place. In addition, they
have a better understanding of how
past events can influence the pres- Snow 1998; Leyva and others 2008;

ent, such as knowing how yesterday’s Melzi and Caspe 2005). Narrative
birthday party can make someone feel practices are important because they
happy today (Povinelli 1995, 2001; contribute to the development of young
Povinelli, Landau, and Perilloux 1996; children’s sense of time and cues used
Povinelli and others 1999; Povinelli for making connections between dif-
and Simon 1998). These skills provide ferent events. Knowledge of these prac-
a foundation that helps young children tices can be important for teachers in
make connections between past events their use of narrative stories and
and current feelings, beliefs, and skills shared recollection with young children.
and also contribute to the growth of Understanding of past events devel-
autobiographical memory (discussed ops significantly after the preschool
later in relation to personal history). years. Children become more skilled
Research studies show that young at relating past events to each other
children’s sense of time is strength- by using time markers (such as “last
ened when adults use predictable fall” or “last Wednesday”) to help them
routines that children can incorporate recall certain past events, understand-
into their mental “scripts” of everyday ing time sequences (e.g., a beach trip
events (e.g., Nelson 2001). Further- probably occurred during the sum-
more, research shows that conversa- mer), and comprehending the typical
tions with adults—in which adults order of recurring events (e.g., Thanks-
help children understand the connec- giving always comes before Christmas).
tions between past events and current Older children and adults are also
experience and remind children of aware that memories of recent events
when those past events took place— are much more vivid and clear than
help young children develop these are memories of events from long ago.
skills (Fivush 2001; Nelson 2001). This understanding also contributes to
There are also important cultural proper sequencing. Taken together, a
differences in how narrative prac- variety of cognitive skills are involved
tices —that is, different ways of telling in understanding past events, and pre-
stories, such as how much detail is schoolers are only beginning to acquire
included or whether explanations are those skills. For this reason, although
provided—contribute to young chil- they are delighted to talk about past
dren’s sense of the past, present, and events with an interested adult, they
future. Some families emphasize lin- may have a surprisingly limited sense
ear time sequences (i.e., telling about of the past.
the first thing that happened, followed
Anticipating and Planning
by the second thing, followed by the
Future Events
third thing, and so on). Others use
emotional cues (i.e., excitement, joy, Thinking about future events is a
amazement, sadness, fear, or anger of cognitive challenge for young children
the characters in response to differ- because it requires imagining what
ent parts of a story) as the connections will happen in an uncertain future
between different events in time. Still (in contrast to past events, which are
others use different practices based real because they actually happened).
on cultural background (Aukrust and Despite this, children around 48
months are able to describe what will children’s expectations of what will
happen in the near future—later in the occur.

day or tomorrow—especially when they Young children’s conversations with
can predict on the basis of familiar, adults are important in helping the
well-established, daily routines. For children anticipate and plan for future
example, four-year-olds can describe events. Adults are important for help-
what will happen next in the daily ing young children understand the
routine—cleanup and then snack time context in which future events
time—and also the events of the next will occur (e.g., “four sleeps” before a
day when they are based on a familiar doctor’s appointment; “after your birth-
routine (Busby and Suddendorf day”; until next Halloween), as well as
2005). However, just as they have how to prepare for future events (Hud-
difficulty sequencing events of the son 2002, 2006). Indeed, young chil-
past, four-year-olds also have difficulty dren’s concepts of time depend on how
distinguishing events that will occur their understanding of future events is
soon from those that will occur later structured through conversations with
and those that will occur in the distant family members who anticipate those
future. events. It is important to remember
At age five, children are more skilled again, however, that every family has
in sequencing and distinguishing its own cultural practices, and those
events (Friedman 2000, 2002, 2003). unique practices may lead to differ-
Thus five-year-olds are beginning to ent ways of recalling and anticipating
create an adultlike view of the future events in time (Gauvain 2004). For
that accurately distinguishes how soon example, in some cultures, children
future events will happen. Children of have been socialized to plan with an
this age are also more capable of plan- individual goal in mind; in other cul-
ning appropriately for future events, tures, they plan a goal that is coopera-
such as anticipating the things needed tively shared. In addition, the everyday
for a camping trip or for a visit to the activities of children with their families
beach (Atance 2008; Atance and Jack- and other caregivers contribute to chil-
son 2009; Atance and Meltzoff 2005; dren’s understanding of time. These
Atance and O’Neill 2005; Fabricius include the sequence of daily routines
1988; Guajardo and Best 2000; Hud- in which certain events follow other
son, Shapiro, and Sosa 1995). In doing events (e.g., mealtime and then brush-
so, they become more skilled at men- ing teeth; story and then bedtime),
tally putting themselves into the future explicit references to clocks and cal-
in order to anticipate what they will endars, and behaviors that anticipate
need and to plan in the present. future events (e.g., getting out coats
Of course, those skills apply to when the weather turns cold) (Benson
familiar events. When unfamiliar 1997).
events are concerned—such as the
Personal History
first trip to the dentist—children rely
entirely on the adult’s description of A sense of time is also characterized
a new experience in anticipating what by the awareness of one’s own growth
it will be like. The adult’s portrayal of over time. For adults, this involves the
that experience can influence young recognition of how one’s skills, knowl-
edge, and experience change over time are different from other kinds of recol-

and how personal memories tell a life lections because the child is the cen-
story. For an adult, these memories tral figure in these events and remem-
may consist of significant (e.g., gradu- bers them because they are personally
ating from school; first meeting a life meaningful (Nelson and Fivush 2004).
partner) and ordinary experiences Thus, even though young children may
(e.g., an enjoyable baseball game with share ordinary experiences—a trip to
a family member) that are remembered the supermarket, playing with a new
because they are personally mean- pet—they are remembered and shared
ingful in some way. Autobiographical with adults because the child has
memories and the awareness of one’s found them meaningful.
own development combine to create a Research on early autobiographi-
sense of personal history. cal memory indicates, moreover, that
Preschoolers are just at the begin- the process of sharing these memories
ning of creating a sense of personal and discussing them with an adult
history. For older three- and four- is important to how these events are
year-olds, a sense of personal history remembered (Farrant and Reese 2000;
consists primarily of their pleasure in Hudson 1990; Nelson and Fivush
noticing the development of new skills 2004; Reese 2002). In their response
and abilities. Their pride in these new to the child, adults ask questions that
accomplishments is reflected in their help to deepen and expand children’s
efforts to draw the attention of adults recollections of these events. They also
to their skills. The adult’s acknowledg- help to organize the child’s memory of
ment of these abilities, perhaps with what happened so the event becomes
comments that the child could not more easily remembered in the future.
do them a few months earlier, helps Adults also help children clarify their
young children see how much they are own feelings and reactions to these
learning and growing. experiences in a manner that con-
Older four- and five-year-olds tributes to developing self-awareness.
are beginning to construct a more Therefore, when adults take the time
expanded sense of their own past in to converse with young children about
two ways. First, they often spontane- the experiences that children want to
ously compare their current abilities share, they contribute significantly to
with those of the past, such as tell- the growth of autobiographical memory
ing the teacher that they can now do and to the development of the child’s
things that they could not do when sense of personal history.
they were little (Harter 1999, 2006;
Historical Changes in People
Stipek and Mac Iver 1985). Their
and the World
spontaneous comparison of current
and past abilities contributes to older Anyone who spends time with pre-
preschoolers’ pride in their skills and schoolers is likely to be impressed with
positive self-esteem. Second, five-year- their interest in dinosaurs, knights,
olds are also beginning to construct castles, pirates, kings and princesses,
autobiographical memories of recent and other historical characters that
personal experiences. These memories have been highlighted in stories, com-
mercial products, and the media. process. It will be several years before
Young children enjoy learning about children become capable of creating

these events of “long ago,” but their a mental historical timeline in which
historical sense is limited by an inabil- these events and others can be accu-
ity to place these events appropriately rately placed.
within a broader historical time- Four-year-olds readily distinguish
line. Just as children have difficulty young from older people in their fami-
sequencing events of their own past in lies and in the world at large. Older
relation to each other (as noted above), four- and five-year-olds also become
they have even greater difficulty under- interested in family history. They enjoy
standing how events in the past are hearing stories of when their fam-
sequenced on a longer timeline in ily members were children, and what
relation to each other (Barton and the world was like when their grand-
Levstik 1996; Friedman 1992, 2003, parents were young, although their
2005, 2007; Friedman and Kemp perception that these were also events
1998; Levstik and Barton 1996). that happened “long ago” can add to
By age four, children can distin- their confusion (e.g., did Grandpa live
guish events of the recent past (such when the dinosaurs lived?). In contrast
as last Halloween) from events of “long to four-year-olds, five-year-olds not
ago” (such as when dinosaurs lived only can distinguish younger and older
and pioneers explored the country), people, but also have a stronger inter-
but they cannot place these events in est in and understanding of family his-
any consistent historical sequence. tory. They readily grasp the different
Their confusion is increased by their ages of family members, understand
exposure to commercial media (such that life was different when grandpar-
as cartoons) that obscure historical ents were children, and begin to com-
understanding through fictional recon- prehend the family history that has
structions. brought them to the present moment.
By age five, children begin to under- Although adults can contribute to clar-
stand that there is a sequence of his- ifying children’s historical understand-
torical events on a timeline and start ing, children work to comprehend
to grasp where events occur on that when all these events occurred in rela-
timeline. In a sense, young children’s tion to each other until middle child-
sense of history is like an accordion. hood, when they begin to create their
At first, every event that did not occur own mental timeline of events.
recently took place “long ago,” and
subsequently children make a distinc- Sense of Place (Geography
tion between the “long ago” of dino- and Ecology)
saurs and when their grandparents
were little children. Navigating Familiar Locations
Later, as young children learn more The “sense of place” that emerges
about events of the past, the accordion earliest for young children is their
expands as children better understand experience of familiar locations, such
the historical timeline in which events as their home, school, and the routes
occurred. Preschoolers are only at connecting them. For young children,
the beginning of this developmental
familiar locations are limited to the Caring for the Natural World

home, extended family, and other care Young children enjoy the natu-
settings where children spend the most ral world and learning about it, and
time. As children mature through the researchers and early educators have
preschool years, their concept of place studied children’s developing under-
expands to encompass the broader standing of natural phenomena (e.g.,
communities in which they live: their Catling 2006; Kahn and Kellert 2002).
neighborhood, city, or rural region in Beyond confirming young children’s
which they travel with their families. In strong interest in the natural world,
each case, children’s developing sense research has highlighted several other
of place is reflected in their capacities points.
to describe the characteristics of ter- First, an appreciation of ecology
rains with which they are familiar, and and of human–environment interac-
to describe the associations between tions begins early. Young children
locations and landmarks in these ter- enjoy providing nurturance to plants
rains. For a four-year-old, a home is and animals and watching them grow,
where one finds a bed, dresser, and especially when teachers help them
clothing and where one sleeps; a pre- understand the connection between
school setting is where one finds a feeding and watering and the health
dress-up area, reading area, and a and growth of a plant or a class pet.
place for circle time. For a five-year- This experience can also contribute
old, this advancing understanding may meaningfully to their sense of human
be manifested in the acknowledgment growth and development. Young chil-
that she lives in a community where dren also gain early awareness of the
many children play soccer, there is negative effects of human action on the
much rain, and people have to drive environment (Cohen and Horm-Wing-
long distances to reach places. erd 1993; Musser and Diamond 1999).
At the same time, young children are From an early age, young preschoolers
developing a sense of relative location. are aware of the hazards of pollution,
Four-year-olds are beginning to use litter, and other forms of human harm,
appropriate words to indicate direc- but it is primarily in the fifth year
tions in familiar locations, such as that they become capable of connect-
over or in, but are not always helpful to ing their own actions (such as picking
an uninitiated observer. Five-year-olds up litter and recycling) to the broader
are beginning to indicate the relative problems of environmental pollution
distances between familiar locations and diminishing resources.
in the home community—for example, Second, understanding the natu-
a boy knowing that his grandmother’s ral world is also based on a young
house is a long distance from home. child’s direct experiences. A young
However, because young children child growing up on a farm has much
judge relative distances subjectively more direct experience with domestic
(e.g., how long is the ride in the car or and wild animals, open spaces, and
bus to get to Grandma’s house?), these thunderstorms than does a child liv-
general directional judgments may be ing in urban Los Angeles. Given the
misleading. importance of direct experience for a
young preschooler’s interest in and more like poisons. As these examples

understanding of the natural world illustrate, a young child’s remarkable

(and the need for early childhood edu- awareness of aspects of the natural
cators to build on that natural curios- world can lead adults to overesti-
ity), the ways in which young children mate the extent to which children’s
learn about the natural world will vary knowledge and reasoning is adultlike.
depending on the ecological context in Sometimes it can be more helpful to
which each child lives. Many modern expand young children’s understand-
commentators (e.g., Luov 2005) worry ing by first asking children about what
about children growing up today in they already know—or want to know—
urban settings and who lack experi- about the natural world.
ence with the natural world.
Understanding the Physical World
Third, as children mature cognitively
Through Drawings and Maps
from ages three to five, their capacity
to understand natural phenomena that Maps, globes, and other physical
are not part of their everyday experi- representations are important means
ence expands (Gelman 2003). Oppor- by which young children can acquire
tunities for children to learn about the geographical understanding without
natural world significantly increases as direct experience with the landscape.
children become interested in natural Considerable research has been
environments (e.g., the Arctic, tropical devoted to understanding the develop-
climates, or jungle settings) that are ment of children’s map-reading abili-
different from their own and in aspects ties (Liben 2006; National Research
of the biological world (from the micro- Council 2006; Newcombe and Hutten-
scopic to the cosmic) that they can locher 2000). Not surprisingly, map
experience only indirectly. reading is a challenging skill, requiring
Finally, young children develop an that young children understand how a
intuitive understanding of the natu- two-dimensional drawing corresponds
ral world that is sometimes consis- to a three-dimensional landscape, how
tent with adult understanding and to interpret map symbols, and how to
sometimes surprisingly unique (Coley, locate themselves and other objects
Solomon, and Shafto 2002; Gelman according to the map. Even more chal-
2003). For example, preschoolers have lenging is learning how to use a map,
a remarkably accurate appreciation of understanding how map symbols cor-
biological inheritance—in other words, respond to the real world in order to
that offspring inevitably resemble their facilitate problem solving (such as
parents—and that babies grow up to identifying how to go from one location
be like their biological parents regard- to another). Surprisingly, by the age of
less of how or with whom they are three, children understand how maps
raised. But preschoolers are uncertain refer to physical landscapes; by four,
about whether adopted children will they can interpret common objects
most resemble their adoptive or bio- on the landscape, such as roads, riv-
logical parents. Preschoolers’ inability ers and lakes, and mountains. But
to see the germs that cause infections interpretation of map symbols is a
also confuse them about whether challenge because symbols commonly
germs are biological organisms or are combine meaningful (e.g., a line to rep-
resent a road) and arbitrary (e.g., the to convince adults to purchase goods

color of the line) aspects that may be and services on their behalf that they
confusing to young children (who may desire (commercial advertising read-
expect the road also to be red). It is not ily enlists young children to do so). To
until middle childhood that children understand adult roles, relationships,
are capable of appropriate interpreta- and responsibilities, however, children
tion of map symbols. need to go beyond the desire-based
Older preschoolers enjoy creating role of a consumer. Many studies have
their own maps of familiar settings examined preschoolers’ knowledge of
and are also more skilled at using economic concepts and reveal their
maps to solve simple problems, such limited understanding of economic
as locating a hidden object in a room exchange (Berti and Bombi 1981,
on the basis of a map (Blades and 1988; Burris 1983; Jahoda 1979,
Cooke 2001; Blaut and others 2003; 1981; Leiser 1983; Schug 1987; Schug
Bluestein and Acredolo 1979). Solving and Birkey 1985; Siegler and Thomp-
simple problems with maps requires son 1998; Thompson and Siegler
understanding not only how the map 2000.) Older three-year-olds take plea-
refers to an actual landscape, but also sure in playing store or barbershop,
how distances on the small map trans- pretend activities in which money is
late in scale to larger distances in the exchanged for goods or services.
landscape. Although there is some evi- But children of this age have little
dence that five-year-olds can accom- understanding of why money functions
plish this with very simple maps, this in this way, regarding it as a social
skill is not fully achieved until middle custom rather than as a means of eco-
childhood (Liben 2002; Liben and nomic exchange or a financial trans-
Yekel 1996; Uttal 1996; Vasilyeva and action based on value. Furthermore,
Huttenlocher 2004). Likewise, the children of this age are still develop-
maps of familiar settings that children ing understanding about the relative
create, such as representations of their value of the coins with which they
preschool program or homes, often are familiar, commonly intuiting that
show inaccurate distances between nickels are of greater value than dimes
objects, suggesting that scaling is a because they are larger.
common problem in each instance By contrast, older four-year-olds
(Liben 2002). Even so, older preschool- have a somewhat more sophisticated
ers enjoy creating maps and models economic understanding. They are
(such as on a sand table) of real and aware that bartering can sometimes
imagined landscapes as they exercise substitute for a monetary exchange,
their representational skills in under- such as when one person offers to
standing the physical world. exchange an apple for a friend’s
orange. When playing store, children
Marketplace (Economics) in the role of cashiers can be observed
Exchange making change for a customer. Chil-
dren of this age are also aware of how
In today’s society, young children
pricing is associated with value. Prices
are economic consumers from an early
are higher for multiple goods (three
age, primarily through their efforts
apples compared with one) and for
goods and services of greater value. ers are unaware of the influence of
One study has also shown that five- economic competition on prices or
year-olds are sensitive to how demand of how competition can enable buy-
can affect sales (Siegler and Thompson ers to obtain goods and services at
1998). They realize, for example, that lower prices. They are also unaware of
children at a lemonade stand are likely how pricing is affected by high or low
to sell more drinks on a hot day than demand, high or low supply, or the
on a cold one. All of these emerging economic well-being of buyers. Indeed,
economic concepts reflect the primarily preschoolers’ economic naiveté leaves
consumer-oriented economic think- them vulnerable to misunderstand-
ing of a preschooler. The central focus ing the nature of the market in which
is toward the individual who wants they are consumers. They are likely
something and the economic transac- to believe, for example, that commer-
tions necessary to obtain it. cial advertisements function like pub-
It is important to appreciate how lic service announcements to ensure
much is lacking in this economic that consumers are aware of desirable
approach. During the primary grades, products and that sellers perform a
children begin to comprehend many valuable public service by enabling
economic concepts. In contrast, pre- buyers to obtain the goods and ser-
schoolers have little or no apprecia- vices they want. They are also likely
tion, for example, of the influence of to be unaware of how a buyer’s (e.g.,
the profit motive on the part of a seller a family member) strategic shopping
or that a merchant is interested in sell- may yield a better price for a product
ing goods and services for more than (e.g., a toy) that the consumer (i.e., the
their cost to him or her. Preschool- child) wants immediately.
39
Glossary

autobiographical memory. Memory of narrative practices. Activities shared
personal events in one’s life. between people (such as a parent and
bartering. Trading by exchanging things of child) involving the use of language to
value rather than money. create a story or account, such as talk-
civics. Study of the privileges and obliga- ing about a shared experience, storytell-
tions of citizens. ing, or reading a book.
consumer. A person who uses (and thus natural phenomena. Things that can be
may purchase) something of value, such observed in the natural world, such as
as an object or a service. plants and animals, the stars, sun and
ecology. The field of biology concerned moon, insects, and other objects and
with the relationship between organisms events.
(including humans) and the environ- pro-social. Positive and cooperative; shar-
ment. ing with another child is an example of
economic exchange. Giving one thing of pro-social behavior.
value for another thing of value, such scale. The proportional relationship of a
as giving money to a shopkeeper to pur- unit on one area (such as a map) and
chase food. how it corresponds to a unit in the real
in-group bias. The tendency of people to world that it represents. A map scale is
prefer the characteristics of their own necessary for reading a map because
group. In young children, this does not one must understand how distances on
necessarily mean that they are negative the map correspond to distances in the
toward other groups. region that the map represents.
intuitive. Understanding something by social conventional standards. Expec-
one’s own reasoning rather than by tations for behavior that are based on
learning from another. maintaining social order, such as sitting
mental “scripts.” Understanding of how in the right place for circle time; they
things happen in familiar routines, such may differ depending on the context.
as what occurs when going to a restau- timeline. The linear sequence of events in
rant, getting ready for bed, and so on. time. Children understand, for example,
moral standards. Expectations for behav- that grandparents were born before par-
ior that are based on the needs and ents were, or that George Washington
welfare of people, such as not harming lived before Abraham Lincoln.
another; they tend to be consistent in
different situations.
40
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FOUNDATIONS IN
Science
T
he study of science is about capture their interest. From infancy,
finding out how the world they actively construct fundamental
works. Young children, like concepts of the physical and biologi-
scientists, have a sense of wonder cal world. Throughout the preschool
and natural curiosity about objects period, children develop scientific
and events in their environment. concepts and gain knowledge about
From infancy, they actively engage objects and events in their every-
in making sense of their world. They day environment. By the time they
build with blocks, move toy cars in enter school, they have a rich body of
different ways, collect rocks, and expectations and coherent sets of con-
play with dirt, water, and sand. Chil- cepts about living things and physi-
dren’s play and exploration have cal objects (Spelke 1990; Baillargeon
much in common with the scientific 1995; Gelman 2003; Inagaki and Hat-
processes employed by scientists. ano 2002; Bullock, Gelman, and Bail-
Through exploration and experimen- largeon 1982).
tation with objects and materials Children’s predisposition to learn
in their home or preschool environ- certain kinds of knowledge, and to
ment, children learn the properties think abstractly about concepts from
of objects: size, weight, shape, what biology and physics, support the early
they are made of, their function, and learning of science and pave the way
how they move. They discover what for competence in early schooling.
different animals and plants look Children’s natural inclination and abil-
like and how they live, grow, and ity to observe and try to understand
change over time. Everyday experi- their world, to develop conceptual
ences provide children with many knowledge, and to reason about many
opportunities to ask questions, to scientific concepts make science an
make sense of what they observe, excellent fit for the preschool environ-
and to build a coherent understand- ment. As such, there is growing rec-
ing of the world around them. ognition at the national level that sci-
Developmental research indicates ence is appropriate and important for
that the majority of children are ready preschool children (National Research
to learn and reason about many of Council 1999, 2000, 2007).
the scientific concepts that naturally
48
49
Science in Preschool self-confident learners. Science fosters

