Saint Louis University

School of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Engineering

A Comprehensive Technical Report on

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND CONVERSION

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

CHE 521: Instrumentation and Process Control

Prepared by:
Jhon Paul Jimenez
Jan Fheroi Sebastian
Nicole Anne Borromeo
Vayne Dulag
Lordelyn Mejia
Racquel Pumihic
Kate Eloise Ticman

Prepared for:
Engr. Ronald F. Ringor

May 2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page 1
Table of Contents 2
1. Introduction 3
2. Signal Transmission 3
2.1. Transmitter Purpose and Operation 3
2.2. Types of Transmission 4
2.2.1. Mechanical Transmission 4
2.2.2. Pneumatic Transmission 4
2.2.3. Electrical Transmission 5
a. Analog 5
b. Digital 5
c. Optical 6
2.3. Protecting Integrity and Reliability of Signal Transmission 6
2.3.1. Grounding and Shielding 6
2.3.2. Insulation 7
2.3.3. Heat Trace 7
2.3.4. Materials of Construction 7
3. Signal Conversion 8
3.1. Purpose and Operation of Transducers 8
3.2. Common Signal Conversions 8
3.2.1. Analog-to-digital Conversion 8
3.2.2. Digital-to-analog Conversion 11
3.2.3. Other Conversions 12
3.3. “Zeroing Out” Wet Lag Instruments 13
References 23
1. Introduction
Measurement of variables are made by sensors, conditioned by transducers, and
then transferred to another location using a transmitter. In the case of process control, the
accuracy of transmission of the value of the variable is very important. Any errors introduced
during transmission will be acted upon by the controller, and degrade the accuracy of the
signal. There are several methods of transmitting data. The chosen solution will depend on
the sensor, application of the signal, the distance the signal needs to be sent, the accuracy
requirements of the system, and cost. Unfortunately, the accuracy of the system can be
degraded by poor transmission.
Control signals can be transmitted pneumatically or electrically. Due to the needs of
an air supply for pneumatic transmission, inflexible pluming, cost, slow reaction time, limited
range of transmission, reliability, accuracy, and the requirements of control systems,
electrical transmission is now the preferred method. Electrical signals can be transmitted in
the form of voltages, currents, digitally, optically, or via wireless. Unfortunately, the terms
transducer, converter, and transmitter are often confused and used interchangeably

2. Signal Transmission
2.1. Transmitter purpose and operation
Transmitters are devices that accept low-level electrical signals and format them, so
that they can be transmitted to a distant receiver. The transmitter is required to be able to
transmit a signal with sufficient amplitude and power so that it can be reproduced at a
distant receiver as a true representation of the input to the transmitter, without any loss of
accuracy or information.
Another definition of a Transmitter is that it is a device that converts the signal
produced by a sensor into a standardized instrumentation signal such as 3-15 PSI air
pressure, 4-20 mA DC electric current, Fieldbus digital signal, and etc., which may then be
conveyed to an indicating device, a controlling device, or both. The indicating or controlling
device is often located in a centralized control room. The transmitter often combines a
sensor and the transmitter in a single piece. The sensor measures the process variable and
generate a proportional signal. The transmitter then amplifies and conditions the sensor
signal for onward transmission to the receiving or controlling device.
Transmitters used in Process Instrumentation can be broadly divided into two broad
groups: Electronic Transmitters and Pneumatic Transmitters. Electronic transmitters can
either be analog or digital/smart as the case may be. We can further group transmitters
according to the types of signals they produce namely: Pneumatic Transmitters, Analog
Transmitters, and Digital Transmitters.

