Majorship Englishhandouts 2017rev

August 1, 2016 [HANDOUT - ENGLISH MAJOR]
LINGUISTICS
KEY TERMS:
1. LANGUAGE. It is “the particular form of words and speech used by the people of a country, area or
social group”, or “the method of human communication using spoken or written words”. (Dostert,
2009)
STRUCTURALIST. It is the expression and communication of emotions or ideas between human

beings by means of speech and hearing that is systematized and confirmed by usage among a given
people over a period of time. (Webster)
COGNITIVIST. It is a mental phenomenon; Learning it is innate because of Language Acquisition

Device (LAD)
FUNCTIONALIST. Language performs specific functions such as to express, to persuade, to give

or ask for information and to make someone do something.
BEHAVIORIST. Language is learned through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement.
2. MORPHOLOGY comes from a Greek word meaning ‘shape’ or ‘form’ and is used in linguistics to
denote the study of words, both with regard to their internal structure and their combination or
formation to form new or larger units. (Dostert, 2009)
a. Morpheme – the linguistic unit of a language that cannot further be divided
b. Bound morpheme – a morpheme that can only be attached to another part of a word
c. Free morpheme – morphemes that can stand alone
3. PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY. The two primary linguistic disciplines concerned with speech sounds
- those sounds that are used by humans to communicate - are phonetics and phonology. Both areas are
mutually ependent. Phonetics describes the concrete, physical form of sounds (how they are produced,
heard and Now they can be described), while phonology is concerned with the function of sounds, that
is with their status and inventory in any given language. (Dorgeloh, 2009)
4. SEMANTICS. German philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein's definition: 'the meaning of a word is its use in
the language‘. Includes study of SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS, HOMONYMS, HOMOPHONE,
HOMOGRAPHS. Meaning may be affected by word association
5. SYNTAX. “grammar of a language”; syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, but with the
internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which
sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t.
6. BASILECT – the variety of speech that is most remote from the prestige variety
7. DIALECT - a form of language peculiar to a region or social group
8. IDIOLECT – a person’s unique way of speaking
9. REGISTER - the variety of language for a particular purpose, such as those used in formal and an in
formal situation
YULE’S 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

1. Displacement. This is the ability to use language to talk about times, places and people other than the
‘here and now’. It also enables us to say things which we know to be false i.e. to lie.
2. Arbitrariness. This means that there is generally no natural, inherent relationship between the signs
(i.e. sounds or letters) produced and their meaning. For this reason different languages can use
different signs to refer to one and the same thing e.g. a flower in English is a Blume in German or a
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fleur in French. Occasionally we find examples of iconicity, where someone has tried to overtly create a
resemblance between the sign and its meaning. Arbitrariness also enables languages to evolve, both in
the sense that existing signs can come to mean new things (e.g. pen which used to refer to a quill), but
also that new signs can be introduced for existing things
3. Productivity. This is an important characteristic of human language allowing us to continuously create
new utterances, combining the ‘building bricks’ of language in ever new ways, whether these be
sounds, words or sentences. Human languages are therefore continually evolving.
4. Cultural Transmission. This refers to how languages are acquired by children. The assumption is that
there is no genetic component (although Noam Chomsky challenges this with his theory of Universal
Grammar) which would enable a child to simply start speaking e.g. English at a certain age, but rather
that children need to be exposed to a language (and culture) in order to acquire it.
5. Duality. Duality (or ‘double articulation’) refers to two separate layers of language working together to
provide us with a pool of sounds which we can combine to communicate with one another. On the one
hand, we have a limited number of discrete sounds (e.g. the 44 phonemes in English) which in isolation
have no inherent meaning e.g. b, i, or n. On the other hand, we have a virtually unlimited number of
distinct meanings which we can create by combining these sounds in certain ways e.g. bin, or nib.
Various other combinations such as *bni are not meaningful in English, but could possibly be in other
languages. (Yule, 2006)
LINGUISTS
(1) Noam Chomsky (1928-present) revolutionized the philosophy of language
as well as the formal methods used to describe linguistic structures. Most
schools of linguistic thought either directly incorporate his views on the
generative nature of syntactic structure, or stand in reaction to it.
Noam Chomsky, a pioneering linguist and a professor at MIT, put forth an
idea called the language acquisition device or LAD, for short. The LAD is a
hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn
and understand language. Chomsky used it to explain just how amazingly
children are able to acquire language abilities as well as accounting for the
innate understanding of grammar and syntax all children possess.
Keep in mind that the LAD is a theoretical concept. There isn't a section of
the brain with 'language acquisition device' printed on it and a big switch to turn on and learn a
new language. Rather, the LAD is used to explain what are most likely hundreds or thousands of
underlying processes that humans have in their brains that have evolved to make us particularly
exceptional at learning and understanding language.
Chomsky developed the LAD in the 1950s and since then, has moved on to a greater theory
called universal grammar (or UG) to account for the rapid language development in humans. While
universal grammar is a bit beyond the scope of this article, just remember for now that LAD later
evolved into this theory. http://study.com/academy/lesson/chomskys-language-acquisition-device-definition-
lesson-quiz.html
(2) Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) was the first linguist to distinguish

between synchronic and diachronic analyses of language: how languages
function today versus how they evolved over time. He is also considered the
father of semiotics.
(3) Pāṇini (ca. 4th century BC) was a profoundly
influential Sanskrit grammarian who
formulated rules of morphological analysis that
were more advanced than any western linguist
until the 20th century.
(4) Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) developed many of de Saussure's ideas about

synchronic linguistics, including introducing the distinction between phonetic
and phonological representations of languages, as well as the notion of
linguistic markedness and feature theory.
(5) Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) was the first

modern European linguist to identify language as a
rule-governed system rather than a hodge-podge collection of words and
phrases. Besides advancing our understanding of Indo-European
languages, he was also one of the first to investigate the notion of subtrate
phenomena by identifying place names in Spain and France where Basque
used to be spoken.
(6) Edward Sapir (1884-1939) helped to establish that non-European

languages have structures as complex as European ones, and sometimes
more so. He helped to document dozens of native languages of the Americas
(especially the Athabaskan family), established by and large which were
related to which, and became famous for his investigations of the relationship
between language and thought, known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (or
Linguistic relativity).
(7) Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) made major contributions to the

study of Indo-European, Austronesian and especially Algonquian
languages, but he is best known for his popularization of scientific
approaches to language, particularly through Structural
linguistics and later Behaviorism.
(8) Joseph Greenberg (1915-2001) became best known for his contributions
to the study of language typology (how language varies across time and
space), but became controversial later in life for the methods of mass-
comparison that used in reconstructing the proto-families of Africa and the
Americas.
(9) Karl Brugmann (1849-1919) helped to establish the systematicity of sound

change as a feature of language evolution through time and began to make
linguistics independent of classical philology.
(10) Sibawayh (760-796) wrote the first grammar of Arabic and was the first grammarian (outside
India) to actually analyze the grammar rather than merely describe it. He backed up his claims
with empirical data rather than a priori theorizing about what should be correct or incorrect, and
set the standard for much grammatical reasoning for the next thousand years.
https://www.quora.com/Who-are-some-well-known-linguists-and-what-are-their-noteworthy-contributions
The Four Main Linguistic Schools of Thought

November 10, 2015 | By Sarah-Claire Jordan
Linguistics, to put it simply, is the study of languages, but in a scientific way. This means not just
looking at the meaning of words in a language, but at how the language is formed, the contexts it is
used in, and much more. Since it is the scientific study of languages, there are, of course,
numerous schools of thought related to it. Here are four of the most well-known linguistic schools of
thought:
1. Functionalism. This first school of thought focuses on how language is actually used in
everyday life. Those who abide by functionalism look at language as just another tool for humans to
use, and thus tend to focus on the function language and its different parts have in our lives. The
theories of functionalism focus on phonological, semantic, syntactic, as well as the pragmatic
functions of language. Functionalism emphasizes the importance of social context, usage, and the
communicative function of the grammar, phonology, orthography, and more, of a language.
2. Structuralism. Based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure of Switzerland, structuralism is an

approach to linguistics that focuses on the idea that languages are fixed systems made up of many
different units that connect with each other. This school of thought marked a shift from historical
linguistic analysis to non-historical analysis. Later on, other linguists would come to see
structuralism as rather out-of-date. It worked for phonology and morphology, but the theories it
proposes don’t make as much sense as the ones proposed by new schools of thought. Saussure was
aware of the fact that, in his time, he would not be able to get a good understanding of the human
brain, and so left that to future linguists.
3. Generativism. The work of Noam Chomsky became the basis for the generativism approach to
linguistics. It was originally a way to explain how humans acquire language in the first place, but
soon it came to be used to explain the different phenomena that occur in all natural languages. The
generative theory of language suggests that, in its most basic form, language is made up of certain
rules that apply to all humans and all languages. This led to the theory of “universal grammar”,
that all humans are capable of learning grammar. All of this was developed in the second half of the
20th century, with Noam Chomsky taking into account the work of Zellig Harris as well.
4. Cognitivism. The last linguistic school of thought emerged in the 1950s as a reaction to
generativism. In basic terms, cognitivism says that language emerges from human cognitive
processes. It challenges “universal grammar” by suggesting that grammar is not something that all
humans can inherently understand, but rather it is learned by using language. In this sense, it is a
bit similar to functionalism. However, the main focus of cognitivism is how language is based on
meaning that the mind creates.
Source: The Four Main Linguistic Schools of Thought,

http://alphaomegatranslations.com/2015/11/10/the-four-main-linguistic-schools-of-thought/
Semiotics, also called Semiology, the study of signs and sign-using behaviour. It was defined by
one of its founders, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, as the study of “the life of signs
within society.” Although the word was used in this sense in the 17th century by the English
philosopher John Locke, the idea of semiotics as an interdisciplinary mode for examining
phenomena in different fields emerged only in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the
independent work of Saussure and of the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce.
Peirce’s seminal work in the field was anchored in pragmatism and logic. He defined a sign as
“something which stands to somebody for something,” and one of his major contributions to
semiotics was the categorization of signs into three main types: (1) an icon, which resembles its
referent (such as a road sign for falling rocks); (2) an index, which is associated with its referent (as
smoke is a sign of fire); and (3) a symbol, which is related to its referent only by convention (as with
words or traffic signals). Peirce also demonstrated that a sign can never have a definite meaning, for
the meaning must be continuously qualified.
Historical linguistics - Historical linguistics is the branch of linguistics concerned with the
development of a language or of languages over time. It is traditionally known as philology. The
primary tool of historical linguistics is the comparative method, a way of identifying relations among
languages in the absence of written records. For this reason, historical linguistics is sometimes
called comparative-historical linguistics. http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/historical_linguisticsterm.htm
Pragmatics - Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social
contexts and the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language. The
term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by the philosopher C.W. Morris. Pragmatics was
developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s. http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/pragmaticsterm.htm
Psycholinguistics – investigates the mental mechanisms underlying language processing: examines
how to perceive words and store them in the mind, how to understand a sentence, how to learn to
read, how language and writing systems influence mental organizations.
Two Aspects:
Language Comprehension - how we understand the meaning of words and sentences
(receptive process)
Language Production –how we speak and use language (productive process)
http://www.linguistics.hku.hk/cou/adv/ling6017/MA%20Lecture%204.pdf
Morphology – study of internal structure of words

Morpheme – the smallest linguistic unit which has a meaning or grammatical function. Words are
composed of morphemes (one or more).
Ex: sing·er·s, home·work, moon·light, un·kind·ly, talk·s, ten·th, flipp·ed, de·nation·al·iz· ation
Allomorphs – morphemes having the same function but different form. Unlike the synonyms they
usually cannot be replaced one by the other.
Allomorphs, http://www.lincoln.edu/english/linguistics/allomorphs.pdf
CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMES:
o Bound × Free •
Bound – cannot appear as a word by itself.
Ex: -s (dog·s), -ly (quick·ly), -ed (walk·ed)
Free – can appear as a word by itself; often can combine with other morphemes too.
Ex: house (house·s), walk (walk·ed), of, the
o Root × Affix
root – nucleus of the word that affixes attach too. In English, most of the roots are free. In
some languages that is less common (Lithuanian: Billas Clintonas). Compounds contain
more than one root: home·work;
affix – a morpheme that is not a root; it is always bound –
 suffix: talk·ing, quick·ly;
 prefix: un·happy, pre·existing;
 infix: common in Austronesian and Austroasiatic lgs (Tagalog, Khmer)
 Tagalog: basa ‘read’ b·um·asa ‘readpast’ – sulat ‘write’ – s·um·ulat ‘wrote’
 very rare in English: abso·bloody·lutely,
 circumfix: morpheme having two parts that are placed around a stem Dutch collectives
o Content × Functional
 Content morphemes – carry some semantic content car, -able, un
 Functional morphemes – provide grammatical information the, and, -s (plural), -s
(3rd sg)
o Derivation vs. Inflection
 Inflection – creating various forms of the same word lexeme – an abstract entity;
the set of all forms related by inflection (but not derivation).
E.g., break, breaks, broke, broken
 derivation – creating new words belonging to different part of speech
Ex: slow – slow·ly – slow·ness
MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
o Concatenation – linking morphemes together
 Compounding – putting two morphemes together to form a new morpheme. Ex:
girlfriend, seaside, newspaper,
 Incorporation – nominal stem is fused with a verb stem. Ex: globe-trot, breastfeed
- verb stem fused with another verb stem. Ex: stir-fry
o Reduplication – part of a word or an entire word is doubled
 Exact: quack-quack, hurly-burly, teeny-weeny
 Non-exact reduplication: ding-dong, riff-raff
o Internal modification
 Apophony (ablaut) – internal word changes
 Consonant modification – changing a noun to a verb. Ex: belief – believe;
sheath – sheathe, bath-bathe, device-devise,
 Mixed modification – a change in both vowel and consonant.
Ex: catch – caught; seek – sought
 Total modification (suppletion) – a total change in the morpheme.
Ex: go – went – gone; good – better - best
o Affixation – adding a bound morpheme to a free morpheme
 Adding a prefix: rebound, illicit, preconceive
 Adding a suffix: limitless, perfectly, educated, reading
 Adding an infix: mothers-in-law, passersby
o Clipping
 Back clipping: polysyllabic lexemes are shortened by removing some final syllables.
Ex: advertisement – ad; dormitory – dorm, gymnasium – gym, rhinoceros – rhino;
 Fore-clipping: removal of some initial syllables: Ex: hamburger – burger; violoncello –
cello; telephone – phone; caravan – van
 Mixed clipping: removal of some initial and final syllables from a lexeme: Ex:
influenza – flu; refrigerator – fridge;
 Clipping compounds: clipping syllables from compound words. Ex: science fiction –
sci fi; situational comedy – sitcom;
 Other examples of clippings: biz, caps, celebs, deli, exam, gator, hippo, hood, info,
intro, lab, limo, mayo, max, perm, photo, ref, reps, rhino, sax, stats, temp, thru, tux, ump,
veep, and vet.
o Blending the combination of parts of different lexemes.
Ex: breakfast + lunch = brunch; smoke + fog = smog; motor + hotel = motel
Camera + recorder = camcorder; cremated + remains = cremains;
electro + execute = electrocute; laundry + automat = laundromat;
medical + care = medicare; news + broadcast = newscast;
parachute + troops = paratroops; work + alcoholic = workaholic
Semantics the study of linguistic meaning; focuses on the meaning of words and sentences.
o Lexical semantics – morpheme meaning / word meaning
 Synonyms - words with similar meanings
 Imperfect synonyms – the synonym may not be an appropriate word
replacement.
 Ex: couch = sofa;
acceptable: couch potato
not acceptable: sofa potato
 Antonyms – words with opposite meanings
 Complementary – mutually exclusive: single – married; dead - alive
 Gradable – can be modified by adverbs: cold – warm; wet - dry
 Converse – reciprocal relationship; one necessitates the existence of the other
above – below; give – receive; buy - sell

o Compositional semantics – phrasal meaning / sentence meaning
o Pragmatics – utterances meaning
REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH

Also known as:
 Developmental education
 Basic skills education
 Compensatory education
 Preparatory education
 Academic upgrading
Remedial Instruction vs. Special Education
 Both special and remedial education programs are specialized, structured programs that are
designed to help students who need extra attention succeed academically.
 The target demographic and the delivery of the material vary between each specialization, as
do the certifications that you need to teach.
The Remedial Program
 a remedial program is for students who have average or higher intellectual abilities but who
are not performing well in school.
 remedial students are not struggling because of their intellectual abilities but instead they
are struggling with one subject area like reading, writing or mathematics.
The Special Education
 Special education differs from remedial education because the students in these programs
lack the intellectual ability to perform in a class that teaches standardized concepts and
subjects.
 The students in these classes may lack social maturity, emotional maturity, physical ability
or the analytical skills that are needed to perform in a remedial or a standard classroom
environment.
Remedial Instruction in English
 Designed to assist students in order to achieve expected competencies in core academic skills
such as literacy and numeracy
 Intended for students who have fallen behind the rest of the class
 Spiral process of assessment – instruction – re-assessment
 Teachers first diagnose students’ learning difficulties
 Then, remedial course will be designed in accordance with students needs
 Evaluation will be conducted during and after implementation to determine effectiveness of
the course
Types
o Compensatory – provides necessary services to at-risk students who are from disadvantaged
backgrounds to help them overcome learning problems and increase academic achievement;
requires involvement of school staff and parents
o Supplemental – a support program that aims to help students master content-oriented
materials, improve study skills or test-taking strategies tailored to the specific needs of a
class.
o Tutorial – learning tasks require a great deal of practice; trained tutors may be effective;
higher achieving tutors can offer extra explanations and practices to the underachieving
students
o Adaptive – teacher uses alternative instructional strategies and resources to meet the
learning needs of individual students for them to effectively master basic skills in academic
subjects; teaching materials that are within the students’ interest and learning level are best;
alternative evaluation methods, rather than paper and pencil tests.
o Basic skills – instruction focuses on the students’ acquisition of basic skills required in
certain subjects for them to be academically prepared for tertiary-level tasks.
o Learning strategies training - aims to help students become more effective and efficient
learners by teaching them thinking, learning, and self-management strategies.
REMEDIAL TEACHING STRATEGIES

 Individualized Education Program aims to reinforce the foundation of learning, help pupils
overcome their learning difficulties and develop their potentials.
 This includes short-term and long-term teaching objectives, learning steps, activities
and reviews to ensure that the programme is implemented effectively.
 can be done in small groups or for an individual.
 If necessary, remedial teachers, other teachers, student guidance officers/teachers,

parents and pupils alike are to participate in designing the programme.
 Remedial teachers hold meetings regularly to evaluate the effectiveness of work and
gather opinions for refinement.
 Peer Support Program - Remedial teachers may train pupils who perform better in a certain
subject to become ‘little teachers’
 They will be responsible for helping schoolmates with learning difficulties in group
teaching and self-study sessions as well as outside class.
 Peer support programme helps pupils reinforce their knowledge, and develop their
communication and cooperation skills as well as good interpersonal relationship.
 To enhance the effectiveness of the programme, remedial teachers must provide
training to the pupils concerned beforehand and make regular reviews on its
effectiveness.
 This is more suitable for pupils of higher grades.
 Reward Scheme - has positive effect in enhancing pupils’ motivation.
 aims at guiding pupils to set their own objectives and plans, and positively reinforcing
their good performance.
 No matter what reward is provided, the most important thing is to help pupils
cultivate an interest in learning and gain a sense of satisfaction and achievement
during the learning process
 Handling Pupils’ Behaviour Problems - Remedial teachers should observe the following when
dealing with the behaviour problems of pupils:
 always observe the performance of pupils in class and their behaviour in groups;
 establish close relationship with pupils, develop mutual trust and listen carefully to
what they say;
 help pupils understand the effect of their behaviour on the other as well as their own
selves;
 keep in close contact with parents to find out the cause of pupils’ behaviour problems;
 help pupils build up self-confidence and a healthy self-image;
 give positive reinforcement to pupils’ good behaviour, and do not pay undue attention
to their misbehaviour;
 do not try to change all the deviant behaviour of pupils at once. Teachers should list
out the problems and set the priorities with an aim to improve one or two of them at a
time;
 refer the cases to Student Guidance Officers/Teachers for follow-up action if the
behaviour problems of pupils continue or become serious.
A. Four Generic Instructional Model for teaching listening

 Listening and Repeating – students listen to how words are pronounced and they say
the word too
 Listening and answering comprehension questions – ask students to listen to an oral
text along a continuum of sentence length to lecture length then asking them to
answer questions regarding what they heard
 Task listening – ask students to listen to instruction and complete a task
 Interactive listening – two-way communication by means of individual or small group
discussion
B. Three Principles for Materials Development for developing listening comprehension activities
 Relevance – material should have relevance to the audience to sustain interest to
listen
 Transferability / applicability – material should be applicable and transferable to other
classes or similar lecture sessions
 Task orientation – should be usable for language use tasks and language analysis
activities
CUEING SYSTEMS
 Semantic (meaning): makes sense of text and relays meaningful connections
 Syntactic (structure): makes sense of the actual words in the sentence
 Graphophonic (Visual): breaks down words into letters, sounds, syllables, prefixes, etc.
Categories of graphic similarities
 high graphic similarity - two parts of a word are similar; or when part of the word
is also part of another word.
Ex: conflagration – confirmation

backward – backstab
superstition - superficial
 some graphic similarity - one of the three parts a word is visually similar to the
text printed word when broken into thirds.
Ex: inscription – prescription
participant – particular
condensation – constellate
 no graphic similarity - the word read does not have any common letters or
number of letters.
 Pragmatic: based on the reader’s background and the context of the reading, the reader has
certain expectations for the text.
Miscue Analysis - an observed response that does not match what the person listening to the reading
expects to hear (Goodman).
RETELLING requires readers to organize text information in order to provide a personal rendition of
it.
As a comprehension strategy, it:
 encourages readers to attend to the meaning of text
 reinforces knowledge of elements of story structure
 requires readers to distinguish between key ideas and supporting details
 encourages communication and oral language development
As assessment strategy, it:

 demonstrates what the student understands and remembers
 reveals what the student considers important
 indicates what students know about story structure and literary language
 Demonstrates the students’ vocabulary and oral language development
Types of Retelling
 aided: used to encourage students to expand on their unaided retelling
 unaided: allows the reader to tell whatever they remember
 specific: an in-depth retelling used by some teachers which can help evaluate the reader’s
comprehension and move very specifically into an instructional strategy.
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) - also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, a
condition that adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed or
interpreted by the brain.
 Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even
when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard.
 They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the
order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises.
Dyscalculia - affects a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn math facts.
 Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor comprehension of math symbols, may
struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have
trouble with counting.
Dysgraphia - affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.

 Problems may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on
paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the
same time.
Dyslexia- affects reading and related language-based processing skills.

 The severity can differ in each individual but can affect reading fluency, decoding, reading
comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can exist along with
other related disorders.
 sometimes referred to as a Language-Based Learning Disability.
Language Processing Disorder - A specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which
there is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and stories.
 While an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, a Language
Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language.
 LPD can affect expressive language and/or receptive language.
 A language disorder is an impairment that makes it hard for someone to find the right words
and form clear sentences when speaking.
 It can also make it difficult to understand what another person says.
 can either be acquired or developmental.
 An acquired language disorder, like aphasia, shows up only after the person has had a
neurological illness or injury.
Types:
 Receptive language issues involve difficulty understanding what others are saying.
 Expressive language issues involve difficulty expressing thoughts and ideas.
 Mixed receptive-expressive language issues involve difficulty understanding and using
spoken language.
Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities - a disorder usually characterized by a significant discrepancy

between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills.
 Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like
facial expressions or body language, and may have poor coordination.
Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit - affects the understanding of information that a person
sees, or the ability to draw or copy.
 A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal
LD
 can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently,
struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP)

 A branch of English Language Teaching (ELT) and referred to as applied ELT
 involves teaching and learning the specific skills and language needed by particular learners
for a particular purpose
 specifically professional purpose:
 a set of skills that learners currently need or will need in their professional careers
Absolute characteristics:
 defined to meet specific needs of learners
 makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
centered on the language appropriate for these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register,
study skills, discourse and genre
Variable characteristics:
 may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
 may use a different methodology from that of General English
 is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation; may also be used for secondary level students
 generally designed for intermediate or advanced students
Related Terms:
Academic writing: refers to the forms of expository and argumentative prose used by university
students, faculty, and researchers to convey a body of information about a particular subject;
- expected to be precise, semi-formal, impersonal, and objective.
Scientific writing: refers to writing about scientific subject matter, often in a non-technical manner
for an audience of non-scientists (a form of journalism or creative nonfiction).
- Also called popular science writing.
English for Occupational Purposes: refers to the specific ways English is used in different work
and professional situations.
Hedging: in academic writing means cautious writing

2017Rev / Page 10 of 46
Discourse analysis or the analysis of language: the study of the ways in which language is used
in texts and contexts, or texts' surrounding and defining discourse.
Genre analysis: a means of examining the context of spoken and written language.
Slang: very informal language; used by a particular group of people; usually used in speaking
rather than in writing.
Jargons: a type of shorthand between members of a particular group of people, often words that are
meaningless outside of a certain context
Read more at
Language used in hedging:
1. Introductory seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe,

verbs doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest
2. Certain lexical believe, assume, suggest

verbs
3. Certain modal will, must, would, may, might, could
verbs
4. Adverbs of often, sometimes, usually

frequency
4. Modal adverbs certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly,
perhaps, conceivably,
5. Modal certain, definite, clear, probable, possible

adjectives
6. Modal nouns assumption, possibility, probability
7. That clauses It could be the case that .
It might be suggested that .
There is every hope that .
8. To-clause + It may be possible to obtain .
adjective It is important to develop .
It is useful to study .
LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE) of DECS – governs the 4-year high school education
Active projects of Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE)
1. Adopt-a-school:
 Partnership between school and industry
 Maximize provisions of the resources to public schools
 2001: 1000 PCs were procured for 1000 facilities in 16 regions nationwide
 Provisions to train one teacher in each facility to use and implement technology
applications in learning
2. Balik-paaralan para sa Out-of-School Adults (BP-OSA)
 Back-to-school for Out-0f-school adults
 2001: 31 high schools serving some 1,381 adult students
3. Community Service and Public Safety Training (CS-PST)
 Tested in six private & public schools in the underserved regions of Central
Visayas and Southern Mindanao
 Further address the need for curriculum relevance
4. Government Assistance to Student and Teachers in Private Education (GASTPE)
 The Government through the Education Service Contracting (ESC) Scheme and
the Tuition Fee Supplement (TFS) entered into a contract with the private
schools in order to accommodate those who otherwise will not be able to avail of
free public secondary education.
2017Rev / Page 11 of 46
 As of January 15, 1999, the ESC has 374,918 student beneficiaries in 1,122
participating schools, while the TSF has 162,966 grantees in 638 participating
schools.
5. Home-partnership program (HPP)
 complements the existing school program in population education.
 objectives of the program are to enhance knowledge, attitudes and practices of
parents on PopEd related concerns and to empower them as teaching partners
of the school in educating their children and other community members.
6. Indigenized/ Localization of the Secondary Education Curriculum.
 focuses on the relevance of the curriculum to the local culture.
 took off with a national workshop on the development of curriculum
frameworks and sample lesson plans in eight (8) subject areas
7. Effective and Affordable Secondary Education (EASE)
 caters to students who cannot attend class regularly due to personal, economic
or financial reasons.
 intends to complement the existing formal system to make secondary education
more accessible to students in disadvantaged situation.
 by providing modules, an EASE student can enter into a contract with the
school to study at home for a period of time until became ready to return of
formal school system.
8. Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program (RHGP)
 addresses or guides the learner's need in making sound decisions that match
his/her aptitude and interests.
 now being institutionalized in secondary schools nationwide after a week-long
training of program implementers at the division and school levels.
9. School-based Education
 a departure from the conventional external evaluation that is commonly
administered to measure the performance of the school in general and the
learners in particular.
 Its advantage is that it is initiated, planned and implemented by the principal
and the teachers themselves.
 The program is being tried out in two (2) schools in Region I, but is limited to
the area of Mathematics.
10. Self-Instructional Packages (SIP) in the Social Reform Agenda (SRA)
Provinces
 provides instructional materials to prevent students from quitting schools due
to poverty or illness.
 provides students opportunities to make up for missed lessons and complete
their high school education.
11. Thinking Skills Development for Maximized Cognitive Performance (TSD-
MCP)
 A research and development program which aims to improve high school
students' cognitive skills through the purposeful teaching of thinking skills.
 It was previously tried out in six (6) schools.
Curriculum Development Division of BSE – coordinates and implements research projects

on curriculum changes and innovations
Staff Development Division – trains teachers, administrators and staff of the bureau
Population Education Unit – provides high school students a better grasp of population
related issues for them to make sound and responsible decisions
Manual of Information on Secondary Education of the Philippines (1993) was created
1. It specifies the mission, goals and functions
MISSION STATEMENT:
“to determine a complete, adequate and integrated system of education, both formal and
nonformal; to supervise and regulate appropriately all educational institutions; and to develop
and promote culture and sports in order to prepare the present and the next generation for life.”
2017Rev / Page 12 of 46
in short the mission statement has these 4 specific goals:

 Cover the areas of broad general education
 Train in middle level skills
 Development and improvement of quality of human life
 Respond to the changing needs and conditions of the nation
1983-1984 DECS launched:

 Program for Decentralized Education (PRODED)
1989 implementation of
 New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC)
 Major part of Secondary Education Development Program
 Replaced the 1973 Revised Secondary Education Program (RSEP)
 NSEC
 Major part of Secondary Education Development Program to bring PRODED
into the HS system
 To improve quality of graduates, and
 To expand access to quality education
 Brought forth a student-centered, community-oriented style of education
 Values education is incorporated
 4 years of secondary education is required
 Philippine secondary education is composed of academic and vocational
curricula
 The curriculum in 1989 introduced Filipino as the language of instruction for
all subject except Math and sciences
 1993 NSEC
 Mathematics curriculum was changed
 RSEP, PRODED, NSEC & SEDP

 Led to the Secondary Education Development and Improvement Project (SEDIP)
 SEDIP’s 3 main objectives:

 Increased rates of participation, completion and decentralization of
management and decision making at the provincial level
 Involves construction of new school buildings
 Improvement of school facilities
 Provision of textbooks, manuals and instructional aids
 extensive in-service training programs for teachers and administrators
 2010
 Introduction of the K to 12
 DepEd discussion paper: “K-12 seeks to provide a quality 12-year basic
education program that each Filipino is entitled to.”
 Not only to add 2 more years of education “but more importantly to enhance the
basic education curriculum.
 To be implemented in 2012-2013 for incoming grade 1 and grade 7
 Rationale
 Urgent need to enhance the quality of basic education as seen in the
education outcomes of Filipino students and the comparative
disadvantage of the Philippines with regard other countries
 Supporting data:
 The Philippines is the only country in Asia and among the three
remaining countries (Djibouti and Angola) in the world that uses a 10-
year basic education cycle.*
 Achievement scores highlight our students’ poor performance in national
examination (NAT)
 Results for G6 = 69.21%
 Results for HS = 46.38%
2017Rev / Page 13 of 46
 International test results in 2003 Trends in International Mathematics

and Science Study (TIMSS) = Phil. Ranked 34th out of 38 countries;
lowest rank in 2008
 Present curriculum is congested: students do not get enough time to
perform tasks; students graduate without the readiness to take upon
higher education or employment
 Students are not equipped with the basic skills or competencies needed
at work
 Those who are interested to work abroad are at a disadvantage
 Other countries see the 10-year program as incomplete
 K to 12 vision
 Holistically developed learners with 21st century skills (DepEd Primer, 2011)
 Complete human development of every graduate
 Address students’ basic learning needs:
 learning to learn
 Acquisition of numeracy, literacy and scientific and technological
knowledge as applied to daily life
Respect for human rights and to be “maka-Diyos, maka-tao, makabansa,
maka-kalikasan”
 Education Secretary Br. Armin A. Luistro:
 New curriculum is focused on the learners
 “We are making it a real learning experience for the students, meaning, it
will be less on memorization and more an encouraging of critical
thinking.”
 MTB-MLE will be used for instruction in Kinder to Grade 3
 Reduced class hours for grade 1
 First year high school: lessons will be more interactive and meaningful to
everyday life
 Science will be reflected in terms of its practical use
 Science will be integrated in all learning areas: Language, Math and
Health
 Prof. Lorina Calingasan
 Curriculum for social studies will center on historical thinking skills
rather than memory work and accumulation of facts. Ex:
 Weighing the evidence of any information, using primary source evidence,
analyzing and interpreting information, manifesting ethical standards
 Benefits to individuals (DepEd Primer 2011):
 A decongested academic workload, giving more time for the mastery of
competencies and for co-curricular activities and community involvement
 Graduates will possess competencies and skills relevant to the job
market and they will be prepared for higher education
 Affordable
 Potential annual earning of graduates will be higher
 Recognized abroad
 Benefits to society and economy (DepEd Primer 2011):
 Contribution to economic growth
 Facilitate the recognition of Filipino graduates and professionals in other
countries
 Provide a sound foundation for long-term socio-economic development
SYNTAX – the study of sentence patterns of a language. A language learner should have the ability
to construct phrases and sentences out of morphemes and words.
Syntactic Categories
 Parts of speech
 Word classification
 Open class: new items are often added to the class
* Nouns
* Verbs
* Adjectives
* adverbs
2017Rev / Page 14 of 46
 Closed class: new items are very rarely added; comprise only small
number of words
* Determiners
* Auxiliary verbs
* Pronouns
* Prepositions
* conjunctions
 Phrase structure
 Noun phrase: the arrogant agent, pleasant places, calm sea, an old dog
 Verb phrase: has been singing, will have left, is given
 Adverbial phrase: every morning, all day, next time
 Adjectival phrase: beautifully manicured; well-trimmed
 Prepositional phrase: to the end of never, with a scar; by bus
 Sentence patterns
 Subject – verb (S – V)
 Subject – verb – direct object (S – V – O)
 Subject – verb – indirect object – direct object (S – V – IO – O)
 Subject – verb – object – object complement (S –V – O – OC)
 Subject – linking verb – complement (S – LV – C)
 Sentence structure
 Simple
 Compound
 complex
 Compound-complex
Syntactical Categories
 Syntactic category – a set of words and/or phrases in a language which share a significant number of common
characteristics
 Lexical categories - syntactic category for elements that are part of the lexicon of a language. These elements
are at the word level. Ex. nouns, verbs, adjectives
 Functional categories – words that traditional grammar does not define.
Ex: determiners, auxiliaries/modals
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
 Adverbial particles are adverbs paired with verbs to form phrasal verbs or the two part idioms.
Ex: break down, put off, work out, give up
Source: http://www.englishpractice.com/grammar/adverb-particles/#hUZd91JxkuouT9gQ.99
 Copula – this refers to be verbs used to connect the subject with its complement, otherwise known as intensive
verb.
 Constituents – these are the parts that comprise something; in sentences these are the parts of sentences.
NOUN/PRONOUN CASE
 The genitive is the case (or function) of an inflected form of a noun or pronoun showing ownership,
measurement, association, or source.
 This is also called the possessive case.
Verbs
 Intransitive verbs – verbs that do not need objects
 Transitive verbs – verbs that require objects
 Ditransitive verbs – verbs that require both direct and indirect objects, like the verbs used with an object and an
object complement.
 Ambitransitive verbs – verbs that may either be transitive or intransitive
ADJECTIVES
2017Rev / Page 15 of 46
 Non-gradable adjectives are those with meanings which cannot be modified by adverbs.
◦ Ex: atomic, dead, potential, right, main, medical, fatal, second, third, supreme, unique
 Gradable adjectives are adjectives that can be modified by degrees.
Note: Other concepts are included in the Gen. Ed. English
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. Phatic. Pertains to the most basic of communication such as greeting another person or simply smiling
or waving the hand.
2. Factual. Refers to the exchange of facts like stating one’s name or place of residence.
3. Evaluative. Occurs later when people begin to appraise or gauge another person through his/her
speech, actions, manner of dressing, etc.
4. Gut. The pouring out of emotions or feelings.
5. Peak. Considered the highest level of communication because this where two or more people can have
the confidence to verbalize their needs and desires or even their anger and still maintain a relationship.
Inhibitions are put aside as one speaks of his/her personal needs expecting that it would be
reciprocated.
4 ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

 grammatical: mastery of the linguistic code, which includes vocabulary knowledge as well as
knowledge of morphological, syntactic, semantic, phonetic, and orthographic rules.
 sociolinguistic: knowledge and skills for appropriate language use in social context
 discourse: interactional competence
 strategic: ability to adapt his/her use of verbal and nonverbal language to compensate for
communication problems
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING
COMMUNICATIVE
MACRO SKILLS CUEING SYSTEMS
COMPETENCIES
LISTENING PHONOLOGY GRAMMATICAL
SPEAKING MORPHOLOGY DISCOURSE
READING SEMANTICS SOCIOLINGUISTIC
WRITING SYNTAX STRATEGIC
ON LANGUAGE LEARNING
 Dr. Jim Cummins is a professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of
Toronto where he works on language development and literacy development of learners of English as
an additional language.
 In 1979 Cummins coined the acronyms BICS and CALP to refer to processes that help a teacher to
qualify a student's language ability.
 Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) refers to the basic communicative fluency achieved
by all normal native speakers of a language. It is cognitively undemanding and contextual and is better
understood as the language used by students in informal settings, say, on a playground or cafe.
2017Rev / Page 16 of 46
 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) refers to the ability to manipulate language using
abstractions in a sophisticated manner. CALP is used while performing in an academic setting. CALP is
the ability to think in and use a language as a tool for learning.
 DELL HYMES a linguist, sociolinguist, anthropologist, and folklorist who established disciplinary foundations
for the comparative, ethnographic study of language use.
 SPEAKING or the SPEAKING model, (setting and scene, participants, ends, acts sequence, key,
instrumentalities, norms, & genre) a for model socio-linguistic study (represented as a mnemonic).
 a tool to assist the identification and labeling of components of interactional linguistics that was driven by his
view that, in order to speak a language correctly, one needs not only to learn its vocabulary and grammar, but
also the context in which words are used. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Hymes
SIX MAIN CATEGORIES OF 2nd Language (L2) LEARNING STRATEGIES
Six major groups of L2 learning strategies have been identified by Rebecca Oxford (1990). Alternative
taxonomies have been offered by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and others.
 Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways, e.g., through
reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop
stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and
sounds formally.
 Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style preferences and needs, planning for an L2
task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and
evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy) are employed for managing
the learning process overall.
 Memory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept with another but do not necessarily
involve deep understanding.
 Various memory-related strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g.,
acronyms), while other techniques create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental
picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the keyword
method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical means (e.g., flashcards), or location (e.g., on a
page or blackboard.
 Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading; using synonyms and
“talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for speaking, using gestures or pause
words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge.
 Affective strategies involves identifying one’s mood and anxiety level and talking about feelings, rewarding
one’s self for good performance or using deep feelings or positive self-talk
 Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking
for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and
social norms) help the learner work with others and understand the target culture as well as the language.
http://web.ntpu.edu.tw/~language/workshop/read2.pdf
PHONETICS
Classification of Sounds: vowels and consonants

Classification of Consonants: manner of articulation, place/point of articulation and voicing
Manner of articulation:
2017Rev / Page 17 of 46
Plosives: These are consonants that are made up by completely blocking the airflow. The production of
plosives involves three stages: 1) a direct contact between the active and the passive articulator forming a
complete obstruction to the airflow; 2) the compression of air behind the obstruction; and 3) the release of the
compressed air in the form of an “explosion” (hence the term plosive).
6 plosives in English: bilabial [p] and [b], alveolar [t] and [d], and velar [k] and [g]. Bilabial plosives
[p] and [b] are produced with both lips pressed together. The active articulator is the lower lip; the passive
articulator is the upper lip. The soft palate is raised and the air coming into the mouth stops for some time and
then breaks the obstruction with a slight explosion. In the case of [b], the vocal cords are vibrating:
Alveolar plosives [t] and [d] are produced with the tip of the tongue firmly pressed against the (middle
part of the) alveolar ridge. The active articulator is the tip of the tongue; the passive articulator is the alveolar
ridge. The tip of the tongue makes firm contact with the alveolar ridge. The air is trapped for a short time and
then breaks the obstruction with a slight explosion. In the case of [d], the vocal cords are vibrating.
Velar plosives [k] and [g] are articulated with the back of the tongue against the soft palate. The active
articulator is the back of the tongue; the passive articulator is the soft palate. The back of the tongue makes
firm contact with the soft palate. The air is trapped for a short time and then breaks the obstruction with a
slight explosion. In the case of [g], the vocal cords are vibrating.
Fricatives are consonants that are produced by impeding, but not completely blocking the airflow, i.e.,
there is a narrow gap between the active and the passive articulator along which the airflow can leave the oral
cavity. There are nine fricatives in English: labio-dental [f] and [v], interdental [θ] and [ð], alveolar [s] and [z],
palate-alveolar [ʃ] and [ʒ], and glottal [h].
Affricates are sounds that are similar to both plosives and fricatives: The tip of the tongue touches the
back part of the teeth ridge, the front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. The air is trapped for
a short time because of a complete obstruction between the tip of the tongue and the teeth ridge, then the
obstruction is released slowly and the friction is heard. The voiceless affricate is [tʃ] as in chain, whereas [dʒ],
as in jelly, is voiced.
Nasals are consonants which, like plosives, are produced by completely blocking the airstream. But
there is an important difference: The airflow escapes through the nasal cavity (hence the term nasals). There
are three nasal consonants in English: bilabial [m], alveolar [n], and velar [ŋ]:
Liquids include alveolar [l] and post-alveolar [r].
Semi-glides or glides include bilabial [w] and palatal [j]: [w], as in why, starts out with the lips firmly
rounded, these articulators then moving away (= gliding) from the narrowing in the mouth.
Classification of Vowels:
A. Depending on the height of the tongue, vowels can be classified into high, low, and mid vowels:
1) When the front or the back of the tongue is raised towards the roof of the mouth, the vowel is called
high, this is the case, e.g., in pill, meet, look, or soon.
2) When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible, the vowel is called low, as, e.g., in
land, star, or dog.
3) When the tongue occupies the position intermediate between the high and the low one, the vowel is
called mid, e.g. in get, or the unstressed [ə] in about.
B. Depending on the part of the tongue that is raised most vowels are classified into front, back, and central
vowels:
1) When the front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, the vowel is called front, e.g. in
meet, get, or land.
2017Rev / Page 18 of 46
2) When the back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, the vowel is called back, as in star,
dog, law, or soon.
3) When the front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate, the vowel is
called central, e.g. in about, much, or nurse.
Point of Articulation
1. Bilabial – 2 lips touching each other (p, b)
2. Labio-dental – lower lip touching the upper teeth
3. Dental – tip of tongue and the inner edge of the upper teeth
4. Alveolar – tip of tongue and the alveolar ridge
5. Palatal- the tongue and hard palate
6. Velar – dorsal tongue and soft palate
7. Glottal – throat passage
Supra-segmentals:
 Juncture – pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse
 Pitch – highness or lowness of sound
 Volume – loudness or softness of sound
 Intonation – rising and falling of sound
 Stress – the placement of emphasis or force on a certain syllable in a word
ON LISTENING
Kinds of Listening
* Interactional / empathic listening - informal setting
Purposes:
* Accomplish tasks
* Air & Listen to grievances
* Catch of on personal concerns
* Transactional / critical listening

Purposes:
* acquire new knowledge
* improve critical thinking and decisions making
Modes of Listening
* Unidirectional – the hearer is unable to interact with the speaker
* Bidirectional -
* Autodirectional
(Joan Morely, “Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices”)
2017Rev / Page 19 of 46
The Listening Process
receiving attending understanding responding remembering
Factors that Determine Attention

1. Selectivity of attention – people tend to select what they want to listen to
2. Strength of attention – strength of attention will only be given to something that one is interested in
3. Sustainment of attention - the mind can only pay attention for as long as the body is willing
2 Barriers that obstruct Verbal Symbols

1. Same words may mean different things to people
2. Different words may mean the same things to people
3 Barriers that obstruct Non-verbal Symbols

1. Misinterpretation of actions
2. Misinterpretation of Non-action symbols, like the way a person dresses or the tattoos one has.
3. Misinterpretation of tone of voice
4 Types of responses
1. Direct verbal response
2. Responses that seek clarification
3. Responses that paraphrase
4. Non-verbal responses
MEMORY is NECESSARY and an INTEGRAL PART of the listening process.