Science in preschool is built on chil- skills that are recognized as critical
dren’s natural curiosity and tendency for success in work and in life in the
to actively explore, experiment, and twenty-first century: critical thinking,
discover the nature of things in their problem solving, creativity, collabora-
everyday life. It is not about a discrete tion, and communication (Bellanca
body of knowledge or a list of facts and Brandt 2010). In scientific inves-
presented to children. This approach tigation, children become learners
to preschool science is consistent who ask questions, solve problems,
SCIENCE
with a constructivist approach on propose new ways of doing things,
learning, in which children construct and make decisions based on reason-
knowledge and build theories by inter- ing. Science experiences also develop
acting with the environment rather children’s ability to interact with peers
than passively taking in informa- and adults, share ideas, listen to oth-
tion (Chaille and Britain 2002). Sci- ers, and work cooperatively as compe-
ence in the preschool years is about tent group members—skills that are
children observing and investigating important to many areas of learning
objects and events in their environ- throughout life.
ment. Through a planned, play-based, Early science experiences provide
supportive environment, they expand authentic situations to learn and
their existing knowledge and experi- use language and literacy skills.
ence of their everyday world. Science is Science activities are typically hands-
about providing children with the basic on, providing multiple ways for young
skills of scientific inquiry, such as children to make meaning of social
observing and describing, comparing and verbal interactions and to build
and contrasting, classifying, experi- language skills, vocabulary, and gram-
menting and recording, and using the mar. Scientific exploration exposes
scientific vocabulary associated with young children to a variety of new
these skills. Science in the preschool words in meaningful contexts, result-
years not only prepares children for ing in vocabulary gains (Brenneman,
the scientific skills and knowledge they Stevenson-Boyd, and Frede 2009;
will encounter in school, but also sup- French 2004). Although science is
ports their development in different important for all children, it is espe-
domains, including social–emotional cially relevant to English learners and
development, language and literacy, many children with special needs, for
and mathematics. whom the development of new vocabu-
lary and language skills in authentic
Development of the Whole Child learning experiences is most effec-
(Science and Other Domains) tive. Conversations associated with
Science in preschool fosters a joy scientific inquiry tend to be rich in
of discovery and a positive approach language. Children develop both their
to learning. Making discoveries, iden- comprehension and expressive lan-
tifying solutions, and trying to figure guage skills as they make predictions
things out develops children’s initiative (“What will happen if?”), plan explora-
in learning and helps them become tions, describe findings, and explain
their reasoning (e.g., “Why did it
50
happen?”). They reason and talk about side of a pumpkin; order pumpkins by
future events and about past experi- size from smallest to largest; estimate
ences. They also learn how to maintain how many seeds are inside a pumpkin;
a coherent conversation, listen to oth- and try to count to find the number
ers, and stay on topic (Conezio and of seeds. Such processes of observing
French 2002). Science provides many and exploring pumpkins involve fun-
opportunities for a variety of prelit- damental mathematical concepts such
eracy and literacy experiences. Fiction as number, shape, size, volume, and
and nonfiction books about key sci- weight and the application of different
SCIENCE
ence content ideas serve as a basis for mathematical skills, including count-
conversations with adults and peers. ing, estimating, comparing, ordering,
Books also provide children with measuring, and classifying. (More
excellent opportunities for building about these mathematical skills can
vocabulary. Books with science con- be found in the California Preschool
tent build on children’s natural curios- Learning Foundations, Volume 1 [CDE
ity to explore and learn and foster an 2008].)
appreciation and enjoyment of read-
ing. Documentation and recording of The Preschool Foundations
information on charts, graphs, books, for Science
and science journals also illustrates The following section presents the
for children the link between spoken California preschool learning founda-
and written language and supports the tions for the domain of science. The
development of print concepts. preschool science foundations are
Scientific inquiry experiences also organized in four strands: Scientific
provide children with opportunities Inquiry, Physical Sciences, Life Sci-
to practice mathematical skills in a ences, and Earth Sciences. The orga-
meaningful way and to use math as a nization of the science foundations
tool for discovery. Fundamental math- is aligned with the Science Content
ematics concepts such as comparing, Standards for California Public Schools
classifying, and measuring are impor- (Kindergarten) and the National Sci-
tant skills in scientific investigations ence Education Content Standards
(Lind 1997). The natural integration (National Committee on Science Edu-
of mathematics and science begins in cation Standards and Assessment and
preschool. Consider, for example, the National Research Council 1996). The
experience of observing and explor- first strand, Scientific Inquiry, is about
ing the characteristics of a variety of basic language and skills that are fun-
pumpkins. Children may investigate damental to the process of doing sci-
and describe the pumpkins’ sizes, ence. The other three strands focus
weight, colors, shapes, and textures. on scientific content: developmentally
They may classify the pumpkins by appropriate core ideas and concepts
attributes; count the number in each in the areas of physical sciences, life
category of pumpkins; compare the sciences, and earth sciences. Within
circumferences of two pumpkins by each strand, the foundations describe
using a piece of yarn or a measuring the knowledge and skills most children
tape (with adults’ assistance); compare who are typically developing demon-
and contrast the inside and the out-
51
strate at around 48 and 60 months of that support healthy development. The

age. The foundations are designed with foundations are meant to give teachers
the assumption that scientific knowl- a general idea of what can be expected
edge and skills are developed through from children at around 48 and 60
everyday interactions, activities, and months of age. The examples are
play that are part of a supportive pre- meant to illustrate the different ways
school environment. The foundations children may display their competen-
are illustrated by examples that put cies; they are not assessment items
the scientific skill or knowledge into of age-appropriate development. Chil-
SCIENCE
context. The examples illustrate the dren are different from one another
manifestation of a scientific compe- and vary in their abilities, family and
tency through the behavior and rea- socioeconomic background, home
soning of a particular child or children. experiences, and cultural heritage
As depicted by the examples, children and values. Therefore, they may vary
at around 60 months of age typically in the way they develop and display
demonstrate an increased ability in the knowledge and skills described in
scientific skills and understanding these foundations.
compared with children of around 48 Children of comparable ages enter
months of age. This increased ability at preschool with various linguistic,
around 60 months as compared with social, and cognitive skills. Some chil-
the level at around 48 months may be dren may exhibit competencies that
manifested in a variety of ways, includ- go beyond the level described in a par-
ing a more sophisticated understand- ticular foundation, while others may
ing of some scientific concepts, more need more time to reach that level. The
frequent and more independent dis- amount and kind of support they need
play of scientific inquiry, and an ability varies from child to child. The applica-
to describe observations in greater tion of these foundations requires the
detail. teacher’s attention to the individual
characteristics of the child. Children
Individual, Cultural, and with disabilities or other special needs
Linguistic Variations may require adaptations and various
As stated in the National Science means of engagement and expression
Education Content Standards, “Sci- of scientific knowledge suited to their
ence is for all students, regardless of disability.
age, sex, cultural ethnic background, Children vary in their cultural back-
disabilities, aspirations, or interest grounds. As much as the development
and motivation in science” (National of scientific concepts is universal and
Committee on Science Education Stan- salient in all cultures, cultural back-
dards and Assessment and National ground may shape the development
Research Council 1996, 20). The goal of some scientific concepts. Research
in developing the preschool founda- indicates that the language to which
tions for science is to describe age- children are exposed and cultur-
appropriate scientific skills and knowl- ally shared belief systems may play a
edge that are typically displayed by role in children’s development of core
preschool children under conditions biological concepts and reasoning
52
(Anggoro, Waxman, and Medin 2005; begin to express themselves in Eng-

Waxman and Medin 2006; Hatano lish. They still acquire knowledge and
and others 1993). Some cultures, understanding of scientific concepts
for example, hold to a spiritual con- during this phase and may display
nection with nature, believing that their understanding nonverbally or in
humans are to live in harmony with their home language.
nature rather than be in control of it. Similarly, some children with spe-
(See the Bibliographic Notes for more cial needs (e.g., children with speech
examples.) Understanding of biological or language delay) may express them-
SCIENCE
concepts is also mediated by children’s selves by using nonverbal means of

everyday experiences with the natural communication, through gestures,
world. There are differences between drawings, and actions. Teachers
urban children and rural children in should be aware that when founda-
the same society (Waxman, Medin, tions or examples indicate verbal
and Ross 2007). Even a simple activ- expression, children might use any
ity, such as caring for a goldfish, can means of communication (including
enhance aspects of urban children’s home language, Sign Language, and
biological thought (Inagaki 1990). It communication devices) to display
is important that teachers be sensi- their knowledge. Having an adult to
tive to and respectful of the cultural encourage, prompt, and scaffold the
backgrounds, home languages, fam- use of expressive language, in Eng-
ily values, and everyday practices of lish and in the child’s home language
the children in their groups in the whenever possible, would support the
application of the science foundations. child’s overall development of scien-
Teachers should consider the different tific knowledge. For further informa-
perspectives held by children, based tion about English learners, consult
on children’s previous knowledge and the “Foundations in English-Language
experiences, and build on them to pro- Development” in Volume 1 of the Cali-
vide effective scientific experiences. fornia Preschool Learning Foundations
Children in California are diverse (CDE 2008).
in terms of the languages they speak,
and many are English learners. They Scientific Inquiry: The Skills
learn about scientific concepts and and Language of Science
skills while acquiring English. The sci- A fundamental assumption that
ence foundations emphasize the role of guided the development of the pre-
language and often rely on children’s school foundations for science is that
verbal abilities to describe their obser- children should learn about the con-
vations, make comparisons, record tent of science through active inquiry.
information, and share findings and Several national organizations, includ-
explanations. However, children may ing the American Association for the
also communicate their knowledge and Advancement of Science (1993) and
skills nonverbally—through gestures, the National Research Council (2007),
facial expressions, and actions. Many have reached a consensus about
children who are English learners, the importance of offering to chil-
for example, pass through a period of dren experiences of scientific inquiry,
observation and listening before they developing investigation skills, and
53
stimulating an interest in science (Lind the big leaves from the small ones.
1999; Martin 2001). In experiences Children may also investigate
of scientific inquiry, children actively objects and events by trying things to
explore and develop knowledge and see what happens. For instance, they
understanding of scientific ideas. They may investigate what happens to the
make observations, ask questions, toy car when it rolls down ramps with
plan investigations, gather and inter- bumpy or smooth surfaces, test what
pret information, propose explana- happens to plants placed in locations
tions, and communicate findings and with or without light, or test out their
SCIENCE
ideas. Although young children have ideas of how to use pipes to make
a natural tendency to explore their water go up and down in the water
environment, the processes and lan- table. They learn to make predictions
guage of scientific inquiry allow them about changes in materials and objects
to explore objects and events in a sys- based on their intuitive knowledge or
tematic way. The first strand in the past experience, and to test their pre-
preschool science foundations, Scien- dictions through observations or sim-
tific Inquiry, focuses on the skills and ple experiments. They can also make
language employed in the process of inferences and draw conclusions based
scientific explorations. on observable evidence, or based on
The first substrand, Observation and their knowledge of objects and events,
Investigation, focuses on children’s such as knowledge about categories of
ability to observe and investigate objects or the cause-and-effect rela-
objects and events in their everyday tionships in events. The foundations in
environment. Scientific investigations the first substrand include children’s
in the early years are largely based ability to ask questions, observe and
on systematic observations. Children describe observations, use scientific
use all their senses to gather informa- tools, compare and contrast, predict,
tion, and to construct meaning and and make inferences.
knowledge. To expand their observa-
tion, they may also use scientific tools Communicating: The Role
such as measurement or observation of Language in Scientific
tools, with the guidance of adults in Inquiry
their environment. For example, when The second substrand under Sci-
observing a leaf, they may use a mag- entific Inquiry, Documentation and
nifying glass to observe the “lines” Communication, is about processes
more clearly or use a ruler (or unit and skills employed to document and
blocks) to measure its length. Through record observations and to communi-
observation, children begin to rec- cate ideas and explanations to others.
ognize and describe similarities and Integral to the development of scien-
differences between one object and tific inquiry skills is children’s ability
another. This is when they can start to use language and specific terms to
to compare and contrast objects and describe their observations, plan explo-
events and classify them based on dif- rations, and communicate findings,
ferent attributes. For example, a child explanations, and ideas to others. Lan-
might separate all the “pointy” leaves guage allows children to become aware
from all the round leaves or separate of their thoughts and to express them
54
in words (oral, written, or signed). ing English learners and children with
Children who are English learners may special needs.
have an understanding of the scientific The use of language extends and
concepts being explored, but they have enriches scientific experiences and
not yet acquired the English vocabu- reinforces the growth of science
lary to describe their observations and content knowledge (Gelman and
express their thoughts. Observation Brenneman 2004; Eshach 2006;
and investigation experiences provide Michaels, Shouse, and Schweingruber
ideal opportunities to expose all chil- 2008). Interactions with adults and
SCIENCE
dren, including English learners, to peers are crucial for the development
new words and scientific vocabulary in of scientific ideas. The meaning of con-
English and in their home language, cepts is co-constructed—drawn from
whenever possible. both adult and child language—with
Children learn new content words adults providing heavy scaffolding to
in meaningful contexts (Conezio and facilitate the construction of knowledge
French 2002). They readily acquire and modeling language for the child.
vocabulary, such as new nouns, to Children use language when they
describe what they are observing engage in conversations to share their
(e.g., seeds, fins, nest, worms), and findings and explanations and com-
adjectives to describe and compare pare their own thinking with that of
the properties and characteristics others. Furthermore, when co-creating
of objects (e.g., transparent, heavier, scientific meaning, children learn that
sticky, longer). They learn the vocabu- there is often more than one possible
lary associated with the scientific con- answer and that even their teacher
cepts they investigate. For example, in may be unsure of the answer to the
learning about plants, they may learn question under investigation. Research
words such as stem, roots, soil, dirt, indicates that with adult guidance,
buds, and petals. Similarly, in learn- three- and four-year-old children can
ing about habitats of animals in their engage in complex discussions involv-
natural area, they may learn words ing observation, prediction, and expla-
such as nest, ocean, or shelter. Chil- nation (Peterson and French 2008).
dren also learn terms to refer to scien- Such discussions clarify children’s
tific procedures such as observe, mea- ideas and develop their understanding
sure, predict, experiment, and discover. of scientific phenomena (Jones, Lake,
The teacher models the use of such and Lin 2008). More important, guided
words across a variety of settings, and discussion can foster children’s atti-
children gradually begin to use these tude of inquiry and their willingness to
words while engaged in inquiry (e.g., share and discuss findings. Exposing
“I predict . . .,” “Let me check,” “I dis- children to “science talk” helps them to
covered seeds inside.”) (Gelman and establish a pattern of “scientific con-
Brenneman 2004; Gelman and others versations,” which may assist in devel-
2010). Scientific experiences also pro- oping patterns of “scientific thinking”
vide children with the context for using (Eshach 2006, 14).
language and building communication In scientific explorations, children
skills, important aspects of language use different forms of communica-
development for all children, includ- tion to record and document infor-
55
mation, from oral, signed, or written theories about physics and biology
language (with adults’ assistance) to (National Research Council 2000,
drawings, photos, graphs, charts, logs, 2007; Spelke 1990; Baillargeon 1995;
and maps. Documentation is help- Gelman 2003; Inagaki and Hatano
ful for facilitating the communication 2002; Bullock, Gelman, and Baillar-
skills of children. Recording in jour- geon 1982). For example, they have
nals provides opportunities for chil- a natural inclination and capacity
dren to express their ideas in words, to learn abstract concepts such as
and an adult can transcribe, whether growth and motion. It is therefore
SCIENCE
in English or in the child’s home lan- reasonable to take advantage of chil-
guage, what children have to say. For dren’s predispositions and to base the
example, children can use drawings content of preschool science on what
and words to document the growth of children already know so that chil-
their plant over time or the transfor- dren can build on and expand their
mation of a caterpillar to a butterfly. existing knowledge and understand-
The use of different forms of documen- ing (National Research Council 2000,
tation is particularly helpful for facili- 2007; Gelman and Brenneman 2004;
tating the communication of children Gelman and others 2010). The content
who are English learners and children covered in the preschool science foun-
with special needs. Children then have dations includes core scientific ideas
multiple ways to process information and concepts that, based on research,
and express their ideas. Documenting are developmentally appropriate for
information not only facilitates chil- young children.
dren’s understanding of the concepts The foundations in each of the three
they learn, but it also provides a tool strands (Physical Sciences, Life Sci-
for communication. Children, guided ences, and Earth Sciences) are orga-
by adults, can refer to their records at nized around two unifying concepts in
different times—for example, while dis- science: properties and characteristics
cussing and sharing their observations of objects and change. The first sub-
and thoughts with others. strand is about observing and explor-
ing the properties and characteristics
Scientific Knowledge: The of objects: properties and character-
Content of Science in Preschool istics of nonliving objects and materi-
Another central assumption that als (Physical Sciences), of living things
guided the preparation of these foun- (Life Sciences), and of earth materials
dations is that scientific content in and objects (Earth Sciences). Children
preschool should be based on chil- investigate the inside and outside of
dren’s existing intuitive knowledge objects, the physical properties (e.g.,
and interests related to science and on size, weight, shape, color, texture), the
concepts children can explore directly functions, and behaviors. In discover-
in their everyday environment. Pre- ing the properties and characteristics
school children are predisposed to of objects around them, children begin
learn about different topics in science. to recognize similarities and differences
From a very young age, children among objects and to categorize them
have intuitive ideas or naïve (folk) based on different characteristics.
56
The second substrand, or unify- materials, and the motion of objects.

ing concept, across the three strands Beyond the core list of foundations,
of scientific content is change. Most young children can also investigate
things in nature are in the process of other concepts in physical sciences—
becoming different, or changing. All for example, concepts related to sound
living things change over time through as well as to light and shadows. At a
stages of the life cycle as they grow very young age, children have a coher-
and develop, reproduce, and die. ent set of concepts about the physical
Changes occur in properties of mate- world. Piaget’s theory of how physi-
SCIENCE
rials (e.g., when solid materials are cal knowledge is constructed empha-
mixed with liquids) and in states of sizes children’s natural interest in
matter (e.g., from solids to liquids). examining objects, acting on them,
Changes also occur in the position and observing the object’s reactions
and motion of objects as objects are (Kamii and DeVries 1993). Through
pushed, pulled, rolled, or dropped. exploratory interactions with objects
Weather changes cause changes in and adult guidance and support,
the environment. According to Piaget, young children learn about the physi-
“knowledge develops through learning cal properties of objects (size, shape,
how objects move, how they change weight, texture, sound, flexibility, and
position and shape, and how they rigidity) and the language to describe
change in relation to themselves and objects and their properties. They also
other objects” (cited in Chaille and explore different materials (solid and
Britain 2002, 70). nonsolid substances) such as sand,
Young children can notice, observe, milk, and play dough and learn about
and reason about some changes in their inherent properties. Young chil-
objects and events. The second sub- dren have distinct concepts about size
strand in each of the three content and weight and learn words (heavier,
strands is about change: changes in smaller, and larger ) to describe and
nonliving objects and materials (Physi- compare these parameters. They
cal Sciences), changes in living things understand weight mostly in terms of
(Life Sciences), and changes in the “felt weight,” how heavy an object feels.
earth (Earth Sciences). The remain- Four- and five-year-olds also develop
der of this chapter summarizes some the concept of kinds of material (glass,
of children’s key early competencies plastic, wood, paper) and can dis-
in the areas of Physical Sciences, Life tinguish between the identity of the
Sciences, and Earth Sciences. Biblio- objects (a cup), the materials objects
graphic notes at the end of this section are made of (plastic, glass), and parts
offer references to the research inform- of objects (Smith, Carey, and Wiser
ing this chapter. 1985).
Preschool children can also reason
Physical Sciences: Early about changes and transformations
Concepts in Physics of objects and materials. Some trans-
The foundations in Physical Sciences formations involve the rearrange-
are about investigating characteris- ment of existing parts and structures
tics and physical properties of objects to produce a new structure, such as
and materials, changes in objects and when building with wooden blocks,
57
play dough, and other construction things move—an effective way to

materials. Other kinds of transforma- expand the vocabulary of all children,
tions involve changes in substance including English learners.
or consistency usually by combining
and mixing materials, such as sand,
Life Sciences: Early Concepts
dirt, water, paint, or the ingredients in in Biology
cooking activities. Preschoolers know The foundations in Life Sciences
that objects cut into pieces are no lon- are about core concepts related to
ger the same kind of objects but are properties and characteristics of living
SCIENCE
still the same materials (Smith, Carey, things and their growth and change
and Wiser 1985). A paper cup cut into over time. The foundations focus on
pieces is no longer a paper cup, but children’s ability to actively explore,
it is still the same material. They also observe, and study the characteristics
appreciate that a substance such as of animals and plants in the everyday
sugar continues to exist even after it environment, including appearances
has become invisible upon dissolving (insides and outsides), body parts,
in water (Au 1994). behaviors, habitats, and the changes
One immediate and visible way in and growth of living things over time.
which children interact with the physi- One basic and important under-
cal world involves the movement of standing of the biological and physi-
objects. Children’s play involves the cal world is the distinction between
movement of their own body and of animate objects (animals, people) and
other objects in their environment. inanimate objects (nonliving objects
Throwing balls, pushing toy cars, roll- and plants). Young children can distin-
ing wheeled toys, and riding bikes are guish between animate and inanimate
experiences in which preschool chil- objects on the basis of appearance,
dren produce movement by their own the capacity for independent action
actions. Through such experiences, (such as walking or sitting), and the
children discover the relationship experience of psychological states
between objects’ physical properties (the ability to remember, feel happy,
(weight, size) and objects’ motion and or express fear) (Gelman, Spelke, and
gain critical feedback about cause- Meck 1983). Children also differenti-
and-effect relationships involved in ate between animals and inanimate
everyday physics. They know that objects on the basis of the insides.
physical objects have to contact other They expect animate objects to have
objects to set them in motion and that blood and bones on the inside and
physical effects require the transmis- inanimate objects to have materials,
sion of force. For example, they can such as wood, cotton, and mechanical
reason about the kind of mechanism parts (Gelman 1990). They understand
(such as pulling, pushing, or rolling) that animate objects have internal
that may or may not produce a certain properties that enable them to move
outcome. In describing and reason- on their own and that inanimate
ing about such experiences, children objects cannot move themselves but
also learn the vocabulary to describe must be propelled into action by an
the speed, the direction, and the ways external force (Massey and Gelman
1988).
58
Young children have intuition about Hatano 2002). From a young age,
the essential properties of living objects they associate growth of plants and
and can distinguish them from nonliv- animals with feeding or watering.
ing objects (Gelman 2003). Children’s They expect events such as growth
intuitive understanding of living things or metamorphosis to have inherent
is affected by their day-to-day experi- internal causes outside human
ences with the natural world and the control. For example, they associate
cultural beliefs in their communities the growth of plants with natural
(Waxman and Medin 2006, 2007). The processes, such as sunshine and rain
SCIENCE
Bibliographic Notes expand on current (Hickling and Gelman 1995; Gelman

research about cultural differences 2003). By studying and comparing
in children’s reasoning about biologi- the needs of different animals and
cal concepts. In general, by the age of plants, children begin to realize that
five, children begin to grasp the com- some needs (e.g., food, water, air) are
monalities between animals and plants basic to all living things and develop
despite the differences in appearance a greater understanding of the basic
(Inagaki and Hatano 1996). They needs of living things—namely,
recognize that both animals and humans, animals, and plants.
plants, but not artifacts, can grow
and increase in size over time, heal Earth Sciences: Early Concepts
through regrowth when damaged, and Related to Earth
die (Rosengren and others 1991; Hick- The foundations in Earth Sciences
ling and Gelman 1995; Backscheider, are about actively exploring and inves-
Shatz, and Gelman 1993; Nguyen and tigating characteristics and physical
Gelman 2002). properties of earth materials in the
Children as young as three years immediate environment and about
old expect animals to change over time observing and describing changes in
due to growth (get bigger, not smaller) the earth, including the movement
and understand that living things and apparent changes of natural
undergo changes. By age five, chil- objects in the sky (e.g., sun, moon) and
dren realize that animals can undergo changes in the seasons and weather
metamorphosis (from a caterpillar to a by using weather-related vocabulary
butterfly) (Rosengren and others 1991). (e.g., sunny, cloudy, rainy, windy). The
Children also recognize the nature of Earth Sciences strand also includes a
plant growth and the innate potential foundation about preserving the earth
of seeds and understand some aspects and children’s awareness of the impor-
of the life cycle of plants (Hickling and tance of caring for and respecting the
Gelman 1995). By four and a half years environment.
of age, for example, children claim Children have daily contact with
that a seed taken out of an apple and many aspects of the earth—its soil,
planted will grow into an apple tree rocks, air and water, objects in the sky
(Gelman and Wellman 1991). (such as the sun and the moon), and
Growth and taking in food or water experiences of weather changes. Daily
constitute the core of young children’s interactions and direct contact with
concept of living things (Ingaki and objects and events in nature allow
59
children to observe and explore the healthy development (Kellert 2002). It

properties of earth materials and pat- also helps to raise their awareness of
terns of change in the world around issues related to the care and protec-
them. For example, young children tion of their own environment (Cohen
study the weather and seasonal and Horm-Wingerd 1993; Paprotna
changes in the environment, explore 1998).
different kinds of soil and rocks, exper- Preschool children can notice,
iment with water, and track patterns of observe, and describe day/night,
movement and change of the sun and weather, and seasonal changes but
SCIENCE
the moon (Worth and Grollman 2003). are not ready to grasp scientific
Children’s direct contact with the explanations for such earth phenom-
natural environment enhances their ena. Research indicates that young
connection to nature and constitutes children of different cultures start with
an essential and critical dimension of a similar concept of the earth—one
Summary Table of Science Foundations

Strand Substrand Foundation
1.0 Observation and Investigation 1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Scientific Inquiry 1.5
1.6
2.0 Documentation and Communication 2.1

2.2
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of 1.1

Nonliving Objects and Materials
Physical Sciences
2.0 Changes in Nonliving Objects and 2.1
Materials 2.2
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Living 1.1

Things 1.2
1.3
Life Sciences 1.4
2.0 Changes in Living Things 2.1

2.2
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Earth 1.1

Materials and Objects
Earth Sciences 2.0 Changes in the Earth 2.1

2.2
2.3
2.4
60
that is in conflict with current scien- Novak 1976; Nussbaum 1979; Sneider
tific theories. They initially believe that and Pulos 1983). Therefore they can-
the world is flat (not a sphere). From a not intuitively reason about everyday
development perspective, the appropri- phenomena such as the day-and-night
ateness of activities for young children cycle and causes of weather. Neverthe-
that focus on learning about planets less, observing and talking about day/
in space is highly questionable. Pre- night and seasonal changes form a
school children are not ready to grasp foundation on which a more advanced
the idea that the earth spins around concept of earth is developed in later
SCIENCE
or that the earth moves around the years.

sun (Kampeza 2006; Nussbaum and
61
Scientific Inquiry
1.0 Observation and Investigation
1.1 Demonstrate curiosity and raise 1.1 Demonstrate curiosity and an

simple questions about objects and increased ability to raise questions
events in their environment. about objects and events in their
environment.
SCIENCE
Examples Examples
• Wondering why the toy car does not roll down • When playing in the block area, creates a sloped
the ramp, picks up the car and discovers that it is ramp with blocks and rolls different toy cars
missing one wheel. down the ramp. Checks which car goes the far
• When building with blocks, puts more and more thest when rolling down the ramp.
blocks on top to find out how tall the tower can • While digging in the mud, sees a worm and won
get without falling apart. ders, Does it live in the ground? I see another
• Participates in preparing play dough, and asks, one. Is it their home? Another child observes the
“How did it turn blue?” worm and asks, “Why does the worm not have
eyes? How does it see to move?”
• Sees a snail and wonders, Why is it hiding inside?
When is it coming out? • On the playground, looks up and asks the
teacher, “How come I can see the moon in the
• A child who is nonverbal gestures to his friend to daytime?”
join in observing how the guinea pigs (the class
pets) eat their food. He points, on his communica • Observes a ladybug in the yard and asks what
tion board, to the photo of a child eating and then would happen if she put it in a box with dirt and
points to the guinea pigs. grass. Asks, “Can it be our class pet?”
• During lunchtime, mixes her sour cream with • While sorting different rocks, picks up one of the
applesauce, and notices that sour cream changes rocks and washes it with soap and water. Then
its color. Then tries it out to find out what it tastes gets the magnifying glass to observe it more
like. closely.
• Picks up small “roly poly” bugs from under a rock • On a nature walk in the preschool yard, notices
and asks, “Why do they roll up in a ball?” holes in the ground, points to the holes and calls
out to get the teacher’s attention, and asks,
“What’s there?”
62 | Scientific Inquiry
1.0 Observation and Investigation (continued)
1.2 Observe1 objects and events in the 1.2 Observe objects and events in the
environment and describe them. environment and describe them in
greater detail.
Examples Examples
• Observes the inside and outside of a pumpkin by • Observes a sweet potato growing in a jar, indi
using different senses and describes how it looks, cates the buds and roots, and may also com
SCIENCE
smells, and feels. Communicates to a bilingual municate, “There are white roots going down and
assistant, “It has many seeds. It is soft inside.” small leaves.” Takes a photograph of the sweet
• Observes a cylinder rolling down the slide and potato, with the teacher’s assistance, to docu
communicates, “Look, how fast it is rolling. Let ment its growth.
me try it again.” • On a rainy day, participates in observing rain by
• Tastes a piece of red apple and a piece of green using all senses and describes what the rain
apple and describes what they taste like. drops look like and how they feel, sound, smell,
and taste. Records her observations through
• A child with a visual impairment touches the drawings and dictations in her journal.
bark of a tree and communicates, “It feels a little
scratchy when I touch the bark.” • While exploring a rain stick, shakes it and listens
to the sound it makes. Children share their obser
• After dropping different balls onto the floor, listens vations: “I can hear something inside, like beans
to and compares the different sounds they make. or small rocks”; “It sounds like rain”; “It looks
Indicates which ball makes a loud sound and like a long stick”; “It is made of wood”; “It has a
which ball makes a soft sound. drawing on it with many colors.”
• On a walk around the neighborhood or school • A child with visual impairments manipulates sea
yard, squats down to smell some blooming flow shells on the sand table and describes what she
ers and tells a another child, “It smells so good!” touches: “It’s bumpy and round,” or “It’s smooth
• Observes a quilt she brought from home and and flat.”
describes the different fabrics of the squares • Observing a snail closely, describes it: “It is hard
(e.g., silk, flannel, corduroy) and textures like a rock. Its body looks very soft.” Another
(e.g., soft, furry, rough, smooth). child comments, “It moves very, very slowly. It
has two long pointy things (antennas) sticking
out.”
• A child with a speech delay draws a picture of
the praying mantis inside the terrarium. When
describing her drawing to the teacher, the child
attempts to use words and points to her drawing
and to the praying mantis. The teacher models
words and the child nods her head yes and says,
“praying mantis.”
• Observes the caterpillar (or a picture of a cater
pillar) closely and draws a picture of a caterpillar
in her journal. Communicates, “It has stripes—
yellow, white, and black—like a pattern.”
1. Other related scientific processes, such as classifying, ordering, and measuring, are addressed in the foundations
for mathematics.
Scientific Inquiry | 63