2.2. Types of Transmission

2.2.1. Mechanical Transmission
The mechanical transducers are the mechanical elements that are used for
converting one form of energy into other form that can be measured easily. Examples
are bellows, bourdon tube, diaphragm, manometer, thermocouple,

2.2.2. Pneumatic Transmission

In pneumatic system, compressors are used to compress and supply the
necessary quantities of air that comes from the atmosphere. To operate and control
these actuators, other pneumatic components are required i.e. air service units to
prepare the compressed air and valves to control the pressure, flow and direction of
movement of the actuators.
Pneumatic Transmitters output a pneumatic signal corresponding to the process
variable. The pneumatic signal range that is commonly used in industrial plants today is
the 3-15 psig. 3 psig corresponds to the lower range value (LRV) and 15 psig to the
upper range value (URV).

Advantages
Availability Air is available practically everywhere in unlimited quantities.
Transport Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over long distances
Temperature Compressed air is relatively insensitive to temperature fluctuations.
Explosion Proof Compressed air offers no risk of explosion of fire
Cleanliness Unlubricated exhaust air is clean. Any unlubricated air that escapes
through leaking pipes or components does not cause
contamination.
Speed Compressed air is a very fast working medium. This enables high
working speeds to be attained.
 Disadvantages
Preparation PneumaticsPreparation: Compressed air requires good preparation.
Dirt and condensate should not be present.
Compression It is not always possible to achieve uniform and constant piston
speeds with compressed air.
Force Compressed air is economical only up to a certain force
Requirement requirement. Under the normal working pressure of 600 to 700 kPa
(6 to 7 bar) and dependent on the travel and speed.

2.2.3. Electrical Transmission

a. Analog Transmission
Analog transmitters are mostly electronic in nature. They output an electric
signal (current or voltage) whose magnitude represents a physical measurement or a
control quantity. The transmitter is classified as being analog by virtue of the fact that
it uses an analog signal standard to communicate information. The most common
standard for transmitting an analog signal is the 4-20 mA current signal. With this
signal, a transmitter sends a small current, proportional to the physical
measurement, through a set of wires. In this signal standard, 4mA represents the
lowest possible measurement or the LRV(Lower Range Value) while the 20 mA
represents the highest possible measurement or URV(Upper Range Value).

b. Digital Transmission
Digital transmitters produce digital signals that are combined in a variety of
ways to enhance communication with devices; enhances diagnostic capabilities of
the device and makes control of the devices and processes relatively easy and
smooth. Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are combined in specific
ways to represent process variables and also carry other important information, such
as diagnostic information.
 Digital signals can be transmitted via a hardwired parallel or serial bus, radio
transmission or fiber optics without loss of integrity. Digital data can be sent faster
than analog data due to higher speed transmission. Another advantage is digital
transmitters and receivers require much less power than analog transmission
devices.

c. Optical transmission
Usually, a fiber optic communication system consists of three main
components: optical transmitter, fiber optic cable and an optical receiver. The optical
transmitter converts electrical signal to optical signal; the fiber optic cable carries the
optical signal from the optical transmitter to the optical receiver; and the optical
receiver reconverts the optical signal to electrical signal. The most commonly used
optical transmitter is semiconductor devices like LEDs (light-emitting diodes) and
laser diodes. Photodetector is the key part of an optical receiver. It converts light into
electricity using photodetector effect.

2.3. Protecting integrity and reliability of signal transmission

2.3.1. Grounding and shielding
Improper grounding of a pressure, flow, level or temperature transmitter could
compromise the successful operation of the device. Most transmitters will operate with
the current signal lop either floating (ungrounded) or grounded.
Ungrounded or Floating Process Transmitters
In a floating system, the extra noise affects many types of readout device. If the
signal appears noisy or erratic, grounding the current the signal loop at a single point
may solve the problem. The best place to ground the loop is at the negative terminal of
the power supply. Do not ground the current signal loop at more than one point.
 Grounded Process Transmitters
Because of noise, the majority of process transmitters – pressure, temperature,
level, flow etc. – are required to be grounded for good operation. A transmitter is said to
be properly grounded when the signal wiring and transmitter case are grounded.

