New Driver Training Curriculum

MRR No.
189
Effects of New Driver Training

Curriculum (KPP) on Novice Drivers’
Hazard Perception Skills
Mohd Khairul Alhapiz Ibrahim

Ahmad Azad Ab. Rashid, PhD
Low Suet Fin, PhD
Effects of New Driver Training Curriculum
(KPP) on Novice Drivers’ Hazard Perception
Skills

Ahmad Azad Ab. Rashid, PhD
Low Suet Fin, PhD
© MIROS, 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Published by:
Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS)
Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Research Report : Effects of New Driver Training Curriculum (KPP) on
Novice Drivers’ Hazard Perception Skills / Mohd Khairul Alhapiz Ibrahim,
Ahmad Azad Ab. Rashid, Low Suet Fin.
Bibliography: page 25
ISBN 978-967-5967-87-0
1. Traffic safety--Research--Malaysia.
2. Automobile driving--Research--Malaysia.
3. Traffic accidents--Research--Malaysia.
I. Ahmad Azad Ab. Rasid. II. Low, Suet Fin.
III. Institut Penyelidikan Keselamatan Jalanraya Malaysia.
363.125
Printed by: Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS)
Typeface: Calibri
Size: 11 pt.
DISCLAIMER
None of the materials provided in this report may be used, reproduced or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including recording or the use of any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from MIROS. Any conclusion and opinions in this report
may be subject to reevaluation in the event of any forthcoming additional information or
investigations.
Effects of New Driver Training Curriculum (KPP) on Novice Drivers’
Contents
_____________________________________________________________________
Page
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Acknowledgement vii
Abstract ix
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Implementation of New Driver Education Curriculum 3
(Kurikulum Pendidikan Pemandu-KPP)
1.1.1 Improvement Based on Gap Analysis and Learning 3
Outcomes Approach
1.1.2 New and Separate Module to Address Skills 4
Improvement for Learner Motorcyclists
1.1.3 Massive Revamp of National Program for New 5
Drivers’ Licensure
1.1.4 Improvement in the Module for Theory Classes 6
1.2 Problem Statement 7
1.3 Framework and Scope of the Research 7
1.4 Research Objectives 8
2. Literature Review 9
2.1 Vulnerability of Young and Newly Licensed Motorcyclists 9
2.2 Hazard Perception and Avoidance as a Target Skill in 9
Pre-License Driver Training
2.3 Goals for Driver Education (GDE) Framework and Driver 11
Education
iii
3. Method 12
3.1 Research Design and Participants Selection 12
3.2 Computer Based Test as a Tool for Hazard Perception Skills 12
Comparison
3.3 Procedure 15
4. Results 16
4.1 Hazard Perception Response Time (HPRT) 17
4.1.1 Effects of KPP on HPRT Performances of Car Drivers 17
4.1.2 Effects of KPP on HPRT Performances of Motorcycle 19
Riders
5. Discussion 21
6. Conclusion and Recommendation 24
References 25
iv
List of Tables
Page
Table 1 Description of potentially hazardous situation for drivers 13

Table 2 Description of potentially hazardous situation for motorcycle 14
riders
Table 3 Demographic of participants from car licensee group 16
Table 4 Demographic of participants from motorcycle licensee group 16
Table 5 Comparison of HPRT performances by vehicle modes 17
Table 6 Driving experience and exposure among novice car licensee 18
group
Table 7 Comparison of HPRT learning rate among novice car licensee 19
group
Table 8 Driving experience and exposure among novice motorcycle 20
licensee group
Table 9 Comparison of HPRT learning rate among novice motorcycle 20
licensee group
v
List of Figures
Page
Figure 1 Numbers of injuries and fatalities of motorcyclists by status of 2