- Information heard may be stored either in the short term or the long term memory.
- The short term memory has rapid forgetting rate
- The long term memory retains important information which are retrievable any time given the right
stimulus.
ON READING
6 General Component Skills & Knowledge Areas
 automatic recognition skills (involuntary)
 vocabulary structural knowledge
 formal discourse knowledge (organization & genre)
 content background knowledge (schema cultural information)
 synthesis and evaluation (comparison)
 metacognitive knowledge (reason & logic)
Annie Ediger, “Teaching Children Literary Skills in Second Language”
5 Skills of Chall
 phonetic Awareness (sounds)
2017Rev / Page 20 of 46
 phonics (symbol & sound)

 fluency (blend & mix sounds)
 vocabulary (meaning)
 comprehension (decode)
Jean Chall, Reading Expert
Stages of Reading Development

Stage 1 - Emergent Reader (2-4 years old)
 Knows less than half the alphabet
 Has no concept of word
 Has little phonemic awareness
 Recognizes a few sight words
Stage 2 – Beginning Reader (4-6 years old)
 Start development of print-related understandings
 Recognition and Production of at least three quarters of the alphabet
 Understand concept of word
 Ability to “one to one” match or track print
 Begin attending to initial sounds in words
 Recognizes at least 10 sight words
Stage 3 – Confirmation & Fluency (7-8 years old)
 read simple stories with increasing fluency
 learn to consolidate decoding, sight vocabulary & meaning
 needs direct instruction in advanced decoding skills
 needs to be read to at levels above their own (language, vocabulary and concepts development)
 about 3,000 words can be read
 9,000 or more words in listening vocabulary
 listening is still more effective than reading
Stage 4 – Reading for Learning (9-13 years old)

 may be responsible for reading independently (learn new ideas, gain new knowledge, experience new
feelings and attitudes)
 will be reading/studying textbooks, reference books, trade books, newspapers, magazines
 exposure to unfamiliar vocabulary and syntax
 systematic study of words
 react to text through discussions and writing
 read more complex fiction, non-fiction, etc.
Stage 5 – Multiple Viewpoints (15-17 years old)
 reading widely from a broad range of complex materials - expository and narrative
 able to deal with multiple viewpoints
 systematic study of words and word parts
 formal and creative writing
 reading comprehension is better than listening comprehension of difficult material
 for poorer readers listening comprehension may be equal to reading
Stage 6 – Construction and Reconstruction (18+ years old)
 used for one's own needs and purposes
 serves to integrate one's knowledge with that of others to synthesize and create new knowledge
2017Rev / Page 21 of 46
 rapid and efficient reader

 wide reading (more difficult materials)
 needs to be writing papers, tests, essays that call for integration of varied knowledge and points of
view
 reading is more efficient than listening
Levels of Comprehension
- LITERAL. Recalling facts, identifying the main idea, the supporting details, categorizing, outlining and
summarizing
- INTERPRETIVE or INFERENTIAL. Reading between the lines, make inferences, interpret figurative language,
draw conclusions, predict outcomes, determining the mood and author’s point of view.
- CRITICAL or EVALUATIVE level. Use of some external criteria from his/her own experience in order to
evaluate the quality, values of the writing, author’s reading and arrive at generalizations.
- Applied. Believed to be the highest level of comprehension; pertains to the ability of the reader to make use of new
information in another context or apply the same in real life situations.
ON STYLISTICS
 Rhetoric - the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech
and other compositional techniques.
 Stylistics - the study of the distinctive styles found in particular literary genres and in the works of
individual writers.
 Lexical stylistics studies the functions of direct and figurative meanings including the way contextual
meaning of words in a recognized text. It deals with various types of connotations: expressive,
evaluative, emotive, etc.
 Grammatical stylistics is subdivided into morphological and syntactical stylistics
 Morphological stylistics considers the potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech,
also the potential of the number of pronouns
 Syntactical stylistics studies syntactic, expressive means, word order combinations, different types of
sentences and types of syntactic connections.
 Functional stylistics deals with all subdivisions of the language and its possible use (newspaper,
colloquial style) https://www.google.com.ph/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=54KvV_zlBcKvmQWq-
4j4Cg#q=morphological+stylistics
Figurative Language
 Litotes is an ironical understatement in which an affirmative is expressed in the negative of its contrary.
Ex: You will not be sorry.
The ice cream was not too bad.
New York is not an ordinary city.
Your comments on politics are not useless.
 Metonymy - the substitution of the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant, for
example suit for business executive, or the track for horse racing.
 Synecdoche – refers to a thing by the name of its parts.
 Allusion – an indirect or passing reference to a person, a place or something that already happened.
 Epiphany – is a sudden striking realization
 Flashback - a sudden and disturbing vivid memory of an event in the past, typically as the result of
psychological trauma
Six Main Categories of L2 Learning Strategies Six major groups of L2 learning strategies have been identified
by Oxford (1990). Alternative taxonomies have been offered by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and others.
- Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways, e.g., through
reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop
stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds
formally.
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- Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style preferences and needs, planning for an L2
task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and
evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the
learning process overall.
- Memory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept with another but do not necessarily
involve deep understanding. Various memory-related strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in
an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), while other techniques create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming),
images (e.g., a mental picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images
(e.g., the keyword method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical means (e.g., flashcards), or
location (e.g., on a page or blackboard)
- Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading; using synonyms and “talking
around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for speaking, using gestures or pause words)
help the learner make up for missing knowledge.
- Affective strategies involves identifying one’s mood and anxiety level and talking about feelings, rewarding one’s
self for good performance or using deep feelings or positive self-talk
- Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for
help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and
social norms) help the learner work with others and understand the target culture as well as the language.
ON LITERATURE
French Literature
o One of the greatest literatures of all time
o Focused on national pride and national identity
TIMELINE:
Middle Ages (11th Century)
- epics and poems emerged
- Chanson de Geste
- Chanson of Roland
- a master piece among the 80 chansons; about the death of Charlemagne’s nephew, Roland; written in
verse in Roman tongue; read aloud before Aristocratic audience; about heroism
- Steeped in the Celtic Mythology of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales
- Lais became famous
- Lyrical, narrative poem; Octosyllabic couplets; tales of adventure and Romance
- Marie de France, most famour writer of Lais
- Tristan and Iseult
- Love that is as strong as death; basis of Tristan and Isolde by Richard Wagner
- Predates Arthurian romance of Lancelot and Guinevere
- Roman de la Rose
- Single most significant medieval poem
- First part: written by Guillaume de Lorris (1230)
- 2nd part: written 40 years later by Jean de Meung
- Fabliaux became famous
- Short, narratives; simple, earthy and bantering
Middle Ages (15th Century)

- fables
- Reynard the Fox
- Most celebrated fable
- Testament (1461)
- Francois Villion
- Greatest poet of late medieval period
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- A thief, a murderer, prison inmate
French Renaissance (16th Century)

- Michael Montaigne
- Humanist; created “essay”
- Pierre de Ronsard
- Prince of Renaissance poets
- Francois Rabelais (1494-1553)
- Pioneered rebirth – Gargantua and Pantagruel (comic and satiric story)
- He revived literature and thought of antiquity by the translation of ancient text
- Development of precise critical methods was initiated
- He forged humanism
- John Calvin – pioneered protestanism
Classicism (17th Century)

- Golden age; reign of Louis XIV
- Reinforcement of royalty and Catholic Church
- Cardinal Richelieu (1635)

- Founded “Academie Francaise”
- For language regulation and literary expression
- Division between baroque & classicism
- Baroque a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail
to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture,
literature, dance, theater, and music.
- Nicholas Boileau-Despereaux
- Founded literary criticism, codified components of French Classicism
- Art of Poetry” (1674): outstanding literary values
- reason, proportion, harmony
- Novels were long, diffused, filled with improbable adventures
- 2 great dramatists:
- Pierre Cornellie: The Cid (1637)
- Conflict between duty and passion
- Unity of time, place and action
- Jean Racine: Andromache (1667), Phaedra (1677)
- Simpler style; Realistic characters; followed plot structures
Enlightenment (18th Century)
- Spirit of scientific inquiry
- French monarchy declined in authority
- Pierre Bayle
- “Dictionnaire Historique et Critique” (1704)
- Advocate of religious toleration
- Voltaire
- “Dictionnaire Philosophique (1764)
- Tragedies in classical mode, works of history, light verse
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- Charles de Montesquieu
- “The Spirit of the Laws” (1748)
- Adopted method of comparative analysis
- Jean Jacques Rousseau
- “The Social Contract” (1762)
- Asserted the idea of the collective sovereignty of the people
19th Century
- Transition and triumph of the Romantic Movement
- Poetry regained strength
- Novels dominated – suitability in registering social upheavals
- Most themes: conflicts between reactionaries and liberals
- Vicomte de Chateaubriand wrote a novel defending the Catholic Church “Beauties of Christianity”
(1802)
- Alphonse de Lamartine
- Brought back French poetry to lyric roots “Meditations Poetiques” (1820)
- Theophile Gautier
- First break in Romanticism; credo “Art for Art’s Sake”
- Charles Baudelaire “The Flowers of Evil” (1857)
- Madame George Sand
- Exemplified romanticism in its most individualistic sense
- Marie-Henri Beyle ‘Stendhal’ – “Le Rouge et le Noir” (The Red and the Black, 1830)
- Injected dominant role of passion in romantic novels
- Victor Hugo, “The Hunchback of Notre Dame” (1831)
- Honore de Balzac introduced Realism; latter part of the century, “Human Comedy” (1842)
- Gustave Flaubert, “Madame Bovary” (1857)
- Guy de Maupassant, short stories characterized by irony and reality
20th Century
- Expansion in literary works
- Most works were influenced by Marxism and Freudianism
- Symbolisms continued to inspire
- Guillaume Apollinaire
- Coined “Surrealist”
- Aims to revolutionize poetry through exploration of subconscious
- Jean Paul Sartre
- Existentialist movement in France
- Human beings have the right to choose and forge one’s own values
French Masters:
Jean Racine (1639 – 1699), Jean-Baptiste Racine
o French dramatic poet and historiographer renowned for his mastery of French classical tragedy.
o the plays he wrote between 1664 and 1691
o Andromache (first performed 1667, published 1668),
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o Britannicus (first performed 1669, published 1670),

o Bérénice (first performed 1670, published 1671),
o Bajazet (first performed and published 1672),
o Phèdre (first performed and published 1677),
o Athalie (first performed and published 1691).
Emile Zola (1840 – 1902)

o French novelist, critic, and political activist
o most prominent French novelist of the late 19th century.
o noted for his theories of naturalism, which underlie his monumental 20-novel series Les Rougon-Macquart, and
for his intervention in the Dreyfus Affair through his famous open letter, “J’accuse.”
Victor Hugo (1802 – 1885)
o in full Victor-Marie Hugo
o poet, novelist, and dramatist
o most important of the French Romantic writers.
o he is better known abroad for such novels as Notre-Dame de Paris (1831)
o Les Misérables (1862).
Jean Paul Sartre (1905 – 1980)
o Began Existentialist movement in France; existential principle: human beings have the right to choose and
forge one’s own values
o French novelist, playwright, and exponent of Existentialism- a philosophy acclaiming the freedom of
the individual human being.
o awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964, but he declined it.
Italian Masters:
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
o The Divine Comedy
• The greatest poem of the middle ages
• Reflection of the 13th century society
Petrarch (1304-1374)
o Wrote sonnets and songs
o Injected deep emotional commitment and technical mastery
o Forerunner of humanism and focused on deeper appreciation of the classics
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Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375)

o Decameron
 Collection of novelas; contains 100 tales on various tales of love - erotic to tragic
 Tales of wit, practical jokes and life lessons
o Italian counterpart of Chaucer
Niccolo Machiavelli (1313-1375) – wrote “The Prince”

 A unique political work; 26 chapters divided into four sections
 Chapters 1-11: the different types of principalities or states,
 Chapters 12-14: the different types of armies and the proper conduct of a prince as
military leader,
 Chapters 15-23: the character and behavior of the prince,
 Chapters 24-26: Italy's desperate political situation
GREEK LITERATURE
o Produced the earliest literature
o Pioneers of all western literature (prose & poetry)
o Became basis of other literatures in Europe
Archaic Period (8th – 6th BC)