2.3.2. Insulation
Good Transmitter are generally protected by integral galvanic isolation from
potential damage from high voltage induced by welders, motor starters, lightning strikes,
switchgear and inadvertent exposure to power lines up to 500 to VAC.
However, lightning strikes and other induced transient over voltage events can
cause spikes and surges at much higher voltage levels. For this reason, additional
protection for receiving devices may be a wise investment for installation areas prone to
transient over voltages.
Many transmitters offer transient suppression options that can be integrally
mounted onto the terminal strip within the housing. For other transmitters an external
protection device may be used. External field mounted suppressors may not carry
agency certification for explosion proof applications. A transmitter with an integral style
suppressor should be the first choice for high risk application

2.3.3. Heat Trace

Trace heat cables may be connected to single-phase or (in groups) to three-
phase power supplies. Power is controlled either by a contactor or a solid-state
controller. For self-regulating cable, the supply must furnish a large warm-up current if
the system is switched on from a cold starting condition. The contactor or controller may
include a thermostat if accurate temperature maintenance is required, or may just shut
off a freeze-protection system in mild weather.
Electrical heat tracing systems may be required to have earth leakage (ground
fault or RCD) devices for personnel and equipment protection. The system design must
minimize leakage current to prevent nuisance tripping; this may limit the length of any
individual heating circuit.

2.3.4. Construction Material Selection

One of the greatest enemies of signal transmission is friction or heat that may be
due to the resistive conductive properties of wire joints, splices, or connections, or the
 two physical surfaces rubbing or sliding against each other as in liquid or gas flow. In
any case, material selection is critical to maintaining proper signal conductivity or
propagation by reducing heat loss or friction. The quality of physical joints, splices, and
connections is also critical for ensuring proper conductivity.

3. Signal Conversion
3.1. Purpose and Operation of Transducers
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another – for
example, sound to electrical. So whatever variable is measured and converted or just
simply measured, the information or data will need to be transmitted in order to be
useful for process control.
When the transducer converts an electrical signal into another form of energy,
such as sound (which, incidentally, is a pressure field), light, mechanical movement, it is
called an actuator. Actuators are important in instrumentation. They allow the use of
feedback at the source of the measurement. However we will pay little attention to them
in this course. The study of using actuators and feedback belongs to a course in Control
theory.
When a transducer converts a measurable quantity (sound pressure level, optical
intensity, magnetic field, etc) to an electrical voltage or an electrical current we call it a
sensor. A sensor can be considered in its bare form, or bundled with some electronics
(amplifiers, decoders, filters, and even computers). We will use the word instrument to
refer to a sensor together with some of its associated electronics. The distinction
between a sensor and an instrument is extremely vague, as it is increasingly common
to manufacture integrated sensors.

3.2. Common Signal Conversions

3.2.1. Analog-to-digital Converters
Analog-to-digital converters (ADC) sample an analog signal and convert it to a
series of digital values. Most data packages in real-world applications are transmitted
using analog signals. In order to be read, manipulated, and analyzed by
microprocessors, these signals must be converted to digital information.
A primary stumbling block to analog-to-digital conversion is the difference
between analog and digital signals. Analog signals tend to take the form of a continuous
wave, while digital ones are purely numerical and, when graphed, take the form of a
square wave. Therefore, digital signals may be mapped to analog ones using sampling,
the process of measuring the signal at predetermined times.

There are two important parameters related to sampling:

 The sampling rate, fs, determines the number of samples taken per second.
 Sampling precision, N, determines the gradations for the sampling process. (In other
words, sampling precision dictates the y-axis divisions of a graphed signal.)