1.3 Begin to identify and use, with adult 1.3 Identify and use a greater variety
support, some observation and of observation and measurement
measurement tools. tools. May spontaneously use an
appropriate tool, though may still
need adult support.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• While exploring, studying, or examining leaves, • Asks for a magnifying glass to observe a worm
uses a magnifying glass, with the teacher’s assis more closely and communicates, “I need the
tance, to observe a leaf closely. magnifying glass to look very close.”
• In a soil investigation, a child with a disability uses • Fascinated with the growth of her green beans,
an adaptive shovel to collect soil in the yard. a child points to the ruler and says to her teacher,
• Before going on a nature walk, the teacher “I want to see how big it is.”
handed children some observation tools. One • While investigating worms, a child with a physical
child points to her hand lenses and tweezers and disability uses hand lenses fitted with a bigger
communicates, “We are going to look for very grip to observe worms closely.
small creatures.” • Uses tweezers to group small things found in soil.
• Refers to the measuring tape and shares with his • While preparing dough, child uses a measuring
teacher that his father also uses the measuring cup to pour one cup of flour.
tape at home.
• Uses an eyedropper to add a few drops of food
• Using a measuring cup, helps the teacher mea color to a mixture of glue and water.
sure two cups of flour during a cooking activity.
• Uses a balance scale to find out which apple is
• While observing ants with a magnifier, says, “Look heavier and gestures to the lower pan of the scale
how big the seed is. It is bigger than the ant.” to indicate it is heavier.
• In the block area, child stacks blocks to his
height and counts the blocks to measure his
height.
1.4 Compare and contrast objects 1.4 Compare and contrast objects and
and events and begin to describe events and describe similarities and
similarities and differences. differences in greater detail.
Examples Examples
• Observes rocks and sorts them by size, indicating • Observes plants in pots and communicates, “This
which are big and which are small. one (indicating the one watered) is bigger, and the
SCIENCE
• Using different senses, observes a watermelon, leaves are green. But this one did not grow. The
contrasts the inside and outside, and commu leaves are yellow and soft. It looks dead.”
nicates: “The outside is green and hard, and the • Observes different kinds of squash by using sight
inside is red and soft.” and touch and communicates similarities and
• When trying to roll different objects down the differences: “These are more round, but this is
slide, demonstrates that the ball can roll down, long. This squash is yellow and green and is very
but the block slides and does not roll. smooth, but that one feels bumpy.”
• Sees images in a picture book and describes • Contrasts the objects that can roll down a ramp
her observation: “Frogs are green, and toads are (e.g., balls, marbles, wheeled toys, cans) with
brown.” objects that cannot roll down (a shovel, block,
book). For example, refers to objects that can roll
• Demonstrates how the truck is very slow and the down and communicates, “These are round and
yellow car is very fast. have wheels.”
• Compares a hummingbird egg to a chicken egg • Contrasts a butterfly with a caterpillar (while
(while observing pictures or actual objects) and observing pictures or actual objects); for example,
describes their similarities: “They are round and communicates that the butterfly can fly and the
white and look the same.” caterpillar cannot and that the butterfly has a dif
• A child with a speech delay dips his fingers in ferent shape and different colors.
cups of water and indicates which cup has colder • Observes and describes what the sky looks like
water. on a foggy day and how it is different on a sunny
• While eating a tangerine during snack time, com day.
ments, “This tangerine doesn’t have seeds. One • Compares creases in the palm of his hand to a
time I ate a tangerine, and it had so many seeds.” leaf and communicates, “They both have stripes
all over. Some lines are tiny, and some are long,
like this one.”
• When working in the garden, uses a real shovel
and describes how it is similar to or different from
the toy shovel in the sandbox area.
• Uses a piece of yarn to find out, with adult assis
tance, which of two pumpkins is larger.
1.5 Make predictions and check them, 1.5 Demonstrates an increased

with adult support, through concrete ability to make predictions and
experiences. check them (e.g., may make more
complex predictions, offer ways to
test predictions, and discuss why
predictions were correct or incorrect).
SCIENCE
Examples Examples
• Explores an apple and makes a prediction: • After planting sunflower seeds, communicates,
“Maybe it has six seeds inside.” After the teacher “The seeds will grow, and there will be sunflow
cuts it open, counts the seeds. ers.” Then, observes the plant daily for changes.
• When asked to predict, “What will happen if we • In response to the question “What do you think
mix the water with red,” points to a cup with red will happen if water is added to the flour?” pre
liquid. Then tests his prediction by adding food dicts, “The flour will feel sticky and will not look
color to a glass of water. like flour anymore. The water and the flour will
• Looks through the window on a windy day and mix together.” Another child suggests, “Let’s pour
predicts, “More leaves will fall down.” some water and see what happens.”
• A child makes a prediction about how far the toy • Cuts open a tomato (which, by scientific defini
car will travel down the ramp by indicating the tion, is considered a fruit), observes what it looks
distance with a gesture. Then he pushes the car like inside and comments, “I thought there would
down to test his prediction. be no seeds inside the tomato, but now I see tiny
seeds inside.”
• Predicts that the dark green object has “gooey
stuff” inside. • At the sandbox, child predicts that if sand is
poured over the spinning wheel, the wheel will
• Predicts that the worm will move if it is touched. spin, communicating: “It also turned when I
The teacher replies, “Let’s touch the worm gently poured water on it.”
and see what it does.”
• While participating in an experiment to test the
• After making a prediction about which block is effect of sunlight on plants, predicts, “The plant
heavier, uses the balance scale to test her predic near the window will grow, and the plant in the
tion. closet will die.”
• As part of investigating different seeds, observes • Brings an object to the water table and predicts
a coconut, and makes predictions about what whether it will sink or float. Then puts the object in
is inside. Then says, “Now let’s crack it and see water and observes what happens. Comments to
what’s inside. Let’s taste it.” his friend, “Yes, I knew it! It is floating.”
1.6 Make inferences and form general 1.6 Demonstrate an increased ability
izations based on evidence. to make inferences and form
generalizations based on evidence.
Examples Examples
• Looks outside the window and observes the trees • Observes many different fruits and vegetables and
SCIENCE
moving. Infers that it is windy outside: “Look at communicates that fruits have seeds and veg
the trees, it is windy!” etables do not.
• Notices that a plant is wilted and says that it • Observing the toy cars going down the ramp,
needs some water. infers that they go down fastest when the ramp is
• Observes that the soil outside is wet and commu smooth.
nicates, “It rained last night.” • Observes plants in highly lit and dimly lit locations
• Observes the pet rabbit eating and communi in the room and communicates that plants need
cates,” It must be very hungry.” light to grow.
• Walks into the room, smells the aroma of muffins • Observes a picture of an unfamiliar animal.
from the kitchen, and says, “Mmm, did someone Notices the wings and communicates, “It is a bird.
make muffins?” I know it, because it has wings.”
• Observes a picture of a child dressed in a jacket, a
scarf, mittens, and a hat and communicates that it
must have been very cold outside.
2.0 Documentation and Communication
2.1 Record observations or findings in 2.1 Record information more regularly

various ways, with adult assistance, and in greater detail in various ways,
including pictures, words (dictated to with adult assistance, including
adults), charts, journals, models, and pictures, words (dictated to adults),
photos. charts, journals, models, photos, or
by tallying and graphing information.
SCIENCE
Examples Examples
• “Records” in her journal what the pumpkin looks • “Records” in his journal, by gluing photos of the
like on the inside and draws an orange oval with lima beans before they sprouted and after sprout
many dots inside. The teacher writes down the ing, how they grew. Describes the growth of lima
child’s observation in the home language: “It is beans.
soft inside and has lots of seeds.” • Collects information by using tally marks to find
• Observes the weather and records on a group out how many children have pets and how many
chart, using picture cards, whether it is sunny, do not have pets.
rainy, or windy outside. • After observing the sky, records in her journal
• In collaboration with friends, creates a collage what the moon looked like by drawing a picture of
with rocks and leaves collected during a walk the moon in the shape of a banana. Describes her
around the yard or neighborhood, and refers to drawing, and the teacher writes down her words.
it when describing the items collected on their • After coming back from a walk in the neighbor
walk. hood, creates with other children a model of a
• Refers to a photo of herself when she was a baby building they observed, using different materials
when talking about how much she grew. such as boxes of different sizes, paper rolls, and
• A child who is nonverbal records, on a flannel plastic bottles.
board with flannel cutouts representing different • A child with a physical disability draws a picture
food items, the kinds of food he ate for snack at of the leaf she observed, using a thick or adapted
group time. crayon, and dictates a description to the teacher:
• Observes some silkworms raised in the class “The leaf has a little cut in it. It has a lot of lines.”
room terrarium and comments, “They are always • After an investigation of fruits and vegetables,
on the leaves!” Draws a picture of the silkworm records on a chart with other children which
and the leaf in her journal. foods have seeds inside and which ones do not.
They glue pictures of different fruits on one side of
the paper and pictures of vegetables on the back.
68
2.0 Documentation and Communication (continued)
2.2 Share findings and explanations, 2.2 Share findings and explanations,
which may be correct or incorrect, which may be correct or incorrect,
with or without adult prompting. more spontaneously and with greater
detail.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• Building a tower with blocks, explains, “First I put • While mixing colors near the art table, explains
the big blocks and then the small blocks. Now it that green resulted from mixing blue and yellow.
does not fall.” • Explains that a plant turned brown because
• A child with a language delay points to a big pud “we did not put it near the window like the other
dle in the yard, looks up to the sky and explains, plant.”
“Rain.” • When talking about what is needed in order to
• Records the growth of a plant in the garden, and grow, communicates, “We need food. The food
communicates, “The plant grew from a seed, just goes into the stomach and then it makes us
like the flower in the story.” strong and helps our body to grow.”
• Explains that the truck goes really fast because • When talking with children about why they think
it has big wheels, even though it is an incorrect some things slid faster and others slower when
explanation. letting go of them at the top of the slide, children
• Explains that soap is needed to make bubbles. come up with different explanations: “It got stuck
because it is heavy,” “It is slippery,” “It is bumpy,”
• When asked, “What happened to the water?” “It has wheels.”
explains, “It is hard now because we put it in the
freezer.” • Observing the leaves and twigs on the ground,
explains that the wind was strong and blew all the
leaves and twigs down.
• When asked whether a puppet can eat, explains,
“A puppet cannot eat because it does not have a
real mouth. You can draw him a mouth, but it is
not real like this” (points to own mouth).
69
Physical Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Nonliving Objects

and Materials
1.1 Observe, investigate, and identify 1.1 Demonstrate increased ability to

the characteristics and physical observe, investigate, and describe in
SCIENCE
properties of objects and of solid greater detail the characteristics and
and nonsolid materials (size, weight, physical properties of objects, and
shape, color, texture, and sound). of solid and nonsolid materials (size,
weight, shape, color, texture, and
sound).
Examples Examples
• Tries to push a toy car through a maze and • Plays a game in which she describes characteris
realizes that the car is too big and cannot go tics of an object she has brought from home, and
through. Gets a smaller car and tries again. the group guesses what object is in the bag. For
• Holds a wood block and a foam block. Refers to example, communicates, “It is round, it is shiny,
the wood block when asked which one is heavier. you can play with it.”
• While making a maraca, discovers that filling it • Uses a balance scale to find out which of two
with sand makes a softer sound and filling it up balls is heavier.
with pebbles makes a louder sound. • Observes two different xylophones by using her
• Builds a cave with assorted blocks and commu senses (sight, hearing, touch) and describes the
nicates, “You need to put the cardboard blocks similarities and differences: “This one is made of
first. They are bigger.” wood and is more heavy,” “They sound different,”
“This one is more loud,” “This one has many
• Playfully discovers what sinks and what floats. colors, and this one does not.”
For example, puts a leaf in the water and com
municates, “The leaf is not going down.” • Blows with a straw on different objects such as
a pencil, a piece of paper, a ball, a feather, and
• Balances a tower made of empty milk cartons a leaf and tries to make them move. With assis
and wooden blocks. Uses the milk cartons tance, records which objects moved and which
on top and the wooden blocks on the bottom did not by gluing pictures of the objects on a
“because these are more strong.” large piece of paper.
• Participates in making a collage using materials • Tests and sorts objects (e.g., wood blocks,
of different textures (sandpaper, paper cloth, rib paper, clear plastic cups, aluminum foil) based on
bons, rocks, sand, feathers) and describes each whether they are opaque or transparent. Gestures
material: “The sandpaper feels rough, but the to the teacher and demonstrates how she can
ribbon feels smooth.” see through a plastic cup, “I can see you.” The
• Digs in the sandbox and communicates, “The teacher replies, “You can see through the cup.
sand is hot over there, but here it is cold.” The plastic cup is transparent.”
• Connects several clear tubes near the water • During a cooking activity, explores sugar, flour,
table and gets excited when discovering how salt, powdered gelatin, or cornstarch by using the
to manipulate the tubes to make the water flow senses (touch, smell, and taste). Children commu
faster. nicate their observations: “All of them are white,”
“The flour is very soft,” “The sugar looks more like
• Explains, after preparing applesauce, that apple
salt, but it tastes sweet.”
sauce tastes like an apple, but it looks very
different: “It is soft, and you have to eat it with a
spoon.”
70 | Physical Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Nonliving Objects and Materials (continued)

Examples Examples
• Working with clay, notices its similarities to play

dough and communicates, “It is soft, and you
can make different things with it just like with play
dough, but you have to press it harder with your
fingers.”
• After participating in making orange juice and
SCIENCE
lemonade, describes what each juice tastes like

and participates in a discussion, guided by the
teacher, of how the orange juice and lemonade
are similar or different. After listening to the story
of the three little pigs, holds a piece of straw,
stick, and brick, and says, “The wolf can’t blow
the brick house down because it is stronger.”
Physical Sciences | 71
2.0 Changes in Nonliving Objects and Materials

2.1 Demonstrate awareness that objects 2.1 Demonstrate an increased aware

and materials can change; explore ness that objects and materials can
and describe changes in objects and change in various ways. Explore and
materials (rearrangement of parts; describe in greater detail changes in
change in color, shape, texture, objects and materials (rearrangement
temperature). of parts; change in color, shape,
SCIENCE
texture, form, and temperature).
Examples Examples
• At a painting easel, mixes red paint and yellow • While participating in making pancakes,
paint and communicates to her friend, “Look, it describes what happens when the flour, milk,
turned orange.” and eggs are all mixed together, commenting,
• Comments on changes from cream to butter after “Let’s add more milk and see what happens.”
shaking cream in a jar: “Look, it’s a ball.” • While making lemonade, mixes water with lemon
• Participates in making guacamole and demon juice and makes a prediction about how it is
strates how she can make it soft by pressing and going to taste.
mixing the avocado with a fork. • While experimenting with water, discovers that
• Notices that the ice in the cup melted into water. water “soaks in” when poured on a piece of
Puts his fingers in the water, and gestures to the sponge or paper towel, but not when poured on
teacher to come over and feel the water. a plastic plate.
• Notices how paper soaked in water changes: “It • Records in her journal how the ice in the bowl
gets very mushy.” “It breaks when I lift it up.” His melted: “I touched it with my finger, and it was
friend squeezes the soaked paper and communi very cold and very hard.” The teacher asks,
cates, “Look, the water comes out.” “What happened to the ice after lunch was
over?” The child describes her drawing: “The ice
• A child comments, “Yeah . . . bubbles,” after the was very small, and there was water in the bowl.”
teacher added soap to the water table. The child The teacher writes the child’s words down and
points to the soap and communicates, “Put more rephrases the child’s description: “Yes, the ice
soap. Pleeease! I want more bubbles.” has melted.”
• While playing with clay, communicates to her • Notices that the play dough became hard and
friend, “Let’s smooth it first and make a pancake” communicates, “Because we left it out all night.”
and begins flattening the clay with the palms of
her hand. Her friend pokes holes in it, using her • In response to a question of what will happen if
finger, and then makes it flat again. blue powder is added to water, children predict,
“The water will turn blue,” “The water and the
• While playing with blue and yellow play dough, paint will mix together, and it will be blue paint.”
observes that the mixture became green and Another child suggests, “Let’s pour some paint in
communicates, “Hey, teacher, I made green.” the water and see what happens.”
• Constructs an airplane by using pipe cleaners
and communicates to his friend, “I made an air
plane, but now I am going to make something
else.” The child converts it into a spaceship by
tweaking and bending the pipe cleaners and
rearranging their configuration.
• After putting differentcolor crayons on top of a
hot plate, the teacher has asked, “What do you
think might happen?” Children predict, “It will get
burned, it will get hot, and then they will mix.”
72 | Physical Sciences
2.0 Changes in Nonliving Objects and Materials (continued)
2.2 Observe and describe the motion of 2.2 Demonstrate an increased ability
objects (in terms of speed, direction, to observe and describe in greater
the ways things move), and explore detail the motion of objects (in terms
the effect of own actions (e.g., of speed, direction, the ways things
pushing pulling, rolling, dropping) move), and to explore the effect
on making objects move. of own actions on the motion of
objects, including changes in speed
SCIENCE
and direction.
Examples Examples
• While playing bowling in the yard, demonstrates • While rolling balls down the slide, refers to the
to his friend, how to roll the ball hard to get it to steeper slide and communicates in the home
the end. language: “This one is faster. Look how fast this
• Directs a small toy boat on the water table and ball rolls down.”
pushes harder, on bumping into obstacles, “to • While playing with toy cars, notices that it is
make it go over the bumps.” easier to move them on the floor and communi
• Excitedly comes up with the idea of using the cates to his friend, “Let’s move over there. Cars
wagon to move a stack of blocks. Puts the blocks go faster than on the carpet.”
in a wagon and pulls the wagon from one area of • Observes a toy train going slowly on the tracks
the yard to another. and tries different ways to make it go faster; for
• Makes a prediction about where the toy truck will example, empties one of the cars or removes
stop after rolling down the ramp. some of the cars.
• Blows through a straw on a PingPong ball and • After throwing the ball again, communicates to
discovers that it makes the ball move. the teacher, “Now I threw it even more far. Let’s
measure how far.” They measure the distance
• Plays with a train and describes how it moves: between the child and the ball and record it on a
“It starts here and goes round and round like this. chart.
And then comes back.”
• Observes a feather falling and describes, “It falls
• A child with a new wheelchair demonstrates to down very slowly. It does not fall straight down.
her peers how she uses the ramp to go up and It goes from side to side until it drops.”
down instead of using the stairs.
• A child in a new wheelchair discovers that it is
• Understands the effect of peddling a tricycle more difficult to roll on a carpet than on the floor
faster and says, “Look, teacher. Watch me go and that he cannot roll on sand: “If I roll into the
faster. I push the pedals harder.” sand, I’ll get stuck.”
• Places two toy cars at the top of a ramp and
releases them at the same time. Observes which
one reaches the bottom first.
73
Life Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Living Things

1.1 Identify characteristics of a variety 1.1 Identify characteristics of a greater

of animals and plants, including variety of animals and plants and
appearance (inside and outside) and demonstrate an increased ability
SCIENCE
behavior, and begin to categorize to categorize them.
them.
Examples Examples
• After cutting open a variety of fruits and discover • Sorts fruits, such as mangoes, avocados, apples,
ing seeds inside, begins to recognize that fruits grapes, peaches, and apricots, based on whether
have seeds. When asked to predict what is inside they have one seed or many seeds inside. Points
an apricot, a child points to a seed and says to the avocado and apricot and says in the home
“seed.” language, “Look! They both have one big seed.”
• Observes a squirrel climbing up the tree and • During circle time, shares that one night they saw
notices that it has a long tail. opossums in their yard.
• On a nature walk in the neighborhood or school • Observes and identifies the characteristics of a
yard, identifies short plants and tall plants. A child ladybug (e.g., its shape, size, colors, and how it
who is an English learner points to or indicates a moves) and shares observations with others when
eucalyptus tree nearby and communicates, “Big prompted by the teacher: “The ladybug is round
tree.” and has tiny legs. It has black dots.”
• When observing and identifying characteristics • Observes plants and identifies the different parts
of a ladybug, a child comments, “The ladybug is (e.g., root, stem, buds, leaves).
very small.” The child records in his journal his • While observing images of a variety of ducks on
observation of the ladybug by drawing a picture the computer, recognizes that ducks come in dif
of what it looks like. The child may dictate his ferent colors.
observation to an adult.
• Contrasts butterflies with moths and communi
• Looks at an informational book and identifies cates that butterflies are more colorful and have
which animals can fly. bigger wings.
• Sorts leaves, making piles of pointed and • When talking about plant roots that we eat, one
rounded leaf shapes, and communicates, “These child says, “potatoes,” another says, “taros,” and
are circle leaves, and these are pointy.” another says, “yams.”
• Explores a variety of seeds and sorts them by
size. Communicates, “These seeds are big, and
these are very tiny.”
• Observes a cactus and tells a friend, “They have
needles. I got poked once.”
74 | Life Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Living Things (continued)
1.2 Begin to indicate knowledge of body 1.2 Indicate greater knowledge of body
parts and processes (e.g., eating, parts and processes (e.g., eating,
sleeping, breathing, walking) in sleeping, breathing, walking) in
humans and other animals.2 humans and other animals.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• After lunch, indicates his tummy and communi • When using a stethoscope in the dramatic play
cates, “I ate so much. My stomach is full.” area, tells another child, “Look, when I breathe,
• Describes how his new sibling “sleeps all the time my chest goes in and out.”
because he is still a baby.” • Explains that when the caterpillar eats, the food
• Points to his head, and communicates in the goes to its stomach, and it poops.
home language, “My brain helps me think.” • After a discussion about body parts, rides the
• Touches her hand and presses on her skin when bicycle and communicates, “I am using the mus
asked if she can feel her bones. cles in my arms and my legs.”
• Points to a picture of an elephant in a book and • Participates in a discussion about the outside and
tells another child, “Big poop! ’Cause they eat so inside of the body. Touches his arms and commu
much!” nicates, “I can feel my skin, and inside my body I
can feel my muscles and bones.”
• Makes the connection between facial parts and
senses (eyes for vision, ears for hearing). For • When asked, what is inside the body of the hen,
example, covers her eyes and says, “Now I can predicts that there is blood, bones, and a heart
not see.” inside.
• After running, touches his chest to feel his heart • After a physical activity, sits back in her chair and
beating. says, “I jumped so much. I feel my heart.”
• Explains, “We can walk with our legs, and birds fly
with their wings.”
2. The knowledge of body parts is also addressed in the California Preschool Foundations (Volume 2) for health. In science, it also
includes the knowledge of body processes. Knowledge of body parts is extended to those of humans and other animals.
Life Sciences | 75
1.3 Identify the habitats of people and 1.3 Recognize that living things have
familiar animals and plants in the habitats in different environments
environment and begin to realize that suited to their unique needs.
living things have habitats in different
environments.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• Carefully digs in the mud, excitedly looking for • Shares that on his trip to visit his grandma,
worms or bugs. who lives in the desert, he saw many cactuses.
• While playing in the yard, observes a squirrel Explains, “The cactuses live in the desert.”
climbing up the tree and communicates, “I saw a • After the rain, picks up a stick and stirs a puddle
squirrel in my yard. It lives in a tree.” to look for worms. Explains, “I know they live
• On a walk around the neighborhood or school there because one time I saw worms coming out.”
yard, the teacher directs the child’s attention to a • Participates in building a nest. Using tweezers,
bird nest. The child comments, “A bird lives there. collects twigs and leaves in the yard: “Just like
Where is the bird?” birds use their beaks.”
• Draws a picture of her home and describes who • Explains that she lives in an apartment, but her
lives in it: “Grandma, dad, mom, and me.” aunt lives in a house.
• While looking at a picture book of different ani • Observes a spider in its web and explains, “The
mals, demonstrates with his body how the fish spider has a web so it can catch food.”
and the dolphins swim in the ocean. • Sorts photos of animals according to those living
• A child who is visually impaired holds a worm and in water, those living on land, and those who can
says, “Where is the dirt? I want to put him back.” live in both the water and on the land.
• On a neighborhood walk, children come across a • A teacher who just returned from a nature trip
hole in the ground. Although one child attempts shares photos of his experiences. In one of the
to step on it, another child says, “Don’t step on it. photos, he is standing next to a pond. The chil
A gopher lives there.” dren ask, “Did you see frogs?” “Were there any
fish?”
• In the course of a conversation about the habitats
of different animals, child says, “The sea lion lives
in the ocean, and the bear lives in a cave.”
76 | Life Sciences
1.4 Indicate knowledge of the difference 1.4 Indicate knowledge of the difference
between animate objects (animals, between animate and inanimate
people) and inanimate objects. For objects, providing greater detail, and
example, expect animate objects recognize that living things (humans,
to initiate movement and to have animals, and plants) undergo
different insides than inanimate biological processes such as growth,
objects. illness, healing, and dying.
SCIENCE
Examples Examples
• While in the yard, points to a ladybug and tells his • Communicates, “This rolypoly is alive. It looks
friend, “It is a real one! Look, it’s moving.” like a little ball when I hold it in my hand, but when
• Does not expect his toy puppy to move around. I put it on the ground it starts moving.”
When asked, explains, “It doesn’t have real legs.” • Shares with his teacher, “My puppy is sick. We
• Communicates, “It won’t hurt you, teacher; it’s took him to the vet to check his heart and bones,
not real,” while wiggling a wooden snake at and the doctor gave him medicine.”
teacher’s leg. • When asked whether the toy rabbit can actually
• Communicates that a toy cat cannot eat because run, replies, “This rabbit is just a pretend rabbit. It
“it is not real” and explains, “It has soft stuff can’t really run.”
inside.” • After listening to a story, explains,” Of course this
• While observing a snail, communicates, “It only story is not real, because trees can’t really talk
looks like a rock, but it has a head and can and walk.”
move.” • While playing in the yard, a child hits a bush and
• Puts a toy fish in a bowl of water and communi a flower falls off. The child communicates, “It will
cates, “It does not swim in the water like this fish grow again.”
(points to the one in the aquarium) because it is • Holds a broken doll and communicates, “We need
not real.” to fix it.” However, for a living thing, may commu
• Communicates, “My puppy is going to get big, nicate, “My friend broke his arm. He has to wear a
but this one (showing toy) won’t.” cast for a lot of days, until his bone gets better.”
• Communicates, “I had a goldfish, but one day it
got very sick and died.”
Life Sciences | 77
2.0 Changes in Living Things