 Began with epics of Homer: “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey”
Solon wrote his great personal and political poems
 appear 'self-righteous' and 'pompous' at times.
Pindar (Thebes)
 One of the most famous figures
 Wrote odes
 articulates a passionate faith in what men can achieve by the grace of the gods
 Ancient Greek lyric poet
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 Quintilian wrote, "Of the nine lyric poets, Pindar is by far the greatest, in virtue of his inspired magnificence, the
beauty of his thoughts and figures, the rich exuberance of his language and matter, and his rolling flood of
eloquence, characteristics which, as Horace rightly held, make him inimitable."
Classical (5th - 4th BC)

Golden Age (Athens)
 Important literary genre: Tragic Drama
 Tragedians: Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles
 Comedy play writer: Aristophanes
Herodotus: History of Persian War, chronicling Athen’s triumph
Xenophon: focused on history and philosophy
Plato, Socrates’ student, Aristotle’s teacher; founded The Academy
Aristotle - founded The Lyceum
Hellenistic Period (3rd – 2nd BC)

 Alexander’s death (323BCE): paved way for a new literary age
 The Museum was founded: shrine of the muses
 Writers focused on personal aspects of life rather than panoramic views
 Themes: attainment of happiness and living rightly
 Greek writers: Polybus (historian), Plutarch (biographer), Lucian (Satirist), Longus (Prose), Plotinus
(Neoplatonism)
GERMAN LITERATURE
o Embraced not only literary works from Germany but also from Austria and German-speaking parts of
Switzerland
o Writers injected foreign concepts
o Emerged only before the 17th century
Early and Medieval Period (100-1050)
o Conflict between heroic tradition of Germanic tribe (honor, valor, and fate) and the Christian gospel (humility,
renunciation and love)
o The Song of Hildebrand (800)
o Alliterative verse fragment
o Emphasized fate, thus pagan
o Heliand (830)- Christian counterpart of Hildebrand; epic poem about the life of Christ
o Monasteries: centers of culture
o Old high German was replaced by Latin
o “Evangelienbuch” (870) by Otfried von Weissenburg
o Selective paraphrase of the Gospels
o Interposed by short commentaries
o Classical hexameter was introduced through “Walter of Aquitane” (930)
o “Ecbasis Captivi” (940) very first fable in Germany
1050 - 1300
 German literature reached its golden age (1180 – 1220)
 Secular culture became the concern of the knights who celebrated courtly love
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 Walther Voon Der Vogelweide became very famous

 Overcame literary convention by expressing powerful emotions of love
 “Henry the Leper” by Hartmann Von Aue (1195)
 “Nibelungenlied” (1200) the greatest German Epic
Late Middle Ages (1300)
 Knighthood declined and paved with to the rise of city burghers
 Dramas – parodies
 Satires – course humour
 Popular literature flourished
 Chapbooks were widely read
 Faust legend became very popular - Dr. Faustus; necromancer or astrologer
 Martin Luther - translated Bible to German
17th century
 characterized by German belief: German is superior to other languages
 tenets of Neoclassicism (1624) by Martin Opitz
 2 types of drama
 modelled from Seneca (Latin philosopher, statesman, dramatist)
 made by Jesuits
 Sonnets and alexandrine verse were preferred
 alexandrine verse – 12-syllable line
18th – 19th Century
 two opposing movements:
 French classicist & influences of Religious epics
 Gotthold Lessing: tragic experience
 courtly tragedies to bourgeois drama
 “Minna Von Barnhelm (1767), best German comedy
 Sturm and Drang movement (1770-1785)
 characterized by the praising of original genius & demanding a poetry of strong
emotions
 founded by Johann Gottfried
 Romantic movement started (1800)
 aimed to present passion regardless of traditional forms
20th Century
 Stefan George, Rainer Maria Rilke, Hugo Von Hofmannsthal (1900)
 symbolism as reaction to naturalism
 Expressionism became very active as a literary movement
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
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o Conversion to Christianity paved way to the dawn of Russian literature (early 10th century)
o Kiev, most important city: Kievan period
o Old church Slavonic (composing literary pieces)
o Biblical and Liturgical texts
o Some romances from Greece
Muscovite Period
 Princes of Russia ruled as Tartar Vassals
 Moscow ascended as Russia’s most important city
 literature remained religious, historical and didactic
 most themes focused on lives of the saints and some chronicles
18th Century
 led by Tsar Peter the Great
 under the influence of the Western Europe literatures
 Russian writers endeavoured to equal literatures of neighbouring countries
 “On the Detractors of Learning” (1729) by Antioch Kantemir; written in the vernacular
19th Century
Aleksandr Pushkin, poet

 “Eugene Onegin” (1823), verse novel
 Nikolai Gogol
 realism as reaction to romanticism
 Realism became very famous, mid 19th Century
 focused on the urge to explore human condition in the spirit of serious enquiry
RUSSIAN MASTERS
Aleksandr Pushkin (1799-1837)
o First poet to emerge in the 19th century
o Playwright, novelist of Romantic era
o Founder of modern Russian literature
Nikolai Gogol (1809-1852)
o Introduced realism
o Humourist, dramatist, novelist
o novel Myortvye dushi (Dead Souls) and short story “Shinel” (“The Overcoat”), considered the
foundations of the great 19th-century tradition of Russian realism.
Ivan Turgenev (1818-1883)
o playwright, poet, novelist
o Works include: short-story collection A Sportsman’s Sketches (1852) and the novels Rudin (1856), Home
of the Gentry (1859), On the Eve (1860), and Fathers and Sons (1862)
o offer realistic, affectionate portrayals of the Russian peasantry
Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881)
o Novelist, short story writer
o Finest novelist
o psychological penetration into the darkest recesses of the human heart, together with his unsurpassed moments of
illumination, had an immense influence on 20th-century fiction
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o 4 long novels: Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Possessed and The Brothers Karamazov
o Famous for psychological profundity
Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
o “War and Peace” (1865-69) “Anna Karenina” (1875-77) – among the finest novels ever written
o “War and Peace” virtually defines the novel for many critics
o a master of realistic fiction and one of the world’s greatest novelists.
o Novel by Tolstoy is not a work of art but a piece of life
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leo-Tolstoy
Anton Chekhov (1860-1904)
o playwright and master of the modern short story
o literary artist of laconic precision
o probed below the surface of life,
o Laid bare the secret motives of his characters
o best plays and short stories lack complex plots and neat solutions
AMERICAN LITERATURE
o Known for its diverseness and uniqueness
o 3 periods: Puritan, Revolutionary, Modern
o Puritan: people believed that emigration was part of God’s plan
o Revolutionary: Americans decided to form and establish national identity through literature
o Followed western movements: Idealism, Romanticism, Naturalism
Colonial Literature
o Influenced by Calvinistic doctrine
o Most works – about triumph of some individuals “New World”
First Generation Settlers
o Most common literary types: sermons, religious tracts, diaries and histories of adventures
o Puritan writers emphasized religious and didactic themes
o “Bay Psalm Book” (1640) – psalm book translated in English
o Benjamin Franklin: “Poor Richard’s Almanac” (1732)
o American printer and publisher, author, inventor and scientist, and diplomat.
o One of the foremost of the Founding Fathers
o helped draft the Declaration of Independence and was one of its signers,
o represented the United States in France during the American Revolution,
o remembered for the wit, wisdom, and elegance of his writing.
Revolutionary Literature:
o Early stages still influenced by the Puritans
o Latter part – outpour of patriotic verses; satirical attacks against the loyalists
o Commonly about the coming greatness of America
Thomas Jefferson, - “Declaration of Independence” (1767-1788)

o 3rd president (1801-1809; advocated total separation of church and state; most distinguished “apostle of liberty”
American Renaissance (1830 – 1850)
o American Romantic Movement
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o Transcendentalism, a common theme

o James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851)
o “The Last of the Mohicans” (1757); historical novel; set in French and Indian war
o Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1802-1887), most popular American poet
o “Haiwatha” (1855)
o “The Psalm of Life” (1839)
o Walt Whitman (1819-1892)
o “Leaves of Grass” (1855)
o Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)
o Unconventional poems about death, eternity and the inner life
o Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)
o “The Scarlet Letter” (1850)
o Herman Melville (1819-1891)
o Moby Dick (1851)
o Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-1896)
o “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” (1852)
Post-Civil War Literature
o Dawn of Realism to advent of naturalism
Writers:
o Mark Twain, “Tom Sawyer” (1876)
o First modern novel “Huckleberry Finn” (1884)
o Henry James, psychological realism
o “The Portrait of a Lady” (1881)
o T.S. Eliot, “The Waste Land” (1922)
o Advocated Imagism with Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams
Post-Civil War I Literature

o Characterized by disillusionment
Writers
o William Faulkner, “The Sound and The Fury” (1929)
o Ernest Hemingway, “Farewell to Arms” (1929)
o F. Scott Fitzgerald, “The Great Gatsby” (1925)
o Sinclair Lewis, “Babbit” (1922)
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Anglo-Saxon Period
Influences by 2 opposing forces – Christianity & Paganism
o
Christianity - introduced by Irish missionaries
o
Beowulf – 1st Egnlish epic
o
Elegy: Widsith – (7th century) oldest elegy
o
o Recounts the travel of a scop, who recited heroic verses to a lord
o Characterized by regular stress, free rhythm and unrhymed lines
Anglo-Norman Period
o Started when the Norman declared victory (1066)
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o Geoffrey Monmouth – wrote stories about kings of Britain

o Didactic writing and miracle plays flourished
Geoffrey Chaucer
o Father of English Literature; determined future course of English poetry
o Canterbury Tales (1478)
Sir Thomas Malory
o Le Morte D’Arthur (dawn of 16th C)
Elizabethan Age (1500 -1600)
o Reign of Henry’s Daughter, Elizabeth I
o Drama – chief genre of literature
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)
o Inspiration of Shakespeare; Doctor Faustus, his masterpiece
The Romantic Movement
o William Wordsworth, Lyrical ballads helped launch romantic movement
o Lord Byron, “Don Juan”
o Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Kubla Khan
o Percy Bysshe Shelley, Cenci (1819), ecstatic and visionary
o John Keats, “Endymion” (1818)
Famous Romantic Novelists
o Sir Walter Scott (1771 – 1832),
o Jane Austen, “Sense and Sensibility” (1811), Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park (1814),
Persuasion (1818)
Victorian Period
o largely characterized by the struggle of working people and the triumph of right over wrong.
Famous Victorian Novelists
o William Makepeace Thackeray
o Charles Dickens: Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, Great Expectations
o Bronte sisters
o Mary Ann Evans, a.k.a George Elliot
LITERARY MOVEMENTS
Idealism
o The mind constitutes the fundamental reality
o Reality is not what it is
o Objective idealist – common sense realism: material things exist
o Subjective idealist – material things exist independently of human perception
Romanticism
o Brought change in style and concepts about literature
o Focuses on imagination
o Concept of beauty equals goodness
Cardinal Features of Romanticism

o Irrationalism
o Exaltation of the creative
o Religious fervour
o Fascination with the mysterious and the inaccessible
o Exuberant outpouring of personal feeling
o Empathy with nature
o Abundance of imagery
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o Rebellion against traditional norms

Realism
o Reaction against romanticism
o Give accurate portrayal of life as it is
o Embodiment of change of views about the universe
Naturalism
o Result of realism
o Transformed realism to the extremes that focused on the grosser aspects of human behaviour
o “Late nature take its course,” tenet
o Humans are helpless against some forces that are beyond dtheir control
Existentialism
o Focused on importance of choice
o Human freedom and personal responsibility
o Believe in the power of human will and choice
Transcendentalism
o Belief in the divinity of human king
o Emphasized importance of one’s moral insight
o Started in America, flourished in the mid 30s
CRITICAL APPROACHES TO LITERATURE