Sample rate error. Image credit: Tony R. Kuphaldt

The image above shows a sample rate which is too slow for the changes in the
analog signal. In the latter half of the signal mapping, especially, the digital signal fails to
accurately reproduce the analog one because the analog signal experiences rapid
amplitude changes between samples. By doubling the sample rate, the digital signal
would begin to look much more like the original analog one.
Sampling must also be accurately timed to faithfully reproduce analog signals.
For example, the image below shows three different sample rates: from top to bottom, f,
2f, and 4f/3. The top example, which shows sampling at once per cycle, is obviously
erroneous, and the bottom example has created an inaccurate alias wave because f is
larger than the signal's Nyquist frequency (1/2 of the sampling rate). Only the middle
example comes close to replicating the signal, but its accuracy is insufficient. It is only by
using more frequent sampling—such as that which approaches 5f or greater—that a
digital signal can replicate an analog one.
 Sample rate effects. Image credit: National Instruments

Generally, sampling as quickly as possible with a reasonably fast converter

produces the best signal reproduction.
Analog-to-digital converter precision is determined by the number of bits the
device possesses. The number of bits, n, is directly related to the number of sampling
gradations, N, so that N = 2n. (Gradations can be thought of as the scale of measured
intervals with which to express values contained in the analog signal.)
For example, a 12-bit converter is capable of 4096 gradations. If the analog
signal is within the range of 0-5 V (a typical control signal), this range would be broken
up into 4096 intervals in order to express analog values, with 0 V being 0 and 5 V being
4095. If the analog signal measures 2.4414 V at a given sample time, the digital
equivalent would be 2000. The entire analog signal can be mapped proportionally using
these gradations.

Comparison of a sine wave translated

using 16-bit (purple) and 3-bit (blue)
resolutions. The 16-bit device is
capable of 65,528 more gradations
than the 3-bit one, resulting in a much
more accurate signal.
Image credit: National Instruments
3.2.2. Digital-to-analog Converters
Digital-to-analog converters produce an analog output which is proportional to a
digital input. They perform the opposite function to that of analog-to-digital converters.
Digital-to-analog converters (DAC) convert digital signals, comprised of "words" made up
of binary values, into analog signals.
For example, control systems often rely on analog control signals but may also
require signal processing at various system points. These systems often accept an
analog input from a device, convert it to a digital signal using an ADC, condition or
change the signal using a microprocessor, then convert the digital signal back to an
analog output using a DAC.
The image below illustrates the use of an ADC, a DAC, and a pair of filters in a
digital signal processing (DSP) application. Because processing must be done using
digital methods, an ADC is required to convert the analog signals into digital equivalents,
and a DAC is needed to convert the processed signals back to analog for compatibility
with analog devices. As noted, the filters eliminate harmonic frequencies above the
Nyquist frequency and correct other errors inherent in signal conversion.

Diagram describing DSP in accordance with the sampling theorem.

Image credit: Steven W. Smith / California Technical Publishing

The control commands produced by the control program are in digital form, but
most of the final control elements, pneumatic valves in particular, are actuated by analog
signals (e.g., compressed air). To erase this incompatibility, the output interface should
include a digital-to-analog converter.
D/A converters function in the reverse manner to A/D converters. Thus for a 12-
bit converter we can have 2^12 = 4096 integer numbers defining 4095 intervals of the
 prespecified voltage range, say 0 to 10V. Then the integer number 516 causes an
analog output of(516/4095)x10 = 1.26V

3.2.3. Other Converters:

1. Frequency Converters and Translator
-scale and/or filter frequency inputs to produce outputs signals with frequencies
that are a function of the inputs. Differential analog inputs, bandwidth, accuracy, and
signal isolation are the most important device specifications to consider when
searching for frequency converters and translators.

2. Voltage converters and voltage inverters

-accept voltage input and provide a scaled voltage output. Conversion types
include scaling up a low-level signal, voltage doubling, and inversion (converting a
positive voltage to negative and vice versa). Device specifications, amplifier
specifications, voltage inputs, sensors inputs, and form factor are important
specifications to consider when searching for voltage converters and voltage
inverters.