license, years of licensure and age in 2010-2012
Figure 2 Percentages of accident involvement among motorcyclists by 2
status of license, years of licensure and age in 2010-2012
Figure 3 Example of new KPP content on safe riding in risky traffic 5
situations and environments
Figure 4 Summary of the new and improved Malaysian driver training 6
and licensing program structure
Figure 5 Overall research framework for this study 8
vi
Acknowledgement
We would first like to express our heartfelt gratitude to Director-General of MIROS,
Prof Dr Wong Shaw Voon for extending his full support through grant approval and
expertise throughout the duration of the project. We would like to thank the members
of the Human Reaction Simulation Unit (HURAS) especially Mr Mohd Shafiq Bahar and
Mr Safuan Nazari and our project enumerator Mr Muhamad Khairul Maliki Ibrahim,
who helped us in the preparation of the instruments, data collection and data analysis
for this project. We would also like to thank the members of Road User Behavioural
Change (RUBC) Research Centre and Research Management Centre (RMC) for all the
help in facilitation and management of this research project. And last, but not least,
special thanks to our family members and friends who have supported us during the
duration of this project.
vii
Abstract
This study aimed to measure the impact of the new Driver Education Curriculum
(Kurikulum Pendidikan Pemandu - KPP) in training higher level driving and riding skills
among Malaysian novice drivers and motorcycle riders. 126 novice drivers and
motorcycle riders from both old and new KPP group participated in this study.
Participants were subjected to a computer based Hazard Perception Test (HPT) to
measure their response time for hazard detection. The results showed that the
average rates of change in Hazard Perception Response Time (HPRT) performance
index over experience on the road and exposure on the road were significantly higher
among the new KPP group as compared to the old KPP group. On another note, we
also found that motorcycle riders from both new and old KPP group were significantly
slower in detecting hazards as compared to car drivers. This could indicate the
different degree of skill improvement and possibly the different amount of times
needed to achieve a similar skills level in hazard perception between two vehicle
modes. The findings of this research indicate that there were positive effects of the
exposure to the new KPP on the overall improvement of hazard perception skills
among novice drivers. The rate of learning and improving in hazard perception skills
was quicker among the new KPP group as compared to the old KPP group. However
there are known and unknown confounding factors that need to be considered to
better improve the effects of the new KPP.
ix
1. Introduction
Transport accident is among the top five principal causes of death in Malaysia
(Department of Statistics, 2012). The total number of deaths and injuries resulting
from road accidents in Malaysia is very worrying. In 2014, there were 476,196
recorded accident cases with 6,674 fatalities and 13,030 injuries (MOT, 2015).
Motorcycles and passenger cars contribute to an overwhelming 83.9% of the overall
number of vehicles involved in the 2014 accidents. Without effective
countermeasures, the number of fatalities related to road accidents is projected to
keep increasing annually (Rohayu S, Sharifah Allyana SMR, Jamilah MM & SV Wong,
2012).
A typical type of motorcycle found in Malaysia is of small size with engine capacity less
than 150 cc. Smaller in size with little or no occupant protection and yet capable of
high speed, motorcycle in Malaysia are the most vulnerable and hazardous vehicle on
the road. Radin Umar, Mackay and Hills (1995) estimated that Malaysian motorcyclists’
relative risk of being killed or seriously injured (KSI) per KM travelled was 20 times
greater than that of a car driver.
Figure 1 shows the numbers of casualties resulting from road accidents by license
status, years of license and age of motorcycle riders from 2010-2012 (Malaysian Road
Safety Research [MIROS] Road Accident Database System [MROADS], 2013).
Percentage of accident involvement for each category is shown in Figure 2. Three
important details shown by the statistics are the numbers of unlicensed motorcyclists
involved in accidents are increasing every year from initial 25% in 2010. Another key
fact is that more than 50% of motorcyclists involved are in their first four years of
license. The third fact is the percentage of motorcycle riders aged 16-21 years old
involved in the accidents are constantly more than 30% each year. These observations
show the vulnerability of the young, unlicensed and novice motorcyclists in Malaysia.
1
Figure 1 Numbers of injuries and fatalities of motorcyclists by status of license, years of

licensure and age in 2010-2012
Figure 2 Percentages of accident involvement among motorcyclists by status of license, years

of licensure and age in 2010-2012
2
Recent trends in road transport accidents and fatalities in Malaysia have heightened
the need for effective driver education program and stricter license approval.
Historically, the government through Road Transport Department (Jabatan
Pengangkutan Jalan - JPJ) has introduced many new initiatives to enhance the
robustness and effectiveness of driver education and licensing in Malaysia. Among the
initiatives are the Computerized Testing System introduced in 1996 to replace the
written test, improvements through legal methods and the introduction of textbooks
for Kurikulum Pendidikan Pemandu (KPP) in 2000 to replace the old Kurikulum Baru
Sekolah Memandu (KBSM).
1.1 Implementation of New Driver Education Curriculum

(Kurikulum Pendidikan Pemandu - KPP)
In 2007, JPJ initiated a program which ultimately aimed at implementing a new Driver
Education Curriculum (Kurikulum Pendidikan Pemandu - KPP) to improve the driver’s
education and licensing in Malaysia. This initiative was in line with the road safety plan
developed specifically by the government under the 9th Malaysia Plan for a
comprehensive and balanced set of planning in the implementation of road safety
initiatives based on the concept of 4E (Engineering, Education, Enforcement and
Environment). Following are the list of improvement and added values in the new KPP
implementation as compared to the old KPP.
1.1.1 Improvement Based on Gap Analysis and Learning Outcomes

Approach
A committee known as Driving Curriculum Improvement Committee was formed to

study the weaknesses of previous driver's education program in Malaysia and
formulate improvement plans. Through workshops conducted by the committee, a gap
analysis was conducted to assess the gaps existed in the current curriculums towards
producing safer drivers. As a result, a new model based on the learning outcomes was
introduced to strengthen the existing contents of the KPP. Taxonomy of learning
3
matrix containing the input and learning outcomes have also been produced along
with the targeted driving characteristics namely:
i. Improved knowledge in overall safe driving (Cognitive Domain)

ii. Improved competency in hazard perception and responding (Psychomotor
Domain)
iii. Overall improvement in building the culture of safe driving (Affective Domain)
In the new KPP, a new approach based on learning outcomes is an important element
compared to the old module which was rather prescriptive and process-based and
focused heavily on the input without having a specific module to assess the
performance of new drivers based on the content of the curriculum. This module has
also taken into account the different levels of learning ability of the new drivers which
are translated into the Bloom’s taxonomy of learning. In addition, a special module for
the exit and testing process was also updated, streamlined and given special attention
through the production of specific manuals for instructors and testers.
1.1.2 New and Separate Module to Address Skills Improvement for