Described below are nine common critical approaches to the literature. Quotations are from X.J. Kennedy and Dana
Gioia’s Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, Sixth Edition (New York: HarperCollins, 1995),
pages 1790-1818.
 Formalist Criticism: (New Criticism) This approach regards literature as “a unique form of human knowledge
that needs to be examined on its own terms.” All the elements necessary for understanding the work are contained
within the work itself. Of particular interest to the formalist critic are the elements of form—style, structure,
tone, imagery, etc.—that are found within the text. A primary goal for formalist critics is to determine how such
elements work together with the text’s content to shape its effects upon readers.
 Biographical Criticism: This approach “begins with the simple but central insight that literature is written by
actual people and that understanding an author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.”
Hence, it often affords a practical method by which readers can better understand a text. However, a biographical
critic must be careful not to take the biographical facts of a writer’s life too far in criticizing the works of that
writer: the biographical critic “focuses on explicating the literary work by using the insight provided by
knowledge of the author’s life.... [B]iographical data should amplify the meaning of the text, not drown it out with
irrelevant material.”
 Historical Criticism: This approach “seeks to understand a literary work by investigating the social, cultural,
and intellectual context that produced it—a context that necessarily includes the artist’s biography and milieu.”
A key goal for historical critics is to understand the effect of a literary work upon its original readers.
 Gender Criticism: This approach “examines how sexual identity influences the creation and reception of literary
works.” Originally an offshoot of feminist movements, gender criticism today includes a number of approaches,
including the so-called “masculinist” approach recently advocated by poet Robert Bly. The bulk of gender
criticism, however, is feminist and takes as a central precept that the patriarchal attitudes that have dominated
western thought have resulted, consciously or unconsciously, in literature “full of unexamined ‘male-produced’
assumptions.” Feminist criticism attempts to correct this imbalance by analyzing and combatting such
attitudes—by questioning, for example, why none of the characters in Shakespeare’s play Othello ever challenge
the right of a husband to murder a wife accused of adultery. Other goals of feminist critics include “analyzing
how sexual identity influences the reader of a text” and “examin[ing] how the images of men and women in
imaginative literature reflect or reject the social forces that have historically kept the sexes from achieving total
equality.”
 Psychological Criticism: This approach reflects the effect that modern psychology has had upon both literature
and literary criticism. Fundamental figures in psychological criticism include Sigmund Freud, whose
“psychoanalytic theories changed our notions of human behavior by exploring new or controversial areas like
wish-fulfillment, sexuality, the unconscious, and repression” as well as expanding our understanding of how
“language and symbols operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears or desires”; and Carl
Jung, whose theories about the unconscious are also a key foundation of Mythological Criticism. Psychological
criticism has a number of approaches, but in general, it usually employs one (or more) of three approaches:
2017Rev / Page 34 of 46
1. An investigation of “the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of literary genius and how does
it relate to normal mental functions?”
2. The psychological study of a particular artist, usually noting how an author’s biographical circumstances
affect or influence their motivations and/or behavior.
3. The analysis of fictional characters using the language and methods of psychology.
 Sociological Criticism: This approach “examines literature in the cultural, economic and political context in
which it is written or received,” exploring the relationships between the artist and society. Sometimes it examines
the artist’s society to better understand the author’s literary works; other times, it may examine the representation
of such societal elements within the literature itself. One influential type of sociological criticism is Marxist
criticism, which focuses on the economic and political elements of art, often emphasizing the ideological content
of literature; because Marxist criticism often argues that all art is political, either challenging or endorsing (by
silence) the status quo, it is frequently evaluative and judgmental, a tendency that “can lead to reductive
judgment, as when Soviet critics rated Jack London better than William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Edith
Wharton, and Henry James, because he illustrated the principles of class struggle more clearly.” Nonetheless,
Marxist criticism “can illuminate political and economic dimensions of literature other approaches overlook.”
 Mythological Criticism: This approach emphasizes “the recurrent universal patterns underlying most literary
works.” Combining the insights from anthropology, psychology, history, and comparative religion, mythological
criticism “explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the individual imagination uses myths and
symbols common to different cultures and epochs.” One key concept in mythlogical criticism is the archetype, “a
symbol, character, situation, or image that evokes a deep universal response,” which entered literary criticism
from Swiss psychologist Carl Jung. According to Jung, all individuals share a “‘collective unconscious,’ a set of
primal memories common to the human race, existing below each person’s conscious mind”—often deriving from
primordial phenomena such as the sun, moon, fire, night, and blood, archetypes according to Jung “trigger the
collective unconscious.” Another critic, Northrop Frye, defined archetypes in a more limited way as “a symbol,
usually an image, which recurs often enough in literature to be recognizable as an element of one’s literary
experience as a whole.” Regardless of the definition of archetype they use, mythological critics tend to view
literary works in the broader context of works sharing a similar pattern.
 Reader-Response Criticism: This approach takes as a fundamental tenet that “literature” exists not as an
artifact upon a printed page but as a transaction between the physical text and the mind of a reader. It attempts
“to describe what happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text” and reflects that reading, like writing,
is a creative process. According to reader-response critics, literary texts do not “contain” a meaning; meanings
derive only from the act of individual readings. Hence, two different readers may derive completely different
interpretations of the same literary text; likewise, a reader who re-reads a work years later may find the work
shockingly different. Reader-response criticism, then, emphasizes how “religious, cultural, and social values affect
readings; it also overlaps with gender criticism in exploring how men and women read the same text with
different assumptions.” Though this approach rejects the notion that a single “correct” reading exists for a
literary work, it does not consider all readings permissible: “Each text creates limits to its possible
interpretations.”
 Deconstructionist Criticism: This approach “rejects the traditional assumption that language can accurately
represent reality.” Deconstructionist critics regard language as a fundamentally unstable medium—the words
“tree” or “dog,” for instance, undoubtedly conjure up different mental images for different people—and therefore,
because literature is made up of words, literature possesses no fixed, single meaning. According to critic Paul de
Man, deconstructionists insist on “the impossibility of making the actual expression coincide with what has to be
expressed, of making the actual signs [i.e., words] coincide with what is signified.” As a result, deconstructionist
critics tend to emphasize not what is being said but how language is used in a text. The methods of this approach
tend to resemble those of formalist criticism, but whereas formalists’ primary goal is to locate unity within a
text, “how the diverse elements of a text cohere into meaning,” deconstructionists try to show how the text
“deconstructs,” “how it can be broken down ... into mutually irreconcilable positions.” Other goals of
deconstructionists include (1) challenging the notion of authors’ “ownership” of texts they create (and their
ability to control the meaning of their texts) and (2) focusing on how language is used to achieve power, as when
they try to understand how a some interpretations of a literary work come to be regarded as “truth.”
AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
JAPANESE LITERATURE
o Admired for its rapid development
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o Rich variety of literary genres with western influences

o Famous for “Tales of Genji” (11th century) - Considered as first true novel of the world
o Famous for Noh Drama - restrained presentation with lyrical, poetic texts recitedby masked actors
Noh Drama - developed from ancient forms of dance drama and from various types of festival drama at shrines and
temples that had emerged by the 12th or 13th century. The content, which is nearly always tragic, is treated with simple
dignity. There is frequent reference to learned matters and to the teachings of Buddha.
- became a distinctive form in the 14th century and was continually refined up to the years of the Tokugawa period
(1603–1867). It became a ceremonial drama performed on auspicious occasions by professional actors for the
warrior class—as, in a sense, a prayer for peace, longevity, and the prosperity of the social elite.
- 5 Types of Noh plays:
- The first type, the kami (“god”) play, involves a sacred story of a Shintō shrine;
- second, shura mono (“fighting play”), centres on warriors;
- the third, katsura mono (“wig play”), has a female protagonist;
- the fourth type, varied in content, includes the gendai mono (“present-day play”), in which the story is
contemporary and “realistic” rather than legendary and supernatural, and the kyōjo mono (“madwoman play”),
in which the protagonist becomes insane through the loss of a lover or child;
- the fifth type, the kiri or kichiku (“final” or “demon”) play, features devils, strange beasts, and supernatural
beings. A typical Noh play is relatively short. Its dialogue is sparse, serving as a mere frame for the movement and
music. https://www.britannica.com/art/Noh-theatre
o Haiku - 17-syllable poem
Origin:
o Began with oral poetry and mythology
o “Kojiki” – record of ancient matters; earliest surviving work
o “Man-yoshu” - A collection of 10,000 leaves with 4,500 poems
o Development of “Kana” (9th century) - Syllabic writing system; Helped develop advances in prose
Instability Period:
o “The Tale of Heike” (1371)
o Characterized by classical literary styles
o Lady Nijo: “Confessions of Lady Nijo”
o Yoshida Kenko: “Essays in Idleness”
o Zeami Motokiyo: renditions of Noh Play
Tokugawa Period:
o Named after the ruler Tukogawa Iyeyasu
o Famous works: Haikus and the poetic travel accounts of Basho
Modern Period:
o Influences from Russia, Western Europe & America
o Contemporary authors continued to produce range of works
Kabuki, traditional Japanese popular drama with singing and dancing performed in a highly stylized manner.
- A rich blend of music, dance, mime, and spectacular staging and costuming, it has been a major theatrical form
in Japan for almost four centuries.
- originally suggested the unorthodox and shocking character of this art form.
- In modern Japanese, the word is written with three characters: ka, signifying “song”; bu, “dance”; and ki, “skill.”
https://www.britannica.com/art/Kabuki
kyogen - brief farce or comic interlude played during a Japanese Noh (lyric drama) cycle, expressed in the vernacular of
the second half of the 16th century.
- Its effect is to relieve the tension of the drama.
- performed in ordinary dress and without masks (unless these are used in parody).
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- There are normally four kyōgen interspersed among the usual five Noh pieces.
- Over time, kyōgen developed into an independent dramatic form, and ai-kyōgen came to refer specifically to Noh
interludes https://www.britannica.com/art/kyogen
Joruri - in Japanese literature and music, a type of chanted recitative that came to be used as a script in bunraku puppet
drama.
- Its name derives from the Jōrurihime monogatari, a 15th-century romantic tale, the leading character of which is
Lady Jōruri.
- first it was chanted to the accompaniment of the four-string biwa (Japanese lute); with the introduction of the three-
stringed, plucked samisen (or shamisen) from the Ryūkyū Islands in the 16th century,
- both the music and the scripts became more complex.
- When puppets were added at the end of the 16th century, the jōruri expanded to add a dramatic quality not present
in the first simple recitatives.
- Themes of loyalty, vengeance, filial piety, love, and religious miracles were included; dialogue and descriptive
commentary took an increasingly large role. https://www.britannica.com/art/joruri
Bunraku - Japanese traditional puppet theatre in which half-lifesize dolls act out a chanted dramatic narrative,
called jōruri, to the accompaniment of a small samisen (three-stringed Japanese lute).
- Bunraku derives from the name of a troupe organized by puppet master Uemura Bunrakuken in the early 19th
century;
- the term for puppetry is ayatsuri and puppetry theatre is more accurately rendered ayatsuri jōruri.
Yukio Mishima - pseudonym of Hiraoka Kimitake (born Jan. 14, 1925, Tokyo—diedNov. 25, 1970, Tokyo)
prolific writer who is regarded by many critics as the most important Japanese novelist of the 20th century.
- His first novel, Kamen no kokuhaku (1949; Confessions of a Mask), is a partly autobiographical work that describes
with exceptional stylistic brilliance a homosexual who must mask his abnormal sexual preferences from the society
around him.
- gained him immediate acclaim, and he began to devote his full energies to writing.
- followed up his initial success with several novels whose main characters are tormented by various physical or
psychological problems or who are obsessed by unattainable ideals that make everyday happiness impossible for
them:
o Ai no kawaki (1950; Thirst for Love),
o Kinjiki (1954; Forbidden Colours),
o Shiosai (1954; The Sound of Waves).
o Kinkaku-ji (1956; The Temple of the Golden Pavilion) is the story of a troubled young acolyte at a Buddhist
temple who burns down the famous building because he himself cannot attain its beauty. Utage no
ato (1960; After the Banquet) explores the twin themes of middle-aged love and corruption in Japanese
politics.
- In addition to novels, short stories, and essays, Mishima also wrote plays in the form of the Japanese Nō drama,
producing reworked and modernized versions of the traditional stories.
o plays include Sado kōshaku fujin (1965; Madame de Sade)
o Kindai nōgaku shu (1956; Five Modern Nōh Plays).
- last work, Hōjō no umi (1965–70; The Sea of Fertility), is a four-volume epic that is regarded by many as his
most lasting achievement. Its four separate novels,
o Haru no yuki (Spring Snow),
o Homma (Runaway Horses),
o Akatsuki no tera (The Temple of Dawn),
o Tennin gosui (The Decay of the Angel), are set in Japan and cover the period from about 1912 to the 1960s.
o Each of them depicts a different reincarnation of the same being: as a young aristocrat in 1912, as a
political fanatic in the 1930s, as a Thai princess before and after World War II, and as an evil young
orphan in the 1960s.
o These books effectively communicate Mishima’s own increasing obsession with blood, death, and suicide,
his interest in self-destructive personalities, and his rejection of the sterility of modern life.
Snow Country - short novel by Kawabata Yasunari, published in Japanese in 1948 as Yukiguni. Began
- in 1935 and completed in 1937, with a final version completed in 1947.
- deals with psychological, social, and erotic interaction between an aesthete and a beautiful geisha and is set against
the natural beauty and imagery of a remote area of Japan.
- Kawabata Yasunari (born June 11, 1899, Ōsaka, Japan—died April 16, 1972, Zushi) Japanese novelist who won
the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968. His melancholic lyricism echoes an ancient Japanese literary tradition in
the modern idiom.
2017Rev / Page 37 of 46
o The sense of loneliness and preoccupation with death that permeates much of Kawabata’s mature writing
possibly derives from the loneliness of his childhood (he was orphaned early and lost all near relatives while
still in his youth).
o graduated from Tokyo Imperial University in 1924 and made his entrance into the literary world with the
semiautobiographical Izu no odoriko (1926; The Izu Dancer).
o It appeared in the journal Bungei jidai (“The Artistic Age”), which he founded with the writer Yokomitsu
Riichi; this journal became the organ of the Neosensualist group with which Kawabata was early
associated.
The Wild Geese - Ōgai’s most popular novel, Gan (1911–13; part translation: The Wild Goose), is the story of the
undeclared love of a moneylender’s mistress for a medical student who passes by her house each day.
- Mori Ōgai, pseudonym of Mori Rintarō (born February 17, 1862, Tsuwano, Japan—died July 9, 1922, Tokyo)
one of the creators of modern Japanese literature.
- In 1890 he published the story “Maihime” (“The Dancing Girl”), an account closely based on his own experience of
an unhappy attachment between a German girl and a Japanese student in Berlin.
The House of Sleeping Beauties - a 1961 novella by the Japanese author Yasunari Kawabata;
- focuses on Yoshio Eguchi, aged sixty-seven, who visits an inn at a Japanese hot-spring resort in order to sleep
beside one or another beautiful young woman. The establishment caters to elderly gentlemen who have lost their
sexual powers, and the rules of the place explicitly forbid a customer to initiate sexual contact. A girl is drugged,
stripped naked, and put to bed in a room hung with red velvet curtains before an old man sees her, and she remains
asleep until her customer leaves the next morning. The five chapters of Yasunari Kawabata’s novella correspond to
Eguchi’s five visits to the inn. http://www.enotes.com/topics/house-sleeping-beauties
The Tale of Genji - is a classic work of Japanese literature written by the noblewoman and lady-in-waiting Murasaki
Shikibu in the early years of the 11th century, around the peak of the Heian period.
- sometimes called the world's first novel, the first modern novel, the first psychological novel or the first novel still
to be considered a classic.
- Notably, the work also illustrates a unique depiction of the lifestyles of high courtiers during the Heian
period. While regarded as a masterpiece, its precise classification and influence in both the Western and Eastern
canons has been a matter of debate.
Sei Shonagon - (born c. 966, Japan—died c. 1025, Japan) diarist and poet, a witty, learned lady of the court,
whose Pillow Book (Makura no sōshi), apart from its brilliant and original Japanese prose style, is the best source of
information on Japanese court life in the Heian period (784–1185).
- often merciless in the display of her wit, and she showed little sympathy for those unfortunates whose ignorance or
poverty rendered them ridiculous in her eyes.
- Her ability to catch allusions or to compose in an instant a verse exactly suited to each occasion is evident in the
bedside jottings that are contained in her Pillow Book.
- Legend states that Sei Shōnagon spent her old age in misery and loneliness.
o https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sei-Shonagon
INDIAN LITERATURE
o Vedic Holy texts written in Sanskrit - Homilies and hymns
o Oral literature turned into 2 written books: Mahabharata and Ramayana
7th Century AD
o Peak of classical poetry
o Manuya Bhartrihari and Subhandu emerged
o Kalidasa – the Shakespeare of India; wrote Shakuntala – Mythological story
CHINESE LITERATURE
o Known for its length and profuseness
o Literacy an integral part of government service
2017Rev / Page 38 of 46
o Only few students mastered the literary language