3. Frequency-to-Voltage Converters
-Frequency-to-voltage converters are electronic devices that convert current
signal inputs to proportional voltage outputs. They include an operational amplifier for
simple linear signal processing and a small resistor-capacitor (RC) network for
removing frequency-dependent ripples.
Frequency-to-voltage converters can receive:
• AC and DC voltages
• frequencies and pulses
• other specialized waveforms from devices such as:
 encoders
 tachometers
 timers
 relays
 switches
 4. Voltage-to-Frequency Converters
-Voltage-to-frequency converters are electronic devices that convert voltage
inputs to linearly proportional frequency outputs. They consist of:
• an analog input amplifier
• a precision oscillator system
• a resistor-capacitor (RC) network
• a power supply

5. Current-to-Voltage Converters
-are electronic devices that convert current signal inputs to proportional voltage
outputs. They include an operational amplifier for simple linear signal processing and
a resistor for dissipating current. The resistance between the operational amplifier’s
input and output determines the voltage range for specific current signals.

3.3. “Zeroing out” Wet Leg Instrument – Zeroing Out, Zero Suppression, Zero
Elevation
3.3.1. Wet Leg System
In a wet leg system, the
low-pressure impulse line is
completely filled with liquid
(usually the same liquid as the
process) and hence the name
wet leg.
A level transmitter, with
the associated three-valve
manifold, is used in an identical
manner to the dry leg system. At
the top of the low pressure
impulse line is a small catch
tank.
The gas phase or vapor
will condense in the wet leg and
the catch tank.
 The catch tank, with the inclined interconnecting line, maintains a constant
hydrostatic pressure on the low-pressure side of the level transmitter. This pressure,
being a constant, can easily be compensated for by calibration.

* When the low pressure impulse line is connected directly to the gas phase above
the liquid level, it is called a dry leg.

3.3.2. Three Valve Manifold

Applying excessive pressure to a DP capsule is called over-ranging, which could
damage the capsule.
A three valve
manifold is a device that is
used to ensure that the
capsule will not be over-
ranged. It also allows
isolation of the transmitter
from the process loop. It
consists of - two block valves
- high pressure and low
pressure block valve - and an
equalizing valve.
During normal operation, the equalizing valve is closed and the two block valves
are open. When the transmitter is put into or removed from service, the valves must be
operated in such a manner that the high pressure gas phase is never applied to only one
side of the DP capsule.

3.3.3. Zeroing Out, Zero Suppression, Zero Elevation

Hydrostatic pressure measurement allows the level of liquid in a vessel to be
inferred. In many applications, the reference level is at the bottom of the vessel.
However, it may be impossible to position the primary sensing element of the pressure
transmitter at exactly the same height as the reference level.
For example, if the vessel is an elevated water storage tank, it may be better for
maintenance reasons to position the transmitter below the tank. If, instead of an elevated
tank, it is an underground tank, the transmitter must be positioned above the bottom of
the tank. In either case, the transmitter is not at the same level as the bottom of the
vessel.
This difference between the reference level and the position of the transmitter
must be compensated for by setting a zero elevation and zero suppression.

a. Zeroing Out
Adjusting a measuring instrument to the proper output value for a zero
measurement signal.
b. Zero Suppression (Suppressed-zero Range)
A suppressed-zero range is a range where the value of the measured
variable zero is less than the lower-range value. That is, the zero does not appear
on the scale. The suppression occurs when the transmitter indicates a level above
the real. For example, if the differential-pressure transmitter reads 30% when the
measured variable (i.e., the level) is zero, the range is a suppressed-zero range. A
suppressed-zero range is required if the pressure transmitter used to measure a
gauge pressure is installed under the high pressure tap of the vessel as Figure
below shows.