Learner Motorcyclists
Aside from having its own learning, training and testing module separated from the
module for car drivers, one of the key improvement in the new KPP for motorcycle
license is the increasing coverage and focus on defensive driving and safe riding in risky
traffic situations and environments (see Figure 3). Particular skills being emphasised
are detecting and responding to hazards on the roads.
4
Figure 3 Example of new KPP content on safe riding in risky traffic situations and environments
1.1.3 Massive Revamp of National Program for New Drivers’

Licensure
The new KPP is part of a massive revamp of nation’s program for new drivers’
licensure, which involves improvement in standards of training delivery and testing.
Figure 4 summarises the new program structure as provided by Jabatan Pengangkutan
Jalan (JPJ).
5
Figure 4 Summary of the new and improved Malaysian driver training and licensing program
structure
1.1.4 Improvement in the Module for Theory Classes
In the new KPP, the module for theory class is improvised to 6 chapters compared to
previous seven chapters to address defensive driving skills with 6 hours of lectures
added to the previous teaching requirement. This improvement was expected to give a
significant impact on the improvement of hazard perception and overall safe driving
performances.
6
1.2 Problem Statement
Road safety in Malaysia is in a dire need of effective countermeasures with a goal to

improve safety in every aspect of the traffic system. The new KPP is one of the
measures initiated by the government to improve the very basic and most important
aspect of the system; the driver. With a long-term goal of producing a driver with an
embedded safety culture unperturbed by the pressure of social factors, this new
approach could be a start for a new methodical shift in assessing new drivers and
controlling their risk factors. This study is needed to measure the impact and the
weight of improvement offered by the new KPP. The findings will be important in
safeguarding and improving the program from being perceived as lacking the benefits
which will slow down the improvement of new driver assessment and license program
which is rather lagging behind compared to other countries with the best track record
in road safety.
In this research, the proposed evaluation of the new KPP will be focused on defensive
driving and riding to measure the impact of the new curriculum. This is in line with the
long-term objective of the new KPP implementation to instil the safe driving culture
and to focus on risk mitigation and avoidance. The evaluation is also aimed at
demonstrating the effect of new KPP in training higher level skills in driving as opposed
to the old approach which teaches drivers to master the low-level skills such as
controlling speed, direction and vehicle positioning. Section 2.3 explains in details
these differences in skill levels.
1.3 Framework and Scope of the Research
Figure 5 below shows the overall research framework for this study. Unlicensed
individuals are expected to demonstrate better hazard perception skills through the
exposure to the new driving curriculum. Presented in Figure 5 are the possible factors
that could influence the expected outcomes of the new KPP.
7
Figure 5 Overall research framework for this study
1.4 Research Objectives
Two objectives were set for this research, namely:
i. To compare hazard perception skills between novice drivers and motorcycle

riders from old KPP and new KPP group
ii. To develop a computer-based tool for hazard perception test
8
2. Literature Review
2.1 Vulnerability of Young and Newly Licensed

Motorcyclists
The effect of driving experience in accident involvement and improvement in driving

skills is well known and has been reported in previous studies (e.g., Cavallo & Laurent,
1988; Mitsopoulos-Rubens, Triggs, & Regan, 2002; Clarke, Ward, Bartle, & Truman,
2006). Lack of skills and experience is a great challenge for road safety for both
motorcyclists and other motorists. In Australia for example, people aged 17-25
comprise just 13% of Australia’s population (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS],
2010). However, they account for over 24% of road fatalities (Bureau of Infrastructure,
Transport and Regional Economics [BITRE], 2011). Considering this fact, the risk of
accident facing motorcyclists is more serious because it’s well documented that
collision with another vehicle is one of the main types of accidents involving a
motorcycle. In Malaysia, 28% of fatal motorcycle accidents involved passenger cars
(Abdul Manan & Várhelyi, 2012). Moreover, 2012 accident data shows that 60-70% of
the total vehicles involved in accidents were passenger cars (MROADS, 2013).
2.2 Hazard Perception and Avoidance as a Target Skill in