2.1 Observe and explore growth and 2.1 Observe and explore growth in
changes in humans, animals, humans, animals, and plants
and plants and demonstrate an and demonstrate an increased
understanding that living things understanding that living things
change over time in size and in other change as they grow and go through
capacities as they grow. transformations related to the life
SCIENCE
cycle (for example, from a caterpillar
to butterfly).
Examples Examples
• Records in his journal, with adult assistance, a • Draws in her journal a picture of her plant and
footprint. Compares it to a footprint from three communicates to her teacher, “These are the
months ago and communicates, “I am four. I have seeds inside, and then they grew, and we saw the
bigger feet now.” little leaves, and then the leaves grew more.”
• Observes the beans she is growing and makes a • Observes tadpoles closely and communicates,
prediction about how tall they will grow. “They are so much bigger now. Later the legs will
• Communicates, “Teacher, I’m big now. I can turn come out. They will be frogs.”
on the light.” • After planting the sunflower seeds, makes a pre
• Looks at a picture book and explains, “This is the diction: “The seeds will grow, and there will be
horsey when it was a baby, and then it grew and sunflowers.”
became this big (indicating a picture of a bigger • Fascinated with the growth of the larvae (caterpil
horse).” lar) in the room, comments, “Oh, these are bigger.
• Communicates, “My baby brother had no teeth, Maybe we should give the small ones more food.”
but now he has teeth.” • Looks at the picture book The Tiny Seed and
• Holds a baby shirt she has brought from home, retells the story in his home language and some
and compares it with the shirt she is wearing, English, referring to pictures and describing how
indicating how much she has grown. the seed grew into a plant.
• Fascinated by how the silkworms spun their • Sees a picture of a Canada goose hatching eggs
cocoons, asks, “How do they turn into cocoons?” and asks, “How long does it take for the little
geese to come out?”
• While singing and acting a song about “growth,”
pretends she is a plant and demonstrates with • Shows the group his baby photos he has brought
her body how the little seed grew into a seedling, from home and describes how he has grown and
and the seedling grew into a tree. changed.
• While observing a tub of silkworms, exclaims,
“Look, one of the worms molted” while pointing
at the silkworm’s molted skin shell.
78 | Life Sciences
2.0 Changes in Living Things (continued)
2.2 Recognize that animals and plants 2.2 Develop a greater understanding
require care and begin to associate of the basic needs of humans,
feeding and watering with the growth animals, and plants (e.g., food,
of humans, animals, and plants. water, sunshine, shelter).
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• While working in the garden, notices the dry soil • In an experiment with plants, children describe
and tries to water the flowers. their observations: “The plants near the window
• Collects grass and flowers in a cup. The teacher grew, but the plants with no light became yellow.”
questions, “What will you do with your grass and • Feeds the class pet fish, with adult assistance,
flowers?” The child replies, “It is for my ladybug. and explains, “We give special food just for fish
It eats grass and flowers.” but not too much.”
• Observes the plant in the room and communi • When planting bean seeds, the teacher asks,
cates, “We need to water it, so it grows bigger.” “What is needed for them to grow?” A child
• Communicates, “We need to eat breakfast to be responds, “If you water it, it’s going to grow
strong and grow.” more.” Another child says, “They need soil.”
• Helps take care of the class pet. While observing • Shares with his friends, “When we went to visit
the class hamster, notices the food tray is empty my aunt, someone came to my house every day
and says, “Teacher, she needs some food!” to give my cat water and food, so he wouldn’t be
hungry.”
• Communicates, “My baby sister was very little,
but now she is big because she eats cereal.” • After the rain, comments, “The plants must be so
happy to drink so much rain.”
• Refers to a storybook and explains that the cater
pillar ate a lot of leaves and became a butterfly. • After the butterflies have come out of the chrysa
lises, spontaneously discusses with other children
plans to release the butterflies.
• Helps his teacher add more soil to the potted
plant and communicates, “It needs soil for food,
and that’s how it grows.”
79
Earth Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Earth Materials and Objects

1.1 Investigate characteristics (size, 1.1 Demonstrate increased ability

weight, shape, color, texture) of earth to investigate and compare charac
materials such as sand, rocks, soil, teristics (size, weight, shape, color,
SCIENCE
water, and air. texture) of earth materials such as
sand, rocks, soil, water, and air.
Examples Examples
• Observes different rocks collected on a nature • Pours water on sand and compares the dry sand
walk (using the senses of sight and touch). Sorts with the wet sand (e.g., “The wet sand sticks
out all the smooth rocks. together”). Demonstrates how to make a cake
• Plays with rocks and discovers that she can use a with wet sand by filling up the bucket and then
rock to draw on a sidewalk. turning it over.
• Fills a bucket with soil and comments, “We need • Pours water in the sandbox to form craters, lakes,
water to make it more squishy.” and dams.
• While playing in the sandbox, pours sand into • Investigates the surfaces of different rocks and
a bottle and communicates to his friend in his sorts the rocks based on how shiny they are.
home language, “I can fill up the bottle with sand Communicates, “Here are very shiny rocks, and
all the way up.” here are not so shiny rocks.”
• While outside, observes a windmill spinning. • In explorations of air, observes a kite flying and
Responds, “I can feel the wind. The air is pushing communicates, “The wind blows really hard, and
it.” the kite goes really high into the clouds.”
• A child who is visually impaired holds different • Collects soil from the garden and uses a magnify
rocks and communicates, “This one feels really ing glass to observe the container of soil closely.
smooth, but this one is not very smooth.” Describes and records, with adult assistance,
observations: “The soil has tiny rocks inside. The
• Uses a magnifying glass to observe sand and soil has some yellow leaves and some leaves that
communicates, “I can see many tiny pieces.” turned almost black. The soil is a little wet and
• Explains that sand and water are needed to make feels very soft.”
a sand castle.
80 | Earth Sciences
2.0 Changes in the Earth
2.1 Observe and describe natural objects 2.1 Demonstrate an increased ability to
in the sky (sun, moon, stars, clouds) observe and describe natural objects
and how they appear to move and in the sky and to notice patterns of
change. movement and apparent changes in
the sun and the moon.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• Gestures toward the sky and communicates in • Observes the sky and describes, “In the morning
the home language, “Last night I looked at the the sun was here, and now it moved over there. It
sky, and I saw the moon.” is the same like yesterday.”
• Participates in a class activity observing the sky • Communicates, “When I looked at the sky with
and describing what the clouds look like. Com my dad, I saw the moon, and it was round and
municates, “The sky is blue, and I see clouds. big. I saw the stars, too.”
One cloud is small, and many clouds are big.” • Shares in circle time with the group that the image
• Records his observation of the sky by drawing a on the moon one night looked like a rabbit. Other
picture. Refers to his drawing and indicates, or children disagree, saying it looked like a horse or
points to, the sun and the clouds. a person.
• Communicates, “When I look at the sky at night, • Communicates, “Sometimes, when I look at the
I see lots of stars.” sky at night, I see only the moon, and sometimes
I see the moon and the stars.”
• Observes the moon and draws a representation of
it in her journal. The child notices that it changes
over time and communicates, “Now the moon
is round and big, but sometimes it looks like a
banana.”
• Observes the clouds on a rainy day and describes
how they are different from those on a sunny day:
“Sometimes the clouds are white, but today they
are gray.”
• Says, “Last night I saw a full moon. Sometimes
we eat mooncakes when there is a full moon.”3
3. Some Asian families celebrate the Moon Festival by eating mooncakes.

Earth Sciences | 81
2.0 Changes in the Earth (continued)
2.2 Notice and describe changes 2.2 Demonstrate an increased ability

in weather. to observe, describe, and discuss
changes in weather.
Examples Examples
• A child who is deaf/hearing impaired looks • Observes the weather and makes a prediction,
SCIENCE
through the window and communicates in sign “The sky is gray. I think it is going to rain.”
language, “It is raining.” • Describes her observations of the wind by draw
• Communicates, “It is windy. The wind is blowing ing in her journal how different objects (e.g., the
my hair.” trees, leaves, papers, and the flags) are blown by
• While playing outside, notices some raindrops, the wind.
looks up, and starts singing a song about the • Observes the chart with the daily recordings of
rain. the weather and communicates, “This week, it
• Participates in a morning activity by recording the was sunny every day.”
weather on a chart. Picks up the picture card with • When it starts sprinkling outside, takes a can and
a drawing of sun to indicate that it is a sunny day. walks outside, explaining, “I am taking the can to
• Observes the weather and describes in his home collect rain.”
language, “The sun is out. It is a sunny day.” • Observes and describes what the yard looks like
• Draws a picture of a rainbow and says, “It on a rainy day and how it is similar or different
stopped raining. We went outside and saw a rain from the yard on a sunny day.
bow in the sky.”
• After the rain has stopped, checks how much
water is in the bucket, trying to lift the bucket
and look inside.
82 | Earth Sciences
2.3 Begin to notice the effects of 2.3 Demonstrate an increased ability to

weather and seasonal changes notice and describe the effects of
on their own lives and on plants weather and seasonal changes on
and animals. their own lives and on plants and
animals.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• In dramatic play area, pretends it is a rainy • Says or communicates, “We can’t find bugs out
day, puts on boots and a coat, and carries an side because it’s cold, and they’re hiding under
umbrella. the ground.”
• On cold days, gets her jacket from her cubby • Communicates, “In the winter, I wear a jacket and
before going outside. Explains, “I need my jacket in the summer when it is hot, I wear shorts.”
because it is very cold.” • While observing the trees in the yard, notices, “A
• While observing the trees in the fall, describes, lot of leaves fell down, but there are still some on
“The leaves are yellow and brown and falling the trees. The wind is going to blow them down,
down.” too.”
• After the rain, notices the puddles in the yard. • Communicates, “Because of the storm, we could
Excitedly gestures to his friend and says, “I am not go outside to play.”
jumping in the water.” The teacher comments, • On arrival in the morning, communicates, “It was
“It’s fun splashing in a puddle. Let’s see if we can so foggy. We couldn’t see through the window.”
find more puddles.”
• Around spring, observes the trees, records the
• Communicates, “It was raining, and I called my growth of buds and new leaves, and communi
dog to come inside, so he does not get wet.” cates, “Look how many small leaves grew on the
• While playing outside on a sunny day, touches tree.”
the slide and communicates, “The sun makes it • Notices snails on the sidewalk and explains that
hot, very hot.” she saw them outside her house after the rain
• During circle time, the teacher talks about how stopped.
the leaves fall in autumn. Later, on a nature walk, • Communicates to a friend in her home language,
a child points to some pine trees and asks the “Last night it was freezing outside. I put on my
teacher, “How come those trees don’t have mittens because my hands were very cold.”
leaves all around?”
Earth Sciences | 83
2.4 Develop awareness of the 2.4 Demonstrate an increased aware

importance of caring for and ness and the ability to discuss in
respecting the environment, and simple terms how to care for the
participate in activities related environment, and participate in
to its care. activities related to its care.
Examples Examples
SCIENCE
• Helps the teacher to sort recyclable items such • Uses recycling bins more independently. May
as papers, bottles, and cans. remind another child to put a paper towel in the
• Turns off the faucet after washing his hands. blue recycling box.
• Asks teacher if leftover fruit from lunch can be • Reminds a friend to turn off the faucet “so we do
given to the class pet turtle. not waste water.”
• When playing outdoors, remembers not to pick • Explains that when it is really hot, her mom puts
flowers from the garden. the outdoor toys away to protect them from the
sun.
• Takes a turn in being the room’s “light keeper”
and turns off the lights when leaving the room to • Explains that at home the blue recycling bin is for
play outside. the bottles, and the green can is for the leaves.
Only the black garbage bin is for other trash.
• After having a picnic in the neighborhood park,
spontaneously helps the teacher to clean up the
picnic area.
• Shares with his teacher, “When I go with my mom
to the park, I feed the birds.”
84
Bibliographic Notes
Traditionally, a commonly held acting on objects, children learn about
notion about science education was the physical characteristics of objects
that elementary and even middle (size, shape, material, or weight),
school children lack the developmen- and how objects interact, move, and
tal readiness to engage in abstract change. This information feeds chil-
reasoning—primarily the ability to dren’s growth in understanding con-
SCIENCE
evaluate evidence and to understand cepts and acquiring knowledge in core

how evidence supports or contradicts domains such as biology and physics.
theories or hypotheses (Dunbar and As children develop their inquiry
Klahr 1989; Inhelder and Piaget 1958; skills, they can use prior knowledge
Schauble 1990). For preschool chil- and observable information to predict
dren, the common view was that their future events (Jones, Lake, and Lin
reasoning is concrete and perceptually 2008). Making a prediction is a cogni-
based (Piaget 1952). However, more tive skill that requires children to use
current research in cognitive develop- existing knowledge and/or data that
ment shows that young children are are immediately available and to pre-
cognitively competent to engage in dict new information. The extent to
aspects of scientific inquiry processes which children can accurately predict
and to learn basic scientific concepts is related to their knowledge base and
about common phenomena of the prior experiences. Research indicates
natural world (Spelke 1990; Baillar- that preschool children are capable of
geon 1995; Gelman 2003; Inagaki and using their knowledge to make predic-
Hatano 2002; Bullock, Gelman, and tions for different natural phenomena.
Baillargeon 1982; Brown 1990). In domains in which young children
have conceptual knowledge, their pre-
Scientific Inquiry dictions tend to be relatively reason-
During the preschool years, children able and accurate (Bullock, Gelman,
are developmentally ready to engage and Baillargeon 1982; Inagaki and
in scientific skills, such as observa- Hatano 2002; Zur and Gelman 2004).
tion, classification, comparing, and The more experiences children
predicting (Gelman and Brenneman have had with natural phenomena,
2004; French 2004; Gelman and oth- the more likely they are to be able to
ers 2010). Very young children actively accurately predict events related to the
observe objects and events in their same phenomena. By testing and veri-
environment. Observation involves the fying their predictions, children gain
use of all the senses. Early on, infants new information that informs their
and toddlers want to touch and han- future predictions. For example, when
dle objects and examine objects with children were initially asked to predict
their lips and tongues. They actively the number of seeds in an apple, their
search for information about objects predictions varied widely. However,
and events in their environment (Lind with more experiences of predicting
1997). Through observations and by and verifying the number of seeds in
an apple by counting the number of relation between evidence and hypoth-

seeds, children’s predictions became esis. Five-year-olds can begin to use
more accurate and reasonable over evidence correctly to form a hypothesis
time (Gelman and Brenneman 2004). and modify their hypothesis according
Children’s ability to make infer- to new evidence (Ruffman and others
ences is evident from a young age. 1993). By the early grades, children
Children can use the knowledge of nat- can also distinguish between a con-
ural kinds of categories (such as dog or clusive and an inconclusive test for a
bird) as the basis for novel inferences, simple hypothesis (Sodian, Zaitchik,
knowing that members of a category and Carey 1991).
share underlying properties. When Preschool children learn to use lan-
four-year-old children were told a new guage to describe their observations
fact about a particular dog, “that it and communicate their thoughts.
has leukocytes inside it,” they were Early childhood is a time of extensive
likely to infer that other dogs have vocabulary development (Anglin 1993).
leukocytes inside them (Gelman and Observations and investigations pro-
Markman 1986, 1987). Young children vide an ideal opportunity to expose all
can also use observable evidence to children, including English learners,
make inferences or draw conclusions. to new words and scientific vocabulary
Research indicates that they can make in English and in their home language,
accurate inferences on the basis of whenever possible.
relevant evidence. For example, very Research indicates that science cur-
young children can infer causal rela- riculum delivered in an early child-
tions and accurately conclude, based hood education environment that is
on patterns of evidence, what causes rich in language and opportunities
a machine to light up and play music for authentic communication with
(Gopnik and others 2001). They can adults and peers leads to measurable
make accurate causal inferences based improvements in children’s language
on evidence, even when the evidence and supports children’s acquisition
they observe contradicts their knowl- of both the meaning and pragmatic
edge (Schulz and Gopnik 2004; Schulz, aspects of language (French 2004). For
Bonawitz, and Griffiths 2007). children who communicate in alterna-
Young children are sensitive to tive ways, such as in sign language,
evidence they observe. For example, picture symbols, or other methods, sci-
they can recognize when evidence is entific vocabulary is available as well.
uncertain. In a study by Schulz and The use of language to describe
Bonawitz (2007), preschool children observations and other steps in the
showed a preference for playing with a exploration process is an integral part
toy that presented ambiguous evidence of children’s learning and formation
(a lever that sometimes did and some- of scientific concepts (Gelman and
times did not cause an effect) over a Brenneman 2004; Eshach 2006). Lan-
familiar toy with expected manipula- guage extends and enriches scientific
tion. They engaged in more exploratory experiences and facilitates concep-
play when causal evidence was not tual growth. For example, as children
consistent. Older children begin to explore concepts such as growth,
demonstrate an understanding of the nutrition, or weather, they gradually
learn the terms for the concepts they Children approximately three and
explore. The use of these terms, in four years of age have distinct con-
turn, enriches their learning experi- cepts of size and weight and learn
ences. Children may also begin to use distinct words to describe and com-
relevant scientific terms—for example, pare these parameters (such as larger,
“I observe,” “My prediction is,” and “Let smaller or heavier). In a study by
me check”—as they practice inquiry Smith, Carey, and Wiser (1985) that
skills across a variety of settings (Gel- traced the development of children’s
man and Brenneman 2004). English concepts of weight, size, density, and
SCIENCE
learners, for whom the development material kind, children focused on size
of new vocabulary and language skills (and ignored weight) when asked to
is most effective in authentic learn- explain physical phenomena related
ing experiences, especially benefit. In to size, such as which blocks will fit
the context of scientific explorations, into a certain size box. However, they
children also learn to engage in com- focused on weight and ignored the size
plex discussions involving observation, of objects when explaining weight-
prediction, and explanation (Peterson relevant phenomena, such as “which
and French 2008). Such discussions blocks will make a foam rubber bridge
develop children’s understanding of collapse.” Young children consider
the scientific phenomena they explore weight a physical property of objects,
(Jones, Lake, and Lin 2008). which causally affects that object’s
interaction with other objects. How-
Physical Sciences ever, they typically understand weight
Young children learn about the in terms of “felt weight.” They judge
physical world by observing and inter- weights by lifting objects. They would
acting with physical objects. They insist that a tiny piece of polystyrene
use all their senses to learn about plastic (e.g., Styrofoam), for example,
the properties of different objects in weighs nothing at all. They also do not
their environment, including the color, have the consistent expectation that
size, shape, weight, smell, sound, tex- size can be a predictor of the heavi-
ture, and, when appropriate, taste of ness of objects and may ignore size in
objects. According to Piaget’s theory, predicting weight. Still, preschool chil-
physical knowledge is constructed dren (i.e., three- to five-year-olds) can
when children act on objects and become engaged in weight-based prob-
observe the object’s reactions, espe- lem solving such as in balancing the
cially when reactions are observable pans on a balance scale with a variety
and happen immediately. When varia- of materials. In the course of solving
tions in the child’s action result in cor- the problem, they construct possible
responding variations in an object’s solutions, closely examine the reac-
reaction, children have an opportunity tion of the pans, and gradually elabo-
to construct knowledge of correspond- rate their understanding of how to bal-
ing events and to become aware of ance the pans (Metz 1993).
cause-and-effect relationships (Kamii Four- and five-year-old children
and DeVries 1993; DeVries and others also begin to develop the concept of
2002). kinds of materials and to distinguish
kinds of materials (plastic) from the from one side of the pile or the other is
identity of objects (a cup) and parts of still sugar. A study by Au (1994) indi-
an object (handle). They respond with cates that by the age of three or four,
names of materials (e.g., wood, plastic) children seem to believe that any por-
when asked about the kind of mate- tion of a substance is the same “kind”
rial the object is made of and are not as the whole chunk or pile, even when
misled into giving names of parts of it is in smaller chunks, ground up
objects (e.g., leg, wing) (Smith, Carey, into a powder, or dissolved in water.
and Wiser 1985). They also know For example, children appreciate that
that cutting can destroy objects but a substance such as sugar continues
not affect the material the objects are to exist even after it has become invis-
made of. For example, they know that ible upon dissolving. The notion of
cut-up objects, such as paper or bal- homogeneous structure in substances
loons, are no longer the same kind of provides children a coherent basis for
objects but that they are still the same explaining why a substance maintains
kinds of materials. At a young age, certain inherent properties as well as
children know several words for kinds its identity, despite dramatic transfor-
of materials (such as glass and plastic) mation into grain size or chunk size.
and can state relevant properties of However, young children have diffi-
certain materials (for example, glass culty comprehending changes in state
is breakable or plastic can be hard). of matter, particularly reasoning about
However, their concept of density, a the transition from liquid to gas (Rus-
characteristic of kinds of material, is sell, Harlen, and Watt 1990).
not developed until they are about Much of the understanding of the
eight years old. For example, three- physical world rests on the ability to
and four-year-old children cannot dis- relate events causally and identify
tinguish between objects made of steel cause-and-effect relations. Research
and objects made of aluminum. When indicates that before infants can talk
asked which is made of a heavier kind about objects, or even reach for objects
of stuff, they make a judgment based and manipulate them, they can reason
on felt weight (Smith, Carey, and Wiser about how objects move and demon-
1985). strate an implicit understanding of the
Through daily interactions with all causal relations involved in everyday
kinds of substances such as sand, physics. In the first year, infants have
play dough, milk, juice, dirt, and vari- an understanding that objects need
ous kinds of food, children as young support to prevent them from falling
as age two explore how various sub- (Baillargeon, Needham, and DeVos
stances differ in taste, smell, texture, 1992) and that objects cannot move
and so on. They begin to differentiate through each other. They understand
and can learn names of various mate- that objects cannot move themselves—
rials (Soja, Carey, and Spelke 1991; that inanimate objects need to be
Prasada 1993). They also begin to form propelled into action—and perceive
an intuitive sense about materials. causality in events (Leslie 1994; Oakes
One example of such intuition is that and Cohen 1990). This early under-
substances are homogeneous—for standing continues to evolve through
example, a spoonful of sugar picked up children’s spontaneous play and
interactions with objects and becomes Research indicates that children as

accessible and more explicit in a wider young as three have an understanding
range of experiences during the pre- of the difference between animate and
school years. inanimate objects. R. Gelman, Spelke,
Research indicates that at a very and Meck (1983) interviewed three- to
young age, children understand the five-year-old children with the use of
causal relations involved in everyday animate and inanimate objects, such
physics. First, young children typi- as a person, a cat, and a rock and
cally assume that physical events have inanimate objects with humanlike
SCIENCE
a cause and intuitively search for a appearances, such as dolls or puppets.