o Shown in the Confucian canon (Ching), Historical and Geographical writings (Shih), philosophy and
Expository prose (Tzu), Verse and Essay collections (Chi)
Chinese literature writers
o Confucius - “Golden Rule”; Founder of civil service era
o original name Kongqiu, literary name Zhongni (born 551,Qufu, state of Lu [now in Shandong province,
China]—died 479 BCE, Lu) China’s most famous teacher, philosopher, and political theorist, whose ideas
have influenced the civilization of East Asia.
o Lao-Tzu - Although ascetics and hermits such as Shen Tao (who advocated that one 'abandon knowledge and
discard self') first wrote of the 'Tao' it is with the sixth century B.C. philosopher Lao Tzu (or 'Old Sage' -- born
Li Erh) that the philosophy of Taoism really began.
o Some scholars believe was a slightly older contemporary of Confucius (Kung-Fu Tzu, born Chiu Chung-
Ni). Other scholars feel that the Tao Te Ching, is really a compilation of paradoxical poems written by
several Taoists using the pen-name, Lao Tzu. There is also a close association between Lao Tzu and the
legendary Yellow Emperor, Huang-ti.
o According to legend Lao Tzu was keeper of the archives at the imperial court.
o When he was 80 years old he set out for the western border of China, toward what is now Tibet, saddened
and disillusioned that men were unwilling to follow the path to natural goodness.
o At the border (Hank Pass), a guard, Yin Xi (Yin Hsi), asked Lao Tsu to record his teachings before he left.
He then composed in 5,000 characters the Tao Te Ching (The Way and Its Power).
o Whatever the truth, Taoism and Confucianism have to be seen side-by-side as two distinct responses to the
social, political and philosophical conditions of life two and a half millennia ago in China.
o Confucianism is greatly concerned with social relations, conduct and human society, Taoism has a much
more individualistic and mystical character, greatly influenced by nature.
o The father of Taoism.
Li Po - A Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty, Li Po (also known as Li Bai, Li Pai, Li T’ai-po, and Li T’ai-pai) was
probably born in central Asia and grew up in Sichuan Province.
- left home in 725 to wander through the Yangtze River Valley and write poetry.
- In 742 he was appointed to the Hanlin Academy by Emperor Xuanzong, though he was eventually expelled from
court.
- He then served the Prince of Yun, who led a revolt after the An Lushan Rebellion of 755.
- was arrested for treason; after he was pardoned, he again wandered the Yangtze Valley. He was married four times
and was friends with the poet Tu Fu.
- wrote occasional verse and poems about his own life. His poetry is known for its clear imagery and conversational
tone. His work influenced a number of 20th-century poets, including Ezra Pound and James Wright.
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/li-po
- His poems: Alone and Drinking Under the Moon, Alone Looking at the Mountain, Autumn River Song, A
Mountain Revelry
Tu Fu - Wade-Giles romanization Tu Fu, also called Du Gongbu or Du Shaoling, courtesy name (zi) Zimei (born 712,
Gongxian, Henan province, China—died 770, on a riverboat between Danzhou [now Changsha]
and Yueyang, Hunan province) Chinese poet, considered by many literary critics to be the greatest of all time.
- early poetry celebrated the beauty of the natural world and bemoaned the passage of time.
- soon began to write bitingly of war—as in “Bingqu xing” (“The Ballad of the Army Carts”), a poem about
conscription—and with hidden satire—as in “Liren xing” (“The Beautiful Woman”), which speaks of the
conspicuous luxury of the court.
- As he matured, and especially during the tumultuous period of 755 to 759, his verse began to sound a note of
profound compassion for humanity caught in the grip of senseless war.
Chinese Literature writers
o Constitutes 13 works; core of Confucian ideology
o Book of Changes (I Ching)
o Book of Documents, or history (Shu Ching or Shang Chu)
o Book of Songs (Shi Ching)
o Three collections of Rituals
2017Rev / Page 39 of 46
o The Spring and Autumn Annals with 3 commentaries

o Classic of Filial Piety
o Analects
o Mencius
o The earliest dictionary
AFRICAN LITERATURE
o Written Started at the dawn of the 20th century
o Vernacular literature: folktales, riddles, myths, proverbs
o Serve religious, political and educational function
o African writers
o Concerned with social issues: poverty & corruption
o Chinua Achebe - “Things Fall Apart”
Apartheid - the name of the racial institution that was established in 1948 by the National Party that governed South
Africa until 1994. The term, which literally means “apartness,” reflected a violently repressive policy designed to ensure
that whites, who comprised 20% of the nation's population, would continue to dominate the country. Source:
http://www.blackpast.org/gah/apartheid-1948-1994#sthash.NcE7me9l.dpuf
Negritude - literary movement of the 1930s, ’40s, and ’50s that began among French-speaking African and Caribbean
writers living in Paris as a protest against French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Negritude responded to the
alienated position of blacks in history. The movement asserted an identity for black people around the world that was their
own.
Source: http://www.blackpast.org/gah/negritude-movement#sthash.Me9qKtwJ.dpuf
- leading figure was Léopold Sédar Senghor (elected first president of the Republic of Senegal in 1960), who, along
with Aimé Césaire from Martinique and Léon Damas from French Guiana, began to examine Western values
critically and to reassess African culture.
- The Negritude movement was influenced by the Harlem Renaissance, a literary and artistic flowering that
emerged among a group of black thinkers and artists (including novelists and poets) in the United States, in New
York City, during the 1920s. The group was determined to throw off the masking (to use the word of critic Houston
A. Baker, Jr.) and indirection that had necessarily attended black expression in a hostile society.
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Nick Joaquin.
- 1957 (Harper Publishing Company) - a fellowship to write a novel while in the United States and Mexico.
- his first novel, The Woman Who Had Two Navels, published in 1962.
- CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art, (Cultural Center of the Philippines)
o cites the convergence in that novel of some of the author’s favorite themes: “the clash between the
spiritual and the mundane, between tradition and modernity, between appearance and reality, and
between male and female.”
- several first prizes from the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature for short stories such as “La
Vidal” and “Doña Jeronima,” and for a three-act historical play, The Beatas.
- first Stonehill Novel Award went to The Woman Who Had Two Navels.
- several ESSO journalism awards, including Journalist of the Year: reportorial work
- Manila Critics Circle: National Book Award
o The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay in History as Three Generations;
o The Quartet of the Tiger Moon: Scenes from the People Power Apocalypse;
o Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming;
o The World of Damian Domingo: 19th Century Manila (co-authored with Luciano P.R. Santiago);
o Jaime Ongpin: The Enigma: The Profile of a Filipino as Manager .
- 1961 - the Republic Cultural Heritage Award for literature, then the highest form of national recognition
bestowed on an artist.
- 1964 - Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan Award.
- 1976 - conferred the title of National Artist in Literature.
2017Rev / Page 40 of 46
- 1996 - Ramon Magsaysay Award for journalism, literature, and creative communication; touted as Asia’s
version of the Nobel Prize; But art critic Alejandro Roces wrote somewhere that it was Nick Joaquin who was
doing the RM Awards an honor, and not the other way around.
- 1997 - latest of his many prizes was Tanglaw ng Lahi Award; the highest award with which the Ateneo de
Manila University honors Filipino artists.
Virgilio S. Almario better known by his pen name, RIO ALMA,

- a Filipino artist, poet, critic, translator, editor, teacher, and cultural manager. He is a National Artist of the
Philippines and currently serves as the chairman of the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF), the government
agency mandated to promote and standardize the use of the Filipino language.
Jose F. Lacaba - a Filipino poet, journalist, and screenwriter.

- conferred the Aruna Vasudev Lifetime Achievement Award for Writing on Cinema during 10th Osian's Cinefan
Festival held in New Delhi, India on 11 July 2008.
F. Sionil Jose. Awards:

- 1955 U.S. Department of State Smith-Mundt grant; Asia Foundation grant;
- 1960 - National Press Club award (journalism) - 3 times;
- 1967 - British Council grant;
- Palanca award, for journalism, 3 times, and for novel, 1981;
- ASPAC fellowship, 1971;
- Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio award, 1979;
- Cultural Center of the Philippines award, 1979; City of Manila award, 1979;
- Magsaysay award, 1980;
- East-West Center fellowship (Honolulu), 1981;
- International House of Japan fellowship, 1983;
- Outstanding Fulbrighters award, 1988, for literature;
- Cultural Center of the Philippines award, 1989, for literature.
Novels:
- The Pretenders. Manila, Solidaridad, 1962; published as The Samsons: The Pretenders; and, Mass, New York,
Modern Library, 2000;
- Tree. Manila, Solidaridad, 1978;
- My Brother, My Executioner. Manila, New Day, 1979;
- Mass. Amsterdam, Wereldvenster, 1982; London, Allen and Unwin, 1984; as Mis, Manila, Solidaridad,
1983;
- Po-on. Manila, Solidaridad, 1985;
- Ermita. Manila, Solidaridad, 1988;
- Spiderman. Manila, Solidaridad, 1991;
- Sin. Manila, Solidaridad, 1994; published as Sins, New York, Random House, 1996;
- Dusk. New York, Modern Library, 1998;
- Don Vincente: A Novel in Two Parts (contains Tree and My Brother, My Executioner). New York, Modern
Library, 1999.
Short Stories:
- The Pretenders and Eight Short Stories. Manila, Regal, 1962;
- The God Stealer and Other Stories. Manila, Solidaridad, 1968;
- Waywaya and Other Short Stories from the Philippines. Hong Kong, Heinemann, 1980;
- Two Filipino Women (novellas). Manila, New Day, 1982;
- Platinum and Other Stories. Manila, Solidaridad, 1983;
- Olvidon and Other Stories. Manila, Solidaridad, 1988;
- Three Filipino Women (novellas) . New York, Random House, 1992;
Uncollected Short Stories:
- "The Chief Mourner" (serial), in Women's Weekly (Manila), 11 May-10 July 1953;
- "The Balete Tree" (serial), in Women's Weekly (Manila), 4 March 1954-6 July 1956;
Poetry:
- Questions. Manila, Solidaridad, 1988;
Bienvenido Santos was a poet, memoirist and autobiographer.
2017Rev / Page 41 of 46
- His fiction falls into two groups: one focuses on life in the Philippines, the other on the experience of the Filipino
immigrant to the US
- His novel, The Praying Man (1982) describes corruption in the Philippines
- The Day the Dancers Came A tale of the Filipino diaspora ( dispersion or spread of any people from their original
homeland) and regarded as a Filipino literary classic.
o won the Free Press Literary Awards on September 24, 1960, an award given by the Philippine Free Press
magazine.
o a second-prize winning story during the 1961 Palanca Awards,
o Set during the 1950s in the U.S. city of Chicago, the short story’s central character named Fil is longing
for the Philippines and is enthusiastic to meet, greet, and entertain a visiting group of young Filipino
female tinikling dancers. However, Fil realizes that the dancers must have been cautioned against
“manongs” like himself because the “bamboo dancers” circumvents and made fun of Fil and other old-
timers.
Lakambini Sitoy - “Touch” is the story of a father who uses the rod to discipline his children that by doing so instilled
fear into his children.
- an author, journalist and teacher. Her novel Sweet Haven was published in French translation by Albin Michel as
"Les filles de Sweethaven" in October 2011, in the original English by the New York Review of Books in 2014, and
by Anvil Publishing Inc. in 2015.
- received the David T.K. Wong fellowship from the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom in 2003.
- With an MA from Roskilde University, Denmark, in the fields of English Studies and Cultural Encounters, both
under the Department of Culture and Identity.
- As a journalist, Sitoy was a lifestyle and cultural section editor for various papers, and was a columnist and section
editor for the Manila Times.
- also received nine prizes in the annual Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards in the Philippines (1995, 1996,
1998, 2000 (2), 2001, 2005 (2), 2007 as well as a Philippines Free Press Award (1994).
- born in the Philippines in 1969, and earned a degree in Biology from Silliman University.
- currently teaches English at Studieskolen in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Gregorio Brillantes. A multi-awarded fictionist and essayis.,