The differential pressure read by the differential-pressure transmitter is:

It is clear from that the pressure due to the fluid in the impulse line must be
suppressed to obtain the level of liquid from the differential pressure read by the
transmitter. On modern equipment, this extra pressure is usually suppressed by
setting the zero of the high-pressure port of the transmitter when the transmitter is in
position and the impulse line is full of fluid.
c. Zero Elevation (Elevated-zero Range)
An elevated-zero range is a range where the value of the measured variable
zero is greater than the lower-range value. An elevated-zero range is required if the
pressure transmitter used to measure a gauge pressure is installed above the high-
pressure tap of the vessel. In this case, the transmitter may read, for example, -30%
when the level is zero. An elevated-zero range is also required if a differential-
pressure transmitter is used to measure the level in a pressurized tank. Figure
below shows a case where an elevated-zero range is required.

When an elevated-zero range is required, the pressure transmitter reads a

negative pressure when the vessel is empty. Depending on the set up, this negative
pressure is caused by the liquid in the impulse line or by a pressure on the low-
pressure port of the transmitter that is higher than the pressure on the high-pressure
port of the transmitter (Phigh>PLow) To compensate for this negative pressure, the
transmitter must be set so that the differential-pressure transmitter reads a pressure
differential of zero if the vessel is empty. In other words, the zero must be elevated.
The differential pressure read by the differential-pressure transmitter is:

To compensate for the negative pressure that the fluid in the impulse line
exerts, the zero of the differential-pressure transmitter must be set so that the
pressure differential is zero when the vessel is empty.
 1. Sample Problem
Close tank with wet leg:
Span = (X) (GL)
HW at minimum level = (Y) (GL) – (d)(GS)
HW at maximum level = (X + Y) (GL) – (d) (GS)
Where:
GL = Specific gravity of tank liquid
GS = Specific gravity of tank liquid
HW = Equivalent head of water
X, Y and Z are shown below

X = 300 inches
Y = 50 inches
d = 500 inches
GL = 0.8
GS = 0.9
Span = (300) (0.8) = 240 inches
HW minimum level = (50) (0.8) – (500) (0.9) = – 410 inches
HW maximum level = (300 + 50) (0.8) – (500) (0.9) = – 170 inches
Calibrated range = – 410 to –170 inches head of water.
(Minus signs indicate that the higher pressure is applied to the low pressure side of
the transmitter.)

3.4. Scaling Calculations

3.4.1. LRV, URV, and Span
1. What is LRV?
LRV stands for Low Range Value. Example, for a level transmitter, LRV is the
value shown by the transmitter when the level of the tank is zero and at this state the
transmitter will give a 4 ma output.

2. What is URV?
URV stands for low range value. URV is the value show by the transmitter
when the level of the tank is 100 % and at this state the transmitter will give a 20 ma
output.
 3. What is Span?
Span is the algebraic difference between URV and LRV.
Span = URV – LRV.

3.4.2. Nonlinear Systems: Differences From Linear System

1. Non-linear system refers to the type of system where the output from the system
does not vary directly with respect to input to the system. The non-linear systems do not
accompany the static linearity and they are provided with threshold. Also, the
fundamental of homogeneity is not accepted in non-linear systems.
The difference between non-linear system and linear system is that the
superposition principle is not applied in the non-linear system.
Show the examples of non-linear and linear systems as in Figure (1).

From Figure (1), for linear system, the input to the system x1 will output y1 which is
proportional to the input. Whereas, for non-linear system, the input to the system x1 will
output y1 which is not proportional to the input.
Non-linear systems have the following aspects when compared to the linear system,
• The non-linear systems have several equilibrium and stable points with define cycles.
• They may create sub-harmonic vibrations of constant frequency.
• They have steady state performance with different kinds of behavior.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. How do I find the URV (upper range value) and LRV (low range value) for
DPT type Level transmitter for a close tank containing both water and steam?
Let:
H- Height
X- Distance between High pressure or lower tapping to the transmitter.
Y- Distance between Low pressure or upper tapping to the transmitter
D1- Density of liquid in tank
D2- Density of liquid in Low pressure tapping
The formulas for calculating transmitter URV and LRV are as follows:
HP Side or LRV or Transmitter 0% = X.D1 – Y.D2
LP Side or URV or Transmitter 100% = D1(X+H) – Y.D2