cause. They are also sensitive to the The interview included questions about
temporal ordering of cause-and-effect the objects’ appearance (“Does X have
and believe that causes must precede a head/stomach, feet, eyes, ears?”),
their effects. Finally, young children the capacity for independent action
can reason about the kind of mecha- (“Can X walk/sit?”), the potential for
nism that can or cannot produce a cer- psychological states (“Can X think/
tain outcome (such as pulling, push- remember, feel happy, feel sad?”), and
ing, or rolling). For example, when the tendency to engage in reciprocal
observing a cause-and-effect event in activities (“Can X play with you/listen
which a ball rolled against a jack-in- to, run with, kiss, hug?”) (Gelman,
the-box, children could reason about Spelke, and Meck 1983, 300). They
the cause and effect. They attributed found that children as young as three
the effect to the ball hitting the jack- years old made correct responses when
in-the-box, presumably because roll- asked about characteristics of animate
ing and hitting can produce movement and inanimate objects. Interestingly,
in another object through impact. there was no age difference in chil-
When asked to explain how an event dren’s ability to distinguish between
occurred, some children generated animate and inanimate objects.
mechanistic, physically oriented Although older children were more
explanations (Bullock, Gelman, and articulate and gave more explanations,
Baillargeon 1982). their explanations did not differ in
kind from those of younger children.
Life Sciences All children were eager to talk about
The distinction between animate this distinction between animate and
and inanimate objects is considered inanimate objects and to justify their
the most basic and important one for answers with relevant explanations.
young children’s understanding of Children’s answers to questions about
the physical and biological world. It is a doll and a puppet, in particular,
believed that children’s ability to dis- provided further evidence that pre-
tinguish between animate and inani- schoolers are not inclined to attribute
mate objects is a foundation, or a pre- animate characteristics to inanimate
cursor, to the ability to make the more objects even when these objects can
general distinction between living and move or have an animatelike appear-
nonliving things (Inagaki and Hatano ance. In a more recent study, using a
2002). similar interview method, Subrahman-
yam, Gelman, and Lafosse (2002)
demonstrated that four- and five- caused by agents and forces of nature
year-olds can also distinguish ani- (Gelman 1990). These principles direct
mate objects from machines, includ- young children when identifying an
ing machines that mimic an animate object and provide them with a coher-
property such as a car or a robot, that ent way to assimilate and process
seem to move on their own, or comput- information about objects in their
ers that appear to think and commu- environment.
nicate. The children were more likely Young children also distinguish ani-
to attribute animate properties (such mates from inanimates on the basis
as talking, breathing, remembering, or of the inside of an object. They expect
thinking) to animate objects than to the insides of animals and inanimate
inanimate objects such as simple arti- objects to differ. When asked, “What
facts or machines. The only machine is on the inside of X?” (Subrahman-
that was given the capacity to think yam, Gelman, and Lafosse 2002, 355),
and remember was a robot. children thought that animate objects
Young children can distinguish had blood and bones on the inside, but
between animate and inanimate machines had buttons and knobs and
objects, even if the objects are unfamil- other parts made of materials such
iar, based on an object’s capacity for as plastic and glass. Children under-
self-initiated movement. Massey and stand that the insides of objects have
Gelman (1988) presented three- and a special status related to the object’s
four-year-olds with photographs of identity and function (Gelman and
unfamiliar objects, including mam- Wellman 1991). By four years of age,
mals, an insect, statues with animal- they appreciate the special importance
like appearance, wheeled vehicles, and of insides for an object’s identity and
other multipart objects. They asked how it functions. They demonstrate an
the children whether each of these understanding that insides of objects
objects could go up and down a hill by have essence-like qualities. For exam-
itself. Preschool children demonstrated ple, if a horse is dressed like a zebra,
an understanding that “real” animals children will judge its identity on the
could go up and down a hill by them- basis of the inside and not based on
selves, while inanimate objects, even its external appearance. They will say
if they looked like animals, could not it is still a horse (Keil 1989). However,
(e.g., because “it’s not a real piggy; in a study by Gelman (2003, 79), when
it’s just a furniture one” (Massey children were asked to consider an
and Gelman 1988, 314). Children’s “inside removal” of animals (e.g., “What
causal explanations of how movement if you take out the stuff inside of a dog.
takes place differ between animals Is it still a dog?”), they claimed that
and inanimate objects. Young chil- removal of the insides changed the
dren understand that animate objects animal’s identity and function. They
have the potential to move themselves recognize that if the inside of an object
because they are made of biological is removed, the identity and the func-
matter. Inanimate objects, on the other tion of an object would change (Gel-
hand, are composed of nonbiological man and Wellman 1991).
material, and the cause of inanimate The broader distinction between liv-
motion is external to the objects and is ing things (both animals and plants)
and nonliving things is more challeng- in Mexico, tended to attribute life to

ing for young children. To make the certain natural objects (e.g., the sun,
distinction between living and nonliv- water)—items that are considered
ing things, young children need to inanimate outside their community.
view plants as biological entities and English-speaking children interpreted
distinguish both plants and animals alive as referring to humans and ani-
from nonliving things. This is difficult mals, but not plants. On the other
for young children primarily because hand, Indonesian-speaking children at
plants and animals differ in outward a younger age than English-speaking
SCIENCE
appearance and in the capacity for children, attributed the term alive to
self-generated movement and psycho- both animals and plants. These cross-
logical states. They are similar only in community developmental differences
dimensions relevant to biology. are attributed to differences in nam-
In studies in which children were ing practices and belief systems in
asked whether animals, plants, and each community (Anggoro, Waxman,
inanimate objects were alive, preschool and Medin 2005; Waxman and Medin
children had difficulty with the terms 2006).
“living things” or “alive,” and at ages Similarly, in a cross-cultural study
four to five, they tended to interpret of children from Israel, Japan, and
those terms as referring to animals, the United States, children in all three
but not plants (Carey 1985; Richards countries were extremely accurate in
and Siegler 1986). However, in studies attributing properties of living things
that had children focus on particu- to people, somewhat less accurate with
lar features of living things such as other animals, and least accurate with
growth, rather than the general ques- plants. However, the study revealed
tion of whether an object is “alive,” culturally specific aspects of children’s
three- and four-year-old children understanding of the term alive. Israeli
could distinguish both animals and children were considerably less likely
plants from nonliving objects. to attribute to plants qualities that are
Children’s acquisition of the concept shared by all living things. Japanese
“alive” or “living things” is shaped by children, on the other hand, were more
factors in their environment, includ- likely to attribute to inanimate entities
ing their everyday experiences, the (e.g., a rock) attributes that are unique
language spoken by the child, and the to living things (Hatano and others
cultural practices and beliefs in their 1993). These differences suggest that
community. Cultural differences in the reasoning about a basic concept, such
understanding of the concept “alive” as life, is influenced by culture and
were evident in a study with children linguistic factors. In the Israeli tradi-
from Mexico, the United States, and tion, plants are regarded as different
Indonesia. Children in all three com- from humans and other animals. The
munities distinguished living things Hebrew word for animal, but not for
from nonliving things, recognizing that plants, is very close to that for living
animals and plants grow and die. How- and alive. In contrast, Japanese cul-
ever, children revealed cross-cultural ture includes a belief that plants are
differences regarding the term alive. much like human beings, have feelings
Children of the Mayan community, and emotions, and even inanimate
entities are sometimes viewed as being They realize that growth in animals
alive. Parents may communicate such is affected by food intake, not by an
attitudes through actions and interac- intention or desire to grow (Inagaki
tions with their children. and Hatano 2002). Older children,
Preschool children understand that approximately five years of age, also
animals and plants grow and increase expect some animals to change in
in size over time as they mature. appearance with age. They under-
Inanimate objects, such as toys and stand that animals undergo meta-
machines, may change in appearance morphosis—for example, caterpillars
due to wear and tear or the passing change into butterflies, and tadpoles
of time, but they do not change in change into frogs (Rosengren and oth-
size over time (Rosengren and others ers 1991). However, they realize that
1991; Hickling and Gelman 1995). in natural transformations, such as
Five-year-old children recognize that growth or metamorphosis, the identity
plants, but not objects, are similar to of animals remains constant despite
animals in terms of growing, needing changes in appearance with age (Gel-
food and/or water, and becoming older man 2003).
and dying (Inagaki and Hatano 1996). Between the ages of four and five,
Three- and four-year-old children also children develop increasing knowledge
realize that plants and animals may about plants, including an under-
heal by themselves through regrowth standing of some of the characteris-
(a rosebush will grow another rose; tics of plant growth and the nature
or a scratch on a finger will heal over of seeds (Hickling and Gelman 1995).
time), but objects that are scratched or Older four-year-olds realize that seeds
damaged (a shirt missing a button, or originate from a natural source, spe-
a car scratched on the side) must be cifically from same-species plants, not
repaired by human intervention (Back- from other types of plants, and that
scheider, Shatz, and Gelman 1993). people cannot make seeds. Older four-
Overall, young preschool children can year-olds also expect external, natu-
implicitly group living things together, ral mechanisms (sunshine and rain),
particularly when asked about growth rather than human activity or the
and other properties related to growth. intention and desire of the plant, to
However, it seems they are just begin- initiate the growth process. However,
ning to have a consistent grasp of they have less understanding of what
plants as biological entities. As noted plants need, compared with animals,
by Carey (1985), young children can in order to grow. By around four and a
notice and learn about the proper- half years of age, children also begin to
ties of living things before they have a appreciate the cyclical nature of plant
deeper understanding of the biologi- growth. They recognize the predictable
cal processes common to animals and order of stages in plant growth from
plants. seed to plant, to flower and/or fruit,
Preschool children understand and back to seed.
some aspects of growth in animals Young children can identify body
and plants. By three years of age, chil- parts and processes (e.g., seeing,
dren realize that growth in animals hearing, needing food, sleeping,
involves an increase in size over time. breathing, falling ill) in humans and
other animals. Knowledge about events in nature, attributing events

humans constitutes a useful and and things on earth such as the con-
important base for young children, as struction of mountains, the clouds in
they use it to infer knowledge about the sky, and the existence of rivers
other animals and other living things and rocks to human control. However,
(Carey 1985; Inagaki and Hatano contrary to Piaget’s view, research
2002). According to this view, young indicates that children recognize that
children’s familiarity with human certain kinds of things are not under
body processes serves as a knowledge human control. In a study that asked
SCIENCE
base to predict behaviors or attribute children, “Do you think people make
properties to unfamiliar animals and ____?,” the question referred to either
plants. The rationale is that knowl- natural things such as the moon,
edge about humans becomes useful clouds, dogs, salt (e.g., “Do you think
in everyday biological problem solving people make the clouds?”) or to objects
and understanding, because humans used by humans, such as a cup or a
share biological properties and pro- car, preschool children tended to be
cesses with other living things. How- highly accurate (Gelman 2003, 119).
ever, current research indicates that They recognize that natural things are
the role of humans in reasoning about not made by humans (Gelman and
other living things is shaped by experi- Kremer 1991).
ence, cultural beliefs, and practices. Young children can observe and
For example, a human-centered per- become aware of the earth’s resources
spective is more common in children and phenomena, but they are not
raised in urban environments, for ready to grasp scientific concepts and
whom direct experience with nature is explanations of the earth’s phenom-
relatively impoverished in comparison ena such as the cause of the day/night
with rural children. Furthermore, cul- cycle rotation or of seasonal changes
turally held belief systems of a given (Kampeza 2006). Research on chil-
community also influence children’s dren’s concepts of the earth is of great
biological reasoning and the degree interest, particularly for educators who
to which knowledge about humans is are concerned with how and when to
used in generalizing to other animals introduce many topics related to earth
(Medin and others 2010). and space. Several studies in the area
of science education have shown that
Earth Sciences children acquire mature concepts
Children have daily interactions about earth and gravity gradually,
with earth resources, including soil, through distinct levels that go through
rocks, and water, and become aware seventh or eighth grade (Nussbaum
of natural changes in the earth such and Novak 1976; Nussbaum 1979;
as the day-and-night cycle and cli- Sneider and Pulos 1983). Initially, chil-
mate changes associated with seasonal dren (six to eight years of age) hold the
changes. Developmental research view that the earth is flat and motion-
examined young children’s reason- less. They may say that the earth
ing about natural phenomena. Piaget is “round,” but under more detailed
argued that children tend to view questioning (“Where does the sun go
humans as controlling all kinds of at night?” “What does the earth look
like when you look at it from very far others 2000). Overall, research indi-
away?”), they give answers consistent cates that young children hold a con-
with the flat-earth view (Vosniadou cept of earth that conflicts with cur-
and Brewer 1987, 58). Their concept of rent scientific theories. Therefore, they
gravity is also still developing; so chil- cannot intuitively reason about the
dren who hold the view of a flat earth causes of everyday phenomena they
would argue that if there were people observe, such as the day/night cycle,
on the other side of the earth, they the seasons, and the apparent motion
would fall off. Older children hold more of the sun and the moon. However,
advanced notions about the earth’s daily interactions and experiences
shape and gravity. Children’s concept with earth resources and phenomena
of earth is being restructured, from provide children with a foundation for
a theory based on a flat, stationary future understanding of more abstract
earth to a theory based on a spherical concepts in earth sciences.
rotating earth (Vosniadou and Brewer Direct experiences with nature and
1987). Cross-cultural studies of Mexi- earth materials and opportunities for
can American, Native American, and direct contact with nature enhance
Nepali children (Klein 1982; Diakidou, children’s connection to their natural
Vosnidau, and Hawks 1997; Mali and environment and are likely to raise
Howe 1979), and studies in Israel their awareness of issues related to
(Nussbaum 1979), and Greece (Kam- care and protection of the environment
peza 2006) found similar results. Men- (Musser and Diamond 1999; Paprotna
tal representations of the earth held by 1998; Cohen and Horm-Wingerd
children who live in different cultures 1993). Research indicates that dur-
may contain some elements from their ing the preschool years children can
particular culture (alternation of day become sensitive to basic ecological
and night is attributed to God), but all issues and can develop pro-environ-
children start with similar mental rep- mental attitudes and behaviors. Stud-
resentations of the earth. ies that examined preschool children’s
A recent study of preschool chil- ecological awareness found that young
dren indicates that although most children seem to recognize the signifi-
children can select the sphere as the cance of issues associated with the
earth’s shape, they do not understand environment. For example, preschool
the relation between the earth’s rota- children can understand concepts
tion and the day/night cycle (Kampeza such as recycling things, turning off
2006). Even after learning about the water and light, picking up trash,
shapes of the sun and earth, as well as not interfering with wild animals and
the cause of the day/night cycle, pre- plants, and caring for animals (Musser
school children did not demonstrate and Diamond 1999). Research indi-
an understanding of the day/night cates that preschool children can even
cycle. Subsequent to the learning ses- become aware of ecological events and
sion about earth, although the chil- recognize the significance of environ-
dren accepted the earth as a spherical mental concerns such as the effects
object, only a few children attributed of water and air pollution, littering,
the day/night cycle to the rotation of overcrowding, and natural resource
the earth on its axis (Valanides and management, at a level commensurate
with their existing knowledge (Cohen environmentally relevant activities.

and Horm-Wingerd 1993). Further- It is, therefore, reasonable to expect
more, there is a positive relationship that ecologically sensitive practices in
between young children’s developing early childhood environments would be
attitudes toward the environment and related to children’s developing envi-
their parents’ involvement of them in ronmental attitudes and behaviors.
SCIENCE
95
Glossary
animate/inanimate objects. Animate habitat. The home, place, or environment
objects are living things with the where an organism or a biological popu-
capacity to initiate motion or activity. lation normally lives.
The term refers to animals (includ- homogeneous. Things of the same kind,
ing humans) and is distinguished from with same form and property. In a
inanimate objects, such as plants or homogenous substance, each compo-
SCIENCE
nonliving objects (e.g., a car or a rock). nent of the substance is the same.
cause and effect. Cause is what makes hypothesis. A proposed explanation for
something else happens (e.g., kicking an observable phenomena that can be
the ball), and effect is what happens tested by an experiment. A confirmed
as a result of the cause (e.g., the ball is hypothesis supports a theory.
rolled). inference. Using logic to make an
classification. The sorting, grouping, assumption or draw a conclusion that
or categorizing of objects according to is based on observations but cannot be
established criteria. directly observed.
communication. Refers to the skill investigation. In the process of scientific
of expressing ideas, describing obser- inquiry, asking a question and conduct-
vations, and discussing findings and ing systematic observations or simple
explanations with others, either orally, experiments to find an answer.
through sign language, or in written life cycle. The series of changes in the
form (drawings, charts, pictures, sym- growth and development of humans,
bols). animals, or plants.
compare and contrast. Looking at simi- life sciences. The study of living things,
larities and differences in real objects including plants and animals, their
and events. characteristics, life cycles, habitats, and
constructivist approach. An approach their interrelationships with each other
to learning in which children con- and the environment. The three major
struct knowledge and build theories branches of life sciences are biology,
through active experimentation and physiology, and ecology.
living things. Living organisms have the
interaction with objects and people
capacity for self-sustaining biological
in their environment rather than
processes such as growth, breathing,
passively taking in information.
reproduction, and responsiveness to
documentation. Preserving evidence by
stimuli. Examples of living things are
recording information, using different
humans, animals, and plants.
forms, including drawings, photographs,
measurement tools. Simple tools, such
written transcripts, charts, journals,
as rulers, measuring cups and spoons,
models, and constructions.
and scales, to measure length, volume,
earth sciences. The study of the earth,
or weight.
includes topics related to properties of
observation. Gathering information about
earth materials (soils, rocks, and miner-
objects and events by using the senses
als), the ocean, weather, and forces that
of sight, smell, sound, touch, and taste
shape the earth. Major components of
and noticing specific details or phenom-
earth sciences are geology and oceanog-
ena that ordinarily might be overlooked.
raphy.
96 | Glossary
observation tools. Tools to extend obser- childhood science, young children have
vations such as hand lenses, magnifying the predisposition, the inclination, and
glasses, and binoculars. capacity to learn abstract concepts from
physical properties. Observable features biology and physics.
of a material, such as how it looks record. To set down information or knowl-
(e.g., shape, color), feels (e.g., solid, liq- edge in writing, drawings, or other per-
uid, texture), or behaves (e.g., sinks in manent forms for the purpose of pre-
water). serving evidence or tracking data over
physical sciences. The study of nonliving time.
matter and energy. It deals with physi- scientific inquiry. Refers to the diverse
SCIENCE
cal properties and transformations of ways in which scientists explore and

substances, the nature of motion, force develop knowledge and understanding
and energy (e.g., mechanical energy, of scientific ideas: making observations,
heat, sound, light, electricity). The two posing questions, planning investiga-
major branches of physical sciences are tions, using tools to gather information,
physics and chemistry. making predictions, recording informa-
prediction. A guess or estimation that is tion, and communicating findings and
based on prior observations, knowledge, explanations.
and experiences. substance. Any material with a definite
predisposition. A tendency or inclination chemical composition (e.g., water, salt,
for something. In the context of early sugar, gold).
97
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APPENDIX A
The Foundations
Self and Society
1.0 Culture and Diversity
1.1 Exhibit developing cultural, ethnic, 1.1 Manifest stronger cultural, ethnic,
and racial identity and understand and racial identity and greater
relevant language and cultural familiarity with relevant language,
practices. Display curiosity about traditions, and other practices.
diversity in human characteristics Show more interest in human
and practices, but prefer those of diversity, but strongly favor
their own group. characteristics of their own group.
2.0 Relationships
2.1 Interact comfortably with many 2.1 Understand the mutual responsibilities
peers and adults; actively contribute of relationships; take initiative in
to creating and maintaining relation developing relationships that are
ships with a few significant adults mutual, cooperative, and exclusive.
and peers.
3.0 Social Roles and Occupations
3.1 Play familiar adult social roles and 3.1 Exhibit more sophisticated
occupations (such as parent, teacher, understanding of a broader variety
and doctor) consistent with their of adult roles and occupations,
developing knowledge of these roles. but uncertain how work relates
to income.
103
104 | History–Social Science
Becoming a Preschool Community Member

(Civics)
1.0 Skills for Democratic Participation
1.1 Identify as members of a group, 1.1 Become involved as responsible

participate willingly in group participants in group activities,
activities, and begin to understand with growing understanding of the
and accept responsibility as group importance of considering others’
members, although assistance is opinions, group decision making,
required in coordinating personal and respect for majority rules and
interests with those of others. the views of group members who
disagree with the majority.
2.0 Responsible Conduct

2.1 Strive to cooperate with group 2.1 Exhibit responsible conduct more
expectations to maintain adult reliably as children develop self-
approval and get along with others. esteem (and adult approval) from
Self-control is inconsistent, however, being responsible group members.
especially when children are frus May also manage others’ behavior
trated or upset. to ensure that others also fit in with
group expectations.
3.0 Fairness and Respect for Other People
3.1 Respond to the feelings and needs 3.1 Pay attention to others’ feelings,
of others with simple forms of more likely to provide assistance,
assistance, sharing, and turn-taking. and try to coordinate personal
Understand the importance of rules desires with those of other children in
that protect fairness and maintain mutually satisfactory ways. Actively
order. support rules that protect fairness to
others.
4.0 Conflict Resolution
4.1 Can use simple bargaining strategies 4.1 More capable of negotiating,
and seek adult assistance when in compromising, and finding
conflict with other children or adults, cooperative means of resolving
although frustration, distress, or conflict with peers or adults,
aggression also occurs. although verbal aggression may
also result.
History–Social Science | 105
Sense of Time
(History)
1.0 Understanding Past Events
1.1 Recall past experiences easily and 1.1 Show improving ability to relate
enjoy hearing stories about the past, past events to other past events
but require adult help to determine and current experiences, although
when past events occurred in relation adult assistance continues to be
to each other and to connect them important.
with current experience.
2.0 Anticipating and Planning Future Events
2.1 Anticipate events in familiar 2.1 Distinguish when future events will
situations in the near future, with happen, plan for them, and make
adult assistance. choices (with adult assistance) that
anticipate future needs.
3.0 Personal History
3.1 Proudly display developing skills 3.1 Compare current abilities with skills
to attract adult attention and share at a younger age and share more
simple accounts about recent detailed autobiographical stories
experiences. about recent experiences.
4.0 Historical Changes in People and the World
4.1 Easily distinguish older family 4.1 Develop an interest in family history
members from younger ones (e.g., when family members were
(and other people) and events in children) as well as events of “long
the recent past from those that ago,” and begin to understand when
happened “long ago,” although these events occurred in relation to
do not readily sequence historical each other.
events on a timeline.
106 | History–Social Science
Sense of Place
(Geography and Ecology)
1.1 Identify the characteristics of familiar 1.1 Comprehend larger familiar loca
locations such as home and school, tions, such as the characteristics of
describe objects and activities as their community and region (including
sociated with each, recognize the hills and streams, weather, common
routes between them, and begin activities) and the distances between
using simple directional language familiar locations (such as between
(with various degrees of accuracy). home and school), and compare
their home community with those
of others.
2.1 Show an interest in nature (including 2.1 Show an interest in a wider range of
animals, plants, and weather) natural phenomena, including those
especially as children have direct not directly experienced (such as
experience with them. Begin to snow for a child living in Southern
understand human interactions with California), and are more concerned
the environment (such as pollution in about caring for the natural world
a lake or stream) and the importance and the positive and negative
of taking care of plants and animals. impacts of people on the natural
world (e.g., recycling, putting trash
in trash cans).
3.0 Understanding the Physical World Through Drawings and Maps
3.1 Can use drawings, globes, and 3.1 Create their own drawings, maps,
maps to refer to the physical world, and models; are more skilled at using
although often unclear on the use globes, maps, and map symbols;
of map symbols. and use maps for basic problem
solving (such as locating objects)
with adult guidance.
History–Social Science | 107
Marketplace
(Economics)
1.0 Exchange
1.1 Understand ownership, limited 1.1 Understand more complex economic

supply, what stores do, give-and- concepts (e.g., bartering; more
take, and payment of money to money is needed for things of
sellers. Show interest in money and greater value; if more people want
its function, but still figuring out the something, more will be sold).
relative value of coins.
108
Science
Scientific Inquiry
1.0 Observation and Investigation

1.1 Demonstrate curiosity and raise 1.1 Demonstrate curiosity and an

simple questions about objects and increased ability to raise questions
events in their environment. about objects and events in their
environment.
1.2 Observe1 objects and events in the 1.2 Observe objects and events in the
environment and describe them. environment and describe them in
greater detail.
1.3 Begin to identify and use, with adult 1.3 Identify and use a greater variety
support, some observation and of observation and measurement
measurement tools. tools. May spontaneously use an
appropriate tool, though may still
need adult support.
1.4 Compare and contrast objects 1.4 Compare and contrast objects and
and events and begin to describe events and describe similarities and
similarities and differences. differences in greater detail.
1.5 Make predictions and check them, 1.5 Demonstrate an increased ability to
with adult support, through concrete make predictions and check them
experiences. (e.g., may make more complex
predictions, offer ways to test
predictions, and discuss why
predictions were correct or incorrect).
1.6 Make inferences and form generaliza 1.6 Demonstrate an increased ability
tions based on evidence. to make inferences and form
generalizations based on evidence.
1. Other related scientific processes, such as classifying, ordering, and measuring, are addressed in the foundations for
mathematics.
Science | 109
2.0 Documentation and Communication
2.1 Record observations or findings in 2.1 Record information more regularly

various ways, with adult assistance, and in greater detail in various ways,
including pictures, words (dictated to with adult assistance, including
adults), charts, journals, models, and pictures, words (dictated to adults),
photos. charts, journals, models, photos, or
by tallying and graphing information.
2.2 Share findings and explanations, 2.2 Share findings and explanations,
which may be correct or incorrect, which may be correct or incorrect,
with or without adult prompting. more spontaneously and with greater
detail.
Physical Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Nonliving Objects

and Materials
1.1 Observe, investigate, and identify 1.1 Demonstrate increased ability to

the characteristics and physical observe, investigate, and describe in
properties of objects and of solid greater detail the characteristics and
and nonsolid materials (size, weight, physical properties of objects and
shape, color, texture, and sound). of solid and nonsolid materials (size,
weight, shape, color, texture, and
sound).
2.0 Changes in Nonliving Objects and Materials