Pre-license Driver Training
The process of training the new drivers and the impact of driver training should be
carefully planned and evaluated to gain the most advantage of the program in
reducing the number of accident involvement. In a comprehensive literature review on
the efficacy of driver training, Beanland, Goode, Salmon and Lenné (2013) highlighted
that efficacy of driver training can be evaluated from two different perspectives
9
namely whether it improves target skills and whether it improves safety on the road.
The researchers claimed that some training improves driving skill but not safety and
vice versa. The researchers also suggested that an ideal driver training should improve
both safety and driving skill by preparing the novice drivers with the knowledge to
avoid risky driving situations and training them with adequate skills to deal with
unavoidable hazards.
The links between drivers’ ability to perceive hazards and their involvement in crashes
have been established in many previous types of research: Congdon (1999) reported a
significant association between hazard perception test score with police reported-
crashes; Wells, Tong, Sexton, Grayson and Jones (2008) showed a significant
association between hazard perception test score during licensing with self-reported
“non-low-speed” crashes within the first year of driving; Darby, Murray and Raeside
(2009) outlined that attitude, behaviour, knowledge and hazard perception are highly
correlated with self-reported collisions; Horswill, Anstey, Hatherly and Wood (2010)
reported an empirical association between these two; Boufous, Ivers, Senserrick and
Stevenson (2011) demonstrated that, relative to drivers who passed hazard perception
test on the first attempt, drivers who failed the test at least twice had an increased risk
of crash; in contrast to accident-free driver, Cheng, Nga and Lee (2011) reported that
accident-involved riders involved with higher driving violation and took longer to
identify hazardous situations; and the latest, Horswill, Hill and Wetton (2015)
demonstrated that drivers who failed hazard perception test were more likely to be
involved in crash within the first year after the test.
While these studies provide links between hazard perception and crash involvement,
Haworth, Symmons and Kowadlo (2000) further argue that hazard perception by itself
is insufficient for safe driving without the skill on how to respond to the hazard. Thus,
some other researches (e.g. Hatakka, Keskinen, Gregersen, Glad, & Hernetkoski, 2002;
Beanland et al., 2013) have argued that hazard perception and avoidance is the main
target skill that needs to be covered for an effective pre-license training.
10
2.3 Goals for Driver Education (GDE) Framework and

Driver Education
In another perspective, Washington, Cole and Herbel (2011) reported that an entirely
new framework and philosophy on driver training was introduced in 1990 by European
countries such as Sweden, Finland, Austria, Luxembourg and Norway that focus on
teaching self-assessment on driving abilities and anticipation of risk. The new approach
focuses on the impact of risky attitudes, hazard perception and self-monitoring process
as opposed to the old approach which teaches drivers to master the low-level skills
such as controlling speed, direction and vehicle positioning. The impact of the
adaptation of this approach was promising in reducing teen driving risk by up to 23%
(Washington et al., 2011). Thus, this so called Goals for Driver Education (GDE)
framework has long been acknowledged as a fruitful theoretical starting point when
developing traffic education.
The GDE framework which has its origin in Finnish traffic psychology research was
published internationally for the first time by Hatakka et al. (2002). The framework was
updated to its present extended form and used by 2012 European Union (EU)-funded
pilot research project called Good Practice Pilot Action for Innovative Industries:
Education, Training and Exploitation (GADGET). The framework was developed with
the focus on the importance of performance factors, i.e. what the driver can do, and
also the importance of motivational and attitudinal factors, i.e. what the driver is
willing to do (e.g. Rothengatter, 1997). With this basis, the goals of driving in a broader
sense were developed and presented in four different levels of driver tasks. The GDE
framework suggests that the short-term skills that should be given its due attention
during pre-license training are vehicle manoeuvring (Level 1) and mastering the traffic
situations (Level 2) with hazard perception and avoidance being the main target skill.
11
3. Method
3.1 Research Design and Participants Selection
The study was designed using the comparative cross-sectional approach in which we
estimated the prevalence of the outcome of interest (exposure to new and old KPP) for
two given population (novice drivers from new and old KPP group). We used a
convenience sampling method to recruit the participants for this study. Participants
were selected from a group of candidates who responded to advertisements and
information received through word of mouth. The main criteria for selection are
possession of a valid driver license and probationary (P) license status. In total, there
were 126 drivers and motorcycle riders who participated in the study. The new KPP
group consisted of 68 participants (M= 20.57 year old) and the old KPP group consisted
of 58 participants (M = 20.94 year old).
3.2 Computer Based Test as a Tool for Hazard