The formula is:

SPAN = URV – LRV

Where
PV = Process Variable
LRV= Low Range Value
URV = Upper Range Value
ma = milli ampere

Consider left side of formula for Process variable, LRV of transmitter lower range,
Span is the difference between LRV & URV of transmitter ranges.
Consider right side of formula for current (ma), LRV of standard current range .i.e is
4ma,
Span is the difference between LRV (4ma) & URV (20ma) of standard current range
.i.e. 20 – 4 = 16, Using this formula we can calculate ma from pv and as well as pv
from ma.

The temperature transmitter range is 0 to 50 deg c and known current ma is

12 then how to calculate the PV of the transmitter?
Known values:
LRV = 0
URV = 50
mA = 12mA

Standard mA LRV and URV values are as follows –

LRV = 4mA
URV = 20mA
Span = URV – LRV
Span = 20 – 4
Span = 16

Required: PV = ?
Formula:

Solution:
Put Values in Formula
𝑃𝑉 − 0 𝑚𝐴 − 4
=
𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁 16
SPAN = URV – LRV
SPAN = 50 – 0
SPAN = 50

PV – 0 = 0.5*50
PV = 0.5*50
PV = 25
CASE 1:
Here in the above diagram the differential
level transmitter is fixed at the same level
of the tank base. Level controllers are
cared only about the level of the tank &
the DP transmitter is concerned about the
pressure. For Level controller LRV & URV
values only associated with level of the
tank.

For level controller:

LRV = 0 ft
URV = H ft (height of the tank)

For Pressure transmitter the LRV & URV associated with the pressure at the HP
(high pressure) line. For pressure transmitter:
LRV = 0 ft
URV = H ft

Then the differential pressure DP = Ph - Pl (Ph - pressure at HP side, Pl - pressure

at LP side)
Here Ph is zero because the pressure transmitter is with the base of the tank.
Therefore using the above formula;

For LRV:
LRV = 0 - (H * W * SPw) ;
*** SPw is the given specific density of liquid in wet leg
W is width of wet leg side LP.

Again applying the DP equation.

For URV;
URV = (H * W * SPt) - LRV
*** SPt is the specific gravity pressure of liquid in tank
Case 2:
Here the situation is little different, but common. We can’t able fix the DP transmitter
at the same level to the base of tank always.
Consider the DP is fixed at X ft below the tank
For a Level controller, LRV & URV values only associated with the level of the tank.

For level controller:

LRV: 0 ft
URV: H ft (height of the tank)

For Pressure transmitter the LRV & URV associated with the pressure at the HP
(high pressure) line.

For pressure transmitter:

LRV = X ft
URV = (H + X) ft ; (H + X is the total height from the DP to the top of the tank).

Using DP = Ph - Pl
Here pressure at HP is not zero as the there is pressure of X ft of liquid.

Therefore for LRV;

LRV = ( X * W * SPt ) - ( ( H + X) * W * SPw )
H + X is the total height from the DP to the top of the tank.

For URV:
URV = ( ( X +H ) * W * SPt) - LRV
 REFERENCES

E.H.Higham, W.L.MostiaJr.PE. 16 December 2009, Instrumentation Reference Book. Fourth

Edition. Pages 715-735. Instrumentation Reference Book Chapter 42 - Pneumatic
Instrumentation. Retrieved from:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/pneumatic-signal

Dunn, W. C.s (n.d.). Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

(n.d.). Learning Instrumentation And Control Engineering. Retrieved from:

https://www.instrumentationtoolbox.com/2016/09/how-to-ground-process-transmitters-
for.html

(n.d.). Signal Processing. Retrieved from:

https://dsp.stackexchange.com/questions/51037/what-is-a-pneumatic-signal-exactly