2.1 Demonstrate awareness that objects 2.1 Demonstrate an increased aware
and materials can change; explore ness that objects and materials can
and describe changes in objects and change in various ways. Explore and
materials (rearrangement of parts; describe in greater detail changes in
change in color, shape, texture, objects and materials (rearrangement
temperature). of parts; change in color, shape,
texture, form, and temperature).
110 | Science
2.0 Changes in Nonliving Objects and Materials (continued)
2.2 Observe and describe the motion of 2.2 Demonstrate an increased ability
objects (in terms of speed, direction, to observe and describe in greater
the ways things move), and explore detail the motion of objects (in terms
the effect of own actions (e.g., of speed, direction, the ways things
pushing pulling, rolling, dropping) move), and to explore the effect of
on making objects move. own actions on the motion of objects,
including changes in speed and
direction.
Life Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Living Things

1.1 Identify characteristics of a variety 1.1 Identify characteristics of a greater

of animals and plants, including variety of animals and plants and
appearance (inside and outside) and demonstrate an increased ability
behavior, and begin to categorize to categorize them.
them.
1.2 Begin to indicate knowledge of body 1.2 Indicate greater knowledge of body
parts and processes (e.g., eating, parts and processes (e.g., eating,
sleeping, breathing, walking) in sleeping, breathing, walking) in
humans and other animals.2 humans and other animals.
1.3 Identify the habitats of people and 1.3 Recognize that living things have
familiar animals and plants in the habitats in different environments
environment and begin to realize that suited to their unique needs.
living things have habitats in different
environments.
1.4 Indicate knowledge of the difference 1.4 Indicate knowledge of the difference
between animate objects (animals, between animate and inanimate
people) and inanimate objects. For objects, providing greater detail,
example, expect animate objects and recognize that only animals and
to initiate movement and to have plants undergo biological processes
different insides than inanimate such as growth, illness, healing,
objects. and dying.
2. The knowledge of body parts is also addressed in the California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 2) for health.
In science, it also includes the knowledge of body processes. Knowledge of body parts is extended to those of humans and
other animals.
Science | 111
2.0 Changes in Living Things

2.1 Observe and explore growth and 2.1 Observe and explore growth in hu
changes in humans, animals, and mans, animals, and plants and dem
plants and demonstrate an under onstrate an increased understanding
standing that living things change that living things change as they grow
over time in size and in other capaci and go through transformations relat
ties as they grow. ed to the life cycle (for example, from
a caterpillar to butterfly).
2.2 Recognize that animals and plants 2.2 Develop a greater understanding
require care and begin to associate of the basic needs of humans,
feeding and watering with the growth animals, and plants (e.g., food, water,
of humans, animals, and plants. sunshine, shelter).
112 | Science
Earth Sciences
1.0 Properties and Characteristics of Earth Materials and Objects

1.1 Investigate characteristics (size, 1.1 Demonstrate increased ability

weight, shape, color, texture) of earth to investigate and compare charac
materials such as sand, rocks, soil, teristics (size, weight, shape, color,
water, and air. texture) of earth materials such as
sand, rocks, soil, water, and air.
2.0 Changes in the Earth

2.1 Observe and describe natural objects 2.1 Demonstrate an increased ability to
in the sky (sun, moon, stars, clouds) observe and describe natural objects
and how they appear to move and in the sky and to notice patterns of
change. movement and apparent changes in
the sun and the moon.
2.2 Notice and describe changes 2.2 Demonstrate an increased ability

in weather. to observe, describe, and discuss
changes in weather.
2.3 Begin to notice the effects of 2.3 Demonstrate an increased ability to

weather and seasonal changes notice and describe the effects of
on their own lives and on plants weather and seasonal changes on
and animals. their own lives and on plants and
animals.
2.4 Develop awareness of the 2.4 Demonstrate an increased aware

importance of caring for and ness and the ability to discuss in
respecting the environment and simple terms how to care for the
participate in activities related environment, and participate in
to its care. activities related to its care.
APPENDIX B
The Foundations
An Overview of the Alignment of
the California Preschool Learning
Foundations with Key Early
Education Resources
Introduction
Over the past 15 years, the Califor- learning and development of chil-
nia Department of Education (CDE) dren during the years from birth to
has identified foundations to describe age three. The publication California
the learning and development of chil- Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
dren from birth through kindergar- ment Foundations represents the sec-
ten. This work focused on what young ond step in the CDE’s work. Experts
children know and are able to do dur- recommended that the term founda-
ing different age periods. Work on the tions be used rather than standards,
period covering birth through kinder- because early learning and develop-
garten stemmed from three distinct ment reflects a developmental process
initiatives. First, academic content that lays the foundation for academic
experts, K–12 educators, and other learning at school age. The infant/tod-
stakeholders collaborated to define dler learning and development founda-
what children are expected to learn in tions are organized into four domains:
California public schools from kinder- • Social–Emotional Development
garten through twelfth grade. Stan- • Language Development
dards in eight domains emerged from • Cognitive Development
this effort. There are standards for • Perceptual and Motor Development
the following subjects in K–12 educa-
After creating the infant/toddler
tion: English language arts, English-
learning and development foundations,
language development, mathematics,
the CDE proceeded with the third step.
visual and performing arts, physical
Researchers, early childhood educa-
education, health education, history–
tors, and other stakeholders con-
social science, school library, and
vened to conceptualize and delineate
science.
preschool learning foundations. This
In 2006, experts were convened to
effort produced learning foundations
write foundations that describe the
113
114 | Overview of the Alignment
that cover nine developmental domains: These resources share the purpose
Social-Emotional Development, Lan- of promoting the intentional sup-
guage and Literacy, English-Language port of young children’s learning and
Development, and Mathematics (Vol- development. By focusing on the key
ume 1); Visual and Performing Arts, knowledge and skills that children
Physical Development, and Health progressively acquire during the first
(Volume 2); and History-Social Science years of life, early childhood educators
and Science (Volume 3). can develop curriculum that is in tune
As work on standards and foun- with early learning. In particular, they
dations continues to evolve in Cali- can be attentive to significant learning,
fornia, two national initiatives have document it, and reflectively plan how
contributed to early childhood educa- to facilitate it. Additional resources
tors’ understanding of learning and that work hand in hand with stan-
development: (1) the Common Core dards and foundations have been cre-
State Standards (CCSS) and (2) the ated for early childhood educators. For
Head Start Child Development and example, the CDE’s infant/toddler cur-
Early Learning Framework (Head Start riculum framework is aligned with the
Learning Framework). The CCSS pro- infant/toddler learning and develop-
vide standards for every grade level ment foundations, and the preschool
from kindergarten through twelfth curriculum framework is aligned with
grade for English Language Arts and the preschool learning foundations.
Literacy in History/Social Studies, Sci- The Desired Results Developmental
ence, and Technical Subjects; and for Profile is also aligned with the infant/
Mathematics. California stands among toddler and preschool foundations.
numerous states that have adopted An important question is, How do
the CCSS. The Head Start Learning the preschool learning foundations
Framework describes key learning in align with the infant/toddler learn-
11 developmental domains: Physi- ing and development foundations, the
cal Development & Health, Social & kindergarten content standards, the
Emotional Development, Approaches CCSS, and the Head Start Learning
to Learning, Logic & Reasoning, Lan- Framework?
guage Development, English Language The following table presents an
Development, Literacy Knowledge alignment of the domains across the
& Skills, Mathematics Knowledge & infant/toddler learning and develop-
Skills, Science Knowledge & Skills, ment foundations, the preschool learn-
Creative Arts Expression, and Social ing foundations, and the kindergarten
Studies Knowledge & Skills. Head content standards, the CCSS, and the
Start programs throughout the country Head Start Learning Framework.
orient the support of young children’s
development and learning around the
knowledge and skills described in the
Framework.
Overview of the Alignment | 115
Table 1
Overview Alignment of the Domains in the California Preschool Learning
Foundations with Domains in Key Early Education Resources
Domains
Additional Domains
in the Head Start
Head Start Child Child Development
California Infant/ Development and Early Learning
California Toddler Learning California Common and Early Framework with
Preschool Learning and Development Kindergarten Core State Learning Corresponding
Foundations Foundations Content Standards Standards Framework Content
Social–Emotional Social–Emotional Health Education Social & Approaches to

Development Development Mental, Emotional, Emotional Learning
and Social Health Development Logic & Reasoning
Language and Language English–Language English– Language

Literacy Development Arts Language Development
Arts Literacy
Knowledge &
Skills
English–- Language English–Language English Literacy Knowledge

Language Development Development Language & Skills
Development Development
Mathematics Cognitive Development Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Logic & Reasoning

Knowledge Approaches to
& Skills Learning
Visual and All Domains Visual and Creative Arts Logic & Reasoning
Performing Arts Performing Arts Expression
Physical Perceptual and Motor Physical Physical

Development Development Education Development
Cognitive Development & Health
Health All Domains Health Education Physical

Development
& Health
History–Social Social–Emotional History–Social Social Studies Social & Emotional

Science Development Science Knowledge Development
Cognitive Development & Skills
Science Cognitive Development Science Science Approaches to

Language Knowledge & Learning
Development Skills Logic & Reasoning
As the Overview table indicates, the Development domain at the infant/tod-

developmental domains at the infant/ dler level are aligned with the Social–
toddler level (e.g., Social–Emotional, Emotional Development foundations
Language, Cognitive, and Perceptual at the preschool level. The Language
and Motor Development) align with Development domain at the infant/
corresponding preschool domains. The toddler level aligns with the Language
foundations in the Social–Emotional and Literacy domain at the preschool
level. The infant/toddler foundations preschool Physical Development

for Language Development also align domain with the kindergarten Physi-
with foundations for English-Language cal Education domain; the preschool
Development at the preschool level. Health domain with the kindergarten
The domain of Cognitive Development Health Education domain; the pre-
covers a broad range of knowledge and school History-Social Science domain
skills at the infant/toddler level. Some with the kindergarten History-Social
of the cognitive competencies align Science domain; and the preschool
with foundations in the Mathematics Science domain with the kindergarten
domain at the preschool level. Addi- Science domain.
tionally, some cognitive competencies In addition to the one-to-one cor-
align with foundations in the preschool respondence between the domains of
domains of Physical Development, His- the preschool learning foundations
tory–Social Science, and Science. All and those of the kindergarten content
infant/toddler domains have content standards, the preschool Language
that pertains, in one way or another, to and Literacy domain aligns with the
the Visual and Performing Arts domain CCSS English language arts domain.
at the preschool level. The Perceptual Likewise, the preschool Mathematics
and Motor Development domain and domain aligns with the CCSS Math-
some components from Cognitive ematics domain.
Development at the infant/toddler level The alignment between the pre-
align with the Physical Development school learning foundations and the
domain at the preschool level. Finally, Head Start Learning Framework con-
all domains of the infant/toddler foun- sists of two parts. First, for each of
dations are related to the Health the preschool learning foundations
foundations for preschool children. domains, the Head Start Learning
The domains of the preschool learn- Framework has content in a corre-
ing foundations directly correspond to sponding domain (in one case, two
the domains of California’s kindergar- domains). Thus, the preschool learning
ten content standards. As the Overview foundations’ Social–Emotional Devel-
table shows, the content of the Social– opment domain aligns with the Head
Emotional Development domain at the Start Learning Framework’s Social
preschool level overlaps with content & Emotional Development domain,
in the Mental, Emotional, and Social the preschool Language and Literacy
Health strand of the Health domain domain with Head Start’s Language
at kindergarten age. The remaining Development and Literacy Knowledge
domains line up in a straightforward & Skills domains, the preschool Eng-
manner across age levels: The pre- lish-Language Development domain
school Language and Literacy domain with Head Start’s English Language
aligns with the kindergarten English- Development domain, the preschool
Language Arts domain; the preschool Mathematics domain with Head Start’s
Mathematics domain with the kin- Mathematics Knowledge & Skills
dergarten Mathematics domain; the domain, the preschool Visual and Per-
preschool Visual and Performing Arts forming Arts domain with Head Start’s
domain with the kindergarten Visual Creative Arts Expression domain,
and Performing Arts domain; the the preschool Physical Development
domain with Head Start’s Physical document (http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/

Development & Health domain, the cd/re/documents/psalignment. pdf)
preschool Health domain with Head provides summaries of the devel-
Start’s Physical Development & Health opmental progression of the preschool
domain, the preschool History–Social foundations in each domain as they
Science domain with Head Start’s relate to specific infant/toddler foun-
Social Studies Knowledge & Skills dations, specific CCSS, specific kinder-
domain, and the preschool Science garten content standards, and specific
domain with Head Start’s Science competencies described in the Head
Knowledge & Skills domain. Start Learning Framework.
The second part of the alignment
between the content of the California Alignment of the California
Preschool Learning Foundations and Infant/Toddler Learning
that of the Head Start Learning Frame- and Development
work centers on the cross-cutting
nature of some of the domains in the
Foundations, Preschool
latter document. The Head Start Learn- Learning Foundations,
ing Framework’s Approaches to Learn- and Kindergarten Content
ing domain has content that relates Standards for Each Domain
to content in the Social–Emotional
Development, Mathematics, and Sci- Social–Emotional Development
ence domains of the preschool learn-
This section describes an overview of
ing foundations. Similarly, the content
the alignment of the preschool founda-
of the Head Start’s Logic & Reasoning
tions in social–emotional development
domain intersects with the preschool
with the infant/toddler learning and
learning foundations’ Social–Emotional
development foundations, and with
Development, Mathematics, Visual and
the kindergarten content standards.
Performing Arts, and Science domains.
Table 2 shows how the substrands
Two other Head Start Learning Frame-
of preschool learning foundations in
work domains have content that per-
social–emotional development align
tains to additional preschool learning
with the infant/toddler foundations
domains: Head Start’s Literacy Knowl-
in social–emotional development and
edge & Skills aligns with parts of the
with the kindergarten content stan-
preschool English-Language Develop-
dards in mental, emotional, and social
ment domain, and Head Start’s Social
health. A detailed alignment between
Studies Knowledge & Skills aligns
specific preschool learning foundations
with a few foundations in the pre-
for social–emotional development and
school Social–Emotional Development
specific health education content stan-
domain.
dards for kindergarten under mental,
The following sections present an
emotional, and social health may be
overview of the alignment of the pre-
viewed at http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/
school foundations with the infant/
cd/re/documents/psalignment.pdf.
toddler foundations, the kindergarten
content standards, the CCSS for kin-
The infant/toddler foundations in
dergarten, and the Head Start Learn-
the social–emotional development
ing Framework. The detailed alignment
domain include key aspects fundamen- for group participation and cooperation
tal to the development of self, social and responsibility, but these emerge
interactions, and relationships during during the preschool years and there-
the preschool period. Table 2 displays fore do not have corresponding infant/
how the infant/toddler foundations toddler foundations. The infant/tod-
identity of self in relation to others, rec- dler foundations relationships with
ognition of ability, expression of emotion, adults and relationships with peers
empathy, emotion regulation, impulse are linked to the preschool substrands
control, and social understanding pro- under relationships: attachment to
vide the basis for the preschooler’s parents, friendships, and close relation-
development of the self. The infant/ ships with teachers and caregivers.
toddler foundations identity of self in The kindergarten content standards
relation to others and recognition of abil- related to social–emotional develop-
ity are the basis for the development ment are included as part of the health
of self-awareness during the preschool education standards under the strand
period. Similarly, emotion regulation, mental, emotional, and social health
impulse control, and attention mainte- rather than as a separate domain.
nance during toddler years undergird Table 2 shows the correspondence
children’s capacity for self-regulation in between the strand and substrands
the preschool years. Social understand- in the preschool foundations and the
ing at the infant/toddler age continues kindergarten standards under mental,
to develop and corresponds to the pre- emotional, and social health: essential
school substrand social and emotional concepts, analyzing influences, access-
understanding, and the capacity to ing valid information, interpersonal
express empathy is linked to the pre- communication, decision making, goal
school substrand empathy and caring. setting, practicing health-enhancing
The infant/toddler foundation recogni- behaviors, and health promotion. For
tion of ability, the ability to make things example, the health standard essential
happen and persist in trying to make concepts includes components related
things, is aligned with the preschool to characteristics of self and family,
substrand initiative in learning. and therefore is aligned with the pre-
The foundations in social–emotional school substrand self-awareness. In a
development at the infant/toddler similar way, the health standards goal
years set the stage for healthy social– setting and practicing health-enhancing
emotional competencies during the behaviors focus on showing care, con-
preschool years. The infant/ toddler sideration, and concern for others and
foundations also include the compe- therefore align with the preschool sub-
tencies involved in social interaction strand empathy and caring. The con-
with peers and adults and in building tent in the preschool substrands initia-
positive relationships with others. The tive in learning, interaction with familiar
infant/toddler foundations interactions adults, group participation, cooperation
with adults and interactions with peers and responsibility, and friendships
are aligned with the preschool sub- is not addressed in the kindergarten
strands interactions with familiar adults content standards: therefore those pre-
and interactions with peers. The preschool substrands are not aligned with
school foundations also include skills any kindergarten standards.
Table 2
Overview of the Alignment Between the Social–Emotional Development Domain
and the California Content Standards
Social–Emotional Development
California Infant/Toddler Learning California Preschool Learning California Content Standards
and Development Foundations Foundations Kindergarten
Social–Emotional Development Social–Emotional Development Health Education
Self Mental, Emotional, and Social Health
Identity of Self in Relation to Other

Self-Awareness Essential Concepts
Recognition of Ability
Emotion Regulation
Interpersonal Communication
Impulse Control Self-Regulation
Practicing Health-Enhancing Behaviors
Attention Maintenance

Social Understanding Social and Emotional Essential Concepts
Understanding
Goal Setting
Empathy Empathy and Caring
Recognition of Ability Initiative in Learning
Table 2 (continued)
Social–Emotional Development Social–Emotional Development Health Education
Social Interaction Mental, Emotional, and Social Health

Interactions with Adults Interactions with Familiar Adults
Interactions with Peers Interactions with Peers Interpersonal Communication
Group Participation
Cooperation and Responsibility
Relationships
Attachment to Parents Essential Concepts

Relationship with Adullts Close Relationships with Analyzing Influences
Teachers and Caregivers Accessing Valid Information
Relationship with Peers Friendships
Language and Literacy and corresponds to the preschool sub-

This section provides an overview of strand language use and conventions.
the alignment of the preschool learning Receptive language and expressive lan-
foundations in language and literacy guage skills at the infant/toddler age
with (a) the infant/toddler learning link to preschool children’s developing
and development foundations; (b) the abilities in the substrands of grammar,
CCSS in English Language Arts and vocabulary, phonological awareness,
Literacy in History/Social Studies, and comprehension and analysis of
Science, and Technical Subjects; and age-appropriate text. Children’s general
(c) the kindergarten content standards interest in print in the infant/toddler
in English–language arts. years is the beginning of children’s
learning and development described
(a) Alignment of the Preschool by foundations in the preschool sub-
Learning Foundations in Language strands of concepts about print, alpha-
and Literacy with the Infant/ betic and word/print recognition, liter-
Toddler Learning and Development acy interest and response, and writing
Foundations in Language strategies.
Development
(b) Alignment of the Preschool
The infant/toddler foundations in Learning Foundations in Language
the Language Development domain and Literacy with the CCSS in
center on four key competencies: English Language Arts and Literacy
receptive language (the developing abil- in History/Social Studies, Science,
ity to understand language), expres- and Technical Subjects
sive language (the developing ability
to produce the sounds of language The CCSS specify the progression
and use vocabulary and increasingly of skills and understandings, from
complex utterances), communication kindergarten through grade twelve,
skills and knowledge (the developing in two key domains: (a) English Lan-
ability to communicate nonverbally guage Arts and Literacy in History/
and verbally), and interest in print (the Social Studies, Science, and Technical
developing interest in exploring print Subjects and (b) Mathematics. The fol-
in books and the environment). These lowing analysis provides an overview of
foundations in language development the alignment between the infant/tod-
in the infant/toddler years set the dler learning and development founda-
stage for the development of language tions and the CCSS for kindergarten
and literacy skills during the preschool in the Language and Literacy domain.
years. A detailed alignment between specific
Table 3 presents an overview of preschool learning foundations in Lan-
the alignment between the preschool guage and Literacy and specific CCSS
learning foundations and the infant/ for kindergarten in language arts and
toddler foundations in language devel- literacy may be viewed at http://www.
opment. As table 3 indicates, the cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/documents/
infant/toddler foundation communica- psalignment.pdf.
tion skills and knowledge continues The development of foundational
to develop during the preschool years concepts and skills in Language and
Literacy during the preschool years
relate to children’s development of speaking, the substrand language

reading, writing, listening, and speak- use and conventions is aligned with
ing skills while in kindergarten. The the CCR anchor standards for speak-
preschool learning foundations in Lan- ing and listening: comprehension and
guage and Literacy and the CCSS in collaboration, and presentation of
English Language Arts are organized knowledge and ideas. The preschool
according to the same basic categories substrands vocabulary and grammar
(strands): listening and speaking, are aligned with the CCR anchor stan-
reading, and writing. The CCSS in dards for language: vocabulary acquisi-
English Language Arts and Literacy tion and use, and conventions of stan-
also include a strand called language dard English, respectively. The reading
standards. Each of the strands in substrands in the preschool founda-
the CCSS is organized according to tions are aligned with the CCR anchor
broad, overarching College and Career standards for reading: key ideas and
Readiness (CCR) anchor standards. details, craft and structure, and integra-
For each strand, alignment between tion of knowledge and ideas, and with
the preschool learning foundations the CCSS reading standards: founda-
and the CCSS occurs at both the sub- tional skills in the areas of phonologi-
strand and the foundation levels. Table cal awareness, print concepts, phonics
3 shows the alignment between pre- and word recognition.
school substrands and key areas (CCR The CCSS reading standards for kin-
anchor standards) in the CCSS for dergarten—fluency and range of read-
English language arts and literacy. ing and level of text complexity—pres-
Table 3 shows that the preschool ent skills that emerge in kindergarten
strand listening and speaking is and therefore have no corresponding
aligned with the CCSS strand speak- foundations at the preschool level.
ing and listening. The strand reading Table 3 shows the specific alignment of
in the preschool foundations is aligned the reading substrands with the CCR
with three sets of reading standards anchor standards for reading. Finally,
in the CCSS: reading standards for the substrand writing strategies is
literature, for informational text, and in aligned with the CCR anchor standard
foundational skills and standards for text types and purposes. Additional
speaking and listening. The preschool CCSS writing standards for kinder-
strand writing is aligned with the garten exist in the areas of production
CCSS strand writing, and the CCSS and distribution of writing and research
strand language standards is aligned to build and represent knowledge,
with components in the preschool but these do not have corresponding
strand listening and speaking. foundations at the preschool level.
Table 3 also displays the alignment All preschool substrands are aligned
of the substrands in the preschool with corresponding CCSS, except for
foundations with corresponding key the substrand literacy interest and
areas (CCR anchor standards) in the response.
CCSS. In the strand listening and
Table 3
Overview of the Alignment Between the Language and Literacy Domain
and the Common Core State Standards
Language and Literacy

California Infant/Toddler Learning California Preschool Learning Common Core State Standards
Language Development Language and Literacy English Language Arts & Literacy
in History/Social Studies, Science,
and Technical Subjects
Listening and Speaking Speaking and Listening Standards
Communication Skills and Knowledge Language Use and Conventions Comprehension and Collaboration
Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas
Language Standards
Receptive Language Vocabulary Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
Expressive Language Grammar Conventions of Standard English
Reading Standards for Literature

Reading Standards for Informational Text
Reading
Reading Standards: Foundational Skills
Speaking and Listening Standards
Phonological Awareness Phonological Awareness
Receptive Language Key Ideas and Details
Expressive Language Comprehension and Analysis Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
of Age-Appropriate Text
Comprehension and Collaboration
Table 3 (continued)
Language Development Language and Literacy English Language Arts & Literacy
in History/Social Studies, Science,
and Technical Subjects
Reading Standards for Literature
Reading Standards for Informational Text
Reading
Reading Standards: Foundational Skills
Speaking and Listening Standards
Print Concepts
Concepts about Print
Craft and Structure
Print Concepts
Interest in Print Alphabetics and Word/
Print Recognition Phonics and Word Recognition
Literacy Interest and Response
Writing Writing Standards

Interest in Print Writing Strategies Text Types and Purposes
(c) Alignment of the Preschool language use and conventions cor-

Learning Foundations in Language responds to the kindergarten content
and Literacy with the Kindergarten standards of listening and speaking
Content Standards in English– strategies, speaking applications, and
Language Arts written and oral English language
conventions. The eight remaining
Table 4 provides an overview of
substrands of the preschool learning
the alignment between the preschool
foundations link to the substrands of
learning foundations in Language and
the kindergarten content standards in
Literacy and the kindergarten content
the following way: grammar aligns with
standards in English–language arts.
written and oral English language con-
A detailed alignment between specific
ventions (sentence structure); vocabu-
preschool learning foundations for
lary aligns with vocabulary and concept
Language and Literacy and specific
development; phonological awareness
kindergarten content standards for
aligns with phonemic awareness; com-
English–language arts may be viewed
prehension and analysis of age-appro-
at http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/
priate text aligns with comprehension
documents/psalignment.pdf.
and analysis of grade-level-appropriate
The development of foundational
text and with narrative analysis of
concepts and skills in language and lit-
grade-level-appropriate text. Concepts
eracy during the preschool years relate
about print align with concepts about
to children’s development of reading,
print, structural features of informa-
writing, listening, and speaking skills
tional materials, and narrative analysis
while in kindergarten. The preschool
of grade-level-appropriate text; alpha-
learning foundations in language and
betic and word/print recognition aligns
literacy and the kindergarten content
with concepts about print and decod-
standards in English–language arts are
ing and word recognition; and writing
organized according to the same basic
strategies align with writing strategies.
categories (strands): listening and
In summary, for almost every sub-
speaking, reading, and writing. The
strand of preschool learning founda-
kindergarten content standards also
tions, there is at least one substrand
include a strand called written and
of kindergarten content standards that
oral English language conventions.
reflects the content of those preschool
For each strand, alignment between
foundations. Literacy interest and
the preschool learning foundations and
response is the only preschool founda-
the kindergarten content standards
tion substrand that does not align
occurs at both the substrand and
with any of the kindergarten content
foundation/content standard levels.
standards.
Table 4 shows how the preschool
learning foundations substrand of
Table 4