Perception Skills Comparison
The main purpose of the Hazard Perception Test (HPT) was to measure the reaction
time for hazard detection. To develop this tool, 54 driving scenes (muted) were
compiled from series of video recordings of actual driving and riding scenarios in
Kajang, Bangi and Putrajaya. Researchers used an SJCAM SJ5000 digital camera with a
video resolution of 1920×1080 and recording rate of 30 fps. The camera was mounted
on the centre of windscreen from inside the cabin of a 2012 Nissan Grand Livina and a
2009 Proton Saga BLM. The cars were driven by volunteers to produce visual
recordings of driving scenarios from the point of view of a driver. To produce an
equivalent version of the recordings for motorcycle version of HPT, researchers used a
12
hands-free camera harness to hold the camera at the chest level of a volunteer rider.
The volunteer rode a motorcycle in a mixed traffic to record riding scenarios. All
volunteers for both car and motorcycle drove the vehicle as they would normally drive
including executing lane-splitting manoeuvres for motorcyclist volunteer. Driving and
riding runs were varied to include commercial and residential areas, state roads,
highways, peak and off-peak hours driving varied between dry and raining condition.
Table 1 and Table 2 below list the description of potentially hazardous driving and
riding situation for drivers and motorcycle riders respectively.
Table 1 Description of potentially hazardous situation for drivers
Response
Driving situation
interval (s)
1. Pedestrian walking on the lane marking on the left side of road 6.0
2. Red Kenari approaching from the left 2.0
3. White truck stopping beside a parked car 2.0
4. Taxi braking and signalling to stop 4.0
5. Motorcycle riding wrong way on the left 2.0
6. Lorry signalling to enter the lane 4.0
7. Lorry coming out at T-junction 8.0
8. Taxi signalling to make a U-turn 2.0
9. Pedestrian crossing the road at pedestrian crossing 3.0
10. Motorcycle is going for a turn/U-turn on the left 3.0
11. Motorcycle entering the driving path from oncoming lane 3.0
12. A pedestrian crossing from the left 4.0
13. Motorcycle entering from the right 2.0
14. Motorcycle from the right is making a U-turn 2.0
15. Motorcycle approaching and entering the lane from the right 9.0
16. Pedestrian standing on the left side 1.0
17. Motorcycle approaching and entering lane from left 3.0
13

20. Motorcycle approaching and entering lane from left 1.0
21. Car braking in front 4.0
22. Van stopping on the roadside 4.0
Table 2 Description of potentially hazardous situation for motorcycle riders
Response
Riding situation
interval (s)
2. Motorcycle encroaching onto rider’s path from opposite lane 2.0
3. Car about to move onto the riding path 4.0
4. A woman opening the driver's side rear door of a parked car
3.0
ahead
5. A parked car with brakes and signals on to drop off a passenger 2.0
6. Parked car ahead pulls out from the kerb onto the rider’s path 3.0
8. A man standing in the middle of a left lane, hidden by lead car 1.0
9. A car making a U-turn ahead 4.0
11. Motorcycle braking in front 2.0
12. Pedestrian crossing from the opposite lane onto rider’s path 4.0
13. Potholes on road ahead 5.0
14. Car reversing out from a parking space 6.0
15. Lane closed ahead signs and cones on travelling lane 4.0
16. Car pulling out of a parking space in front 3.0
17. A man opening door and getting into a parked car on left 2.0
18. Two pedestrians crossing the road ahead 4.0
19. A parked van inapposite lane ahead; risk of hidden
5.0
pedestrian(s)
14
20. A car suddenly pulls out from behind a parked van onto rider’s
4.0
path
21. Two children walking on the left pavement 2.0
22. Group of school children standing on the left pavement 4.0
23. School children walking on the left side of road towards rider’s
2.0
travelling direction
24. Pedestrian crossing from the opposite lane onto rider’s path 2.0
25. A parked lorry and a tower crane on a closed lane section ahead 4.0
26. Motorcycle merging onto the traffic from left 7.0
27. A pedestrian ahead walked briefly onto rider’s path and
3.0
stopped
28. Pedestrian crossing from the opposite lane ahead 3.0
29. A car merging onto rider’s path from a ramp 3.0
30. An oncoming car encroaching onto rider’s travelling path 4.0
31. An oncoming car encroaching onto rider’s travelling path 2.0
3.3 Procedure
Upon arrival, participants were given a consent form which explains the procedure of
the experiment, potential risks and privacy of the collected data. Participants were
required to give their informed consent by signing the consent form before
participating in the study. The HPT test was then administered in three segments.
During the first segment, researchers explained the tasks to be completed during the
test: Participants were asked to use the mouse to point, and click the left button once
as soon as they noticed a hazard, mistake of other drivers, or any risk on the road
shown in the video displayed on a computer. In the second segment, participants were
shown the footage of driving scenes and were given unrestricted time to complete the
HPT. In a normal situation, a participant took about 20-30 minutes to complete the
HPT test. After completing the computer-based test, researchers reviewed the test
results and interviewed the participants for clarification purposes.
15
4. Results
Performances of 114 novice drivers and riders from both KPP groups were analysed. In
the car licensee group, participants trained with the new KPP were relatively of the
same age with the participants trained with old KPP, [F(1,59) = 0.368, p = 0.547]. There
were also no significant differences among them in terms of male-to-female ratio for
both KPP groups, 2(1, N = 61) = 1.598, p = 0.206. Similar characteristics were also
found in the motorcycle licensee group. On average, participants from both KPP groups
were similar in terms of age, [F(1,51) = 0.066, p = 0.798], and the male-to-female ratio,
2(1, N = 53) = 0.02, p = 0.969. Table 3 and Table 4 list the descriptive details of all
participants’ demography.
Table 3 Demographic of participants from car licensee group
Novice car licensee group