- has received numerous literary awards
o the Catholic Mass Media Award of Merit for Best Book for The Apollo Centennial in 1981,
o the Southeast Asian Writers (SEAWRITE) Award in 1982,
o the Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan Award from the city government of Manila and the Tawid Award
for Achievement in Literature from the Ilocano Heritage Awards Foundation, both in 1983.
o His feature article, “Nik Joaquin/Quijano de Manila and Other Anomalies,” was a second prize winner in
the CMMA.
o He won three first prizes in the Philippine Free Press literary contest for “The Living and the Dead,” “A
Wind Over the Earth,” and “The Distance to Andromeda,” and two second prizes in the same contest for
“The Light and Shadow of Leaves,” and Faith, Love, Time and Dr. Lazaro.”
Amado V. Hernandez
- immersed himself in the labor movement in the late 1940's and early 1950's
- sympathy for the working class grew into strong identification with their struggle for social justice and liberation
- represented the Newspaper Guild of the Philippine in the country's biggest and most militant labor federation, the
Congress of Labor Organizations (CLO).
- 1947 - elected the president of the CLO;.
- imprisoned in 1951 for alleged subversive activities
- released on parole in 1956 after five years and six months of detention,
- finally acquitted of all charges in 1964
- returned to journalistic practice, writing as a columnist for Taliba from 1962 to 1967
- served as editor of the radical newspaper, Ang Masa , until his death 1970.
- 1940- published his first anthology of poems entitled Kayumanggi at Iba pang Tula (Brown and Other Poems).
- 1961 & 1969 respectively - prison ordeal provided the creative impulse of most of the poems in his collection, Isang
Dipang Langit (A Stretch of Sky) and the epic, Bayang Malaya (Free Country), both written behind bars.
2017Rev / Page 42 of 46
- Most famous of his poems: “Isang Dipang Langit,” “Panata sa Kalayaan” (Oath to Freedom), “Bartolina”
(Solitary Confinement), “Ang Dalaw” (The Visit), and “Kung Tuyo Na ang Luha Mo Aking Bayan” (When Your
Tears Dry Up, My Country).
20 awards for his short stories and poems:
- 1925 - proclaimed Makata ng Ilaw at Panitik (Poet of Ilaw and Panitik).
- 1931 - his story “Wala ng Lunas” won two gold medals also from the Ilaw and Panitik.
- 1938 and 1940, respectively – his stories, “Pilipinas” (Philippines) and “Kayumanggi” (Brown), both won first
prize in the Commonwealth Literary Contest in.
- 1962 - won the Republic Cultural Heritage Award for “Isang Dipang Langit”;
- Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature for his four plays: Muntinglupa, 1958, Magkabilang
Mukha ng Isang Bagol , 1961, both first prize winners; and Hagdan sa Bahaghari, 1959, and Ang mga Kagalang-
galang , 1960, both second prize winners;
- NPC-ESSO Journalism Award for his novel Luha ng Buwaya, 1963, his “Pili sa Pinili” (Chosen form the
Select) in Taliba, 1964, and for his essay, “Report on Indonesia,” in 1965;
- 1964 - Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan award from the city government of Manila;
- 1969 - first Balagtas Memorial Award from the Cultural Center of the Philippines for “Bayang Malaya”;
- 1970 - the Tanglaw ng Lahi Award from the Ateneo de Manila;
- 1973 - proclaimed National Artist posthumously for “his contribution to the development of Tagalog prose.”
Pedro Bukaneg was a Filipino poet. Blind since birth, he is the acknowledged author of the Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang (Life
of Lam-ang). He is considered the "Father of Ilocano literature."
- A foundling, who shortly after his birth already floating in a basket between Bantay and Vigan in the Banaoang
River was found by an old woman.
- brought to the Bantay Agustijner priest who baptized him as Pedro Bucaneg.
- blind, but appeared during his upbringing in the Augustinian convent smart and talented.
- took lessons in Latin and Spanish and also learned the local languages and Ilocano Isneg.
- Through his knowledge of these languages he was asked by the priests in the region to translate their prayers and
sermons in local languages.
- asked to help with the conversion of the local population.
- composed poems and songs and was loved by the Ilocanos as a troubadour.
- regarded by the locals as a seer.
- His blindness prevented him from writing, so he dictated the text of his poems, songs and translations to someone
Tomas Pinpin, was a printer, writer and publisher from Abucay, a municipality in the province of Bataan, Philippines, who
was the first Filipino printer and is sometimes referred as the "Prince of the Filipino Printers."
o Pinpin is remembered for being the first native Filipino to publish and print a book, "Librong Pagaaralan nang
mga Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla" in 1610, entirely written by himself in the old Tagalog orthography
Fernando Bagongbanta - one of the early native versifiers of the 17th century.
- born in Abucay, Bataan and his parentage is unknown. In his time he was known as a ladino, the name given
to natives who had mastered the Spanish language. The ladinos were trained or educated in parish or catechetical
schools and were used as interpreters and informants. Ladino was also used to designate those literary works which
were actually Spanish romances and poems.
Kerima Polotan-Tuvera:
- 1952 – won first prizes in the Free Press and the Palanca Memorial Award for the story “The Virgin”
- 1957 – edited Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, a book containing English and Tagalog prize
winning short stories from 1951 to 1952
- Stonehill Award for the novel “The Hand of the Enemy” (1962)
- 1968 – published shord stories
- 1970 – wrote Imelda Romualdez Marcos, a biography
- 1976 – edited the four-volum Anthology of Don Palanca Memorial Award Winners
- 1977 – published another collection of thirty-five essays, “Adventures in a Forgotten Country”
- Late 1990 – UP Press republished all her major works
- Famous short stories: “A Place to Live in,” “Gate,” “The Keeper,” “The Mats” and “The Sounds of Sunday”
2017Rev / Page 43 of 46
The Novel
o Began to develop in the 18th century
o In this period, it was labelled a “realistic novel”
 Characters were real people with ordinary names and surnames
 Described in their daily routines
 Settings were real geographical places
 Contents were taken from real stories
o Tried to meet middle class readers who wanted to read about ordinary people
o Most important novelists
 Daniel Defoe (1660 – 1731)
 pioneer of the modern novel
 first novelist in the English literature
 depicted in his novel the 18th century world
 Moll Flanders (1722)
 Robinson Crusoe (1719) – the first English novel; true and realistic
* based on the real story of a Scotch sailor, Alexander Selkirk, who
had lived alone for four years on the Isle of Juan Fernandez in the
Pacific after a shipwreck. The story is told in the first person
singular in the form of a diary
 Jonathan Swift (1667 – 1745); Anglo-Irish origin

 Greatest satirist of his age
 Used irony and satire to try and change the society he lived in
 Gulliver’s Travels (1726)
 Regarded as a children’s book and the advent of modern fantasy novel
 Intended to be a bitter satire of Swift’s country; “intended to vex the
world rather than divert it.”
 Satirizes the follies and vices of politicians and scholars and a very
serious comment on politics
 Samuel Richardson
 Inventor of epistolary novel
 Father of the novel of sentimental analysis
 Introduced psychological studies of the characters
 Pamela or Virtue Rewarded (1740)
 told through a series of letters from Pamela Andrews to her parents
and their answers to her. She asked for advice to defend herself from
her master, Mr B, who wanted to seduce her
 originated from the realistic moral problem for many young girls who
worked as maids
 celebrates the middle-class value of chastity before marriage in
opposition to the lasciviousness of the aristocracy.
 Considered the first best-seller in English literature
 Clarissa Harlowe
 2nd epistolary novel; his masterpiece
 deals with a woman who tries to escape from a marriage to a man she
does not like. She finds refuge at a nobleman’s who seduces and rapes
her. Clarissa refuses to marry him and eventually lives as an outcast
condemned by society
 common theme: Women defend their virtues from the advances of powerful
men.
 Henry Fielding
 Fist English novelist to introduce the burlesque element
 Described his novels as “comic epic poem in prose”
 His first novel An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews
 considered as a reaction against the hypocrisy of the time as well as
a reaction to Richardson’s Pamela
 Shamela is a pun of the words shame and Pamela
 wanted to ridicule the Puritan view of morality
 Tom Jones – his best novel
 a picture of the life of the lower and upper classes of the 18 th century
society.
2017Rev / Page 44 of 46
 depicts with humour and irony human weaknesses and stresses his
tolerant attitude towards them.
 Tom is an unheroic character and has all the limits of the ordinary man.
 Fielding’s novels are considered picaresque in style, written in imitation of
Cervantes
 Picaresque novels come from Spain and deal with the adventures of a rascal of
low social class; they are usually humorous, full of action and excitement).
 Laurence Sterne
 an anti-novelist because he did not follow the canons of the realistic novel.
 the closest novelists to the modern ones of all eighteenth century novelists.
 His novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman
 written in instalments in nine volumes between 1759 and 1767.
 does not respect the 18th century canons of the realistic novel.
 unconventional and very difficult to summarize
Gothic Novelists
o Anne Radcliffe – Mysteries of Udolpho (1794)
 took its title from the name of a fictional Italian castle where much of the action is set.
 Like Walpole, she created a brooding aristocratic villain, Montoni, to threaten her
resourceful virgin heroine Emily with an unspeakable fate.
o Matthew Lewis – The Monk (1796) was an experiment in how outrageous a Gothic novelist
can be. After a parade of ghosts, demons and sexually inflamed monks, it has a final guest
appearance by Satan himself.
o Mary Shelley – Frankenstein (1818) gave a scientific form to the supernatural formula
o Charles Maturin - Melmoth the Wanderer (1820) featured a Byronic anti-hero who had sold
his soul for a prolonged life.
o James Hogg - The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824) is the story of
a man pursued by his own double. A character’s sense of encountering a double of him- or
herself, also essential to Frankenstein, was established as a powerful new Gothic motif.
o Doubles crop up throughout Gothic fiction, the most famous example being the late 19th-
century Gothic novella, Robert Louis Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
Source: http://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-origins-of-the-gothic#sthash.5XIODpLh.dpuf
Historical novels
o Leo Tolstoy – War and Peace (1869)
 Greatest novel ever written; regarded as one of the central works of world literature
 Manifests realism, which he helped develop
 It brilliantly evokes the sense of an entire social world, moving seamlessly between
characters and scenes
 Aims to use the conventions of fiction to show the “truth” of history
o Charles Dickens – A Tale of Two Cities (1859)
 set in London and Paris before and during the French Revolution.
 depicts the plight of the French peasantry demoralized by the French aristocracy in the
years leading up to the revolution, the corresponding brutality demonstrated by the
revolutionaries toward the former aristocrats in the early years of the revolution, and
many unflattering social parallels with life in London during the same period.
o Sir Walter Scott – Ivanhoe (1820) in three volumes and subtitled A Romance. Ivanhoe, set
in 12th century England
 the story of one of the remaining Saxon noble families at a time when the nobility
in England was overwhelmingly Norman.
 It follows the Saxon protagonist, Sir Wilfred of Ivanhoe, who is out of favour with his
father for his allegiance to the Norman king Richard the Lionheart.
o Nicola Griffith – Hild (2013)
 Hild is a bisexual protagonist whose glittering mind and powerful curiosity were
matchless. She became an advisor to the king, her uncle, at a young age.
Dystopian Novels
o H.G. Wells – The Time Machine (1895)
 generally acknowledged to have popularised the idea of time travel, and his term 'time
machine' is the standard vehicle used.
2017Rev / Page 45 of 46
 Unfortunately for the Time Traveller, his incredible machine takes him to some dark,
dystopian places and enables him to witness the end of the earth.
o Aldous Huxley – “Brave New World” (1932)
 an image of a cold world with numbing drugs, organised reproduction, no concept of
family, and brainwashing from birth. While superficially a hedonistic environment, it
soon becomes clear that this is no place to live: if you cannot feel pain, can you ever
truly feel joy?
o George Orwell – “1984” (1949)
 A book so eerily prescient that a multitude of its terms are now commonplace in our
modern world. Big Brother, Room 101, Newspeak and 2+2=5 all originate from
Orwell's classic tale.
 A disturbing, dystopian world of constant surveillance and government-controlled
media for sure, but one which, uncomfortably, we recognise more as real life than
when Orwell wrote it in 1949
o John Windham – “The Chrysalids” (1955)
 outlines a world which is dystopian due to its inability to tolerate any difference.
 Convinced that 'normality' is key to preserving their world, the inhabitants of Labrabor
set out to kill, or banish, anyone that differs from them - including those who happen
to have telepathic powers. With the rise of religious fundamentalism, this is another
book which gave an eerie prediction of our real-life progress as a society
o Suzanne Collins - The Hunger Games (2008)
 a barbaric and brutal tournament for desperate people to fight to the death for food
and rewards for the entertainment of a ruling class.
 Additionally, a satire on reality television, The Hunger Games is, at its heart, an
unsettling dystopian vision of the world, which some would argue already exists in one
form or another.
o Richard Bachman (Stephen King) – The Running Man (1982)
 an all-time classic, inspiring the movie of the same name. Set in a dystopian America
in 2025 where the economy is in ruins, violence is commonplace and a totalitarian
government rules. Life for those 'blacklisted' is unbearable, and submitting to a game
show where death is all-but-certain looks like the only way out.
References:
 Locutionary, Illocutionary and Perlocutioary Acts. http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=39854
 Speech Act Theory. http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/Speech-act-Theory.htm
 F(rancisco) Sionil Jose Biography, Manila, Solidaridad, Editor, and University - JRank
Articles http://biography.jrank.org/pages/4741/Sionil-Jose-F-rancisco.html#ixzz4H2jGqzBr
 Who is Kerima Polotan-Tuvera? (October 2012) https://ariannecuevas.wordpress.com/category/who-
is-kerima-polotan-tuvera/
 STYLISTICS. https://www.google.com.ph/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=54KvV_zlBcKvmQWq-
4j4Cg#q=morphological+stylistics
 Language Learning Styles and Strategies: An Overview, Rebecca L. Oxford, Ph. D.
http://web.ntpu.edu.tw/~language/workshop/read2.pdf
 Literal, Inferential and Critical Comprehensive Reading. https://owlcation.com/academia/Literal-
Inferential-and-Critical-Comprehensive-Reading
2017Rev / Page 46 of 46

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August 1, 2016 [HANDOUT - ENGLISH MAJOR]

STRUCTURALIST. It is the expression and communication of emotions or ideas between human

COGNITIVIST. It is a mental phenomenon; Learning it is innate because of Language Acquisition

FUNCTIONALIST. Language performs specific functions such as to express, to persuade, to give

BEHAVIORIST. Language is learned through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement.

YULE’S 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

(2) Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) was the first linguist to distinguish

(4) Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) developed many of de Saussure's ideas about

(5) Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) was the first

(6) Edward Sapir (1884-1939) helped to establish that non-European

(7) Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) made major contributions to the

(9) Karl Brugmann (1849-1919) helped to establish the systematicity of sound

The Four Main Linguistic Schools of Thought

2. Structuralism. Based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure of Switzerland, structuralism is an

Source: The Four Main Linguistic Schools of Thought,

Morphology – study of internal structure of words

REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH

REMEDIAL TEACHING STRATEGIES

 If necessary, remedial teachers, other teachers, student guidance officers/teachers,

A. Four Generic Instructional Model for teaching listening

Ex: conflagration – confirmation

As assessment strategy, it:

SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

Dysgraphia - affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.

Dyslexia- affects reading and related language-based processing skills.

Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities - a disorder usually characterized by a significant discrepancy

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP)

Hedging: in academic writing means cautious writing

Language used in hedging:

1. Introductory seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe,

2. Certain lexical believe, assume, suggest

4. Adverbs of often, sometimes, usually

5. Modal certain, definite, clear, probable, possible

LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Curriculum Development Division of BSE – coordinates and implements research projects

in short the mission statement has these 4 specific goals:

1983-1984 DECS launched:

 RSEP, PRODED, NSEC & SEDP

 SEDIP’s 3 main objectives:

 International test results in 2003 Trends in International Mathematics

Note: Other concepts are included in the Gen. Ed. English

4 ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING

LISTENING PHONOLOGY GRAMMATICAL

SPEAKING MORPHOLOGY DISCOURSE

READING SEMANTICS SOCIOLINGUISTIC

WRITING SYNTAX STRATEGIC

SIX MAIN CATEGORIES OF 2nd Language (L2) LEARNING STRATEGIES

Classification of Sounds: vowels and consonants

Liquids include alveolar [l] and post-alveolar [r].

* Transactional / critical listening

The Listening Process

receiving attending understanding responding remembering

Factors that Determine Attention

2 Barriers that obstruct Verbal Symbols

3 Barriers that obstruct Non-verbal Symbols

MEMORY is NECESSARY and an INTEGRAL PART of the listening process.

 phonics (symbol & sound)

Stages of Reading Development

Stage 4 – Reading for Learning (9-13 years old)

 rapid and efficient reader

Middle Ages (15th Century)

- A thief, a murderer, prison inmate