Overview of the Alignment Between the Language and Literacy Domain

Language Development Language and Literacy English–Language Arts
Listening and Speaking Listening and Speaking

Listening and Speaking Strategies:
Comprehension
Speaking Applications
Communication Skills and Knowledge Language Use and Conventions
Written and Oral English Language
Conventions
Written and Oral Language Conventions:
Sentence Structure

Conventions
Grammar Written and Oral Language Conventions:
Sentence Structure
Receptive Language
Reading
Expressive Language Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic
Vocabulary Development: Vocabulary
Vocabulary and Concept Development
Listening and Speaking

Speaking Applications
Table 4 (continued)
Reading Reading
Phonological Awareness Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic
Vocabulary Development: Phonemic
Awareness
Receptive Language
Reading Comprehension: Comprehension
Expressive Language and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate
Comprehension and Analysis Text
of Age-Appropriate Text
Literacy Response and Analysis: Narrative
Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic

Vocabulary Development: Concepts About
Print
Concepts about Print Reading Comprehension: Structural

Features of Informational Materials
Literacy Response and Analysis: Narrative

Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text
Interest in Print
Alphabetics and Word/Print Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic
Recognition Vocabulary Development: Concepts About
Print; Decoding and Word Recognition
Literacy Interest and Response
Table 4 (continued)
Writing Writing
Writing Strategies: Organization and Focus;
Penmanship
Interest in Print Writing Strategies
Conventions
Conventions: Spelling
English-Language Development the content categories of California’s

This section provides an overview of ELD standards (listening and speak-
the alignment of the preschool founda- ing, reading, writing) in K–12. The
tions in English-Language Develop- K–12 ELD standards have three lev-
ment (ELD) with the infant/toddler els: beginning, intermediate, and
foundations in Language Development advanced. Similarly, the preschool
and with the kindergarten content foundations in ELD are defined at the
standards for California public schools beginning, middle, and later stages of
in ELD. English acquisition.
Children’s language and literacy The K–12 ELD standards do not
skills in their first language contribute necessarily represent a developmental
to acquiring English. Children who are progression from preschool to kin-
English-language learners transfer the dergarten. The K–12 ELD standards
skills of their home language to the apply to different aspects of children’s
process of learning English. The align- individual levels of English acquisition.
ment draws the connection between Consequently, it is not appropriate to
the infant/toddler foundations in Lan- align specific preschool foundations
guage Development and the preschool with specific kindergarten standards in
foundations in ELD. As table 5 indi- the ELD domain. The alignment points
cates, the development of children’s only to corresponding content areas
receptive and expressive language (substrands) in the preschool founda-
skills, communication skills, and inter- tions and the K–12 ELD standards; it
est in print in their home language does not identify the next level of Eng-
provides the foundation for their devel- lish acquisition for children entering
opment of listening, speaking, read- kindergarten. Therefore, there is no
ing, and writing skills in English. The table aligning specific preschool foun-
infant/toddler foundation receptive dations with specific K–12 standards
language is aligned with the preschool in the ELD domain.
ELD strand listening; the infant/tod- The alignment draws upon the par-
dler foundation expressive language is allel content areas between the pre-
aligned with the preschool ELD strand school foundations in ELD and the
speaking. The foundation communica- K–12 standards in ELD. As table 5
tion skills and knowledge corresponds shows, for almost every substrand
to the preschool substrand of under- of preschool learning foundations in
standing and using social conventions ELD, there is at least one substrand
in English, and the infant/toddler of the kindergarten content standards
foundation interest in print is aligned that reflects the content of those pre-
with the ELD strands reading and school foundations. Two substrands
writing. in the preschool learning foundations
Table 5 also presents the align- have no corresponding content in the
ment of the preschool foundations in K–12 standards in ELD: Children dem-
ELD with the K–12 standards for ELD. onstrate an appreciation and enjoyment
The four strands (listening, speaking, of reading and literature and Children
reading and writing) in the preschool demonstrate awareness that print car-
foundations for ELD are aligned with ries meaning.
Table 5

Overview of the Alignment Between the English-Language Development Domain
English Language Development

Language Development English-Language Development K–12 English-Language

Development Standards
Listening Listening and Speaking
Strategies and Applications:
Comprehension
Receptive Language Children listen with understanding.
Reading
and Concept Development
Speaking Listening and Speaking

Children use nonverbal and Strategies and Applications: Organization
verbal strategies to communicate and Delivery of Oral Communication
Expressive Language with others.
Reading
Children use language to create
oral narratives about their
personal experiences.
and Concept Development
Communication Skills and Knowledge Children begin to understand and use Listening and Speaking
social conventions in English.
Strategies and Applications: Organization
and Delivery of Oral Communication
Table 5 (continued)
English Language Development
Language Development English-Language Development K–12 English-Language

Development Standards
Reading Reading
Children demonstrate an
appreciation and enjoyment of
reading and literature.
Children show an increasing Reading Comprehension: Comprehension

understanding of book reading. and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate
Text; Structural Features of Informational
Interest in Print Materials
Children demonstrate an Reading Comprehension: Comprehension
understanding of print conventions. and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate
Text
Children demonstrate awareness
that print carries meaning.
Children demonstrate progress

in their knowledge of the alphabet
in English. Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic
Expressive Language Children demonstrate Vocabulary Development: Phonemic
phonological awareness. Awareness; Decoding and Word
Recognition
Writing Writing
Interest in Print Children use writing to Strategies and Applications: Penmanship;
communicate their ideas. Organization and Focus
Mathematics ing of personal care routine is linked

This section provides an overview of to children’s ability to identify simple
the alignment of the preschool learn- repeating patterns. The daily routine
ing foundations in Mathematics with follows a pattern, and children are
(a) the infant/toddler learning and able to anticipate and or predict what
development foundations in Cognitive comes next. Spatial relationships,
Development, (b) the CCSS for math- the developing understanding in the
ematics, and (c) the kindergarten con- infant/toddler years of how things
tent standards for mathematics. move and fit in space, set the stage for
children’s learning about shapes and
(a) Alignment of the Preschool positions in space (geometry strand)
Learning Foundations in and about comparing, ordering and
Mathematics with the Infant/ measuring objects (measurement
Toddler Learning and Development strand). The development of problem-
Foundations in Cognitive solving skills in the infant/toddler
Development years is linked to children’s mathemati-
A range of core mathematical abili- cal reasoning, the ability to use mathe-
ties identified in the preschool learn- matical thinking to solve problems that
ing foundations in Mathematics arise in their everyday environment.
emerge and begin to develop during (b) Alignment of the Preschool
the infant/toddler years. Five of the Learning Foundations in
infant/toddler foundations in Cogni- Mathematics with the Common Core
tive Development center on key math- State Standards in Mathematics
ematical concepts and skills: number
sense, classification, understanding The foundations and the CCSS in
of personal care routines, spatial rela- Mathematics cover the same key areas
tionships, and problem solving. These of learning. The first four strands in
foundations in Cognitive Development the preschool foundations in Math-
during the infant/toddler years set ematics are aligned with CCSS for
the stage for the development of math- mathematical content. The preschool
ematical skills during the preschool strand number sense is aligned with
years. the CCSS categories: counting and car-
Table 6 shows how the infant/tod- dinality, operations and algebraic think-
dler foundation number sense corre- ing, and number and operations in base
sponds to the preschool substrands ten.
related to number sense, focusing on The preschool strand algebra and
children’s understanding of quantity, functions (classification and pat-
number relationships, and operations terning) is aligned with components
(addition and subtraction). Similarly, in the CCSS category of measurement
the infant/toddler foundation classi- and data. Content related to classifica-
fication corresponds to the preschool tion appears under algebra and func-
substrand classification, focusing on tions in the preschool foundations
children’s continuous development of and under measurement and data in
the ability to sort and classify objects the CCSS. The preschool strand mea-
in their everyday environment. The surement is aligned with the CCSS of
infant/toddler foundation understand- measurement and data, and the strand
geometry is directly aligned with the preschool foundations. The preschool

CCSS cluster of standards in geom- substrand addressing sorting and clas-
etry. The last preschool strand, math- sifying objects aligns with the CCSS of
ematical reasoning, is aligned with classify objects and count the number
the CCSS for mathematical practices. of objects in each category. However,
Table 6 shows the alignment between preschool substrand 2.0 on patterning
strands and substrands in the pre- has no corresponding content in the
school foundations and the content CCSS. The preschool strand on mea-
categories in the CCSS for Mathemat- surement, about comparing, ordering,
ics. The detailed alignment between and measuring objects, is aligned with
specific preschool foundations and the kindergarten CCSS of Describe and
specific kindergarten standards in the compare measurable attributes. The
CCSS for Mathematics may be viewed preschool substrand under geometry
at http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/ (Children identify and use a variety of
documents/psalignment.pdf. shapes in their environment) is aligned
For every substrand of the pre- with the standards in the CCSS cat-
school learning foundations, there egories under geometry: Identify and
is a category in the CCSS with cor- describe shapes and Analyze, compare,
responding content. The substrands create, and compose shapes. Finally,
under number sense—understanding the preschool substrand Children use
numbers and quantities and under- mathematical thinking to solve prob-
standing number relationships and lems, under the strand mathematical
operations—correspond directly to the reasoning is aligned with the CCSS for
CCSS in the categories counting and mathematical practices. These include
cardinality and operations and alge- processes that involve mathematical
braic thinking, respectively. Content problem solving such as Make sense
in number and operations in base ten of problems and persevere in solving
of the CCSS is too advanced for there them, and Reason abstractly and quan-
to be corresponding content in the titatively.
Table 6
Overview of the Alignment Between the Mathematics Domain and the Common Core State Standards

Mathematics
Cognitive Development Mathematics Mathematics
Number Sense Counting and Cardinality

Know number names and the count
Children understand numbers sequence
and quantities in their everyday Count to tell the number of objects
environment.
Compare numbers
Children understand number Operations and Algebraic Thinking

Number Sense relationships and operations in
Understand addition as putting together
their everyday environment.
and adding to, and subtraction as taking
apart and taking from
Number and Operations in Base Ten
Work with numbers 11–19 to gain
foundations for place value
Algebra and Functions

(Classification and Patterning) Measurement and Data
Classification Children sort and classify objects in Classify objects and count the number
their everyday environment. of objects in categories
Understanding of Personal Routine Children recognize/expand

understanding of simple repeating
patterns.
Table 6 (continued)
Mathematics
Measurement Measurement and Data

Spatial Relationships Children compare, order, and Describe and compare measurable
measure objects. attributes
Geometry Geometry
Identify and describe shapes (squares,
circles, triangles, rectangles, hexagons,
Children identify and use shapes. cubes, cones, cylinders, and spheres).
Analyze, compare, create, and compose

Spatial Relationships shapes.

Children understand positions Identify and describe shapes (squares,
in space. circles, triangles, rectangles, hexagons,
cubes, cones, cylinders, and spheres).
Table 6 (continued)
Mathematics
Standards for Mathematical Practice

Mathematical Reasoning
(K-12)
Make sense of problems and persevere
in solving them.
Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
Construct viable arguments and critique
the reasoning of others.
Problem Solving Children use mathematical thinking Model with mathematics.

to solve problems in their everyday Use appropriate tools strategically.
environment.
Attend to precision.
Look for and make use of structure.
Look for and express regularity in
repeated reasoning.
(c) Alignment of the Preschool the relationships between numbers and

Learning Foundations in quantities, and students understand
Mathematics with the Mathematics and describe simple additions and sub-
Content Standards for Kindergarten tractions. The substrand addressing
The foundations and the kindergar- sorting and classifying objects aligns
ten standards cover the same general with the kindergarten substrand Stu-
categories (strands): number sense, dents sort and classify objects, and
algebra and functions (classifica- the patterning substrand aligns with
tion and patterning), measurement, the kindergarten substrand Students
geometry, and mathematical reason- collect information about objects and
ing. In the kindergarten content stan- events in their environment. The pre-
dards, there is an additional strand: school strand on measurement (about
statistics, data analysis, and prob- comparing, ordering, and measuring
ability, which focuses on data collec- objects) is aligned with the kinder-
tion and patterning. In addition, kin- garten substrand under measure-
dergarten standards in measurement ment and geometry in which students
and geometry are combined into one understand that objects have prop-
strand, measurement and geometry, erties, such as length, weight, and
rather than divided into two separate capacity, and that comparisons may
strands. Table 7 shows the alignment be made by referring to those proper-
between strands and substrands in the ties. The preschool substrand under
preschool foundations and the kinder- geometry, Children identify and use a
garten strands and substrands. The variety of shapes in their environment,
detailed alignment between specific is aligned with the second kindergar-
preschool foundations and specific ten substrand under measurement
kindergarten content standards for and geometry: Students identify com-
Mathematics may be viewed at http:// mon objects in their environment and
www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/docu- describe the geometric features. The
ments/psalignment.pdf. preschool geometry substrand on the
As table 7 indicates, the strands in understanding of positions in space
the preschool foundations correspond is aligned with substrands outside
directly to strands in the kindergarten the mathematics domain. It is directly
standards. For every substrand of the related to kindergarten content in
preschool learning foundations, there the physical education standards
are kindergarten content standards for movement concepts, and in his-
that reflect the content of those pre- tory–social science: Students compare
school foundations. The substrands and contrast the locations of people,
under number sense, understanding places, and environments and describe
numbers and quantities and under- their characteristics. Finally, the pre-
standing number relationships and school strand mathematical reasoning
operations, correspond directly to the matches the kindergarten strand math-
kindergarten content standards of ematical reasoning.
number sense: Students understand
Table 7

Overview of the Alignment Between the Mathematics Domain and the California Content Standards
Mathematics
Number Sense Number Sense
Children understand numbers Students understand the relationship

and quantities in their everyday between numbers and quantities.
environment.
Students understand the relationship
Number Sense
between numbers and quantities.
Children understand number
relationships and operations in Students understand and describe
their everyday environment. simple additions and subtractions.
Algebra and Functions Algebra and Functions

Classification Children sort and classify objects Students sort and classify objects.
in their everyday environment.
Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability
Understanding of Personal Routine Children recognize/expand Students collect information about
understanding of simple repeating objects and events in their environment.
patterns.
Table 7 (continued)
Mathematics
Measurement Measurement and Geometry

Spatial Relationships Children compare, order, and Students understand that objects have
measure objects. properties, such as length, weight, and
capacity, and that comparisons may be
made by referring to those properties.
Geometry Measurement and Geometry

Children identify and use shapes. Students identify common objects in
their environment and describe the
geometric features.
Domain: Physical Education

Spatial Relationships Standard 2
Movement Concepts

Students demonstrate knowledge of
movement concepts, principles, and
strategies that apply to the learning
Children understand positions and performance of physical activities.
in space.
Domain: History–Social Science
K.4 Students compare and contrast
the locations of people, places, and
environments and describe their
characteristics.
Table 7 (continued)
Mathematics
Mathematical Reasoning Mathematical Reasoning

Students make decisions about how to
set up a problem.
Problem Solving Children use mathematical thinking
to solve problems in their everyday
environment. Students solve problems in reasonable
ways and justify their reasoning.
Visual and Performing Arts content standards in the correspond-

This section describes the alignment ing domains: Visual Arts, Music,
of the preschool foundations in the Theatre, and Dance. The kindergar-
Visual and Performing Arts with the ten content standards in each artistic
infant/toddler learning and develop- domain are organized by the follow-
ment foundations and the California ing main categories (strands): artistic
content standards for kindergarten in perception, creative expression,
the Visual and Performing Arts (visual historical and cultural context,
arts, music, theatre, and dance). aesthetic valuing, and connections,
The skills and knowledge in the relationships, applications. Table
Visual and Performing Arts are built 8 shows the alignment between pre-
on ones that children develop in the school substrands and kindergarten
Language, Perceptual, Motor, Cogni- strands in Visual Arts, Music, Theatre,
tive, and Social–Emotional Develop- and Dance. The detailed alignment
ment domains. Whether children between specific preschool founda-
improvise vocally and instrumentally tions and specific kindergarten content
or act out with others through music standards in the Visual and Perform-
and movement, the visual arts, music, ing Arts domains may be viewed at
drama, and dance tap children’s intel- http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/
lectual, social, and physical competen- documents/psalignment.pdf.
cies. Children’s developing capacity to In general, the preschool substrand
communicate, express themselves notice, respond, and engage, in each
verbally, move their bodies with com- artistic discipline, is aligned with the
petence, engage in symbolic play, kindergarten strands artistic perception
interact with peers and adults coop- and aesthetic valuing. In some strands,
eratively, along with other skills, form the preschool substrand notice,
the foundation of their development respond, and engage is also aligned
in the Visual and Performing Arts. For with components of the kindergarten
this reason, as table 8 indicates, the strand historical and cultural context.
Visual and Performing Arts domain The other two preschool substrands—
is aligned with all four developmental develop skills and create, invent, and
domains in the infant/toddler founda- express—are aligned with the kinder-
tions: Social–Emotional Development, garten strand creative expression. As
Language Development, Cognitive table 8 indicates, for every substrand
Development, and Perceptual and of the preschool learning foundations
Motor Development. Each domain in the Visual and Performing Arts,
plays a role in children’s development there is at least one substrand of the
in the Visual and Performing Arts. kindergarten content standards that
The preschool learning foundations reflects the content of the correspond-
in visual art, music, drama, and dance ing preschool foundations.
are also aligned with the kindergarten
Table 8

Overview of the Alignment Between the Visual and Performing Arts Domain and the California Content Standards
Visual and Performing Arts

Visual and Performing Arts Visual and Performing Arts: Visual

Arts, Music, Theatre, and Dance
Visual Art Visual Art
Artistic Perception: Develop Perceptual
Skills and Visual Arts Vocabulary; Analyze
Art Elements and Principles of Design
Notice, Respond, and Engage Historical and Cultural Context: Diversity

of the Visual Arts
Aesthetic Valuing: Derive Meaning; Make

Social–Emotional Development Informed Judgments
Language Development Creative Expression: Skills, Processes,

Materials, and Tools; Communication and
Cognitive Development Expression Through Original Works of Art
Develop Skills in Visual Art
Perceptual and Motor Development Artistic Perception: Develop Perceptual
Skills and Visual Arts Vocabulary
Create, Invent, and Express Creative Expression: Communication and

Through Visual Art Expression Through Original Works of Art
Table 8 (continued)

Music Music
Artistic Perception: Listen to, Analyze,
and Describe Music
Notice, Respond, and Engage Historical and Cultural Context: Diversity
of Music
Aesthetic Valuing: Derive Meaning
Language Development
Develop Skills in Music Creative Expression: Apply Vocal and
Cognitive Development Instrumental Skills
Perceptual and Motor Development Creative Expression: Compose, Arrange,

Create, Invent, and Express and Improvise
Through Music Aesthetic Valuing: Derive Meaning
Drama Theatre

Artistic Perception: Development of the
Vocabulary of Theatre; Comprehension
and Analysis of the Elements of Theatre
Social–Emotional Development Notice, Respond, and Engage
Aesthetic Valuing: Critical Assessment
Language Development of Theatre; Derivation of Meaning from
Works of Theatre
Cognitive Development
Develop Skill Used to Create, Invent, Creative Expression: Development of
Perceptual and Motor Development and Express Through Drama Theatrical Skills; Creation/Invention in
Theatre
Historical and Cultural Context: Role and
Cultural Significance of Theatre
Table 8 (continued)


Dance Dance
Artistic Perception: Development of
Motor Skills and Technical Expertise;
Notice, Respond, and Engage Comprehension and Analysis of Dance
Elements; Development of Dance Vocabulary
Aesthetic Valuing: Description, Analysis,
and Criticism of Dance
Social–Emotional Development Artistic Perception: Development of Motor

Skill and Technical Expertise
Domain: Physical Education
Cognitive Development Develop Skills in Dance Standard 1
Perceptual and Motor Development Movement Concepts; Rhythmic Skills
Standard 2
Movement Concepts
Create, Invent, and Express Creative Expression: Creation/Invention

Through Dance of Dance Movements
Physical Development the substrands balance and locomotor

This section describes an overview of skills, and the foundation fine motor
the alignment of the preschool founda- corresponds to the preschool sub-
tions in Physical Development with the strand manipulative skills. Perceptual
infant/toddler learning and develop- development and spatial relationships
ment foundations in the domains of set the stage for children’s develop-
Perceptual–Motor Development and ment of spatial awareness and direc-
Cognitive Development, and with the tional awareness.
physical education content standards The preschool learning founda-
in kindergarten. Table 9 shows how tions in Physical Development are also
the strands and substrands of the pre- aligned with the physical education
school learning foundations in Physi- content standards in kindergarten. The
cal Development align with infant/tod- kindergarten standards consist of five
dler foundations in the Perceptual and main standards in the following areas:
Motor and the Cognitive Development • K.1 — motor skills and movement
domains and with the physical educa- patterns
tion content standards for kindergar- • K.2 — knowledge of movement con-
ten. The detailed alignment between cepts, principles, and strategies
specific preschool learning foundations • K.3 — level of physical fitness
in Physical Development and specific • K.4 — knowledge of physical fitness
kindergarten content standards in concepts, principles, and strategies
physical education may be viewed at • K.5 — knowledge of psychological
http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/ and sociological concepts, principles,
documents/psalignment.pdf. and strategies that apply to the
Core concepts and a range of skills learning and performance of physi-
identified in the preschool learning cal activity
foundations in Physical Development The standards cover a broad range
emerge and develop during the infant/ of concepts and skills organized by
toddler years. The infant/toddler foun- categories such as movement concepts,
dations in Perceptual and Motor Devel- body management, locomotor move-
opment (gross motor, fine motor, and ment, manipulative skills, rhythmic
perceptual development) and the Cog- skills, fitness concepts, and aerobic
nitive Development foundation (spa- capacity. The kindergarten standards
tial relationships) set the stage for the K.1–K.4 in physical education are
development of key skills and concepts aligned with the preschool foundations
in Physical Development during the in Physical Development. Kindergarten
preschool years. Table 9 displays the standard K.5 involves knowledge and
alignment between the infant/toddler skills that are not reflected in the pre-
foundations in Perceptual and Motor school foundations in Physical Devel-
Development and spatial relationships, opment and therefore is not included
and the strands and substrands cov- in this alignment. Table 9 shows the
ered in the preschool learning foun- alignment between strands and sub-
dations in Physical Development. As strands in the domain of Physical
table 9 indicates, the infant/toddler Development with key content stan-
foundation gross motor is aligned with dards for kindergarten in physical edu-
cation. For every strand and substrand motor skills is aligned with kindergar-
in the preschool learning foundations ten category locomotor movement; and
in Physical Development, there are the substrand manipulative skills cor-
kindergarten content standards that responds directly to the kindergarten
reflect the content of those preschool category manipulative skills. Similarly,
foundations. The strands fundamental in the second strand of the preschool
movement skills and perceptual– foundations, the substrand body
motor skills and movement concepts awareness is aligned with body man-
are aligned with the kindergarten agement; the substrand spatial aware-
physical education standards focusing ness is aligned with the kindergarten
on skills and knowledge of movement category movement concepts; and the
(standards K.1 and K.2). The strand concepts and skills in the substrand
active physical play is aligned with directional awareness correspond to
the kindergarten standards focusing skills and concepts in two categories of
on skills and knowledge of physical fit- kindergarten standards: body manage-
ness (standards K.3 and K.4). ment and movement concepts. Finally,
Table 9 also displays the corre- in the strand of active physical play,
spondence between the preschool the substrand active participation is
substrands and the categories of con- aligned with fitness concepts; cardio-
cepts and skills covered in each of the vascular endurance is aligned with aer-
kindergarten standards in physical obic capacity; and the substrand mus-
education. The substrand balance cor- cular strength, muscular endurance,
responds to skills in the category of and flexibility is directly aligned with
body management; the substrand loco- the kindergarten categories muscular
strength/endurance and flexibility.
Table 9
Overview of the Alignment Between the Physical Development Domain and the California Content Standards
Physical Development
Perceptual and Motor Development Physical Development Physical Education

Also aligned with elements from:
Standard 1: Motor Skills and Movement
Fundamental Movement Skills Patterns
Standard 2: Knowledge of Movement
Concepts
Balance Body Management (Standard 1)
Gross Motor
Locomotor Skills Locomotor Movement (Standards 1 and 2)
Fine Motor Manipulative Skills Manipulative Skills (Standard 1)
Standard 1: Motor Skills and Movement

Perceptual Motor Skills and Patterns

Movement Concepts Standard 2: Knowledge of Movement
Concepts
Body Awareness Body Management (Standard 2)

Spatial Relationships
(Cognitive Development) Spatial Awareness Movement Concepts (Standards 1 and 2)
Perceptual Development Body Management (Standard 1)

Directional Awareness
(Cognitive Development) Movement Concepts (Standards 1 and 2)
Table 9 (continued)
Physical Development
Perceptual and Motor Development Physical Development Physical Education

Also aligned with elements from:
Standard 3: Level of Physical Fitness
Active Physical Play Standard 4: Knowledge of Physical Fitness
Concepts
Active Participation Fitness Concepts (Standards 3 and 4)
Cardiovascular Endurance Aerobic Capacity (Standards 3 and 4)
Muscular Strength/Endurance
Muscular Strength, Muscular (Standards 3 and 4)
Endurance, and Flexibility Flexibility (Standards 3 and 4)
Health As children grow, they develop a