New KPP (N = 33) Old KPP (N = 28) p-Value
Mean (SD, σ ) Mean (SD, σ )
Age (yr) 21.2 (3.2) 21.6 (2.1) 0.547
Gender ratio (M/F) 8/25 11/17 0.206
Table 4 Demographic of participants from motorcycle licensee group
Novice motorcycle licensee group

New KPP (N = 26) Old KPP (N = 27) p-Value
Age (yr) 20.5 (6.1) 20.2 (1.7) 0.798
Gender ratio (M/F) 24/2 25/2 0.969
16
4.1 Hazard Perception Response Time (HPRT)
Table 5 shows the results of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on the Hazard Perception
Response Time (HPRT) performances by vehicle modes for both KPP groups.
Motorcycle riders were found to be significantly slower (M=3.69 s, SD = 1.03) in
detecting hazards, [F(1,112) = 18.91, p < 0.00] as compared to car drivers (M=2.96 s, SD
= 0.75) regardless of KPP group.
Table 5 Comparison of HPRT performances by vehicle modes
Novice driver group

Motorcyclists (N = 53) Car drivers (N = 61) F-Value p-Value
HPRT (s) 3.69 (1.03) 2.96 (0.75) 18.91 < 0.001*
* Significant at the 0.001 level
4.1.1 Effects of KPP on HPRT Performances of Car Drivers
Non-parametric test was used to compare the HPRT performances between

participants from the new and old KPP group. Non-parametric test was chosen due to
the small sample size available in each group. A Mann-Whitney test revealed no
significant differences in HPRT performances between the new KPP group (Median =
3.12 s) and the old KPP group (Median = 2.64 s), U = 405.0, p = 0.414.
Previous studies (e.g., Sagberg and Bjørnskau, 2006; Scialfa et al. 2012) suggest that
driving experience influence positive performances in hazard perception test. In this
study, thus, we considered this factor as potential moderator influencing HPRT.
Considering that the participants from the new KPP group had significantly fewer
months of driving experience and reported significantly fewer months since obtaining
their ‘P’ license (see Table 6) compared to the old KPP group, we normalised the HPRT
values with experience (months of driving-MOD), time lapse (months of licensure-
17
MOL), and driving exposure (total km driven since licensure-KML) to further investigate
their effects.
Table 6 Driving experience and exposure among novice car licensee group
Novice car licensee group

Mann-
New KPP (N = 33) Old KPP (N = 28)
Whitney p-Value
Median Median
U Test
(Min, Max) (Min, Max)
Months of driving- 12.5 12.5
255.0 0.002*
MOD (0.5, 72.5) (0.5, 60.5)
Months of licensure- 1.0 16.5
29.5 0.001**
MOL (0.03, 16.0) (1.0, 39.0)
Total km driven since 25.0 2400.0
89.0 0.001**
licensure-KMAL (km) (0.83, 4125.0) (20.8, 33075.0)
*Significant at the 0.01 level **Significant at the 0.001 level
The normalisation produces performance indices based on the HPRT performance

moderators. These three indices are essentially the magnitude of rate of change in
HPRT performances per respective moderators. The individual index was calculated
using the following general formula:
The resulting indices were used to further examine group effects on HPRT
performances. The results in Table 7 indicate that learning rate normalised with
months of driving-MOD was significantly higher, (Median = 0.26), among novice car
drivers from the new KPP group relative to the old KPP group (Median = 0.13), U =
258.0, p = 0.002. Assuming positive impact of experience on hazard perception skills,
this higher value could indicate better overall HPRT performances among the new KPP
group over the accumulated months of driving experience compared to the old KPP
18
group. Further, we also found that the learning rate among the new KPP group was
better than the old KPP group when HPRT was normalised with months of licensure-
MOL and total km driven since licensure.
Table 7 Comparison of HPRT learning rate among novice car licensee group
Novice car licensee group Mann-

New KPP (N = 33) Old KPP (N = 28) Whitney p-Value
Median (Min, Max) Median (Min, Max) U Test
HPRT (s) 3.12 (1.73, 4.53) 2.64 (1.70, 4.89) 405.0 0.414
Learning rate /
0.26 (0.02, 6.40) 0.13 (0.01, 0.48) 258.0 0.003*
MOD
Learning rate /
2.55 (0.14, 96.10) 0.11 (0.01, 2.72) 36.0 0.001**
MOL
Learning rate /
0.04 (0.00, 3.84) 0.00 (0.00, 0.13) 87.0 0.001**
KMAL
*Significant at the 0.01 level **Significant at the 0.001 level
4.1.2 Effects of KPP on HPRT Performances of Motorcycle Riders
In contrast with car licensee group, a Mann-Whitney test on HPRT performances

among motorcycle licensee produced significant results. Results showed that the old
KPP group among motorcycle licensee performed better (Median = 3.24 s) compared
to the new KPP group (Median = 3.90 s), U = 228.0, p = 0.029. However, the results
might not point to a definite conclusion regarding the impact of new KPP due to the
effects of moderating factors as per explanation in subsection 4.1.1. Thus, further
analysis was conducted for motorcycle licensee groups to study the effects of
moderators on their learning rate. Table 8 lists the descriptive details that indicate the
significant differences in terms of riding exposure and experience between the two
groups.
19
Table 8 Driving experience and exposure among novice motorcycle licensee group

Mann-
Whitney p-Value
Median Median
U Test
Months of driving- 42.3 60.25
257.0 0.092
MOD (0.25, 156.25) (12.25, 216.25)
Months of licensure- 1.0 19.0
4.00 0.001*
MOL (0.03, 12.0) (7.0, 72.0)
Total km driven since 35.0 2728.0
62.0 0.001*
licensure (km) (0.36, 66132.0) (512.0, 100992.0)
*Significant at the 0.001 level
The results in Table 9 indicate that learning rate normalised with months of licensure-
MOL was significantly higher, (Median = 3.74), among novice motorcycle riders from
the new KPP group compared to the old KPP group (Median = 0.18), U = 42.0, p =
0.001. The learning rate among the new KPP group was also better than the old KPP
group when HPRT was normalised with total km driven since licensure. In contrast with
car licensee group, no significant differences were observed in the learning rate for
accumulated months of driving among motorcycle licensee.
Table 9 Comparison of HPRT learning rate among novice motorcycle licensee group

Mann-
Whitney p-Value
Median Median
U Test
HPRT (s) 3.9 (2.29, 6.77) 3.24 (2.28, 5.48) 228.0 0.029*
Learning rate /MOD 0.06 (0.0, 15.9) 0.06 (0.0, 0.16) 332.0 0.735
Learning rate /MOL 3.74 (0.12, 156.9) 0.18 (0.04, 0.56) 42.0 0.001**
Learning rate /KMAL 0.06 (0.0, 11.1) 0.001 (0.0, 0.01) 78.0 0.001**
* Significant at the 0.05 level **Significant at the 0.001 level
20
5. Discussion
Reduction of crash risk among newly licensed drivers during their first few months of
licensure has been ascribed to acquisition of certain skills during driver training
(Gregersen et al. 2000; Mayhew et al. 2003). Hazard perception and responding,
among others, have been recognised as important skills for newly licensed drivers to
reduce the risk of crash involvement (Sagberg and Bjørnskau, 2006). Beanland et al.
(2013) for instance suggested that an ideal driver training should improve both safety
and driving skill by preparing the novice drivers with the knowledge to avoid risky
driving situations and training them with adequate skills to deal with unavoidable
hazards. Hazard perception test has been part of compulsory testing for driving license
in the UK since 2002 and was made compulsory in most of the Australian states (Scialfa
et al. 2011).
Positive impacts of the compulsory hazard perception test component in driver

licensure process have been reported in previous studies. Boufous et al., (2011) for
instance, reported that drivers who failed the test at least twice had an increased risk
of a crash compared to drivers who passed hazard perception test on the first attempt.
Another research conducted by Horswill et al. (2015) found that within the first year
after hazard perception test, a driver who failed the test was more accident prone
compared to a driver who passed. In another related research, Cheng et al., (2011)
found that drivers with previous crash history took longer to identify hazardous
situations compared to drivers who never involved in a crash. Moreover, hazard
perception and avoidance skill were suggested by other studies (see Hatakka et al.,
2002 and Beanland et al., 2013) as the main target skills that need to be covered for an
effective pre-license training.
21
In this study, we found minimal difference between participants who received new KPP
relative to old KPP, albeit the latter group was faster in responding to hazard (see Table
5 and 6). Because experience improves learning of hazard perception skill among
motorists (Sagberg and Bjørnskau, 2006; Scialfa et al. 2012), we considered
normalising the HPRT results with their reported experience on the road in controlling
its influence between groups. The normalisation produces three indices: learning
rate/MOD, learning rate/MOL and learning rate/KML. Learning rate/MOD represents
change of response time in one month of driving which also includes the pre-license
driving, learning rate/MOL represents change of response time in one month after
licensure and learning rate/KML represents change of response time in a kilometre
travelled since license approval. In other words, these indices represent the drivers’
and riders’ rate of learning to perceive hazard in a unit of respective indices of driving
experience. The bigger the magnitude of these indices, the quicker drivers, or riders,
learn about hazard and perceiving them on the road.
This normalisation analysis reveals that all indices were significantly higher among car
licensees who have undergone new KPP programme compared to its older counterpart
(see Table 7). In motorcycle groups, learning rate/MAL and learning rate/KML indices
were significantly higher among participants who have undergone new KPP
programme relative to its older counterpart (see Table 9). These results suggest that
despite being slower in responding to hazards, those who received new KPP learned to
perceive hazard faster than those of old KPP.
On another note, the results of this study also hint that, irrespective of new or old KPP
training programme, motorcycle riders were slower in detecting hazards relative to car
drivers. While this study is insufficient in claiming any firm conclusion about this
difference, it may suggest that the difference of HPRT performance between
motorcycle and car is more fundamental than training programme. Because HPRT
tapping into the cognition of its participants, the difference of response time between
motorcycle riders and car drivers can be attributed to: (i) difference of mental
workload between driver and riders, or (ii) desensitisation of riders towards hazards
contributing them to be less attentive and responsive, or other unknown factors.
22
This study involved a relatively small number of samples due to resources constraints.
Nonetheless, it has demonstrated the difference of hazard perception skill between
the product of new and old KPP programme. In future studies, we recommend and
hope to be able to further uncover about hazard perception, specifically among
motorcycle riders in Malaysia, and driver training programme as the results of this
study poses more interesting questions, inter alia: Which component of KPP taps onto
hazard perception? Why do motorcyclists perform poorer than drivers? How could we
improve hazard perception in KPP programme?
23
6. Conclusion and Recommendation