This section describes an overview deeper understanding of the concepts
of the alignment of the preschool foun- related to health and illness; have
dations in health science with the a greater ability to practice health-
infant/toddler learning and develop- enhancing behaviors; and commu-
ment foundations and the California nicate and reason about health con-
health education content standards for cepts. The kindergarten standards in
kindergarten. The detailed alignment health education cover a broader range
between specific preschool learning of content areas, and include more
foundations in Health and specific kin- aspects of health concepts, behaviors,
dergarten content standards in Health and skills. The health education stan-
Education may be viewed at http:// dards in kindergarten are organized
www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/docu- according to the following categories
ments/psalignment.pdf. (strands): nutrition and physical
The basic skills and concepts activity; growth and development;
acquired during the infant/toddler injury prevention and safety, alco-
years set the stage for the develop- hol, tobacco, and other drugs; men-
ment of health behaviors and concepts tal, emotional and social health;
during the preschool years. Whether and personal and community health.
washing hands, communicating to an Table 10 shows the alignment of the
adult about not feeling well, following kindergarten strands in health edu-
emergency routines, or demonstrat- cation with the strands in the pre-
ing knowledge of body parts, children school foundations. The first preschool
practice health habits and understand strand, health habits, is aligned with
concepts that draw on cognitive, lan- two of the kindergarten strands (per-
guage, social, and physical competen- sonal and community health and
cies. Children’s developing capacity growth and development). The pre-
to communicate, establish relation- school strand, safety, is aligned with
ships with adults in the environment, the kindergarten strand injury pre-
understand and participate in personal vention and safety, and nutrition is
care routines, reason about cause and aligned with the kindergarten strand
effect, perform fine-motor manipula- nutrition and physical activity. The
tive activities, and acquire other skills content in the kindergarten strand
forms the foundation of health con- alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs is
cepts, skills, and behaviors. For this not addressed in the preschool foun-
reason, as shown in Table 10, the pre- dations; therefore that strand is not
school health domain is aligned with part of the alignment. The content
all four developmental domains in the in the kindergarten strand mental,
infant/toddler foundations: Social– emotional, and social health maps
Emotional Development, Language to the content in the preschool foun-
Development, Cognitive Development, dations in Social–Emotional Develop-
and Perceptual and Motor Develop- ment; therefore, it is aligned with the
ment. Each domain plays a role in preschool foundations in Social–Emo-
children’s development of health prac- tional Development rather than with
tices, knowledge, and skills. the Health foundations.
Each strand in the kindergarten preschool substrands basic hygiene

standards in health education includes and oral health are aligned with two
standards related to key areas in kindergarten standards in personal
health: essential concepts, analyzing and community health: essential con-
influences, accessing valid information, cepts and practicing health-enhancing
interpersonal communication, deci- behaviors. As Table 10 indicates, for
sion making, goal setting, practicing every strand and substrand in the pre-
health-enhancing behaviors, and health school learning foundations in health
promotion. Table 10 also displays the there is a corresponding category of
alignment between the substrands in kindergarten content standards, with
the preschool foundations in Health the exception of the preschool sub-
and the kindergarten standards in strand self-regulation of eating.
health education. For example, the
Table 10
Overview of the Alignment Between the Health Domain and the California Content Standards
Health
Health Health Education

Personal and Community Health
Health Habits
Growth and Development

Basic Hygiene Essential Concepts

Oral Health Essential Concepts
Practicing Health-Enhancing Behavior
Growth and Development

Essential Concepts
Perceptual and Motor Development
Knowledge of Wellness Personal and Community Health
Accessing Valid Information
Sun Safety Personal and Community Health

Essential Concepts
Table 10 (continued)

Health
Health Health Education

Safety Injury Prevention and Safety
Essential Concepts
Accessing Valid Information
Injury Prevention Interpersonal Communication
Decision Making
Nutrition Nutrition and Physical Activity

Nutrition Knowledge Essential Concepts
Essential Concepts
Nutrition Choices Analyzing Influences
Self-Regulation of Eating
History–Social Science responsible conduct, fairness and

This section describes an overview respect for other people, and conflict
of the alignment of the preschool resolution, are aligned with the fol-
foundations in History–Social Science lowing infant/toddler foundations:
with the infant/toddler learning and interactions with adults, interactions
development foundations and with the with peers, empathy, impulse control,
California content standards in his- and problem solving. These social and
tory–social science for kindergarten. cognitive competencies set the stage
Table 11 shows how the strands and for preschoolers to become respon-
substrands of the preschool learning sible and cooperative group members,
foundations in History–Social Science be attentive to others’ feelings and
align with the infant/toddler founda- needs, and be capable of negotiation
tions and with the kindergarten con- and compromise while resolving con-
tent standards in history–social sci- flicts. Finally, the substrands under
ence. The detailed alignment between sense of place navigating familiar
specific preschool learning founda- locations and understanding the physi-
tions and specific kindergarten con- cal world through drawings and maps
tent standards in history–social sci- are aligned with the infant/toddler
ence may be viewed at http://www. foundation spatial relationships, the
cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/documents/ early understanding of the location of
psalignment.pdf. objects in space.
As table 11 indicates, the preschool The kindergarten content standards
foundations in History–Social Sci- in history–social science consist of
ence, particularly the strands self and six key standards (K.1–K.6). Table 11
society and becoming a preschool shows the alignment between pre-
community member, are aligned school substrands/foundations and
with infant/toddler foundations in the the kindergarten substrands, and
domains of social–emotional develop- table. As table 11 indicates, the first
ment and cognitive development. The three content standards are aligned
preschool substrand culture and diver- with substrands under the strand self
sity is aligned with the infant/toddler and society. The substrand culture
foundation identity of self in relation to and diversity is aligned with standard
others. In preschool, children’s sense K.2, recognition of national and state
of self develops and encompasses their symbols. The substrand relationships,
cultural, ethnic, and racial identity. and all substrands under the strand
The substrand relationships, which becoming a preschool community mem-
focuses on children’s ability to create ber (civics), are aligned with kinder-
and maintain relationships with adults garten standard K.1, which focuses on
and friends, is aligned with the infant/ students’ understanding that being a
toddler foundations relationships with good citizen involves acting in a certain
adults and relationships with peers. way. The substrand social roles and
The range of competencies under occupations is directly related to stan-
the strand becoming a preschool dard K.3, which focuses on children’s
community member (civics), includ- knowledge of people’s occupations at
ing skills for democratic participation, school and in the local community.
The preschool substrand related to and places. Finally, the preschool

sense of time understanding past substrands related to sense of place
events is aligned with standard K.5, navigating familiar locations and under-
which describes students’ ability to standing the physical world through
put events in temporal order; the sub- drawing and maps are aligned with
strand historical changes in people and kindergarten standard K.4, the ability
the world is aligned with kindergar- to compare and contrast the locations
ten standard K.6, the understanding of people, places, and environments
that history relates to events, people, and describe their characteristics.
Table 11
Overview of the Alignment Between the History–Social Science Domain and the California Content Standards
Social–Emotional Development History–Social Science History–Social Science

Self and Society
Identity of Self in Relation to Others Culture and Diversity K.2 Students recognize national and state
symbols and icons such as the national and
state flags, the bald eagle, and the Statue of
Liberty.
Relationships with Adults
Relationships K.1 Students understand that being a good
Relationships with Peers citizen involves acting in certain ways.
Social Roles and Occupations K.3 Students match simple descriptions

of work that people do and the names of
related jobs at the school, in the community,
and from historical accounts.
Becoming a Preschool Community

Member (Civics)

Impulse Control
Interactions with Adults
Skills for Democratic Participation
Interactions with Peers
Responsible Conduct
Empathy K.1 Students understand that being a good
Fairness and Respect for
Other People citizen involves acting in certain ways.
Cause and Effect
(Cognitive Development)
Conflict Resolution
Problem Solving
(Cognitive Development)

Social–Emotional Development History–Social Science History–Social Science

Understanding Past Events K.5 Students put events in temporal order
using a calendar, placing days, weeks, and
months in proper order.
Anticipating and Planning Future Events
Personal History
K.6 Students understand that history relates
to events, people, and places of other times.
Historical Changes in People
and the World K.1 Students understand that being a good
citizen involves acting in certain ways.
Sense of Place (Geography and Ecology)

Navigating Familiar Locations
Spatial Relationships Understanding the Physical World K.4 Students compare and contrast
(Cognitive Development) Through Drawings and Maps the locations of people, places, and
environments and describe their
characteristics.
Caring for the Natural World
Marketplace (Economics)
Exchange
Science cal sciences, life sciences, and earth

This section describes an overview of sciences.
the alignment of the preschool founda- Through the process of science,
tions in Science with the infant/tod- children record observations and com-
dler learning and development founda- municate ideas and explanations with
tions and with the California science others. Language and communication
content standards in kindergarten. skills are fundamental in the devel-
Table 12 shows how the strands and opment of scientific concepts and
substrands of the preschool learning skills. Preschool children learn to use
foundations in science align with the language and specific terminology to
infant/toddler foundations and with describe their observations, to plan
the kindergarten content standards explorations, and to communicate
in science. The detailed alignment their findings, explanations, and ideas
between specific preschool learning with others. They also use different
foundations and specific kindergarten forms of communication to record and
content standards in science may be document information (e.g., oral, writ-
viewed at http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/ ten, drawings, photos, graphs, charts).
cd/re/documents/psalignment.pdf. These language and literacy skills
emerge at a young age and involve
Core concepts and a range of skills children’s ability to understand others,
identified in the preschool learning to engage in back-and-forth conversa-
foundations in science emerge and tions, and to use expanded vocabulary
begin to develop during the infant/ to express themselves through words.
toddler years. The practice of scien- As table 12 indicates, the infant/tod-
tific inquiry draws on children’s cog- dler foundations in receptive language,
nitive, language, social, and physical expressive language, and interest in
competencies. Certain cognitive and print are aligned with the preschool
language abilities are fundamental in science substrand documentation and
the development of scientific concepts communication.
and skills. Children’s developing abili- The preschool learning foundations
ties to group and sort objects, identify in science are also aligned with the
the cause of events and anticipate the kindergarten content standards in sci-
effect, engage in a purposeful effort to ence. Table 12 shows the alignment
reach a goal, and explore how some- between strands and substrands in
thing works and how things move and the preschool foundations in Science
fit in space provide the mental tools for and the corresponding kindergarten
investigating and learning about the strands. As table 12 indicates, the
characteristics of objects and events foundations and the kindergarten
in the environment. As table 12 indi- standards cover the same general cat-
cates, the infant/toddler foundations egories (strands): physical sciences,
in Cognitive Development classifica- life sciences, and earth sciences.
tion, cause-and-effect, problem solving, The preschool strand scientific
and spatial relationships set the stage inquiry is aligned with the kindergar-
for the development of inquiry skills ten strand investigation and experi-
and the learning of concepts in physi- mentation. Both the foundations in
observation and investigation and the ten standards in physical sciences, life
kindergarten standards in investiga- sciences, and earth sciences center on
tion and experimentation focus on the same key ideas: children’s ability
children’s ability to ask meaningful to observe and describe the properties
questions, conduct careful investiga- of materials, the similarities and differ-
tions, and observe and describe prop- ences in the appearance and behavior
erties of common objects. The pre- of plants and animals, and the basic
school foundations and the kindergar- characteristics of the earth.
Table 12
Overview of the Alignment Between the Science Domain and the California Content Standards
Science
Cognitive Development Science Science

Scientific Inquiry Investigation and Experimentation
Problem Solving Observation and Investigation Scientific progress is made by asking
meaningful questions and conducting
careful investigations.
Investigation and Experimentation

Receptive Language Scientific progress is made by asking
(Language Development) meaningful questions and conducting
careful investigations.
Expressive Language

(Language Development) Documentation and Communication
Domain: Mathematics
Interest in Print Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability
(Language Development)
Students collect information about objects
and events in their environment.

Science
Cognitive Development Science Science

Physical Sciences Physical Sciences
Cause-and-Effect
Properties and Characteristics of
Spatial Relationships Nonliving Objects and Materials
Properties of materials can be observed,
Problem Solving Changes in Nonliving Objects measured, and predicted.
and Materials
Classification
Life Sciences Life Sciences

Cause-and-Effect
Properties and Characteristics Different types of plants and animals
Spatial Relationships
of Living Things inhabit the earth.
Problem Solving
Changes in Living Things
Classification
Earth Sciences Earth Sciences

Cause-and-Effect
Spatial Relationships Properties and Characteristics
of Earth Materials Earth is composed of land, air, and water.
Problem Solving
Changes in the Earth
Classification
An Overview of the Alignment ing Framework with the California Pre-

Between the California Preschool school Learning Foundations provides a
Learning Foundations and the valuable resource to make sure all the
Head Start Child Development components of education in an early
and Early Learning Framework childhood program—curriculum goals,
teaching strategies, and assessment—
This section provides a summary of are coordinated and aligned.
the alignment between the California The California Center of the Office
Preschool Learning Foundations and of Head Start Training and Technical
the Head Start Learning Framework. Assistance Network can provide sup-
The detailed alignment, which delin- port to programs through the process
eates the alignment between specific of reviewing the alignment of the Head
preschool learning foundations and Start Learning Framework and the Cal-
specific components in the Head ifornia Preschool Learning Foundations
Start Learning Framework for each to ensure the programs’ curriculum,
domain, may be viewed at http://www.
assessment, and school-readiness
cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/documents/ goals are also aligned with these two
psalignment.pdf.
documents.
The Head Start Act (as amended in The California Preschool Learn-
2007) promotes alignment of the Head ing Foundations and the Head Start
Start Learning Framework) with state Learning Framework share common
curriculum, assessment, and stan- goals—to strengthen preschool educa-
dards. In California, these standards tion and young children’s readiness
are represented by the California Pre- for school and to promote all aspects
school Learning Foundations, Volumes of child learning and development in
1–3 (CDE 2008, 2010, and forthcom- early childhood programs. The Cali-
ing). fornia preschool learning foundations
The California Head Start Collabo- describe knowledge and skills that
ration Office—in partnership with the most children, with appropriate sup-
California Head Start Association, port, can be expected to exhibit as they
California Center of the Office of Head complete their first and second year of
Start Training and Technical Assis- preschool. Foundations are established
tance Network, California Department for children at around 48 months of
of Education, and WestEd—spear- age and at around 60 months of age.
headed the development of an align- Nine domains of learning and develop-
ment of the Head Start Learning ment are addressed: Social–Emotional
Framework with the California Pre- Development, Language and Literacy,
school Learning Foundations to address English-Language Development,
the needs of Head Start programs. Mathematics, Visual and Performing
This document supports Head Start Arts, Physical Development, Health,
education managers and education History–Social Science, and Science.
supervisors by showing how these two The Head Start Learning Framework
sources align with each other and the delineates the developmental building
similarities of goals for children in all blocks essential for children’s school
areas of learning and development. and long-term success. The Frame-
The alignment of the Head Start Learn- work is intended for children three
to five years old and is organized into Framework, the alignment indicates
11 domains: Physical Development & the components of the preschool foun-
Health, Social & Emotional Develop- dations that correspond in content.
ment, Approaches to Learning, Logic While the Head Start Learning
& Reasoning, Language Development, Framework generally applies to chil-
English Language Development, Lit- dren who are three to five years old,
eracy Knowledge & Skills, Mathematics the preschool learning foundations are
Knowledge & Skills, Science Knowledge separated at two age levels, showing a
& Skills, Creative Arts Expression, and progression on a continuum of learn-
Social Studies Knowledge & Skills. ing. Foundations are established for
children at around 48 months of age
About the Alignment
(four years) and at around 60 months
The following analysis describes the of age (five years). The alignment of
alignment between the California Pre- the preschool learning foundations
school Learning Foundations and the and the Framework presents only the
Head Start Learning Framework. The foundations for children at around
alignment shows the ways in which 48 months of age, a midpoint in the
these two sources correspond in age range addressed in the Head Start
content and share similar goals for Learning Framework. The complete set
children in all areas of learning and of foundations, including the founda-
development. In this alignment, the tions for children at about 60 months
nine domains of the preschool foun- of age, can be found in the California
dations are presented in the same Preschool Learning Foundations, Vol-
order and structure shown as the umes 1–3 (CDE 2008, 2010, and forth-
original California Preschool Learning coming).
Foundations volumes. For each foun-
dation, the alignment indicates the General Alignment at the Domain
components in the Head Start Learn- Level
ing Framework that correspond in Table 13 outlines the nine domains
content. In other words, the preschool in the preschool learning founda-
foundations are the starting point of tions and the corresponding domain(s)
the alignment, and components from in the Head Start Learning Frame-
the 11 domains in the Framework are work. The table also delineates other
aligned with the preschool learning domains in the Framework with con-
foundations. tent corresponding to the foundations.
An alternative version of the align- For example, the Social–Emotional
ment, one in which components of the Development domain of the preschool
preschool learning foundations are foundations is aligned with the Social
aligned with the Head Start Learning & Emotional Development domain in
Framework, may be viewed at http:// the Framework, as well as with compo-
www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/docu- nents from two additional domains in
ments/psalignment.pdf . The 11 the Framework: namely, Approaches
domains in the Head Start Learning to Learning and Logic & Reasoning.
Framework are presented in the same Table 13 shows how both the Califor-
structure and order as the original nia Preschool Learning Foundations
Framework. For each domain in the and the Head Start Learning Frame-
Table 13
Overview Alignment of the Domains in the California Preschool Learning Foundations
and the Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework
Domains in the Head Start Child Additional Domains in the
Domains in the California Development and Early Learning Head Start Framework with
Preschool Learning Foundations Framework Corresponding Content
Social–Emotional Social & Emotional Approaches to Learning
Development Development Logic & Reasoning
Language and Literacy Language Development
Literacy Knowledge & Skills
English-Language English Language Development Literacy Knowledge & Skills
Development
Mathematics Mathematics Knowledge Logic & Reasoning
& Skills Approaches to Learning
Visual and Performing Arts Creative Arts Expression Logic & Reasoning
Physical Development Physical Development
& Health
Health Physical Development
& Health
History–Social Science Social Studies Knowledge Social & Emotional
& Skills Development
Science Science Knowledge & Skills Approaches to Learning
Logic & Reasoning
work cover parallel content, though (1) Language Development and (2)
some of it is organized differently. Literacy Knowledge & Skills. The pre-
As evident in table 13, each domain school foundations in English-Lan-
in the preschool learning foundations guage Development are aligned with
maps to a major corresponding domain the Head Start English Language
in the Head Start Learning Framework. Development domain and with com-
For example, the Mathematics domain ponents in the Head Start Literacy
in the preschool foundations is aligned Knowledge & Skills domain. Also,
with the Mathematics Knowledge & the preschool foundations in History–
Skills domain from the Framework. Social Science are aligned with com-
In addition, some of the domains ponents in the Head Start domains of
align with multiple domains from the Social Studies Knowledge & Skills
Framework. The Mathematics domain, and Social & Emotional Develop-
for example, is also aligned with com- ment. Although the Approaches to
ponents from the Approaches to Learn- Learning and Logic & Reasoning
ing and Logic & Reasoning domains. domains appear only in the Head Start
The Language and Literacy domain Learning Framework, the content of
has two corresponding domains in those two domains is covered by differ-
the Head Start Learning Framework: ent domains of the preschool learning
foundations: Mathematics, Social– In sum, for each of the nine domains

Emotional Development, Visual and in the preschool foundations, the
Performing Arts, and Science. alignment draws the connection
between the strands and substrands
Alignment within Each Domain
in the preschool learning foundations
The extent of the alignment between domain and the corresponding domain
the California Preschool Learning Foun- elements in the Head Start Learn-
dations and the Head Start Learning ing Framework, and between specific
Framework becomes clear when the foundations in each substrand and the
elements within each domain of these corresponding examples in the Frame-
two resources are directly lined up work.
next to each other. In the preschool
learning foundations, each domain Analysis of the Alignment
consists of several main strands, and The alignment indicates a close cor-
each strand consists of substrands. respondence between the domains and
The foundations are organized under foundations in the preschool learning
the substrands. In the Head Start foundations and the matching com-
Learning Framework, each domain ponents in the Head Start Learning
includes elements and examples to Framework. Overall, as evident in the
illustrate key knowledge, behaviors, or tables, for almost every substrand in
skills within the element. The align- the preschool learning foundations,
ment draws connections between (1) there is at least one domain element in
the strands and substrands within the Framework that reflects the con-
each domain of the preschool foun- tent of the corresponding preschool
dations and the corresponding Head foundations. The few substrands in
Start domain elements; and (2) the the preschool foundations with no
foundations under each substrand corresponding content in the Head
and the corresponding examples in the Start Learning Framework are social
Head Start Learning Framework. Table conventions in the English-Language
14 shows how different components Development domain, body awareness
in each document align with or match in the Physical Development domain,
each other. self-regulation of eating in the Health
Table 14
Organization of the California Preschool Learning Foundations and the
Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework
California Preschool Learning Head Start Child Development and Early

Foundations Learning Framework
Domain Domain
Strands ---------
Substrands Domain elements
Foundations Examples
domain, and marketplace (economics) ———. California Preschool Learning Foun-

in the History–Social Science domain. dations (Volume 1). Sacramento: Cali-
Similarly, a close inspection of the fornia Department of Education, 2008.
Head Start alignment indicates that ———. California Preschool Learning Foun-
36 of the 37 domain elements in the dations (Volume 2). Sacramento: Cali-
Head Start Learning Framework have a fornia Department of Education, 2010.
corresponding substrand with similar ———. California Preschool Learning Foun-
content in the preschool foundations. dations (Volume 3). Sacramento: Cali-
The only domain element with no fornia Department of Education, forth-
direct correspondence in the pre- coming.
school foundations is physical health
———. English–Language Arts Content
status (Head Start, Physical Develop-
Standards for California Public Schools,
ment & Health). This domain element Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.
addresses the health aspects that Sacramento: California Department of
programs need to monitor in order to Education, 1998.
ensure children’s physical well-being.
———. Health Education Content Stan-
Although physical health status is
dards for California Public Schools,
not addressed in the alignment, this
Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.
domain element is significant, and Sacramento: California Department of
programs should follow local policy for Education, 2009.
monitoring children’s physical health
status. ———. History–Social Science Content
Standards for California Public Schools,
In some domains, there is a notewor-
Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.
thy amount of direct correspondence,
Sacramento: California Department of
both in content and in level of specific- Education, 2000.
ity, between the preschool foundations
and the corresponding examples in the ———. Mathematics Content Standards for
Head Start Learning Framework. This California Public Schools, Kindergarten
Through Grade Twelve. Sacramento:
correspondence is particularly evident
California Department of Education,
in domains such as Social–Emotional
1999.
Development, Language and Literacy,
and Mathematics. In domains such ———. Physical Education Model Content
as English- Language Development, Standards for California Public Schools,
Visual and Performing Arts, Physical Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.
Sacramento: California Department of
Development, History–Social Science,
Education, 2006.
and Science, the preschool founda-
tions are more detailed. Even so, the ———. Science Content Standards for
preschool foundations and the Frame- California Public Schools, Kindergarten
work cover the same key content areas Through Grade Twelve. Sacramento:
in those domains. California Department of Education,
2000.
Bibliography ———. Visual and Performing Arts Content
California Department of Education. Cali- Standards for California Public Schools,
fornia Infant/Toddler Learning & Devel- Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.
opment Foundations. Sacramento: Cali- Sacramento: California Department of
fornia Department of Education, 2009. Education, 2001.
California Department of Education. U.S. Department of Health and Human

California’s Common Core Content Services, Administration for Children
Standards for English Language Arts and Families, Office of Head Start.
& Literacy in History Social Studies, The Head Start Child Development and
Science, and Technical Subjects. Sac- Learning Framework: Promoting Positive
ramento, 2010. http:// Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs
www.cde.ca.gov//be/st/ss/documents/ Serving Children 3–5 Years Old. Arling-
finalelaccssstandards.pdf (accessed ton, VA: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services: Administration for
April 4, 2012).
Children and Families, Office of Head
———. California’s Common Core Content
Start, 2010.
Standards for Mathematics. Sacra-
mento, 2010. http://www.cde.ca.gov/
be/st/ss/documents/
ccssmathstandardaug2013.pdf (accessed
April 4, 2012.
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CALIFORNIA DEPAR TMENT OF EDUCATION • SACRAMENTO, 2012

The California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 3) was

© 2012 by the California Department of Education

A Message from the State Superintendent

The examples given in the preschool of development such as cognitive devel-

Language and Literacy, Mathematics, Professional development is a key com-

on these aspects of their developing ited historical understanding, they do

understanding. have a “sense of time.” It is shown by

preschool period is a good time to help Becoming a Preschool Community

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

social science learning with learning in a curriculum framework in history–

other domains. social science to provide preschool

behaviors typical of children at around Understanding the Foundations

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

and Odom 2009; Bigler and Liben Although the developmental

2007; Katz 2003; Quintana 1998, research on which these foundations

racy, historical perspective, geographi- through instruction, but also through

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

Summary Table: History–Social Science Strands,

3.0 Social Roles and Occupations 3.1

1.0 Skills for Democratic Participation 1.1

4.0 Conflict Resolution 4.1

1.0 Understanding Past Events 1.1

2.0 Anticipating and Planning Future Events 2.1

4.0 Historical Changes in People and the World 4.1

1.0 Navigating Familiar Locations 1.1

Self and Society

1.0 Culture and Diversity

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

3.0 Social Roles and Occupations

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

Becoming a Preschool Community

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

1.0 Skills for Democratic Participation

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

1.1 Identify as members of a group, 1.1 Become involved as responsible

2.0 Responsible Conduct

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

3.0 Fairness and Respect for Other People

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

4.0 Conflict Resolution

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

Sense of Time (History)

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

2.0 Anticipating and Planning Future Events

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

3.0 Personal History

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

4.0 Historical Changes in People and the World

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

Sense of Place (Geography and Ecology)

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

2.0 Caring for the Natural World

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

3.0 Understanding the Physical World Through Drawings and Maps

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

1.1 Understand ownership, limited 1.1 Understand more complex economic

HISTORY– SOCI AL SCIENCE

and acknowledgment of accomplish- ship can be important to strengthening