The findings of this research indicate that there are positive effects of the exposure to
the new KPP on the overall improvement of hazard perception skills among novice
drivers. The new KPP group is learning and improving in hazard perception skills at a
quicker rate as compared to the old KPP group. However there are known and
unknown confounding factors that need to be considered to better improve the effects
of the new KPP. One of the concerns is the quality and standard of the teaching
delivery, training and testing. These three core aspects of the driver licensure need to
be improved towards certain standards. These standards need to be developed with
scientific research approach and validated by certified parties. For a start, JPJ should
form an audit team to oversee the level of qualities in core aspects mentioned above.
Training of trainers’ program and accreditation of driving institutes by ISO standards
will be a great addition to the quality control process. Another improvement is to come
up with more effective teaching module and practical guides for learner motorcycle
riders. A special task force or audit team should be formed to focus on the
improvement of motorcycle modules. In light of this, the introduction of separated
module for a motorcycle in the new KPP is highly recommended.
24
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29
Effects of New Driver Training Curriculum (KPP) on
Novice Drivers’ Hazard Perception Skills
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6. Conclusion and Recommendation 24

Table 1 Description of potentially hazardous situation for drivers 13

Figure 1 Numbers of injuries and fatalities of motorcyclists by status of 2

Figure 1 Numbers of injuries and fatalities of motorcyclists by status of license, years of

Figure 2 Percentages of accident involvement among motorcyclists by status of license, years

1.1 Implementation of New Driver Education Curriculum

1.1.1 Improvement Based on Gap Analysis and Learning Outcomes

A committee known as Driving Curriculum Improvement Committee was formed to

i. Improved knowledge in overall safe driving (Cognitive Domain)

1.1.2 New and Separate Module to Address Skills Improvement for

1.1.3 Massive Revamp of National Program for New Drivers’

1.1.4 Improvement in the Module for Theory Classes

1.2 Problem Statement

Road safety in Malaysia is in a dire need of effective countermeasures with a goal to

1.3 Framework and Scope of the Research

Figure 5 Overall research framework for this study

1.4 Research Objectives

Two objectives were set for this research, namely:

i. To compare hazard perception skills between novice drivers and motorcycle

2.1 Vulnerability of Young and Newly Licensed

The effect of driving experience in accident involvement and improvement in driving

2.2 Hazard Perception and Avoidance as a Target Skill in

2.3 Goals for Driver Education (GDE) Framework and

3.1 Research Design and Participants Selection

3.2 Computer Based Test as a Tool for Hazard

Table 1 Description of potentially hazardous situation for drivers

19. Pedestrian standing on the left side 3.0

Table 2 Description of potentially hazardous situation for motorcycle riders

Table 3 Demographic of participants from car licensee group

Novice car licensee group

Table 4 Demographic of participants from motorcycle licensee group

Novice motorcycle licensee group

4.1 Hazard Perception Response Time (HPRT)

Table 5 Comparison of HPRT performances by vehicle modes

Novice driver group

4.1.1 Effects of KPP on HPRT Performances of Car Drivers

Non-parametric test was used to compare the HPRT performances between

Novice car licensee group

The normalisation produces performance indices based on the HPRT performance

Novice car licensee group Mann-

4.1.2 Effects of KPP on HPRT Performances of Motorcycle Riders

In contrast with car licensee group, a Mann-Whitney test on HPRT performances

Novice motorcycle licensee group

Novice motorcycle licensee group

Positive impacts of the compulsory hazard perception test component in driver

6. Conclusion and Recommendation

BITRE (Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics). (2011). Road

Boyce, T. E., Geller, E. S. (2001). A Technology to measure multiple driving behaviors

Congdon, P. (1999). Vicroads hazard perception test, can it predict accidents?

Department of Statistics. (2012). Perangkaan sebab kematian Malaysia. Retrieved from

Ministry of Transport Malaysia (MOT). (2015). Statistik Pengangkutan Malaysia 2014.

Rothengatter, J. A. (1997). Psychological aspects of road user behaviour. Applied

Designed by: MIROS

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